(完整word版)语言学考试必备(word文档良心出品)

1.classification of words
(1)variable and invariable words
variable words may have inflective changes. Such as follow –follows-followed-following. Invariable words do not have inflective changes. Such as since, when, seldom, through, etc.
(2)grammatical words and lexical words
grammatical words are those that mainly work for constructing group, phase, clause, clause complex, or even text. Such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Lexical words are mainly work for referring to substance, action, and quality.
(3)Closed-class words and open-class words
Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as auxiliary verbs.
(4)Word class
A few more word classes have been introduced into grammar, such as particles, auxiliaries, pro-form and determiners.
2.Sense relations
(1)Synonymy: it is the technical name for the sameness relation. Eg. Buy and purchase, world and universe.
(2)Antonymy: it is the name for oppositeness relation. Three are three types: gradable antonymy , complementary antonymy and converse antonymy.
(3)Hyponymy: it is of recent creation, is a matter of class membership.
3.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?
(1)Free morpheme and bound morpheme
Free morphemes are those that may occur alone, which may make up words by themselves; bound morphemes are those that cannot occur alone, which must appear with at least one different morpheme.
(2)Root, affix and stem
A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning; an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme; a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes
(3)
4.what are the design features of human language?
(1)arbitrariness (2)duality (3)creativity (4)displacement
2、how do you understand the distinction?
The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a Diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.
3、what are the major distinctions?
(1) langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. (2) langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (3)langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(4)langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
4、how do you understand
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his langua ge. This internalized set of rules enables the language users to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambigous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performance may have mistakes because of social and phychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence. Which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.
5、what are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication..
6、how many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? There are 3 types of morphemes.
(1)free morpheme and bound morpheme(2)root, affix and stem(3)inflectional affix and derivational affix
7、what are the main features of the English compounds?
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound, is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meaning of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
8、what are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?
An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constitunents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type. 9、distinguish the two possible meaning of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis
More beautiful flowers; the IC analysis is a way to dismantle a grammatical construction.
10、what are the three kinds of antonym?
(1)complementary pairs are antonyms in which the presence of one quality or state signifies the absence of the other and vice versa. Single/married, not pregment/pregnant. There are no intermediate states.
(2)gradable pairs are antonyms which allow for a natural, gradual transition between two poles;
good/bad, hot/cold. It is possible to be a little cold or very cold, etc. (3)relational opposites are antonyms which share the same semantic features, only the focus, or direction, is reversed; tie/untie, buy/sell, give/receive, teacher/pupil, father/son.
11、do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with cooperative principle.
A: when is the bus coming? B: there has been an accident. Further up the road. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when”. However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “ I don’t know “ or” I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “ relevant” and “informative”. Given that B’s answer contains relevant information. A
can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “ traffic jams”, and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming”. Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus com es”; it contains an implicature concerning “ when the bus comes”.
1、arbitrariness：it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
2、duality：it is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
3、displacement：t means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.
4、linguistics：it is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.
5、phonetics: it is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how the speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.
6、phonology it is the study of speech sounds that the human voice capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning .
7、morphology形态学It is the study of the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.
8、syntax句法It refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply,the study of the formation of sentences 9semantics语义学 it is the study of the meaning of words phrases and sentences 10 pragmatics 语用学it is study of meaning in context 11
Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 it investigates the interrelation of language and mind , in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition foe example.12socillinguistics 社会语言学 it is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society,including the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users 13language 语言系统 it is a social bond that constitutes language14parole言语 it is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking.10competence it is the ideal user|s knowledge of the rules of his language16performance it is the actual use of language in concrete situations 17phonemes it is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language 18 minimal pairs it is two words that differ in only one sound it can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.19allophones it is a phenomenon of variation in the pronuciation of phonemes in different positions 20Allomorph it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.21closed-class word it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited 22syntax it refers to rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply the study of the formation of sentences 23IC analysis immediately constituent analysis ic analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. 26concord (agreement) it is the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another ,shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category27entailment it is basically a semantic relation or logical implication 28 proposition it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning . 29 Componential analysis 词的成分分析it define the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantics features 30reference it is what a linguistics form refers to in the real world it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.31morpheme it is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding
and meaning , a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning。