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考研英语阅读二2014年第二篇

考研英语阅读二2014年第二篇1. 背景介绍2014年考研英语阅读二第二篇的题材广泛，内容涉及到社会、文化、科技等多个方面的讨论。

本文主要探讨了全球化对当代社会产生的影响以及跨文化交流中出现的问题。

2. 文章内容分析2.1 全球化的利与弊文章首先探讨了全球化对社会和文化产生的影响。

作者认为，全球化的发展使得国际间的经济、文化、技术交流更加频繁，这有利于促进世界各国之间的合作与交流。

然而，全球化也带来了一些负面影响，例如文化冲突、社会不平等等问题。

全球化的双面性使得人们在享受全球化带来的便利的也需要面对其中所带来的挑战和问题。

2.2 跨文化交流中的问题文章还深入探讨了跨文化交流中出现的问题。

作者指出，由于不同文化之间的差异，跨文化交流往往会引发误解和冲突。

在全球化的进程中，如何有效地处理跨文化交流中出现的问题，成为了一个亟待解决的难题。

文章特别强调了在跨文化交流中需要尊重对方的文化、传统并保持开放的心态，以消解由于文化差异而产生的冲突。

3. 文章结构分析3.1 开头引出主题文章在开头通过引用全球化对社会、文化、技术等方面的影响，引出了文章的主题。

这样的开头不仅能够吸引读者的兴趣，同时也很好地引导了文章的展开方向。

3.2 正文分析正文部分主要分为全球化的利与弊以及跨文化交流中的问题两个部分，每个部分都有明确的论点和论据，层层展开，逻辑清晰。

3.3 结尾总结文章在结尾部分对全文的内容进行了总结，并提出了对于解决全球化带来的问题一些建议和展望。

结尾部分既能够对全文进行交代，又能够给读者留下一些思考。

4. 总结评价本篇考研英语阅读二2014年第二篇文章通过深入分析了全球化对社会、文化、技术等方面的影响以及在跨文化交流中出现的问题，具有较高的信息量和深度。

文章结构合理，逻辑严谨，语言表达流畅，具有较高的可读性。

整体上，本文是一篇高质量、客观、正式的文章，具有一定的借鉴价值。

对全球化的反思和展望全球化作为一个历史潮流，已经深刻地改变了世界各国的发展和演变。

英语作文介绍莫言

Mo Yan,born as Guan Moye in1955,is a renowned Chinese novelist and short story writer.He is best known for his distinctive narrative style,which often intertwines folklore,history,and social critique.His works have garnered him international acclaim, culminating in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature in2012.1.Early Life and Background:Mo Yan was born in Gaomi,Shandong Province,China. His rural upbringing greatly influenced his writing,as many of his stories are set in the countryside and explore the lives of ordinary people.2.Literary Style:Mo Yans writing is characterized by a rich use of metaphor and symbolism,often drawing from Chinese mythology and folklore.His stories are known for their vivid imagery and strong sense of place.3.Major Works:Among his most famous works are Red Sorghum Clan,which was adapted into a successful film,The Garlic Ballads,and Big Breasts Wide Hips,a novel that explores the impact of Chinas tumultuous history on a single family.4.Themes:Mo Yans novels frequently address themes such as the impact of historical events on individuals,the struggle between tradition and modernity,and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.5.Nobel Prize:In2012,Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his work that with hallucinatory realism merges folk tales,history and the contemporary.6.Controversies:Despite his international success,Mo Yan has faced criticism in China for his candid portrayal of the countrys past and present,including its political and social issues.7.Influence and Legacy:Mo Yans work has had a significant impact on contemporary Chinese literature and has been influential in shaping the discourse around the role of the writer in society.nguage and Translation:Mo Yans works are written in Chinese,and their translation into other languages has been crucial in making his stories accessible to a global audience. The translations often strive to capture the unique flavor of his storytelling while maintaining the integrity of the original text.9.Cultural Significance:Mo Yans literature not only provides a window into Chinese culture and history but also offers a critique of societal norms and political systems, making his work both entertaining and thoughtprovoking.10.Reception and Impact:Mo Yans novels have been widely read and studied around the world,contributing to a deeper understanding and appreciation of Chinese literature and its complexities.In conclusion,Mo Yan is a pivotal figure in modern Chinese literature,whose work transcends cultural and linguistic barriers to resonate with readers across the globe.His ability to weave together the fantastical with the historical and the personal with the political has earned him a place among the worlds most celebrated authors.。

History of Western Civilization before the 19th

History of Western Civilization before the 19th CenturyThe phrase “Western Civilization” refers to the cultural and intellectual history of Europe and the Mediterranean region, from antiquity to the modern era. This essay will examine the major events, developments, and cultural achievements of Western civilization before the 19th century.Ancient Greece:Ancient Greece is often considered the birthplace of Western civilization. Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle laid the foundation for Western thought and ethics, while Greek art and architecture, such as the Parthenon and the statues of the gods and goddesses, continue to inspire people today. The Olympic Games, which began in Ancient Greece, were revived in the modern era and became a worldwide event.The Roman Empire:The Roman Empire, which spanned from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD, is known for its expansive conquests, engineering feats, and legal system. The aqueducts, coliseums, roads, and military strategy of Rome are still studied and imitated today. Latin, the empire’s official language, has had a lasting impact on the development of other languages in Europe.The Middle Ages:The period known as the Middle Ages (or the Dark Ages) began with the collapse of the Roman Empire. It was a time of greatpolitical, social, and cultural change, marked by the rise of Christianity, feudalism, and the growth of universities. The Crusades, a series of religious wars fought between Christians and Muslims, took place during this time.The Renaissance:The Renaissance was a 14th to 17th century period of rebirth and renewal in Western culture. It was marked by an explosion of creativity in the arts, sciences, and politics. Some of the most notable figures of the Renaissance include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare. The humanist movement, which emphasized individualism and reason, was a hallmark of this period.The Enlightenment:The Enlightenment, a cultural and intellectual movement of the17th and 18th centuries, was marked by a shift towards reason, secularism, and the questioning of authority. Its key figures included René Descartes, John Locke, and Voltaire. The scientific method, developed during this time, revolutionized the way people thought about the natural world.The Industrial Revolution:The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, marked a period of great technological and economic change. New machines and manufacturing processes led to increased production, which in turn spurred economic growth and urbanization. Thisperiod transformed the way people worked and lived, leading to significant changes in society and politics.Conclusion:Western civilization has undergone many changes and transformations throughout its long history. From Ancient Greece and Rome to the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, Western culture has been marked by an ongoing quest for knowledge, exploration, and progress. These achievements have had a profound impact on the development of the world, and continue to shape the world we live in today.The history of Western civilization is a vast topic, spanning thousands of years and encompassing a rich diversity of cultures and societies. In this essay, we have examined some of the key events, developments, and cultural achievements of Western civilization before the 19th century. However, there is much more to explore in this fascinating subject.One of the most enduring legacies of Western civilization is its influence on governance, law, and democracy. The Greeks were the first to experiment with democratic forms of government, which were taken up by the Romans and later adopted by many Western nations. The Magna Carta, signed in 1215 in England, established the principle of limited government and the rule of law, which would later be enshrined in the US Constitution and other Western constitutions. Western civilization has also been shaped by the struggle for civil rights and social justice, from the abolition of slavery to the suffrage movement and the fight for LGBT rights.Another important aspect of Western civilization is its impact on art, literature, and education. The Greeks and Romans laid the foundations for Western aesthetics, with their emphasis on beauty, symmetry, and proportion. The Middle Ages produced great works of literature, such as Dante's Divine Comedy and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, which are still widely read today. The Renaissance was marked by an explosion of creativity in the arts and sciences, led by figures such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Galileo. The Enlightenment was a time of great intellectual ferment, with philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Hume advocating for reason, science, and human rights.Western civilization has also had a profound impact on religion and spirituality. Christianity emerged from the Roman Empire and became the dominant religion of Western civilization, shaping its values and beliefs. The Protestant Reformation, spearheaded by figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and laid the groundwork for diverse religious traditions in the West. The Enlightenment saw the rise of secularism and the questioning of traditional religious beliefs, while the 19th century saw the emergence of new religious movements such as Spiritualism and Theosophy.The legacy of Western civilization is not without controversy, however. Critics have pointed to its tendency towards imperialism and colonialism, as well as its history of conflict and violence. The Crusades, for example, are often seen as a brutal and unjust war of aggression against Muslim nations. The legacy of slavery, racism, and genocide in the Americas and other parts of the world is a stain on the history of Western civilization, and continues to reverberatetoday.Overall, the history of Western civilization is a complex and multifaceted subject, shaped by a variety of political, social, and cultural factors. While it has undoubtedly led to many positive achievements, it has also been marked by a legacy of oppression, exploitation, and marginalization. Nevertheless, the study of Western civilization remains an important endeavor, as it allows us to better understand the origins and evolution of our own culture and society. By examining its rich and diverse history, we can gain new insights into the challenges and opportunities facing us today, and work towards a more just and equitable future.。

历史文化负载词的英语

历史文化负载词的英语Historical and Cultural Burden Words.Historical and cultural burden words are words that carry with them the weight of history and culture. They are often used to describe people, places, or things that have been associated with a particular event or period in history. These words can be positive or negative, and they can have a powerful impact on the way that we think about the past and the present.One example of a historical and cultural burden word is the word "slavery." This word is associated with thehorrific institution of slavery that existed in the United States for over 200 years. The word "slavery" evokes images of human suffering, violence, and oppression. It is a word that is full of pain and sorrow.Another example of a historical and cultural burden word is the word "Holocaust." This word is associated withthe genocide of the Jewish people by the Nazis during World War II. The Holocaust was a horrific event that resulted in the deaths of millions of innocent people. The word "Holocaust" evokes images of unimaginable suffering and loss. It is a word that is full of horror and despair.Historical and cultural burden words can have a powerful impact on the way that we think about the past and the present. They can remind us of the mistakes that we have made in the past, and they can help us to learn from those mistakes. They can also help us to understand the suffering that others have endured, and they can inspire us to work towards a better future.It is important to be aware of the historical and cultural burden words that we use. We should use these words with care and respect, and we should be mindful of the impact that they can have on others. We should also be open to learning about the different ways that these words can be used, and we should be willing to challenge the assumptions that we have about them.Here are some tips for using historical and cultural burden words with care and respect:Avoid using these words as slurs or insults.Be aware of the context in which you are using these words.Be mindful of the impact that your words can have on others.Be open to learning about the different ways that these words can be used.Be willing to challenge the assumptions that you have about these words.By following these tips, we can help to ensure that historical and cultural burden words are used in a way that is respectful and informative. We can also help to create a more inclusive and understanding world.Additional Examples of Historical and Cultural Burden Words.In addition to the words "slavery" and "Holocaust," there are many other words that could be considered historical and cultural burden words. These words include:Apartheid.Caste system.Colonialism.Genocide.Jim Crow.Lynching.Racism.Sexism.Xenophobia.These words are all associated with different forms of oppression and discrimination. They are words that evoke images of suffering, violence, and injustice. It is important to be aware of the historical and cultural burden that these words carry, and to use them with care and respect.The Importance of Understanding Historical and Cultural Burden Words.It is important to understand historical and cultural burden words because they can help us to:Understand the past.Learn from our mistakes.Empathize with others.Work towards a better future.By understanding these words, we can gain a deeper understanding of the world around us. We can also become more compassionate and understanding people.Conclusion.Historical and cultural burden words are powerful words that can have a significant impact on the way that we think about the past and the present. It is important to be aware of the historical and cultural burden that these words carry, and to use them with care and respect. By doing so, we can help to create a more inclusive and understanding world.。

黑龙江世居少数民族神话的共生意识

‘齐齐哈尔大学学报“(哲学社会科学版)2023年12月Journal of Qiqihar University(Phi&Soc Sci) Dec.2023　收稿日期:2023-10-09 作者简介:相龙烽(1976-),男,副教授,美学博士㊂主要从事文艺学与神话学研究㊂马雯博(1999-),女,在读硕士㊂主要从事文艺学研究㊂基金项目:黑龙江省哲学社会科学研究规划项目:黑龙江少数民族神话审美形态研究(19MZD206);黑龙江省艺术科学规划项目:黑龙江世居少数民族神话中的家国意识(2019B114);齐齐哈尔市哲学社会科学研究规划项目(QSX2018-08JL )□哲学与文化思想研究黑龙江世居少数民族神话的共生意识相龙烽,马雯博(齐齐哈尔大学文学与历史文化学院,黑龙江齐齐哈尔161006)摘　要:黑龙江世居少数民族神话除部分史料记载之外,大部分故事来源于现代民间采集㊂不同于史传神话的故事系统性与意义稳定性,这些神话在广义上也包括诸多民间传说㊁奇幻的想象和各种不确定的意象,反映了各民族的基本生活状态,蕴含着丰富的共生意识,是各少数民族独特的生命观㊁自然观和社会观的人本体现㊂关键词:黑龙江;世居少数民族;神话;共生意识中图分类号:I207.7 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1008-2638(2023)12-0029-05Symbiosis Consciousness in Myths of Indigenous Ethnic Minorities in Heilongjiang ProvinceXIANG Long -feng ,MA Wen -bo(College of Literature and History,Qiqihar University,Qiqihar,Heilongjiang 161006,China) Abstract :Heilongjiang’s indigenous ethnic minorities’mythologies,except for some historical records,most of the stories arecollected from modern folk sources.Unlike historical mythology,which has systematic and stable significance,these mythologies in abroad sense include many folk legends,wonderful imagination and various uncertain images.Reflercing the basic living conditions of varions ethnic groups,they also contain a rich sense of symbiosic and are the a manifestartion of unique life view,natural view and social view. Key words :Heilongjiang;indigenousethnic minorities;myths;symbiosis consciousness 黑龙江省现有满族㊁蒙古族㊁达斡尔族㊁锡伯族㊁赫哲族㊁鄂伦春族㊁朝鲜族㊁回族㊁鄂温克族和柯尔克孜族等十个世居少数民族,这些民族的神话资料较为集中地记载于‘黑龙江民间神话“‘黑龙江民间故事集“‘中国阿尔泰语系诸民族神话“‘赫哲族民间故事选“‘鄂伦春族民间故事选“等作品集中,其中故事除一小部分为史料记载的传统神话传说外,大部分来源于现代民间采集㊂这些神话(含传说)既有现实生活的隐喻描述,也有各世居少数民族对生活世界的空间想象,它们既记载了各民族的基本生活状态,也反映了各民族的生存观㊁宇宙观和自然观等审美观念㊂其中, 同出一源”的生命观㊁和合共生”的自然观㊁休戚与共”的社会观共同构成了各民族的共生意识㊂一㊁同出一源”的生命观在蛮荒时代恶劣的生存环境中,先民的生产实践活动都是围绕着生命活动而展开的㊂人作为捕食者的同时也作为被捕食者存在,氏族整体生存发展延续依赖于群体协作和种族繁衍,其生命意识也都围绕着生命活动展开㊂在对个体生命的探索过程中,各少数民族都在诸多神话中表达了他们对生命诞生与生命意义的思考:譬如生命是怎样诞生的,如何才能保持生命体的延续,生命本身究竟意味着什么以及他们对生命共同体的认知㊂1.人类对生命起源的思考在原始古朴的人类诞生神话中,先民更多思考的是人类是怎样诞生的㊂‘中国阿尔泰语系诸民族神话故事“中分别讲述了蒙古族㊁达斡尔族和鄂温克族等天神造人的神话故事㊂蒙古族‘天神造人“中天神忘了捏女人,导致人类没有繁衍,于是就投了羊和母鸡,它们都变成了美丽的姑娘㊂达斡尔族‘人是恩都日造的“讲述了人是由天神下凡捏土造成的㊂鄂温克族‘用泥土造人和万物的传说“中保如巴格西天神造人的泥土被神龟压在身下,他不忍心伤害生灵,就让萨满把神龟翻了个身㊂在人类诞生的神话中,先民认为生命同出一源,本质上没有什么区别,人是由泥土捏成,羊和母鸡可以变成人类,但已经考虑到了个体生命的繁衍和延续需要依靠男人和女人㊂2.各民族神话对生命起源空间的想象生活在原始时期的人类,借助丰富的想象力对地摇晃不止”的自然现象进行积极探索和求知㊂认为是神物在支撑着大地和天,它们翻身或者换角/腿时就会发生地震㊂在鄂温克族神话‘天神保鲁根巴西造万物“㊁锡伯族神话‘天神与大地“㊁蒙古族‘麦德尔娘娘开天辟地“[1]以及汉族‘女娲补天“集体文化观念中,各民族对宇宙的形成㊁天地的认识有着相似的认知㊂(表1)表1:各少数民族创始神话故事情节民族柯尔克孜族鄂温克族锡伯族蒙古族达斡尔族汉族神物公牛驼大地神龟四脚撑天神牛犄角支撑大地神龟龟背顶地仙鹤一只脚支地神龟四足撑天地震换角换犄角舒展腰脚三年换一次脚天漏”和地动”在各民族的神话中意味着灾害的来临㊂‘女娲补天“神话中对四极废” 九州裂”的自然现象进行了解释㊂由于四根天柱倾折而导致天塌地陷,需要借助神龟的力量才能把天地重新支撑起来㊂天地是先民生存之基和立身之本㊂各少数民族神话中神龟㊁神牛㊁仙鹤等用身体的某一部分来支撑大地或者撑天㊂经过先民主体情感的加工,成为力量的象征,反映了先民对现实生活安定的理想追求㊂天神造大地”的神话故事体现出中国古代神话多元一体”的特征,其中的多元”体现着各少数民族故事情节㊁天神和神物不同,极具民族特色, 一体”又是各民族对宇宙的来源㊁天地的形成有着相似的认知㊂3.各民族神话对族群来源的探究图腾神话是人类最古老的文化形式之一,据相关文化人类学和考古资料显示,图腾神话产生于旧石器时代中期,是关于动物㊁植物㊁非生物成为氏族部落始祖的解释㊂因此,图腾神话是族群对自身历史的追问,它对凝聚族群的文化认同㊁集体意识和维持族群的秩序起着精神上的引导作用㊂表2直观比较了解赫哲族㊁鄂伦春族㊁达斡尔族和朝鲜族图腾神话的异同点㊂表2:各少数民族族源神话故事情节民族赫哲族鄂伦春族鄂温克族达斡尔族朝鲜族神话题目那乃人的由来鄂伦春人是怎么来的舍沃克神达斡尔人的由来檀君神话图腾神熊猴带两只犄角的大蛇狐狸熊女人与图腾的关系血缘关系血缘关系血缘关系血缘关系血缘关系情节结构熊可以让她生几个和那乃人一样的娃娃猴向老妈妈表示好感太阳升起的地方,有条河,里面有只带两只犄角的大蛇达斡尔人发现小屋,老人把女儿许配给达斡尔人熊祈求神灵怀孕女人同意,生下孩子老妈妈对他中意并同居生下俩个孩子在一起生活,生下了孩子同居生活,生下好些孩子天王化男身与其结婚,生下一子长大后建立了自己的哈拉族繁衍成为今天的鄂伦春人繁衍成为今天的鄂温克族这些子女演变为今天的达斡尔人建立国家表2中,赫哲族㊁鄂伦春族㊁鄂温克族㊁达斡尔族和朝鲜族的图腾神话都是对族源的神话阐释㊂各少数民族神话中的图腾各不相同,分别是熊㊁猴㊁长犄角的大蛇㊁狐狸㊁熊女,但其情节结构都是由图腾和人相遇+生下后代+建立氏族/国家三部分构成㊂氏族成员与图腾之间具有亲缘关系,图腾具有神圣性和不可侵犯性,能够庇护氏族的生存发展,免除灾厄,相应的也要举行祭祀仪式㊂如鄂温克族‘舍沃克神和铁神“[1]记载了有关舍沃克神的祭祀情节: 舍卧克神给人类和鄂温克人做了无数好事,因此人们经常祭它㊂祭了它,人们不会生病,打猎也总走运㊂”除了对图腾举行祭祀仪式外,对图腾神有着特殊的称谓,如赫哲族将熊称作玛发”㊂[2]各少数民族的图腾虽有不同,但对图腾的神话阐释却达成一致观点:图腾神话对族群中的每个成员来说,都是对族群源头的回答,也是各民族对生命源起同归不同途的思考㊂在这一刻,各民族的神话在生命源起问题上也形成了共性思维逻辑㊂龙的子孙” 熊的儿女”不只是简单的幻想,而是对生命起点的思考,对自身历史的追问㊂从何处来,又到哪里去?”成为各民族神话对人自身处境的灵魂之问㊂这种反思与追问,凝聚着各民族生动的生命观,它们以同出一源”的原始认知,叙说着各民族文明进步的历史进程和发展脉络㊂二㊁和合共生”的自然观在黑龙江世居少数民族的神话中,人与万物常常同出于一个世界,没有高低贵贱之分,都属于自然生命的一部分,甚至不同物种也同样拥有共同的生命法则㊂譬如,鄂伦春族久居深林,就在神话世界中记载了:最早,山里头的人都像动物,只是用两条腿走路,那时,人都是雄性的,只有一个雌性的老妈妈的在山洞中看管食物,人与猴子同居并且生下了孩子㊂如此看来,对于原始先民来讲,人与猴之间没有区别,物种的不同不影响双方产生情感甚至是生育后代㊂这是其民族文明在野蛮时代的真实形态,在这种神话描述的文明世界03齐齐哈尔大学学报(哲学社会科学版)　中,不存在现代社会的伦理边界,取而代之的是人和自然生物之间同等的生命权利㊂‘中国阿尔泰语系诸民族神话故事“中‘鄂伦春族是怎么来的“和达斡尔族‘天为什么下雨降雪“两则神话分别解释了人为什么有膝盖骨: 天神造人的时候用泥㊁骨头和肉做成的人形,奔跑如飞很快就把山里的野兽给捕杀干净了,天神见了很生气,于是便给人按了膝盖骨㊂”以及天地刚形成的时候,天特别低,人生活的特别舒服,天地一片繁荣景象,人和动物还是好朋友,互相爱护互相帮助,人类一天到晚无忧无虑地生活着㊂”在这些神话故事中都体现出了核心的主题:人与动植物之间友好相处,情感是双向流动,只是人类为了存活下去,迫于生活的无奈,拿起了弓箭,学会了狩猎,人与动物之间的关系趋于紧张状态㊂神话阐释了人与动植物之间的关系变化,在一定程度上弥补了原始先民出于生存的目的对捕杀动物的愧疚之情㊂这些神话世界中,充满了现代思维不能置换的意象,它们看似荒诞㊁不可理解,却以神话的方式传递出先民对万事万物的哲学思考:人本就是自然的一部分,万物相生相克,处于和合共生”的状态㊂在现代人来看, 神存在于其它事物中”是不科学的和荒谬的,因为从自然主义科学的观点出发,人们常常认为有无智慧㊁意识㊁创造力等是人与非人之间的根本区别, 那种认为灵魂㊁神会存在于木桩㊁石头㊁武器㊁小船㊁食物㊁衣服㊁装饰品及其他无生命的食物之中的思维,被现代人看作鲁莽的㊁假想的,因为对我们来说这些东西不仅没有生命的,而且是没有灵魂的㊂”㊂[3]这一论断显然与神话的原始审美思维不相契合的㊂法国人类学家德斯科拉则在如何看待人与自然关系”这一问题上,以外在性和内在性是否具有连续性”(即本质是否一致)为理论起点,从物理性与内在性两个维度出发,提出人与非人特定关系的四种形式,即自然主义㊁泛灵论㊁图腾崇拜和类比思维㊂这种看法打破了长期以来以自然主义”为中心处理人类与自然关系的固定方式,丰富了人与自然的关系理解,确认了人与自然之间的主体间性㊂这与黑龙江世居少数民族神话中所传达的人与自然共生共存的观念是不谋而合的㊂在各少数民族神话中,经常出现人与非人互变”的神话母题,人与非人之间属于共生共存的关系且不受其外形束缚,没有明显的差距和界限,可以平等的交流㊁交易㊁建立感情甚至进行婚媾等㊂恰如庄子所言,天地与我并生,而万物与我为一㊂‘中国各民族神话“和‘黑龙江省民间故事集“中都讲述了这样一个故事:大兴安岭上的一户人家想要生一个孩子,于是就采了野果或达子花在老白桦树旁边的大石碓,也就是敖包’前虔诚地上供,过了几天老太太就怀孕了,十个月之后生下了颗肉蛋,当天晚上老太太就梦到了白胡子老头向她道喜以及养育孩子办法老猎人听了这个梦,认为是白那恰”的点化㊂可以看出,人和山神的关系融洽且大多数时候人对山神更加依赖,在某种意义上可以看作是交易”关系㊂山神”除了有受人们供奉的地方外,还能在人与桦树这两种外在存在形态之间进行变换㊂除了鄂伦春族存在变形神话外,‘黑龙江省民间故事集“还记载了达斡尔族的一则变形神话:一位青年外出独自谋生,在盘缠也消耗殆尽时,遇到了一个白胡子老人向他指明了谋生之地: 从这里朝北走去,有一棵青松㊂你在它旁边等到黄昏,那棵松树就会摇晃起来,变成一个美丽的姑娘㊂”(‘松树姑娘“)两则神话故事都潜在的透露出,在先民的世界中,内在性的连续可以消解物理性上的不连续性,如动植物可以转变成人,且动植物外在的形象并不影响其具有人格属性㊂‘中国各民族神话“还叙述了鄂温克族关于树和鸟照顾婴儿的神话:有个猎人进山打猎,看到一棵大树用乳白色的奶汁喂养婴儿,周围的鸟儿也在保护婴儿,猎人抱起孩子,向千年枯树’和鸟儿道谢,就回了家,人们把孩子叫做树妈妈㊁鸟爸爸的儿子”㊂这则神话故事中, 千年枯树”和鸟儿”虽然没有以人的形态出现,但其内在本质已经与人相差无异,用白色的乳汁”来哺育婴儿,鸟儿用自身的力量来去保护婴儿,完全是人类父母的形象㊂‘黑龙江民间神话“还记载了满族创世女神阿布卡赫赫创造天地人的故事:在大洪水时期,动物㊁植物和人之间经过外在形态的转化彼此依存渡过了劫难㊂佛陀妈妈”和天兽僧格恩都里”彼此靠着对方的灵气和生气存活了下来, 海兰妈妈”幸亏躲在老榆树中,才侥幸保得一命㊂阿布卡赫赫是萨满文化中的始母神,在满族创世神话‘天宫大战“中,世间最古的时候是不分天地的水泡泡,天水相连,逐渐从中生出阿布卡赫赫(Abka Hehe原始女神),她像七彩神光,白亮湛蓝㊂她越长越大,又裂生出乌尔登赫赫(Ulden Hehe光明之母)㊁巴纳姆赫赫(Banamu Hehe大地之母)她们同身同根,同现同显,同存同在,同生同孕,又共同作为三姊妹神创造了更多的人类和生物㊂可见,以鄂伦春族神话㊁鄂温克族神话㊁达斡尔族神话和满族神话为代表的黑龙江世居各少数民族神话中,这种非人的拟人化”和人的拟物化”都已成为极为常见的情形㊂非人具有人的形态和情感,而人具有物”的外在特征,也已经成为这些民族神话中的通用表达方式㊂这些神话体现了人和自然的共生意识,即所有生命和元素都是相互联系㊁相互依存的,它强调了世界的和谐和统一性㊂为进一步说明问题,我们可通过表3具体比较分析,探究各少数民族神话中的人与非人之间相互转化和共生共存的关系㊂表3:各少数民族神话故事中人与非人的相互转化民族神话题目神话内容故事结局人的拟物化”物的拟人化”鄂伦春族吴达内的故事向山神许愿怀孕生子向山神供奉桦树变人鄂温克族错罗斯的传说在林中遇到树和鸟哺育婴儿带走孩子向枯树和鸟儿道谢枯树流出乳汁哺育婴儿13　第12期黑龙江世居少数民族神话的共生意识达斡尔族松树姑娘无家的青年向老爷爷求助在一颗松树下等到黄昏与松树姑娘结婚青松变成姑娘满族阿凯布赫赫造天㊁地㊁人阿凯布赫赫创世遇到只天兽㊁柳树和人人㊁柳树㊁天兽一起创造天㊁地㊁人人身上长满榆树叶人变成柳树树变人兽变人在这些故事的主体情节中,各少数民族神话对人与非人之间的关系有着同一认识,即:从内外连续性来看,都认为自然万物和人的内在本质是相同的,自然万物具有和人一样的痛觉㊁情感,因此,人对自然万物生发出爱惜之情,甚至在必要情况下人和非人的外在形态的相互转化都是人与自然共生共存的基本关系形态;从现实性的生存关系来看,各少数民族神话认为人与自然万物处于同一生命共同体中,一方的变动会影响另一方的生存和发展,尤其对于原始时期的生存需要而言,人对自然界充满了依赖,自然也作为人类生存不可分割的一部分而充满了诗意的价值,人与自然的不可分割性形成了二者共生共存的现实本体形态㊂可以说,这些神话叙事的基本逻辑已经包含了泛灵论㊁图腾崇拜和类比思维,在一定程度上,这种对人与自然关系的理解也成为各少数民族神话对自我主体性的确认尝试,换言之,这种人与自然的和合共生观念,不止体现在人与非人之间的共生共存的现实价值,更体现在人和非人二者之间相互尊重㊁平等生存的普世情感价值㊂三㊁休戚与共”的社会观在黑龙江世居少数民族神话中,生命不止意味着诞生㊁繁衍,其中整个族群的生命都彼此联系在一起,一方的变动必然会牵扯到另一方,生命中所蕴含着的无限情义和对幸福生活的渴望以及由它们构成的生命价值,始终与抗击灾难㊁维护民族生存相互交织在一起㊂蒙古族‘长翅膀的白马“记载了族群面临被捕食的现状,围绕领头人叙说了维护家园的责任和使命是在生命之上的道理㊂在人们为白马为族群的遭遇而悲伤落泪时,其生命意义不仅指向了对集体意识的认同,也代表了族群个体生命之间产生的情感羁绊,其生命本身成为了蒙古族的民族意识和精神的写照㊂因此,其生命价值透过集体意识”体现了出来㊂在鄂伦春族㊁赫哲族㊁鄂温克族和蒙古族的诸多神话中,都有对人类自身生命价值的思考,并强调在个体生命与集体生命发生冲突时,应以个体生命的有限性来换取群体生存发展的无限性㊂这种集体观以及由此形成的社会观,还体现在各少数民族神话中透露出的各民族所坚守的伦理道德㊂在这些神话中,人作为个体,在生长的过程中除了学习必要的生存能力外,还要经受道德的磨练,承担道德上的责任和义务㊂譬如赫哲族‘七女峰“[4]的神话故事强调了个体成长过程中必须要承担起的责任与使命,萨丽洪德都七姐妹在经历重重磨难后,有了幸福的生活,但是金翅鸟告诉她们,不能告诉别人有吃的”,如果说了,就会变成石头㊂但是当七姐妹看见城镇里饥饿的人们时,七姐妹在禁忌与乡亲生命的延续两者之间做出了抉择,最终告诉乡亲们: 跟着金翅鸟走吧,那里有吃的㊂”七姐妹从此就变成了石头,石头越长越大,变成了七女峰㊂这个神话刻画了美丽的心灵,但也更加突出了人们所铭记的集体荣誉感,这是个体与社会休戚与共㊁和谐共生的最好注解㊂鄂伦春族‘吴达内的故事“同样描述了类似情节:吴达内在被老莽倪暗害后,心却没有死,依旧没有忘记家乡故土在等着他去解救㊂两则神话所对应的生存经验各不相同,但在面对集体利益与个人利益发生冲突时,七姐妹和吴达内以家乡故土为情感导向做出抉择七姐妹说出禁言变成石人换取了乡亲们繁衍生息的幸福之地;吴达内惦念家乡安危的心让他获得二次生命除掉了老莽倪㊂他们充分意识到个体与家园㊁氏族部落和集体生命是密不可分的联系在一起的㊂满族神话‘天池“中,日吉纳的姑娘也面临着同样的生死”抉择㊂蒙古族神话‘长翅膀的神马“中,蒙古族人共同抵御敌人,奈何寡不敌众,首领战死,民众饱受战火㊂白马一时悲愤生出翅膀,心变成一面反映蒙古族人与妖魔鬼怪做战斗的镜子,向天庭求救㊂面对敌对势力,蒙古族人集结全部力量,将守卫家园置于生命之上,其中反映民族认同意识的神话意象白马,已然化为整个蒙古族人精神的化身㊁民族符号的象征㊂正如费孝通先生所说,是为了生存不得不团结起来,建立起一个共同遵守的秩序成为一个具有民族认同意识的共同体㊂”[5]通过对赫哲族㊁鄂伦春族㊁蒙古族和满族的神话情节㊁神话意象㊁神话中个体生命价值转化进行分析(表4),可以看到,在各少数民族的神话叙事中,人们已经在对自身生命价值和意义的认识上达成了共识:基于对家乡㊁故土和生活在同一片土地上的万事万物的仁爱之情,做出生死”抉择㊂表4:各少数民族英雄神话故事情节要素分析民族神话名称情节内容生命价值转化神话意象赫哲族七女峰七姐妹经历磨难找到能去往幸福之地的金翅鸟,为了解救逃荒的乡亲,七姐妹说出了禁言㊂七姐妹变成石人换来了乡村世代栖息的幸福居所布舒库”㊁乌鲁都围”㊁金翅鸟㊁松江平原㊁七女峰鄂伦春族吴达内的故事吴达内经历各种磨难甚至以生命为代价除掉了老莽倪,家乡恢复了安宁和谐㊂吴达内以两次生命为代价后除掉老莽倪白那恰”㊁老莽倪”㊁白马㊁惦念家乡的心23齐齐哈尔大学学报(哲学社会科学版)　蒙古族长翅膀的神马白马主人同妖魔作战战死㊂白马悲愤下长出翅膀,在神鸟帮助下求来了天庭的援兵孤儿冲在战场最前方㊁白马长出翅膀㊁心变成镜子妖魔鬼怪㊁孤儿㊁白马㊁变成镜子的心满族天池日吉纳的姑娘为了制服火魔法㊂抱着冰块,一头扎进火山生命熄灭火灾火魔㊁天帝㊁冰块㊁天池这四则神话故事中的原始意象融入了各少数民族原始初民对外界事物自我感知的情绪,故事中的金翅鸟㊁白那恰㊁白马㊁吴达内㊁孤儿㊁天帝等对先民来说是通往幸福之地的符号标识,也是善良㊁勇敢等美好品德的象征㊂其中布舒库” 乌鲁都围” 老莽倪” 妖魔鬼怪” 火魔”等神话意象,表明人类极易受自然环境的影响和野兽的侵袭,除此之外还要经受水灾㊁旱灾等自然灾害,生存环境极为恶劣㊂在艰难的生存条件下,神话意象反映了先民对生命的美好想象和追求,个体生存与族群生存发生冲突”时,以族群生存为价值导向,以其舍生取义”的精神实现了对理想生命的归宿㊂当个体和族群利益一致时,势必会一致对外,守卫家园和故土㊂各少数民族神话集体表述了在灾难和邪恶势力面前,真诚㊁勇敢和善良势必会战胜邪恶,而人类终将迎来幸福美满的和谐生活㊂这些神话共同叙述了各民族文化中个体与集体观念的发展,人类不再以完全的个体生存为目标,而是发展出崇高的社会共存观念,人也不再是独立的个体,而是与集体休戚与共的荣誉共同体,这是人类精神文明发展的重大跨越㊂纵观各少数民族的神话叙事,其内容都对宇宙的形成㊁生命的诞生㊁自然的认知以及集体观念㊁社会观念的理解做出了充分的表达,由同出一源”的生命观㊁和合共生”的自然观与休戚与共”的社会观共同构成的共生意识,深刻表明了在这些世居民族的观念里,人与自然(包括动物与植物),以及不同民族都是自然生命的一分子,人㊁动物与植物并不互相侵占,也不只有单纯的生存空间依赖关系,正如金善子所言,关于人类和动物联姻的许多神话都不能是单纯地归类为异类婚姻谈”的故事, 其基础是对人与自然关系的深刻反思㊂”在这里, 森林是(所有生命) 共同体’的生活空间,而神话成为实现这种共享的核心动因”[6],在精神品格和民族精神上体现着鲜明的中华民族共同性㊂”[7]这种浓厚的生命共同体意识的观念,已经深深烙印在各民族文化的精神之中,它所承载的人类情感和社会责任感,激发着他们为了个体发展和民族进步而不懈奋斗的精神,这种精神不仅为各民族的发展注入了强大的动力,也为整个中华民族的团结与进步提供了源源不断的力量㊂参考文献:[1]满都呼.中国阿尔泰语系诸民族神话故事[M ].北京:民族出版社,1997.[2]刘敏,赫哲族图腾崇拜及其历史文化价值[J ].黑龙江民族丛刊,2015(06):118.[3](美)凯文㊃斯齐布瑞克.神话的哲学思考[M ].叶舒宪,总主编.姜丹丹,刘建树,译.黄悦,孙梦迪,校注.西安:陕西师范大学出版总社,2019.[4]王荣文.中国民间故事全集32-黑龙江民间故事集[M ].台北:远流出版事业股份有限公司,1989.[5]费孝通.中华民族多元一体格局[M ].北京:中央民族大学出版社,2018.6]金善子.中国少数民族神话与生态及共享[J ].遗产,2022(02):227-228.[7]苏培.民间文学中的中华民族共同性以黑龙江世居少数民族民间文学为例[J ].黑龙江民族丛刊,2023(01)26.(责任编辑　李　维)33　第12期黑龙江世居少数民族神话的共生意识。

Apple公司英文简介

The first Macintosh was introduced on January 24, 1984; it was the first commercially successful personal computer to feature a mouse and a graphical user interface rather than a command-line interface.
apple公司英文简介 appleinc appleinc americanmultinational marketsconsumer electronics, computer software, personalcomputers. company?sbest-known hardware( productsinclude macintoshline applesoftware includes macos operatingsystem; safariinternet browser; mobileoperating system. august2010, companyoperates 301 retail stores tencountries,4 onlinestore where hardware softwareproducts may2010, apple largestcompanies mostvaluable technology company world,having surpassed( briefhistory appleinc. 1976-1980:theearly years stevejobs, steve wozniak, ronaldwayne, personalcomputer. werehand-built firstshown homebrewcomputer club. cpu,ram, basictextual-video chips)—less than what todayconsidered completepersonal computer. computerwent july1976 $666.66($2,572 2011dollars, adjusted( stevejobs began working applelisa 1982he pushedfrom lisateam due tookover jef raskin's low-cost-computer project, warbroke out between lisa's "corporate shirts" jobs'"pirates" over which product would ship first saveapple. lisa won firstpersonal compu

批判的地域主义.

批判的地域主义沈克宁【内容摘要】批判的地域主义持一种辩证和批判的态度。

它对以全球化和大同文化为主导的现代主义建筑持强烈的批评态度，它也对地方和地域主义，尤其是那种矫情的、浪漫风的和风景化的地域主义持批评态度。

它强调场址、地点和地形、地貌在建筑设计中的作用，它也保持了现代建筑的进步和解放的思想。

这是一种严肃的、具有生命力的、进行自我反思和批判的建筑思想。

【关键词】批评的地域主义乡土建筑场所和地点Abstract: Critical regionalism maintains a critical point of view. It is critical not only of globalism, it is also critical of regionalism. It is a regionalism evolved from an internal, self-directed criticism. Critical regionalism is a process of balancing and negotiation between the local and the global elements.Key Words: Critical Regionalism; vernacular architecture; place; site地域主义在当代的发展是多种多样的，其中最有活力和与时代相融合的一种便是“批判的地域主义”。

批判的地域主义是一种原创性的运动，它是回应全球化发展所造成的问题而出现的，它对全球化发展持强烈的批判态度。

批判的地域主义在文化空隙中澎湃发展，它以不同的方式逃避了世界大同文化的侵袭。

在今日全球现代化持续加温并对地区和民族文化构成极大的威胁的时代，批判的地域主义的理论和实践的存在就十分重要。

从批判理论角度出发，人们应该将区域文化作为有意识培养的而非自生自长的文化运动。

the history of modern american dance阅读

the history of modern american dance阅读The History of Modern American DanceModern American dance has a rich and diverse history that can be traced back to the early 20th century. In this article, we will explore the key events, movements, and personalities that have shaped this dynamic art form.Early RootsModern American dance can be traced back to the early 20th century when African-American spirituals and work songs were paired with European-inspired movement. The integration of these cultural influences helped to create a unique form of dance that was grounded in the experiences of everyday people. One of the earliest figures to emerge in this movement was Loie Fuller, who danced to her own choreographed routines inspired by nature and fairy tales.Modern DanceIn the early 20th century, modern dance took root in New York City. This movement emphasized physical freedom, emotion, andimprovisation. Among the most influential figures in modern dance was Martha Graham, who fused traditional dance techniques with movement inspired by her own emotions and psychological states. Her groundbreaking choreography pushed boundaries and created a new language for dance that still influences modern dance today.Continued DevelopmentFrom the 1930s to the 1960s, modern dance continued to evolve and diversify. Choreographers such as Merce Cunningham integrated elements of modernism, minimalism, and abstract expressionism into their work, exploring movement as a medium for self-expression and exploration. At the same time, Latin dance and African dance influences began to creep into contemporary dance, giving it a more international and diverse flavor.The Rise of Dance FilmDuring the 1970s and 1980s, dance film became a popular form of modern dance. Choreographers such as Twyla Tharp and Jerome Robbins used film to create complex choreographic narratives that explored themes such as time, memory, and human relationships. Dance film allowed dancers to tell stories visually, using movement as a mediumfor emotional exploration and communication.Contemporary Dance TodayToday, modern dance is thriving and diverse, with choreographers from all over the world creating works that are influenced by a range of cultural and artistic movements. The genre continues to evolve and experiment with new techniques and forms, making it an exciting and vibrant art form that is enjoyed by audiences of all ages and backgrounds.In conclusion, the history of modern American dance is one that is marked by creativity, experimentation, and diversity. From its early roots in African-American spirituals and work songs to its contemporary incarnation, modern dance has remained an important force in the cultural landscape, pushing boundaries and exploring new forms of expression through movement.。

history

added : list of wireless networks in ndis properties
added : exclude non connected card from ndis
added : tcp scan host & range in same window
added : tcp syn scan host & subnet in same window
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added : CryptUnprotectdata api added / decrypt password in rdp files
added : decrypt passwords in mdp
added : password reveal
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fixed : nbt spoof / checkbox for binding udp src port 138 (ok on w2k3 / nok on w2k)
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人大附中2021届新高考英语外刊阅读58

人大附中2021新高考英语外刊精选补充阅读积累（阅读写作提升58）文化领域的反歧视运动：黑色Black首字母需要大写导读由美国非洲裔男子乔治·弗洛伊德之死所引发的反种族主义抗议活动在全美“开花”。

抗议浪潮愈演愈烈，并开始向文化圈蔓延。

双语阅读On June 19, AP became the latest media organization to change its policy to capitalize “Black”when the word is used in “a racial, ethnic or cultural context.”6月19日，美联社成为最新一家改变政策的媒体机构，当“黑”一词用于“种族、民族或文化背景”时，需要将其大写。

“Use of the capitalized Black recognizes that language has evolved,” says AP’s enhanced entry on race-related coverage, “along with the common understanding that especially in the United States, the term reflects a shared identity and culture rather than a skin color alone.” Other large outlets that recently adopted this change include the USA Today Network, NBC News and the Los Angeles Times."使用大写的Black表明语言在发展，"美联社在种族相关报道的加强版块中说，"还有一个共识，那就是特别是在美国，这个词反映了一种共同的身份和文化，而不仅仅是一种肤色。

莎士比亚戏剧人物关系的“延异”问题

• 148 •
西北大学学报（哲学社会科学版）2021年第4期
受哈尔，就好像福斯塔夫是一扇窗，向我们敞开了对哈尔王子的认知时空；哈尔全然沉溺于和福斯塔夫的交往中，他们一起放荡不羁，一起醉生梦死。而在《亨利四世》的下篇中，哈尔却在逐步摆脱福斯塔夫的干扰，勇气和担当重新回归，他甚至主动反思自己不堪的过去，后悔和福斯塔夫之间的荒唐行为。最初貌似稳固的关系在情节叙事的推移中潜伏着变化的可能,当哈尔决意放弃福斯塔夫这个所谓的朋友时,他就已经完全脱离了原有的自我。这种断然的放弃不是简单的关系选择，不是或是或非的二元判定，而是哈尔在认识他者的同时认识自己，透过他者眼中的自己而重新审视和评价自己。在建构人物关系的过程中,哈尔的人物形象由哈尔和福斯塔夫的胶着状态而定义；在解构人物关系的过程中，哈尔的人物形象由哈尔放弃福斯塔夫的友人身份而改变;在重构人物关系的过程中，哈尔的人物形象由自身的道德和责任而转向。
二、莎剧人物关系的延异思考
莎翁一生代表作众多,为前赴后继的学者们着迷的是,究竟什么样的人物才可以被贴上莎士比亚式人物的标签？无可否认的是，莎士比亚戏剧中的人物无论何时重读,都不是形单影只,他/她一定身处在一种关系联结中;就某一个主要人物而言,他/她身边的某一具体关系可能时而牢固、时而悬搁、时而断裂。当牢固时,主人公具有清晰的自我关照,他们透过这层关系加深对自我的认识和剖析，在自我不断发展的过程中表现出对自身行为的准确判断和掌控;当悬搁时，他们纠结、彷徨、无措，遭受各种力量的羁绊和巨大的精神困扰;当断裂时，迷惘徘徊的主人公往往迅速坠入未知的深谷,他们在放弃关系对方的同时，实际上也决然放弃了原有的自己。
曹苦男
(西北大学外国语学院，陕西西安710127)
摘要：莎士比亚戏剧中饱满的人物形象是文学评论家们反复研究的主题。基于解构主义视角，借用德里达(Jacques Derrida)的延异观来探索莎剧人物关系中的变化张力和他性叙写，是走入莎翁戏剧的另一种方式。延异的客体身份让我们深切感受到人物关系在往复迂回中的胶着与撕裂，而远距生成的力量则为读者开放了体味人物关系的差异态度和诗性居所，文本的细读方式成为对一切已知的批判和挑战。

在线音乐系统设计应收集的资料及主要参考文献

在线音乐系统设计应收集的资料及主要参考文献在设计在线音乐系统时,可以收集以下资料：1. 音乐数据：音乐文件、歌词、专辑信息、艺术家信息等。

2. 用户数据：用户信息、播放记录、用户评分、喜好标签等。

3. 后台数据：系统内部记录、日志等。

主要参考文献：1. O'Reilly, T. (2005). "Web2.0: Compact Definition?". O'Reilly Network.2. Cunningham, W. (2001). "The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web". Addison-Wesley.3. Brown, J. S. (2000). "Growing up Digital: How the Wired Generation is Changing Your World". McGraw-Hill.4. Miller, P. and Johnston, I. (2002). "Web Standards Design Guide". Addison-Wesley.5. Nielsen, J. (1999). "Designing Web Usability: The Practice of Simplicity". New Riders.6. Schacter, D. (1997). "Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past". Basic Books.7. Ellis, C., et al. (2002). "Learning from Leonardo: Decoding the Notebooks of a Genius". Doubleday.以上参考文献均为有关Web应用程序设计和用户体验的经典书籍,您可根据具体需求选择适合的参考文献。

disease and history小站备考

disease and history小站备考【实用版】目录1.疾病与历史的关系2.疾病对历史的影响3.历史对疾病的认知与记录4.疾病与历史小站备考建议正文疾病和历史，两者看似毫无关联，实际上却有着紧密的联系。

疾病作为一种生物现象，不仅影响着人类的生存状态，还在一定程度上塑造了人类的历史。

反过来，历史也记录了人类对疾病的认知过程，为我们了解和预防疾病提供了宝贵的经验。

在这里，我们将探讨疾病与历史的关系，并针对疾病与历史小站备考提出一些建议。

首先，疾病对历史的影响不容忽视。

自古以来，疾病在很大程度上影响了人类的政治、经济、文化和社会生活。

例如，古代的瘟疫曾导致人口锐减，从而改变了国家的政治格局；一些传染病的传播也促进了全球范围内的交流与合作。

此外，历史上的许多重大战争和灾难也与疾病有关，如天花、疟疾等曾给军队带来巨大损失。

其次，历史对疾病的认知与记录为我们提供了宝贵的经验。

在我国古代医学典籍中，对许多疾病的病因、症状和治疗方法都有详细的记载。

这些古代医学著作不仅为当时的医生提供了指导，也为后世留下了丰富的医学知识。

同时，历史还记录了人类在抗击疾病过程中的种种尝试，如疫苗的发明、传染病的控制等，这些经验对于我们今天的疾病防治工作具有重要意义。

针对疾病与历史小站备考，我们建议从以下几个方面进行准备：1.掌握疾病与历史相关的基本概念和理论，了解疾病与历史之间的联系；2.学习历史上有关疾病的著名案例，了解疾病对人类社会的影响；3.了解我国古代医学的发展历程，掌握重要医学著作和医学理论；4.关注现代医学在疾病防治方面的最新进展，理解历史与现实的关系。

通过以上分析，我们可以看到，疾病与历史小站备考涉及到多个方面的内容。

History makers Listening -高中英语北师大版(2019)必修第二册

Uncertainty 1 I _a_m__n_o_t_s_u_r_e__ about the exact date. 2 __R__e_a_ll_y_? Are you __su_r_e_a_b_o_u_t_t_h_a_t__? 3 __I__d_o_n_’t_k_n_o_w__ if that's true… 4 __P_e_r_h_a_p_s_ we should check a few other websites.
King. Listen to the discussion and add the year for each event.
He 1 _____d_______ 2 ____________ 3 ____________ 4 ____________ 5 ____________
Ex6. Listen to the conversation between the two students. Are they certain or uncertain? How do you know?
1 The girl is certain / uncertain that Gandhi was one of the most important figures of the 20th century.
of the 20th century. 2 Yes, I __am___ce_r_t_ai_n_. 3 Actually, I _d_o_n_’_t _th_i_n_k___ Gandhi ever won a Nobel Peace Prize. 4 I'm pretty __s_u_re___ he didn't.
What did he achieve? He gained_t_h_e__N_o_b_e_l_P_e_a_c_e_P_r_i_ze_ and _i_n_s_p_ir_e_d__people around the world to __ __f_ig_h_t_f_o_r_ equal rights and justice.

历届诺贝尔经济学奖获得者演讲词

10 Economic Sciences 19691. T HE L URES OF U NSOLVABLE P ROBLEMSDeep in the human nature there is an almost irresistible tendency to concen-trate physical and mental energy on attempts at solving problems that seem to be unsolvable. Indeed, for some kinds of active people only the seemingly un-solvable problems can arouse their interest. Other problems, those which can reasonably be expected to yield a solution by applying some time, energy and money, do not seem to interest them. A whole range of examples illustrating this deep trait of human nature can be mentioned.The mountain climber. The advanced mountain climber is not interested in fairly accessible peaks or fairly accessible routes to peaks. He becomes enthu-siastic only in the case of peaks and routes that have up to now not been con-quered.The Alchemists spent all their time and energy on mixing various kinds of matter in special ways in the hope of producing new kinds of matter. To produce gold was their main concern. Actually they were on the right track in prin-ciple, but the technology of their time was not advanced far enough to assure a success.The alluring symmetry problem in particle physics. Around 1900, when the theory of the atom emerged, the situation was to begin with relatively simple. There were two elementary particles in the picture: The heavy and positively charged PROTON and the light and negatively charged ELECTRON. Subsequently one also had the NEUTRON, the uncharged counterpart of the proton. A normal hydrogen atom, for instance, had a nucleus consisting of one proton, around which circulated (at a distance of 0.5. 10-18 cm) one electron. Here the total electric charge will be equal to 0. A heavy hydrogen atom (deuterium) had a nucleus consisting of one proton and one neutron around which circu-lated one electron. And similarly for the more complicated atoms.This simple picture gave rise to an alluring and highly absorbing problem. The proton was positive and the electron negative. Did there exist a positively charged counterpart of the electron? And a negatively charged counterpart of the proton? More generally: Did there exist a general symmetry in the sense that to any positively charged particle there corresponds a negatively charged counter-part, and vice versa? Philosophically and mathematically and from the view-point of beauty this symmetry would be very satisfactory. But it seemed to be an unsolvable problem to know about this for certain. The unsolvability, however, in this case was only due to the inadequacy of the experimental technology of the time. In the end the symmetry was completely established even experimentally. The first step in this direction was made for the light particles (because here the radiation energy needed experimentally to produce the counterpart, although high, was not as high as in the case of the heavy particles). After the theory of Dirac, the positron, i.e. the positively charged counterpart of the electron, was produced in 1932. And subsequently in 1955 (in the big Berkeley accelerator) the antiproton was produced.The final experimental victory of the symmetry principle is exemplified in the following small summary tableR. A. K. Frisch11Electric charge0-1Note. Incidentally, a layman and statistician may not be quite satisfied with the terminology, because the “anti” concept is not used consistently in connection with the electric charge. Since the antiproton has the opposite charge of the proton, there is nothing to object to the term anti in this connection. The difference between the neutron and the antineutron, however, has nothing to do with the charge. Here it is only a question of a difference in spin (and other properties connected with the spin). Would it be more logical to reserve the terms anti and the corresponding neutr to differences in the electric charge, and use expressions like, for instance counter and the corresponding equi when the essence of the difference is a question of spin (and other properties connected with the spin)? One would then, for in-stance, speak of a counterneutron instead of an antineutron.The population explosion in the world of elementary particles. As research pro-gressed a great variety of new elementary particles came to be known. They were extremely short-lived (perhaps of the order of a microsecond or shorter), which explains that they had not been seen before. Today one is facing a variety of forms and relations in elementary particles which is seemingly as great as the macroscopic differences one could previously observe in forms and relations of pieces of matter at the time when one started to systematize things by considering the proton, the electron and the neutron. Professor Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel prize winner 1969, has made path-breaking work at this higher level of systematization. When will this drive for systematization result in the discovery of something still smaller than the elementary particles?Matter and antimatter. Theoretically one may very precisely consider the existence of the “anti” form of, for instance, a normal hydrogen atom. This anti form would have a nucleus consisting of one antiproton around which circulated one positron. And similarly for all the more complicated atoms. This leads to the theoretical conception of a whole world of antimatter. In theory all this is possible. But to realize this in practice seems again a new and now really unsolvable problem. Indeed, wherever and whenever matter and anti-matter would come in contact, an explosion would occur which would produce an amount of energy several hundred times that of a hydrogen bomb of the same weight. How could possibly antimatter be produced experimentally? And how could antimatter experimentally be kept apart from the normal matter that surrounds us? And how could one possibly find out if antimatter exists in some distant galaxes or metagalaxes? And what reflections would the12 Economic Sciences 1969existence of antimatter entail for the conception of the “creation of the world”, whatever this phrase may mean. These are indeed alluring problems in physics and cosmology which - at least today - seem to be unsolvable problems, and which precisely for this reason occupy some of the finest brains of the world today.Travelling at a speed superior to that of light. It is customary to think that this is impossible. But is it really? It all depends on what we mean by “being in a certain place”. A beam of light takes about two million years to reach from us to the Andromeda nebula. But my thought covers this distance in a few seconds. Perhaps some day some intermediate form of body and mind may permit us to say that we actually can travel faster than light.The astronaut William Anders, one of the three men who around Christmas time 1968 circled the moon in Apollo 8 said in an interview in Oslo (2):“Nothing is impossible . . .it is no use posting Einstein on the wall and say: Speed of light-but not any quicker . . .30 nay 20, years ago we said: Impos-sible to fly higher than 50 000 feet, or to fly faster than three times the speed of sound. Today we do both.”The dream of Stanley Jevons. The English mathematician and economist Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) dreamed of the day when we would be able to quantify at least some of the laws and regularities of economics. Today - since the break-through of econometrics - this is not a dream anymore but a reality. About this I have much more to say in the sequel.Struggle, sweat and tears. This slight modification of the words of Winston Churchill is admirably suited to caracterize a certain aspect of the work of the scientists - and particularly of that kind of scientists who are absorbed in the study of “unsolvable” problems. They pass through ups and downs. Some-times hopeful and optimistic. And sometimes in deep pessimism. Here is where the constant support and consolation of a good wife is of enormous value to the struggling scientist. I understand fully the moving words of the 1968 Nobel prize winner Luis W. Alvarez when he spoke about his wife: “She has provided the warmth and understanding that a scientist needs to tide him over the periods of frustration and despair that seem to be part of our way of life” (3).2. A P HILOSOPHY OF C HAOS. T HE E VOLUTION TOWARDS A M AMMOTH S INGULAR T RANSFORMATIONIn the The Concise Oxford Dictionary (4) - a most excellent book - "philo-sophy"is defined as“love of wisdom or knowledge, especially that which deals with ultimate reality, or with the most general causes and principles of things”.If we take a bird’s eye-view of the range of facts and problems that were touched upon in the previous section, reflections on the “ultimate reality”quite naturally come to our mind.A very general point of view in connection with the “ultimate reality” I developed in lectures at the Institut Henri Poincaré in Paris in 1933. Subse-quently the question was discussed in my Norwegian lectures on statistics (5).R. A. K. Frisch 13The essence of this point of view on “ultimate reality” can be indicated by a very simple example in two variables. The generalization to many variables is obvious. It does not matter whether we consider a given deterministic, em-pirical distribution or its stochastic equivalence. For simplicity consider an empirical distribution.Let x 1 and x 2 be the values of two variables that are directly observed in aseries of observations. Consider a transformation of x 1 and x 2 into a new setof two variables y 1 and y 2. For simplicity let the transformation be linear i.e.The b’s and a’s being constants.(2.2)is the Jacobian of the transformation, as it appears in this linear case.It is quite obvious - and well known by statisticians - that the correlation coefficient in the set (y 1y 2) will be different from-stronger or weaker than-thecorrelation coefficient in the set (x 1x 2) (“spurious correlation”). It all dependson the numerical structure of the transformation.This simple fact I shall now utilize for my reflections on an “ultimate reality”in the sense of a theory of knowledge.It is clear that if the Jacobian (2.2)is singular, something important happens.In this case the distribution of y 1 and y 2 in a (y 1y 2) diagram is at most one-dimensional, and this happens regardless of what the individual observations x 1 and x 2 are - even if the distribution in the (x 1x 2) diagram is a completelychaotic distribution. If the distribution of x 1 and x 2 does not degenerate to apoint but actually shows some spread, and if the transformation determinant is of rank 1, i.e. the determinant value being equal to zero but not all its elements being equal to zero, then all the observations of y 1 and y 2 will lie on a straight linein the (y l y2) diagram. This line will be parallel to the y 1 axis if the first row ofthe determinant consists exclusively of zeroes, and parallel to the y 2 axis if thesecond row of the determinant consists exclusively of zeroes. If the distribution of x 1 and x 2 degenerates to a point, or the transformation determinant is of rankzero (or both) the distribution of y 1 and y 2 degenerates to a point.Disregarding these various less interesting limiting cases, the essence of the situation is that even if the observations x 1 and x 2 are spread all over the (x 1x 2)diagram in any way whatsoever, for instance in a purely chaotic way, the corresponding values of y 1 and y 2 will lie on a straight line in the (y 1y 2) diagramwhen the transformation matrix is of rank 1. If the slope of this straight line is finite and different from zero, it is very tempting to interpret y 1 as the “cause”of y 2 or vice versa. This “cause”,however, is not a manifestation of somethingintrinsic in the distribution of x 1 and x 2, but is only a human figment, a humandevice, due to the special form of the transformation used.What will happen if the transformation is not exactly singular but only14Economic Sciences 1969near to being singular? From the practical viewpoint this is the crucial question. Here we have the following proposition:(2.3)Suppose that the absolute value of the correlation coefficient r x i n(x1x2) is not exactly 1. Precisely stated, suppose that(2.3.1)0 1.This means that ε may be chosen as small as we desire even exactly 0, but it must not be exactly 1. Hence |rX|may be as small as we please even exactly 0, but not exactly 1.Then it is possible to indicate a nonsingular transformation from x1 and x2to the new variables y1 and y2with the following property: However small wechoose the positive, but not 0, number δ, the correlation coefficient rYi n(yl y2) will satisfy the relation(2.3.2) |rY|( 0R. A. K. Frisch 15 techniques. The latter is only an extension of the former. In principle there is no difference between the two. Indeed, science too has a constant craving for regularities. Science considers it a triumph whenever it has been able by some partial transformation here or there, to discover new and stronger regularities. If such partial transformations are piled one upon the other, science will help the biological evolution towards the survival of that kind of man that in the course of the millenniums is more successful in producing regularities. If “the ultimate reality” is chaotic, the sum total of the evolution over time - biological and scientific - would tend in the direction of producing a mammoth singular transformation which would in the end place man in a world of regularities. How can we possibly on a scientific basis exclude the possibility that this is really what has happened? This is a crucial question that con-fronts us when we speak about an “ultimate reality”. Have we created the laws of nature, instead of discovering them? Cf. Lamarck vs. Darwin.What will be the impact of such a point of view? It will, I believe, help us to think in a less conventional way. It will help us to think in a more advanced, more relativistic and less preconceived form. In the long run this may indirectly be helpful in all sciences, also in economics and econometrics.But as far as the concrete day to day work in the foreseeable future is con-cerned, the idea of a chaotic “ultimate reality” may not exert any appreciable influence. Indeed, even if we recognize the possibility that it is evolution of man that in the long run has created the regularities, a pragmatic view for the fore-seeable future would tell us that a continued search for regularities - more or less according to the time honoured methods - would still be “useful” to man.Understanding is not enough, you must have compassion. This search for regularities may well be thought of as the essence of what we traditionally mean by the word “understanding”. This “understanding”is one aspect of man’s activity. Another - and equally important - is a vision of the purpose of the understand-ing. Is the purpose just to produce an intellectually entertaining game for those relatively few who have been fortunate enough through intrinsic abilities and an opportunity of top education to be able to follow this game? I, for one, would be definitely opposed to such a view. I cannot be happy if I can’t believe that in the end the results of our endevaours may be utilized in some way for the betterment of the little man’s fate.I subscribe fully to the words of Abba Pant, former ambassador of India to Norway, subsequently ambassador of India to the United Arab Republic, and later High Commissioner of India to Great Britain:“Understanding is not enough, you must have compassion.” (6).3. A B RIEF S URVEY OF THE D EVELOPMENT OF E CONOMICS IN THE L AST C ENTURY Turning now to the more specifically economic matters, it is inevitable that I should begin by making a brief survey of the development of economics in the last century.In the middle of the 19th century John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) in his famous work “Principles of Economics”said that so far as general principles are concerned the theory of value and price was now completely elaborated.16 Economic Sciences 1969There was nothing more to add, he said, neither for himself nor any other author. To us with our relativistic view on knowledge and the development of science, it is difficult to understand that such a statement could be made. But to the generation that lived at that time these words by Mill appeared to be very close to the truth. In Mill’s “Principles” the ideas of Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-l823)and Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) had been knit together into an organic, logically and seemingly complete whole.Subsequent developments have thoroughly denounced Stuart Mill’s words. Two break-throughs have emerged in economic theory since the time of Stuart Mill.The classical theory of value - as we find it streamlined in Stuart Mill - was essentially a theory of production costs based on the thinking of the private entrepreneur. The entrepreneur will think about as follows: “If I could only cut my selling price I would be able to draw the customers to me. This, how-ever, is also the way my competitors think. So, there emerges a sort of gravita-tional force that pulls prices down. The cost of production is so to speak the solid base on to which the prices fall down and remain. Hence the cost of production is “the cause”of prices. This general viewpoint the classical economists applied with great sagacity to a whole range of commodities , to the relation between wages and profits and to the theory ofinternational prices etc.This theory contains, of course, an irrefutable element of truth. But it is too simple to give even a crude presentation of the forces at play. The economic process is an equilibrium affair where both technological and subjective forces. are at play. The subjective element was nearly left out by the classicists.On this point economic theory was completely renewed in the years between 1870 and 1890 when a number of Austrian economists headed by Karl Menger (1840-1921) undertook a systematic study of the human wants and their place in a theory of prices. Similar thoughts were expressed also by the Swiss Léon Walras (1834-1910) and the Englishman Stanley Jevons (1835-l882). This was the first break-through since Stuart Mill.The Englishman Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) subsequently did much to combine the subjective viewpoint and the cost of production viewpoint. This led to what we now usually speak of as the neo-classical theory.Neither the classicists nor the neo-classicists did much to verify their theo-retical results by statistical observations. The reason was partly that the statistics were poor, and partly that neither the classical nor the neo-classical theory was built out with the systematic statistical verification in view. The architec-tural plan of the theory had so to speak not made room for this verification. This fact was criticized by the German historical school under the leadership of Gustav Schmoller (1838-1917) and by the American institutionalists. These schools, however, had an unfortunate and rather naive belief in something like a “theory-free” observation.“Let the facts speak for themselves”. The impact of these schools on the development of economic thought was therefore not very great, at least not directly. Facts that speak for themselves, talk in a very naive language.A. A. K. Frisch17In the first part of the 20th century the picture changed. Partly under the influence of the criticism of the historical school and the institutionalists the theoreticians themselves took up a systematic work of building up the theory in such a way that the theory could be brought in immediate contact with the observational material. One might say that from now on economics moved into that stage where the natural sciences had been for a long time, namely the stage where theory derives its concepts from the observational technique, and in turn theory influences the observational technique.For the first time in history it now seemed that the work on the theoretical front in economics - now to a large extent mathematically formulated - and the work on the outer descriptive front should converge and support each other, giving us a theory that was elaborate enough to retain the concrete observatio-nal material, and at the same time a mass ofobservations that were planned and executed with a view to be filled into the theoretical structure.Of course, there had been forerunners for such a combination of economic theory, mathematics and statistics even earlier. It was represented by such men as Johan Heinrich von Thünen (1783-l850), Augustin Cournot (1801-1877), A. J. Dupuit (1804-1866) and Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810-1858). But from the first part of the 20ieth century the movement came in for full. This was the beginning of the econometric way of thinking. And this is what I would call the second break-through since Stuart Mill.A crucial point in this connection is the quantification of the economic concepts, i.e. the attempts at making these concepts measurable. There is no need to insist on what quantitative formulation of concepts and relations has meant in the natural sciences. And I would like to state that for more than a generation it has been my deepest conviction that the attempted quantification is equally important in economics.The quantification is important already at the level of partial analysis. Here one has studied the demand for such important commodities as sugar, wheat, coffe, pig iron, American cotton, Egyptian cotton etc.And the quantification is even more important at the global level. Indeed, at the global level the goal of economic theory is to lay bare the way in which the different economic factors act and interact on each other in a highly complex system, and to do this in such a way that the results may be used in practice to carry out in the most effective way specific desiderata in the steering of the economy.As long as economic theory still works on a purely qualitative basis without attempting to measure the numerical importance of the various factors, practically any “conclusion”can be drawn and defended. For instance in a depression some may say: A wage reduction is needed because that will increase the profits of the enterprises and thus stimulate the activity. Others will say: A wage increase is needed because that will stimulate the demand of the consumers and thus stimulate activity. Some may say: A reduction of the interest rate is needed because this will stimulate the creation of new enter-prises. Others may say: An increase of the interest rate is needed because that18Economic Sciences1969will increase the deposits in the banks and thus give the banks increased capacity of lending money.Taken separately each of these advocated measures contains some particle of truth, taken in a very partial sense when we only consider some of the obvious direct effects, without bothering about indirect effects and without comparing the relative strengths of the various effects and countereffects. Just as one would say: If I sit down in a rowing boat and start rowing in the ordinary way, the boat will be driven backwards because of the pressure exerted by my feet in the bottom of the boat.In a global analysis that shall be useful for practical applications in economic policy in the nation as a whole, the gist of the matter is to study the relative strengths of all relevant effects and countereffects, hence the need for quanti-fication of the concepts.This perhaps is the most general and most salient formulation of the need for econometrics. How far we would be able to go in this direction was of course another question. But at least the attempt had to be made if economics were to approach the state of an applied science.It goes without saying that econometrics as thus conceived does not exhaust all the contents of economics. We still need - and shall always need - also broad philosophical discussions, intuitive suggestions of fruitful directions of research, and so on. But this is another story with which I will not be concerned here (7). Let me only say that what econometrics - aided by electronic computers - can do, is only to push forward by leaps and bounds the line of demarcation from where we have to rely on our intuition and sense of smell.4. S OME H ISTORICAL N OTES ON THE F OUNDING OF T HE E CONOMETRIC S OCIETY In the files of the Oslo University Institute of Economics I have located a folder containing letters and copies of letters dating from the years when the plans for an econometric society took shape. Here are interesting ideas and opinions from outstanding people in different parts of the world. Most of these people have now passed away.One of them was my good friend professor Francois Divisia. His letter of 1 September 1926 from his home in Issy les Moulineaux (Seine) was handwritten in his fine characters, 8 pages to the brim with every corner of the paper used. Most of the letter contained discussions on specific scientific questions, but there were also some remarks of an organizational sort. He spoke for instance of his correspondence with professor Irving Fisher of Yale. About this he said: ”Je suppose qu'il s’agit d’une liste destinée àétablir une liason entre les écono-mistes mathématiciens du monde entier”.Whether this was an independent initiative on the part of Fisher in connection with a plan for a society, or it was an outcome of my previous correspondence with Fisher, I have not been able to ascertain, because the files are missing. Divisia continues:“Dans la politique, je ne suis pas très partisan des organismes internationaux . . .mais dans les domaines desinteresses comme celui de la science, j’en suis au contraire partisan sans restriction”.Answering Divisia in a letter of 4 September 1926 I said inter alia: “JeR. A. K. Frisch19 saisis avec enthousiasme l’idee d’une liste ou d’un autre moyen de communication entre les économistes mathematiciens du monde entier. J’ai eu moi-même l’idée de tâcher de réaliser une association avec un périodique consacré à ces questions. Il est vrai que les périodiques ordinaires tels que la Revue d’économie politique ou l’Economic Journal, etc. acceptent occasionnellement des memoires mathematiques, mais toujours est-il que l’auteur d’un tel memoire se trouve duns l’obligation de restreindre autant que possible l’emploi de symboles mathematiques et le raisonnement par demonstration mathematique.Je connais déjà plusieurs economistes-mathématiciens dans differents pays, et j'ai pensé érire un jour ou l’autre une lettre à chacun d’eux pour avoir leur opinion sur la possiblité d’un périodique, (que dites-vous d’une “Econometrica”?, la soeur du”Biometrika”.) Maintenant je serai heureux d’avoir votre opinion d’abord. Si vous pensez que cela vaut la peine on pourra peut-être commencer par former un cercle restreint qui s’adressera plus tard au public. Dans les années à venir j’aurai probablement l’occasion de voyager souvent en Amérique et en Europe, alors j'aurai l’occasion de faire la connaissance des économistes qui pourront s’intéresser à ce projet, et j’aurai l’occasion de faire un peu de propagande. Peut-être pourra-t-on obtenir l’appui d’une des grandes fondations américaines pour la publication du périodique.Voici une liste de quelque personnes que je connais par correspondance comme étant très intéressées au sujet de l’économie pure: Jaime Algarra, Professeur d’éc. pol. UniversitéBarcelone, L. von Bortkievicz, Professeur de Stat. Univ. Berlin, E. Bouvier, Prof. de S C. fin. Univ. Lyon, K. Goldziher, Prof. Techn. Hochschule, Budapest, K. G. Hagström, Actuaire, Stockholm, Charles Jordan, Docteur és S C., Budapest, Edv. Mackeprang, Dr. polit., Copenhague, W. M. Persons, Prof. de Stat. Harvard Univ. Cambridge. Mass. U.S.A., E. Slutsky, Moscou, A. A. Young, Prof. d’éc. polit., Harvard Univ. Cam-bridge. Mass. U.S.A., P. Rédiadis. Contreamiral, Athènes.”I mentioned also a number of others, among whom were: Anderson, Prof. Ecole Supérieure de Commerce, Varna, Bulgarie, Graziani, Prof. d’éc. pol. Univ. Napoli, Italie, Huber, Dir. de la Stat.gén. de la France, Paris, Ricci, Prof. Univ. Roma, Gustavo del Vecchio R. Univ. Commerciale, Trieste.In a letter of 22 September 1926 Divisia answered inter alia: “Je suis, vous le savez, tout à fait d’accord avec vous sur l’utilité d’une Association Internationale d’Éco-nomie pure et j'aime beaucoup le titre d’"Econometrica" auquel vous avez songé pour un périodique. Toutefois, avant de passer aux realisations, je pense qu’il est indispensable de réunir tout d’abord un certain nombre d’adhésions. .. . je me demande s’il ne serait pas aussi possible et opportun de s’aboucher à une organisation existente comme l’lnstitut international de statistique. . . .Enfin, d’ores et déjà, tout mon concours vous est acquis.”In a letter of 1 November 1926 I wrote to Divisia: “Mon départ pour l’Amérique a été ajourné de quelques mois. J’en ai profité pour écrire aux personnes suivantes: Bortkievicz, Université de Berlin, A. L. Bowley, London School of Economics, Charles Jordan,Université de Budapest, Eugen Slutsky, Moscou, pour avoir leur opinion sur l’utilité et la possibilité de réaliser d’abord un cercle restreint et plus turd peut-être une association formelle . . .J’ai trouvé que je n’ai pas pû expliquer la chose d’une meilleure fagon qu’en copiant certains passages de votre dernière lettre . . .C’est peut-être là une petite indiscretion dont je me suis rendu coupable.”The same day 1 November 1926 I wrote to the four persons in question. In。

mac文献摘抄

mac文献摘抄Title: A Review of Mac Virtualization TechnologiesIntroductionWith the increasing popularity of Mac devices in the workplace, the need for virtualization technologies that support Mac operating systems has grown significantly. Virtualization allows multiple operating systems to run on a single physical machine, enabling users to access different software and applications without the need for multiple devices. This review will discuss the various Mac virtualization technologies available in the market, their features, benefits, and drawbacks.Overview of Mac Virtualization TechnologiesThere are several virtualization technologies available for Mac devices, each offering unique features and capabilities. Some of the most popular options include:1. Parallels Desktop: Parallels Desktop is a leading virtualization software that allows users to run Windows, Linux, and other operating systems on Mac devices. It offers seamless integration with macOS, enabling users to switch between different operating systems with ease. Parallels Desktop also supports hardware acceleration, ensuring optimal performance for virtual machines.2. VMware Fusion: VMware Fusion is another popular virtualization software for Mac devices. It supports a wide range of operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and macOS. VMware Fusion offers advanced features such as snapshotting, which allows users to save the state of a virtual machine and revert to it at any time. It also provides integration with VMware vSphere, making it ideal for enterprise users.3. VirtualBox: VirtualBox is an open-source virtualization software that is available for Mac, Windows, and Linux. It offers support for a wide range of operating systems and provides features such as snapshotting, virtual networking, and USB support. VirtualBox is free to use and is a popular choice for users who require basic virtualization capabilities.Benefits of Mac Virtualization TechnologiesMac virtualization technologies offer several benefits for users, including:1. Flexibility: Virtualization allows users to run multiple operating systems on a single device, enabling them to access different software and applications without the need for separate machines.2. Cost Savings: Virtualization eliminates the need for purchasing and maintaining multiple devices, reducing hardware costs for organizations.3. Improved Productivity: Virtualization technologies such as Parallels Desktop and VMware Fusion support seamless integration with macOS, enabling users to switch between different operating systems quickly and easily.Drawbacks of Mac Virtualization TechnologiesWhile Mac virtualization technologies offer numerous benefits, there are also some drawbacks to consider, including:1. Performance: Running multiple operating systems on a single device can impact performance, especially if the hardware is not optimized for virtualization.2. Licensing Costs: Some virtualization software, such as VMware Fusion, require a paid license to access advanced features, which can add to the overall cost of virtualization.3. Compatibility Issues: Virtualization software may not always be compatible with certain hardware or software applications, leading to potential compatibility issues for users. ConclusionMac virtualization technologies offer a convenient and cost-effective solution for users who require access to multiple operating systems on a single device. Parallels Desktop, VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox are among the most popular virtualization software options for Mac devices, each offering unique features and capabilities. While there are some drawbacks to consider, such as performance and licensing costs, the benefits of Mac virtualization technologies outweigh the drawbacks for many users.。

《英美文学选读》复习资料

《英美文学选读》复习指导资料一．课程介绍：本课程由英国文学和美国文学两个部分组成。

主要内容包括英美文学发展史及代表作家的简要介绍和作品选读。

文学史部分从英美两国历史、语言、文化发展的角度，简要介绍英美两国文学各个历史时代的主要历史背景、文学文化思潮、文学流派、社会政治、经济、文化等对文学发展的影响，主要作家的文学生涯，创作思想，艺术特色及其代表作品的主题结构、人物刻画、语言风格、思想意义等。

选读部分主要接选了英美文学史上各个时期重要作家的代表作品，包括诗歌、戏剧、小说、散文等。

二．《英美文学选读》的考核目标，按照识记，领会，应用规定应当达到的能力层次要求。

三个层次呈递进关系，其含义是：识记：有关的概念、定义、知识点等能够记住领会：在识记的基础上，能够把握基本概念、基本方法和彼此之间的关系和区别应用了在领会的基础上，能运用本课程的基本理论，基本知识和方法来分析英美文学作品，并能用英语正确表达。

Part 1 English LiteratureAn Introduction to Old and Medieval English Literature一．重点：有关这部分的文学史内容1．古代英国文学和中世纪英国文学的起始阶段2．英国文学史上的第一部民族史诗----Beowulf3．中世纪文学的主要文学形式-----Romance4．Geoffrey Chaucer 的文学贡献二．练习：1. Choose the best answer for each blank.1). The period of ______ English literature begins from about 450 to 1066, the year of ______.A. Old----RenaissanceB. Middle---- the Norman Conquest of EnglandC. Middle ---- RenaissanceD. Old---- the Norman Conquest of England2).. The Medieval period in English literature extends from 1066 up to the ______ century.A. mid-13thB. mid-14thC. mid-15thD. mid-16th3). Beowulf, a typical example of Old English poetry, is regarded today as the national ______ of the Anglo-Saxons.A. sonnetB. essayC. epicD. novel4). In The Canterbury Tales, ______ presented to us a comprehensive realistic picture of the English society of his time and created a whole gallery of vivid characters from all walks of life.A. Geoffrey ChaucerB. William ShakespeareC. Francis BaconD. William Langland5). For the Renaissance, ______ was regarded as the English Homer. His reputation has been securely established as one of the best English poets for his wisdom, humor and ______.A. Geoffrey Chaucer----witsB. William Shakespeare----witsC. Geoffrey Chaucer----humanityD. William Shakespeare----humanity6). After the conquest of 1066, three languages co-existed in England. They are ______, ______ and ______.A. Old English, Greek, LatinB. Old English, French, LatinC. Old English, Greek, FrenchD. English, Greek, French7). Geoffrey Chaucer is the greatest writer of the Medieval period in English literature. In “The Legend of Good Women”, he used for the first time in English the rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter which is to be called later the ______.A. coupletB. blank verseC. heroic coupletD. epic8). Thematically the poem “Beowulf” presents a vivid picture of how the primitive people wage heroic struggle against the hostile forces of the ______ world under a wise and mighty ______.A. spiritual----heroB. natural----leaderC. spiritual----godD. natural----monster9). It can be said that though essentially still a medieval writer, Geoffrey Chaucer bore marks of humanism and anticipated a new ______ to come.A. manB. theoryC. doctrineD. era10). Geoffrey Chaucer introduced from France the rhymed stanzas of various types to English poetry to replace the Old English ______ verse.A. rhymedB. alliterativeC. socialD. visionary2. Explain the following literal terms.1). Romance2). Heroic Couplet3). Epic3. Answer the following questions.1). How many groups do the Old English poetry divided into? What are they? Which group does Beowulf belong to? Why?2). What is the contribution of Geoffrey Chaucer to English literature?Chapter1. The Renaissance Period一．重点前言部分1．文艺复兴的起源，起始时间，内容及特征2．人文主义的有关主张及对文学的影响3．文艺复兴时期的主要文学形式及其特征练习：Renaissance Period1. Choose the best answer for each blank.1). The Renaissance, in essence, is a historical period in which the European ______ thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of those old feudalist ideas in medieval Europe, to introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, and to recover the purity of the early church form the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church.A. Greek and RomanB. humanistC. religiousD. loyal2). Generally, the ______ refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th centuries. It first started in Italy, with the flowering of painting, sculpture and literature. From Italy the movement went to embrace the rest of Europe.A. Medieval PeriodB. RenaissanceC. Old English PeriodD. Romantic Period3). ______ is the essence of the Renaissance. Thomas More, Christopher Marlowe and _______ are the best representatives of the English humanists.A. Humanity---- William ShakespeareB. Humanism-----Francis BaconC. Humanity---- Geoffrey ChaucerD. Humanism----William Shakespeare4). The Elizabethan ______ is the real mainstream of the English Renaissance. The most famous dramatists in the Renaissance England are Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, and ______.A. novel--- Geoffrey ChaucerB. poetry----Francis BaconC. drama----Ben JonsonD. drama----Geoffrey Chaucer5). Humanism sprang from the endeavor to restore a medieval reverence for the antique authors and is frequently taken as the beginning of the Renaissance on its conscious, intellectual side, for the Greek and ______ civilization was based on such a conception that ______ is the measure of all things.A. Roman ---- moralB. French---- reasonC. Roman---- manD. French---- God6).One of the major result of the Reformation in England was the fact that the Bible in English was placed in every church and services were held in English instead of ______ so that people could understand.A. LatinB. FrenchC. GreekD. Anglo-Saxon7). Wyatt, in the Renaissance period, introduced the Petrarchan ______ into England, while Surrey brought in ______ verse.A. drama----freeB. sonnet----blankC. terzarima----blankD. couplet----free8). In the early stage of the English Renaissance, poetry and ______ were the most outstanding forms and they were carried on especially by William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson.A. fictionB. dramatic fictionC. poetic dramaD. novel9). By emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, ______ voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of this life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders.A. humanistsB. ProtestantsC. CatholicsD. playwrights10). ______ was the first important English essayist. He was also the founder of modern science in England.A. Edmund SpenserB. Christopher MarloweC. Francis BaconD. Ben Jonson2. Explain the following literal terms.1). the Renaissance Period2). blank verse3). Humanism3. Answer the following questions.1). Make a comment on the influence of Italian literary works upon the literature in the Renaissance England.2). Make a comment on humanism3). What are the typical characteristics of literary works produced in Renaissance England?文艺复兴时期的主要作家。

Causes of the collapse od the Rome

Causes & Effects of the Collapse of the Roman EmpireBy Alex Saez, eHow Contributor∙∙∙∙Print this articleThe Roman Empire's fall shaped human history.The Roman Empire was a notable part of human history. While it prospered for more than 700 years, its collapse in 476 A.D. can be tied to several internal and external causes. With Rome gone, the transition was far from easy, forcing the world to reinvent itself during a long period.Other People Are Reading∙What Causes Stretch Marks?∙What Causes Hair Tangling, Breakage & Frizz?1.The Beginning of the Endo The Roman Empire did not collapse overnight. First, it became divided between the East, under Constantinople and the West, ruled by several different leaders.This double-reign was a new concept that weakened the empire. Infighting over leadership and decaying government strength helped set the stage for othergroups such as the Greeks and Byzantines to become uncooperative. With itsfoundations weakened, outside powers were also able to cripple the Romans.Barbarianso External military threats were a major cause of Rome's fall, and its effects spread across the empire. During its days of prosperity and conquest, many of Rome's enemies were scattered tribes who lived in a small number of villages. After Rome was divided, a powerful group known as the Huns began moving west, theirnumbers growing with captured prisoners and new allies. People from all walks of life were eager to reap the rewards of war. They kept the pressure on the Roman Empire while nations such as Russia became powerful and sophisticated. What used to be barbarian villages in Germany soon turned into 2,300 walled towns and cities. Out of these rose the countries of Denmark, Sweden and Poland.Meanwhile, groups such as the Arabs and Saracens of India and Spain sat inanger and contempt. Once its enemies united, the Roman Empire wassurrounded with new competition without the proper leadership to address it.o Sponsored LinksDay trips from RomeCustomized tours from Rome with driver guidesEconomic Problemso The Roman economy was affected by weak currency and high inflation. With all the money going toward national defense, taxes were raised to compensate. Few people actually got a chance to enjoy Rome's prosperity. The value of Romanmoney plummeted to the point that bartering was preferable to paying for goods.Also, many Romans lost their jobs because of cheaper slave labor. As a result, the government subsidized the working class. Many workers chose to simply live off of these subsidies, costing the government even more money.Over-expansiono A big reason for the Roman Empire's collapse was the geographical extent of its military conquest. Rome's constant expansion required more resources andmanpower to defend its borders. Additionally, conquered civilizations hated the Romans, so rebellions were a constant problem. All of these issues requiredmammoth military spending and recruitment. Manpower became so scarce that even conquered societies were allowed to join the ranks. In turn, this gavebarbarians intimate knowledge of Roman battle tactics.Effectso Regardless of the reasons, Rome had a profound impact on the world. When Rome's infrastructure fell, so did the quality of life. What followed were the Dark Ages that can be grouped into two separate eras. The first went until 700 A.D.because of the destruction of trade and infrastructure. After a brief revival, asecond decline took place around 1000 A.D. due to invasions by Vikings from Scandinavia and Magyars from Hungary. Essentially, whatever stability thatRome provided was gone, and many new nations had to build themselves on their own.。

the history of African Americans

Introduction of Slavery
• The first African slaves e brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. • By 1700 there were 25,000 slaves in the American colonies, about 10% of the population.
Benjamin Banneker cartoon by Charles Alston, 1943, claiming that Banneker had been a "city planner", "was placed on the commission which surveyed and laid out the city of Washington, D.C.", and had "constructed the first clock made in America".
•
demand for slaves A number of free Blacks, especially indentured children, were kidnapped and sold into slavery with little or no hope of rescue. By 1819 there were exactly 11 free and 11 slave states, which increased sectionalism. Fears of an imbalance in Congress led to the 1820 Missouri Compromise that required states to be admitted to the union in pairs, one slave and one free. •