Hybrid Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory and Reconstruction of Hybrid Events

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现代材料分析方法(英文)

Characterization techniques:(A) XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy):Hydrothermally deposited epitaxial thin films are characterized by XPS to retrieve useful information like composition, chemical structure and local arrangement of atoms that make up few layers of surface of film and also the interfacial layer between the film and substrate.X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was developed in the mid –1960s by Kai Siegnahm and his research group at the University of Uppsala, Sweden.Surface analysis by XPS involves irradiating a solid in vacuum with monoenergetic soft x-rays and analyzing the emitted electrons by energy. The spectrum is obtained as a plot of the number of detected electrons per energy interval versus their kinetic energy. The principle on which the XPS technique is based can explained with the help of figure 1 as shown below. [27]Figure 1. An energy level diagram showing the physical basis of XPS technique.The energy carried by an incoming X-ray photon is absorbed by the target atom, raising it into excited state from which it relaxes by the emission of a photoelectron. Mg Kα(1253.6eV) or Al Kα (1486.6 eV) x-rays are generally used as a source of monoenergetic soft x-rays. These photons have limited penetrating power in a solid on the order of 1-10 micrometers. They interact with atoms in the surface region, causing electrons to be emitted by the photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons have measured kinetic energies given by:KE=hγ-BE -φsWhere hγ is the energy of the photon, BE is the binding energy of the atomic orbital from which the electron originates and φs is the spectrometer work function. The binding energy may be regarded as the energy difference between the initial and final states after the photoelectron has left the atom. Because there are a variety of possible final states of the ions from each type of atom, there is corresponding variety of kinetic energies of the emitted electrons. Photoelectrons are emitted from all energy levels of the target atom and hence the electron energy spectrum is characteristic of the emitting atom type and may be thought as its XPS fingerprint. Each element has unique spectrum .The spectrum from a mixture of elements is approximately the sum of peaks of the individual constituents. Because the mean free path of electrons in the solids is very small, the detected electrons originate from only the top few atomic layers making XPS a unique surface sensitive technique for chemical analysis. Quantitative data can be obtained from peak heights or peak areas and identification of chemical states often can be made from exact measurement of peak positions and separations as well from certain spectral features.The line lengths indicate the relative probabilities of the various ionization processes. The p,d and f levels split upon ionization leading to vacancies in the p1/2,p3/2,d3/2,d5/2,f5/2 and f7/2.The spin orbit splitting ratio is 1:2 for p levels ,2:3 for d levels and 3:4 for f levels .Because each element has a unique set of binding energies, XPS can be used to identify and determine the concentration of the elements in the surface. Variations in the elemental binding energies (the chemical shifts) arise from the differences in the chemical potential and polarizibilty of compounds. These chemical shifts can be analyzed to identify the chemical state of the materials being analyzed.The electrons leaving sample are detected by an electron spectrometer according to their kinetic energy. The analyzer is usually operated as an energy window, referred to as pass energy. To maintain a constant energy resolution, the pass energy is fixed. Incoming electrons are adjusted the pass energy before entering the energy analyzer. Scanning for different energies is accomplished by applying a variable electrostatic field before the analyzer. This retardation voltage may be varied from zero upto and beyond the photon energy. Electrons are detected as discrete events, and the number of electrons for the given detection time. And energy is stored and displayed.In general, the interpretation of the XPS spectrum is most readily accomplished first by identifying the lines that almost always present (specifically those of C and O), then by identifying major lines and associated weaker lines.(B) Auger electron spectroscopy:Auger electron spectroscopy is a very useful technique in elemental characterization of thin films. In the current project this technique has been utilized not only for elemental compositional analysis but also for understanding nucleation and growth mechanism. Auger electron effect is named after the French physicist Pierre Auger who described the process involved in 1925.Auger is process is bit more complicated than the XPS process.The Auger process occurs in three stages. First one being atomic ionization. Second being electron emission (Auger emission) and third being analysis of emitted auger electrons .The source of radiation used is electrons that strike in the range of 2 to 10 kev. The interatomic process resulting in the production of an Auger electron is shown in figure 2 below.Figure 2 showing the interatomic process resulting in production of the Auger electrons. One electron falls a higher level to fill an initial core hole in the k-shell and the energy liberated in this process is given to second electron ,fraction of this energy is retained by auger electron as kinetic energy.X-ray nomenclature is used for the energy levels involved and the auger electron is described as originating from for example ,an ABC auger transition where A is the level of the original core hole,B is the level from which core hole was filled and C is the level from which auger electron was emitted. In above figure 2 shown above the auger transition is described as L3M1M2, 3.The calculation of energies of the lines in the Auger electron spectrum is complicated by the fact that emission occurs from an atom in an excited state and consequently the energies of the levels involved are difficult to define precisely.Each element in a sample being studied gives rise to characteristic spectrum of peaks at various kinetic energies. Area generally scanned is 1 mm2.To understand the variation in the concentration with the distance from the surface depth profiling can also be carried out. For depth profiling the surface has to be etched away by using argon beam.The principle advantage that AES hold over XPS is that the source of excitation in case of AES is electrons which allows it to take a spectra from micro-regions as small as 100 nm diameters or less instead of averaging over the whole of the surface of the sample as is done generally in XPS.(C) Atomic force Microscope:Atomic Force Microscope (AFM ) is being used to solve processing and materials problems in a wide range of technologies affecting the electronics, telecommunications, biological, chemical, automotive, aerospace, and energy industries. The materials being investigating include thin and thick film coatings, ceramics, composites, glasses, synthetic and biological membranes, metals, polymers, and semiconductors.In the current work AFM was used to understand the nucleation and growth mechanism of the epitaxial thin films and to understand the surface morphology of totally grown films in terms of surface coverage and surface roughness.In the fall of 1985 Gerd Binnig and Christoph Gerber used the cantilever to examine insulating surfaces. A small hook at the end of the cantilever was pressed against the surface while the sample was scanned beneath the tip. The force between tip and sample was measured by tracking the deflection of the cantilever. This was done by monitoring the tunneling current to a second tip positioned above the cantilever. They were able to delineate lateral features as small as 300 Å. This is the way force microscope was developed. Albrecht, a fresh graduate student, who fabricated the first silicon microcantilever and measured the atomic structure of boron nitride. The tip-cantilever assembly typically is microfabricated from Si or Si3N4. The force between the tip and the sample surface is very small, usually less than 10-9 N.According to the interaction of the tip and the sample surface, the AFM is classified as repulsive or Contact mode and attractive or Noncontact mode. In contact mode the topography is measured by sliding the probe tip across the sample surface. In noncontact mode, topography is measured by sensing Van de Waals forces between the surface and probe tip. Held above the surface. The tapping mode which has now become more popular measures topography by tapping the surface with an oscillating probe tip which eliminates shear forces which can damage soft samples and reduce image resolution. 1. Laser2. Mirror3. Photo detector4. Amplifier5. Register6. Sample7. Probe8. CantileverFigure 3 showing a schematic diagram of the principle of AFM.Compared with Optical Interferometric Microscope (optical profiles), the AFM provides unambiguous measurement of step heights, independent of reflectivity differences between materials. Compared with Scanning Electron Microscope, AFM provides extraordinary topographic contrast direct height measurements and unobscured views of surface features (no coating is necessary). One of the advantages of the technique being that it can be applied to insulating samples as well. Compared with Transmission Electron Microscopes, three dimensional AFM images are obtained without expensive sample preparation and yield far more complete information than the two dimensional profiles available from cross-sectioned samples.(D) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy:Infrared spectroscopy is widely used chemical analysis tool which in addition to providing information on chemical structures also can give quantitative information such as concentration of molecules in a sample.The development in FTIR started with use of Michelson interferometer an optical device invented in 1880 by Albert Abraham Michelson. After many years of difficultiesin working out with time consuming calculations required for conversion intereferogram into spectrum, the first FTIR was manufactured by the Digilab in Cambridge Massachusetts in 1960s .These FTIR machines stared using computers for calculating fourier transforms faster.The set up consists of a source, a sample and a detector and it is possible to send all the source energy through an interferometer and onto the sample. In every scan, all source radiation gets to the sample. The interferometer is a fundamentally different piece of equipment than a monochromater. The light passes through a beamsplitter, which sends the light in two directions at right angles. One beam goes to a stationary mirror then back to the beamsplitter. The other goes to a moving mirror. The motion of the mirror makes the total path length variable versus that taken by the stationary-mirror beam. When the two meet up again at the beamsplitter, they recombine, but the difference in path lengths creates constructive and destructive interference: an interferogram:The recombined beam passes through the sample. The sample absorbs all the different wavelengths characteristic of its spectrum, and this subtracts specific wavelengths from the interferogram. The detector reports variation in energy versus time for all wavelengths simultaneously. A laser beam is superimposed to provide a reference for the instrument operation.Energy versus time was an odd way to record a spectrum, until the point it was recognized that there is reciprocal relationship between time and frequency. A Fourier transform allows to convert an intensity-vs.-time spectrum into an intensity-vs.-frequency spectrum.The advantages of FTIR are that all of the source energy gets to the sample, improving the inherent signal-to-noise ratio. Resolution is limited by the design of the interferometer. The longer the path of the moving mirror, the higher the resolution.One minor drawback is that the FT instrument is inherently a single-beam instrument and the result is that IR-active atmospheric components (CO2, H2O) appear in the spectrum. Usually, a "Background" spectrum is run, and then automatically subtracted from every spectrum.(E) Scanning Electron Microscopy:Scanning electron microscopy is one the most versatile characterization techniques that can give detailed information interms of topography, morphology, composition and crystallography. This has made it widely useful in thin film characterization.The scanning electron microscope is similar to its optical counterparts except that it uses focused beam of electrons instead of light to image the specimen to gain information about the structure and composition.A stream electron is accelerated towards positive electrical potential. This stream is confined and focused using metal apertures and magnetic lenses into a thin, focused, monochromatic beam. This beam is focused onto the sample using a magnetic lens. Interactions occur inside the irradiated sample, affecting the electron beam. These interactions and effects are detected and transformed into an image. The electron detector collects the electrons and then image is created. Scanning with SEM is accomplished bytwo pairs of electromagnetic coils located within the objective lens, one pair deflects the beam in x-direction across the sample and the other pair deflects it in the y direction. Scanning is controlled by applying an electric signal to one pair of scan coils such that the electron beam strikes the sample to one side of theFigure 4 Schematic view of a SEM instrument.center axis of the lens system. By varying the electrical signal to this pair of coils as a function of time, the electron beam is moved in a straight line across the sample and then returned to its original position. Thus by rapidly moving the beam the entire sample surface can be irradiated with the electron beam. The output signal consists of backscattered and secondary electrons which generally serve as basis of scanning electron microscope and whereas the x-ray emission serves as the basis of the energy dispersive spectroscopy as shown in figure 4.Figure 5.Schematic presentation of the interaction of the electron with the sample.Energy dispersive spectroscopy is analytical method which is used in determination of elemental composition of the specimen.EDS uses the electrons generated characteristic x-radiation to determine elemental composition. The SEM/EDS combination is a powerful tool in inorganic microanalysis, providing the chemical composition of volumes as small as 3 m3.(F) Transmission Electron microscopy:Transmission electron microscopy was used to analyze the interface between the BaTiO3 on SrTiO3 single crystals.For TEM specimen must be specially prepared to thicknesses which allow electrons to transmit through the sample, much like light is transmitted through materials in conventional optical microscopy. Because the wavelength of electrons is much smaller than that of light, the optimal resolution attainable for TEM images is many orders of magnitude better than that from a light microscope. Thus, TEMs can reveal the finest details of internal structure - in some cases as small as individual atoms. Magnifications of 350,000 times can be routinely obtained for many materials, whilst in special circumstances; atoms can be imaged at magnifications greater than 15 million timesThe energy of the electrons in the TEM determine the relative degree of penetration of electrons in a specific sample, or alternatively, influence the thickness of material from which useful information may be obtained.Cross-sectional specimens for TEM observation of the interface between the film and the substrate were prepared by conventional techniques employing mechanical polishing, dimpling and ion beam milling.TEM column is shown in figure 6 consists of gun chamber on the top to the camera at the bottom everything is placed under vacuum.Figure 6. Main components of TEM system. [28]At the top of the TEM column is the filament assembly, which is connected to thehigh voltage supply by insulated cable. In standard TEM, normal accelerating voltagesranges from 20,000 to 100,000V.Intermediate-voltage and high voltage TEMs may use accelerating voltages of 200,000 V to 1000000 V.The higher the accelerating voltage, the greater the theoretical resolution. Below the filament tip and above it the anode is a beam volume called crossover. In this area of the filament chamber, the electron beam volume iscondensed to its highest density. There are more electrons per unit area at the cross over than at any other place in the microscope. Crossover is the effective electron source for image formation. In a TEM, the diameter of the electron beam at crossover is approximately 50 μm.The anode or positively charged plate, is below the filament assembly.Electron beam then travels to the condenser –lens system.TEMs has two condensers lenses. Condenser system lens system controls electron illumination on the specimen and on the viewing screen for such functions as viewing, focusing and photography. Condenserlenses are fitted with apertures which are usually small platinum disks or molybdenum strips with holes of various sizes ranging from 100 to 400 μm and it protects specimen from too many stray electrons which can contribute to excessive heat and limit X-ray production farther down the columnObjective lens is the first magnifying lens and the specimen is inserted into the objective lens, which must be designed so that the specimen can be moved in both X and Y directions and have tilting and rotating capabilities. As the electron beam interacts with the specimen, a number of signals useful in the formation of the TEM image occur: absorption, diffraction, elastic scattering and inelastic scattering.(H) X-ray Diffraction (XRD):X-ray diffraction is the most commonly known technique which I used to determination of the phase formed in films and also to assess texture and crystallinity.X-rays were discovered in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen - in some languages x-rays are called Röntgen-rays - and x-ray diffraction was discovered in 1912.The X-rays used in diffraction experiments all have a wavelength of 0.5-2.5 Å. The intensity of a beam of x-rays is the rate of transport of energy flow through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation. To produce x-rays, a source of electrons, a high accelerating voltage and a target are needed. To get the voltage, the metal target is grounded and a cathode is at 30-50 kV. To get the electrons a metal filament is resistively heated (the tube is called a filament tube). The filament current is 3-5 amps. The cathode and the filament is one and the same thing and surrounding the target and the filament is an air evacuated envelope.The electrons from the filament are accelerated towards the target. They bombard the target in a rectangular shaped area called the focal spot. From there the x-rays are emitted in all directions. The walls of the tube are impenetrable for the x-rays except where beryllium windows are inserted. Beryllium has a very low absorption coefficient for the x-rays.The amount of x-rays produced depends on the number of electrons emitted and their energy when they reach the target. The number of electrons in turn depends on the filament temperature, and thus the filament current. The current of electrons from the filament to the target is measurable and usually 25-55 mA. This current can be chosen freely as a feedback loop will feed the filament with the current needed. The energy ofthe electrons depend on the accelerating voltage. Thus the total intensity emitted by thex-ray tube depends on both the operating voltage and the tube current.In general, diffraction is possible when the length of the wave is of the same order of magnitude as the distance between the regularly spaced scattering objectsTwo scattered rays are in phase, if their path difference is equal to a whole number n of wavelengths. Scattered rays emerging from a plane surface as a result of a beam incident on that surface, have a path difference equal to a whole number of wavelengths, if n l = 2 d' sinq (The Bragg Law),where d' is the distance between the diffracting planes in the crystal and q is the angle between the incident beam and the surface. n is the order of reflection and n can be any integral number as long as sin q < 1. n is also equal to the number of wavelengths in the path difference of two rays scattered from adjacent planes (e.g. If n = 2 then a ray scattered from one plane will have a path that is two wavelengths shorter than a ray scattered from a deeper lying neighbor plane).The basis for phase analysis is that the crystal of a certain phase will have interatomic distances peculiar to that phase and these different distances will cause a series of reflections as the detector are shifted through 2theta.Two phases can have similar or almost similar structures and hence interatomic distances. This makes identifying phases in an unknown sample very difficult, but knowing what elements are present in the sample will narrow the possibilities down quite a bit. Also crystallite size using XRD .X-ray pole figure measurements are used to characterize the film with respect to any preferred orientation with which growth has taken place. Rocking curve is another application to characterize the film with respect to its quality ofcrystallinity comparing to the single crystals or polycrystalline materials.。

Evaluation of growth performance and whole-body composition of juvenile hybrid striped bass Morone

Evaluation of Growth Performance and Whole-body Composition of Juvenile Hybrid Striped Bass Morone chrysops 3Morone saxatilis and Red Drum Sciaenops ocellatus Fed High-protein and High-lipid DietsG ARY S.B URR 1ANDP ENG L I 1Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University System,College Station,Texas 77843-2258USA,and Aquaculture Protein Center,CoE,NorwayJ ONATHAN B.G OFFDepartment of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University System,College Station,Texas 77843-2258USAD ELBERT M.G ATLIN III 2Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University System,College Station,Texas 77843-2258USA,and Aquaculture Protein Center,CoE,NorwayB ARBARA G RISDALE -H ELLAND and S TA˚LE J.H ELLAND AKVAFORSK (Institute of Aquaculture Research),SunndalsøraN-6600Norway,and Aquaculture Protein Center,CoE,NorwayAbstractTo investigate potential use of increasing nutritional density of diets for rapid growth of warm-water ﬁshes,a feeding trial was conducted in which growth performance,body indexes,and whole-body composition of juvenile hybrid striped bass fed diets comprising protein (49,54,and 59%),lipid (16,20,23,and 28%),and energy (22.0–25.1kJ/g)concentrations beyond established minimum levels were compared to those of ﬁsh fed a more typical commercial reference diet (37.5%crude protein,10.5%crude lipid,and 19.6kJ/g energy on a dry matter basis).A subset of the experimental diets and the commercial reference diet also were fed to juvenile red drum.After 6wk of feeding,hybrid striped bass fed the high-protein and high-lipid diets showed much greater growth performance compared to ﬁsh fed the commercial diet.Increasing dietary protein level,but not lipid level,tended (P #0.1)to enhance weight gain and feed efﬁciency of hybrid striped bass.Hepatosomatic index (HSI),intraperitoneal fat (IPF)ratio,and whole-body protein were signiﬁcantly (P ,0.01)inﬂuenced by dietary protein level.The dietary lipid and associated energy level had signiﬁcant negative linear effects on daily feed intake.Linear regression analysis showed that dietary energy :protein ratio,largely inﬂuenced by dietary protein level,moderately but signiﬁcantly inﬂuenced weight gain,HSI,IPF ratio,and whole-body protein of hybrid striped bass and red drum.Red drum grew very similar to hybrid striped bass in response to the experimental diets.However,signiﬁcant differences in HSI,IPF ratio,whole-body protein,lipid,moisture,and ash between hybrid striped bass and red drum were observed,indicating species differences in protein and energy partitioning.In particular,the excessive lipid in the diet increased HSI and whole-body lipid of red drum but not of hybrid striped bass.Expensive labor and utility infrastructure costs are the primary constraints to expansion of the aquaculture industry in developed coun-tries such as the USA.Because industrializedﬁsh culture requires much higher maintenance than the poultry and swine industries,develop-ment of growth-enhancing strategies is one of the prioritized goals for aquaculture research,not only to increase proﬁtability but also to reduce the risk of disease or culture system fail-ure.Although hybrid striped bass culture is the fastest growing segment of aquaculture in the1Equally contributed to this work.2Corresponding author.JOURNAL OF THEWORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY Vol.37,No.4December,2006ÓCopyright by the World Aquaculture Society 2006421USA,it has been recognized that high produc-tion cost is the greatest limitation to this industry (Carlberg et al.2000).It has been estimated that hybrid striped bass production costs can be reduced by12%if growth rates can be increased by20%(Sullivan2006).Compared to transge-netic techniques and use of anabolic agents and hormones that may involve biosafety issues, dietary fortiﬁcation of macronutrients,espe-cially protein and energy,is a potentially prom-ising way to enhance growth and protein accretion and compensate for labor and other expenses by shortening production cycles.The optimal levels of macronutrients and most criti-cal trace nutrients have been established for hybrid striped bass(reviewed by Gatlin1997; Webster2002).Brown et al.(1992)investigated incremental protein levels(ranging from25to 55%)in the diet of hybrid striped bass and found that hybrid striped bass performed optimally when fed a diet containing40%protein(dry matter basis)when the lipid(10%)and energy levels(17kJ/g)were kept constant.Nematipour et al.(1992)subsequently established the opti-mal dietary energy:protein(E:P)ratio based on the various dietary protein levels.This model was widely used to establish requirements for macronutrients and most critical trace nutrients for hybrid striped bass(reviewed by Gatlin 1997;Webster2002).However,growth perfor-mance and body composition traits of hybrid striped bass fed the high-protein and high-lipid diets that have become standard in production of cold-water species such as salmonids have not been investigated.This study was designed to evaluate nutrient-dense diets with three pro-tein levels(49,54,and59%)and four lipid lev-els(16,20,23,and28%).In addition,a separate feeding trial with a subset of these experimental diets was conducted with red drum,a marine sciaenid for seafood production and stock enhancement.Growth performance and body composition indexes were compared to explore the species differences in protein and energy partitioning.Materials and MethodsExperimental DietsThe experimental diets were formulated from ﬁsh meal,ﬁsh oil,and cornstarch(Table1)and were produced as3.5-mm extruded pellets by the Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aqua-culture Research(Fyllingsdalen,Norway).TheT ABLE1.Formulation and proximate analysis of experimental diets.ConstituentDiet code(%protein/%lipid)49/2049/2349/2854/1654/2054/2354/2859/2059/23Reference aIngredient(%)Fish meal b62.5962.9963.4968.5969.0969.5970.0375.7376.29—Norseaﬁsh oil12.3017.1021.907.0011.7016.5021.4111.1015.90—PregeﬂoÒM c23.7018.5013.2023.0017.8012.507.1511.76 6.40—Vitamin premix d 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00—Mineral premix d0.400.400.400.400.400.400.400.400.40—Y2O30.010.010.010.010.010.010.010.010.01—Analyzed proximatecomposition(%dry matter)eMoisture7.3 6.5 6.77.77.1 6.8 6.4 6.7 6.38.3 Crude protein48.949.149.054.053.754.552.959.359.037.5 Crude lipid19.622.727.615.620.523.028.520.423.610.5 Ash8.48.78.49.09.59.09.39.710.08.3 Total energy(kJ/g diet)22.723.925.122.022.923.825.023.324.419.6 E:P ratio(kJ/g protein)46.448.751.140.842.643.747.239.241.448.1a Reference diet was manufactured by Rangen Inc.,Angelton,Texas,USA.b Norse LT-94,65%herring and35%herring processing waste,Norsildmel,Fyllingsdalen,Norway.c Pregelatinized native corn starch,Roquette Freres,Lestrem Cedex,France.d Same as Mundheim et al.(2004).e Values of proximate composition of experimental diets represent means of two analyses.422BURR ET AL.experimental diets contained one of three crude protein levels(49,54,and59%)and one of four crude lipid levels(16,20,23,and28%).These diets were compared to a typical production diet of37.5%protein and10.5%lipid(dry matter basis)purchased from Rangen Inc.(Angleton, TX,USA).These different diets allowed for an incomplete factorial analysis of the effects of different protein levels at the same lipid level and vice versa.The chemical analysis of exper-imental diets was performed following estab-lished procedures as described by Hatlen et al. (2005).Feeding TrialsFeeding trials with juvenile hybrid striped bass and red drum were conducted at the Texas A&M University Aquacultural Research and Teaching Facility.Prior to initiation of these feeding trials,juvenile hybrid striped bass, Morone chrysops3Morone saxatilis,obtained from Keo Fish Farms(Keo,AR,USA),and juvenile red drum,Sciaenops ocellatus,from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Marine Development Center(Flour Bluff,TX, USA),were subjected to2-wk conditioning pe-riods to adjust to standardized regimes.Theﬁsh were maintained in a recirculating culture sys-tem consisting of thirty110-L aquariums con-nected to a sandﬁlter,a settling chamber,and a bioﬁlter.For hybrid striped bass,salinity was maintained at2.060.5ppt by adding stock salt and an artiﬁcial sea salt mixture to well water.The temperature was maintained at 2561C by conditioning the ambient air,and ﬁsh were subjected to a12:12light:dark pho-toperiod maintained by artiﬁcial lighting.Dis-solved oxygen was maintained close to saturation by blowing compressed air through air stones into each tank.Water quality was monitored periodically to ensure conditions were maintained within acceptable levels.The reference diet was fed to all theﬁsh during the 2-wk conditioning period after which hybrid striped bass juveniles averaging approximately 11g were then graded by size and stocked as groups of12individuals having a total weight of132.363.8g(mean6SD).Triplicate groups ofﬁsh were randomly assigned1of10diets.Theﬁsh were fed to visual satiety twice daily.The duration of this feeding trial was 6wk.In the red drum feeding trial,the same refer-ence diet was fed to all theﬁsh during the2-wk conditioning period after whichﬁsh averaging approximately18.0g were then graded by size and stocked as groups of11individuals having a total weight of197.964.0g(mean6SD). All the environmental conditions were main-tained closely to those used for hybrid striped bass except that salinity was maintained at 8ppt.Subsets of the experimental diets from the hybrid striped bass feeding trial as well as the commercial reference diet were fed to red drum.Four replicate groups ofﬁsh were ran-domly assigned one of six diets.Theﬁsh were fed to visual satiety twice daily.The duration of this feeding trial also was6wk.Performance Responses,BodyIndexes,and Compositional AnalysesAt the end of both feeding trials,threeﬁsh from each tank were euthanized with MS-222 and weighed.Their livers and intraperitoneal fat(IPF)were removed and weighed separately to compute hepatosomatic index(HSI)and IPF ratio.The livers and IPF were returned to the sample and the threeﬁsh from each tank were homogenized in a blender after being frozen in liquid nitrogen.The homogenate samples were then analyzed for protein,lipid,moisture,and ash according to established procedures(Webb and Gatlin2003).Daily feed intake(%body weight/d)was calculated based on geometric average body weight,while other performance responses included weight gain,speciﬁc growth rate,feed efﬁciency ratio,protein efﬁciency ratio(PER),protein conversion efﬁciency (PCE),and survival(Webb and Gatlin2003).Statistical AnalysisAll the data from the hybrid striped bass feed-ing trial were subjected to Levene’s test of equal-ity of error variances and one-way ANOV A followed by Duncan’s multiple range test as well as two-way ANOV A using SPSSÒ(Chicago,IL, USA).Response parameters of both species also were subjected to linear regression analysisHIGH-PROTEIN DIET EV ALUATION WITH HYBRID STRIPED BASS AND RED DRUM423against dietary E:P ratio,total dietary protein, lipid,and energy.Separate linear regression anal-ysis was performed on both species to determine the inﬂuence ofﬁnal weight on whole-body protein content.In addition,correlation tests between daily feed intake and IPF ratio and whole-body lipid were performed.The treatment effects were considered signiﬁcant if the P value was at or below0.05.Because ingredient infor-mation was not available for the commercial ref-erence diet and its formulation likely differed considerably from the experimental diets, this treatment was excluded from the two-way ANOV A and linear regression analysis.ResultsHybrid striped bass fed the experimental diets generally had signiﬁcantly higher weight gain and feed efﬁciency compared to those fed the commercial reference diet,although the differ-ences in survival,PER,and PCE amongﬁsh fed the experimental diets and the reference diet were not statistically signiﬁcant(Table2).The signiﬁcant improvement in growth performance of hybrid striped bass was most likely attribut-able to the dietary fortiﬁcation of protein and lipid,although the difference in ingredients between the experimental and reference diets may have contributed to this result.A rather strong tendency(P#0.1)that the increasing dietary protein level in the experimental diets (49,54,and59%)enhanced weight gain and feed efﬁciency was observed in this trial,whereas the linear regression analysis showed that the dietary E:P ratio had a signiﬁcant(P50.01)inverse inﬂuence on weight gain and accounted for 23.2%of the variation in this variable. Dietary lipid level tended to inﬂuence the feed intake based on two-way ANOV A(Table2). This observation was further conﬁrmed by linear regression analysis,which showed that the increasing dietary lipid level(15,20,23,andT ABLE2.Growth performance of hybrid striped bass fed the experimental diets.1Dietary factorsWeight gain(%increase)Survival(%)Feedintake(g/100gbody weight/d)2Feedefﬁciencyratio(g gain/g feed)Proteinefﬁciencyratio(g gain/g protein fed)Proteinconversionefﬁciency(g protein gain/g protein fed)3100%Crude protein %Crude lipid4920261.5±8.0bc80.6±2.8 2.68±0.07 1.1±0.0ab 2.2±0.034.7±1.2 23206.3±32.4c69.4±12.1 2.53±0.080.9±0.1bc 1.9±0.328.5±4.228227.1±22.1bc80.6±15.5 2.46±0.09 1.1±0.1ab 2.2±0.333.5±3.5 5416242.6±15.6bc88.9±2.8 2.69±0.22 1.1±0.1ab 2.0±0.131.3±1.7 20265.6±16.0bc91.7±4.8 2.67±0.09 1.2±0.0ab 2.0±0.133.1±1.723301.8±22.1a66.7±4.8 2.64±0.13 1.1±0.0ab 2.0±0.031.7±1.128230.8±2.7bc83.3±4.8 2.31±0.04 1.2±0.0ab 2.2±0.132.6±1.5 5920294.2±24.3ab69.4±2.8 2.32±0.08 1.2±0.0a 2.1±0.136.1±1.4 23255.0±14.7abc80.6±2.8 2.56±0.08 1.1±0.0ab 1.8±0.131.3±1.4 Reference(37/10)3142.6±27.1d58.3±9.6 2.60±0.080.6±0.3c 1.5±0.323.3±4.2One-way ANOV A4P0.0010.1060.1210.0000.1450.084Two-way ANOV A5Dietary protein0.0880.7860.1490.1030.8490.677 Dietary lipid0.1640.3530.0640.1710.2490.169 Dietary protein3dietary lipid0.0750.1430.2350.9750.8530.6961Values represent means6SEM of three replicate groups.Initialﬁsh weight is11.060.1g/ﬁsh(mean6SEM).2Feed intake51003dry feed consumption(g)/([W t3W0]1/2)3t).3This treatment was excluded from two-way ANOV A because of unknown ingredient composition.4Signiﬁcance probability associated with the F statistic.Values in a column that do not have the same superscript are signiﬁcantly different at P#0.05based on Duncan’s multiple range test.5Signiﬁcance probability associated with the F statistic.424BURR ET AL.28%)signiﬁcantly(P50.035)reduced feed intake of hybrid striped bass,although only 16.7%of the variation in feed intake was attribut-able to dietary lipid.Similarly,the increase in the total dietary energy,largely dependent on dietary lipid level,signiﬁcantly(P50.025)reduced feed intake in this study but dietary E:P ratio did not.Body indexes including HSI and IPF ratio were inﬂuenced by dietary treatments.Increas-ing the dietary protein level signiﬁcantly (P,0.01)reduced HSI and IPF ratio(Table3). In addition,the linear regression analysis showed that increasing dietary E:P ratio slightly increased HSI(P50.025,R250.06)and IPF ratio(P50.001,R250.13).However,neither dietary lipid level nor total dietary energy showed signiﬁcant inﬂuences on HSI and IPF ratio of hybrid striped bass.Dietary protein pos-itively affected whole-body protein concentra-tion as determined by both factorial ANOV A (P,0.001)and linear regression analysis(P ,0.001,R250.44)(Table3).Similarly,lin-ear regression analysis also showed that dietary E:P ratio negatively affected whole-body pro-tein concentration(P,0.01,R250.67). However,whole-body moisture,lipid,and ash were not signiﬁcantly affected by various levels of dietary protein and lipid.Linear regression analysis showed that theﬁnal weight of hybrid striped bass signiﬁcantly(P50.02)inﬂuenced whole-body protein and accounted for20.8%of the variation.The feeding trial with juvenile red drum also demonstrated the superiorﬁsh growth conferred by the high-protein and high-lipid diets (Table4),which was signiﬁcantly better than that ofﬁsh fed the reference diet.IPF ratio and whole-body lipid were signiﬁcantly affected by dietary treatment.Linear regression analysis showed that increasing dietary E:P ratio(rang-ing from39.2to51.1kJ/g protein)signif-icantly decreased growth rate(P50.01, R250.33)and whole-body protein(P50.01, R250.32),as well as increased HSI (P50.03,R250.24),IPF ratio(P50.001,T ABLE3.Body indexes and whole-body composition of hybrid striped bass fed the experimental diets.1 Dietary factorsHSI (%)IPF ratio(%)Whole-bodymoisture(%)Whole-bodyprotein(%)Whole-bodylipid(%)Whole-bodyash(%)%Crude protein %Crude lipid4920 2.9±0.2ab7.2±0.3abc67.4±0.415.5±0.4cde9.8±1.0 3.5±0.123 2.9±0.1a7.6±0.7ab67.6±0.715.0±0.2de12.9±0.8 3.4±0.228 2.4±0.1bdc8.2±0.8a67.5±0.715.3±0.3cde10.5±1.1 3.6±0.0 5416 2.8±0.2ab 6.7±0.6abc69.0±0.615.6±0.3cde10.5±0.5 3.6±0.120 2.6±0.1abc 5.8±0.2c69.2±0.315.9±0.2abc9.7±1.2 3.5±0.323 2.3±0.1dc7.1±0.8abc68.5±0.115.8±0.1bcd10.2±1.4 3.2±0.328 2.7±0.0abc 6.1±0.1bc67.9±0.114.9±0.1e10.4±0.9 3.5±0.2 5920 2.0±0.2d 5.6±0.8c67.4±2.116.6±0.1a10.6±0.7 3.7±0.223 2.1±0.2d 6.3±0.7bc68.0±0.416.4±0.2ab8.3±0.5 3.6±0.2 Reference(37/10)2 2.8±0.2abc 5.5±0.3c69.5±0.515.6±0.2cde10.5±0.8 3.4±0.1 One-way ANOV AP.F30.0000.0060.4690.0010.2110.747Two-way ANOV A P.F4Dietary protein0.0000.0020.2770.0010.1690.209 Dietary lipid0.2450.3330.8460.0790.9100.458 Dietary protein3dietary lipid0.0690.5070.7890.1500.0630.937HSI5hepatosomatic index;IPF5intraperitoneal fat.1Values represent means6SEM of three replicate groups(n53);initial whole-body composition was as follows: 72.4%moisture,15.2%protein,6.7%lipid,and4.2%ash.2This treatment was excluded from two-way ANOV A because of unknown dietary composition.3Signiﬁcance probability associated with the F statistic.Values in a column that do not have the same superscript are signiﬁcantly different at P#0.05based on Duncan’s multiple range test based on one-way ANOV A.4Signiﬁcance probability associated with the F statistic.HIGH-PROTEIN DIET EV ALUATION WITH HYBRID STRIPED BASS AND RED DRUM425T A B L E 4.C o m p a r i s o n o f g r o w t h ,s u r v i v a l ,b o d y i n d e x e s ,a n d w h o l e -b o d y c o m p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n h y b r i d s t r i p e d b a s s a n d r e d d r u m i n r e s p o n s e t o d i e t a r y p r o t e i n a n d l i p i d l e v e l s .S p e c i e s%C r u d e p r o t e i n %C r u d e l i p i dS p e c i ﬁc g r o w t h r a t e (%b o d y w e i g h t /d )S u r v i v a l (%)H S I (%)I P F r a t i o (%)W h o l e -b o d y m o i s t u r e (%)W h o l e -b o d y p r o t e i n (%)W h o l e -b o d y l i p i d (%)W h o l e -b o d y a s h (%)R e d d r u m 149203.03±0.11a b84.1±7.82.8±0.12.9±0.3a b71.6±0.917.1±0.57.3±0.8a b3.7±0.1232.97±0.09a b75.0±10.13.1±0.13.7±0.2a72.2±0.317.5±0.56.4±0.7a b c4.3±0.3282.87±0.13b65.9±15.53.1±0.13.6±0.4a71.6±0.615.8±0.27.9±0.8a3.8±0.154203.15±0.17a b65.9±13.12.8±0.12.3±0.4b c71.7±0.518.1±0.25.7±0.5b c4.2±0.159203.31±0.10a81.8±6.42.7±0.32.3±0.3b c72.3±1.318.3±1.15.4±0.3b c4.0±0.2R e f e r e n c e (37/10)22.03±0.05c77.3±7.93.5±0.61.6±0.2c 74.1±0.417.2±0.15.0±0.5c 3.9±0.1O n e -w a y A N O V A P .F 30.0000.5700.3990.0010.4460.0680.0270.233H y b r i d s t r i p e d b a s s 449203.06±0.0580.6±2.82.9±0.27.2±0.367.4±0.415.5±0.49.8±1.03.5±0.1232.64±0.2469.4±12.12.9±0.17.6±0.767.6±0.715.0±0.212.9±0.83.4±0.2282.81±0.0680.6±15.52.4±0.18.2±0.867.5±0.715.3±0.310.5±1.13.6±0.054203.08±0.1091.7±4.82.6±0.15.8±0.269.2±0.315.9±0.29.7±1.23.5±0.359203.26±0.1569.4±2.82.0±0.25.6±0.867.4±2.116.6±0.110.6±0.73.7±0.2A N O V A P .F 5S p e c i e s 0.2120.3960.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000.000D i e t a r y p r o t e i n 0.2420.7700.0080.0090.6680.1200.5230.422D i e t a r y l i p i d 0.1890.4920.1460.1050.9160.2710.3780.502S p e c i e s 3d i e t a r y p r o t e i n 0.9400.1160.0510.4400.5370.8480.2510.350S p e c i e s 3d i e t a r y l i p i d0.4110.4910.0410.6930.9600.2080.0280.126H S I 5h e p a t o s o m a t i c i n d e x ;I P F 5i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l f a t .1V a l u e s r e p r e s e n t m e a n s 6S E M o f f o u r r e p l i c a t e g r o u p s (n 54).I n i t i a l ﬁs h w e i g h t i s 18.060.1g /ﬁs h (m e a n 6S E M ).2T h i s t r e a t m e n t w a s e x c l u d e d f r o m t w o -w a y A N O V A b e c a u s e o f u n k n o w n d i e t a r y c o m p o s i t i o n .3S i g n i ﬁc a n c e p r o b a b i l i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e F s t a t i s t i c .V a l u e s i n a c o l u m n t h a t d o n o t h a v e t h e s a m e s u p e r s c r i p t a r e s i g n i ﬁc a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a t P #0.05b a s e d o n D u n c a n ’s m u l t i p l e r a n g e t e s t .4V a l u e s r e p r e s e n t m e a n s 6S E M o f t h r e e r e p l i c a t e g r o u p s (n 53).I n i t i a l ﬁs h w e i g h t i s 11.060.1g /ﬁs h (m e a n 6S E M ).5S i g n i ﬁc a n c e p r o b a b i l i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e F s t a t i s t i c .426BURR ET AL.R250.49),and whole-body lipid(P50.01, R250.33).Dietary lipid level and total dietary energy had similar effects on red drum.In par-ticular,increasing dietary lipid increased HSI and whole-body lipid of red drum based on the linear regression analysis,which was different from that of hybrid striped bass.Linear regres-sion analysis showed that theﬁnal weight of red drum signiﬁcantly(P50.02)inﬂuenced whole-body protein and accounted for25.5% of the variation.Both hybrid striped bass and red drum fed the experimental diets showed indistinguishable superior growth compared toﬁsh fed the refer-ence diet.Survival ofﬁsh in the two trials was not signiﬁcantly inﬂuenced by dietary treat-ment;however,the body indexes and whole-body composition did show signiﬁcant species differences under optimal culture environments (Table4).Dietary protein inﬂuenced HSI (P,0.01)and IPF ratio(P,0.01)with a ten-dency(P50.12)to affect whole-body protein of both species.However,HSI and whole-body lipid of the twoﬁsh species responded differ-ently to dietary lipid level.DiscussionThe experimental diets generally conferred faster growth and superior feed efﬁciency to juvenile hybrid striped bass and red drum,com-pared toﬁsh fed the commercial reference diet, which was formulated based on minimum warm-waterﬁsh nutritional requirements and least-cost feed formulation principles.The increasing dietary protein level in the experi-mental diets showed a strong tendency to increase weight gain;however,this growth improvement could at least partially be inﬂu-enced by an optimized E:P ratio.An appropriate E:P ratio has been reported by various research groups for hybrid striped bass(Brown et al. 1992;Nematipour et al.1992;Keembiyehetty and Wilson1998)and striped bass(Woods et al. 1995).However,the optimal E:P ratio could be inﬂuenced by protein quality and energy digestibility,as well as environmental factors such as temperature(Keembiyehetty and Wilson1998).A dietary E:P ratio established using puriﬁed diets might underestimate the optimal E:P ratio when high-quality protein in-gredients are used.In addition,most of the pre-vious studies in which E:P ratio was studied did not use isonitrogenous diets.Therefore,dietary protein level might contribute to the growth per-formance differences.In this study,only high E:P ratio values were tested.The linear regres-sion analysis showed that the increase in the dietary E:P ratio from39to49kJ/g protein signiﬁcantly reduced weight gain and feed efﬁciency of hybrid striped bass,supporting the optimal dietary E:P ratio of38kJ/g protein for hybrid striped bass fedﬁsh-meal-based diets reported by Keembiyehetty and Wilson(1998). In the present study,the differences in protein utilization(PCE and PER)were rather high among hybrid striped bass fed the experimental diets, althoughﬁsh fed the commercial reference diet showed noticeably inferior protein utilization. This is possibly because of reduced digestibility of protein ingredients in the commercial formu-lation.Increased dietary lipid within a relatively low level has been shown to enhance feed efﬁ-ciency of warm-water species(Daniels and Robinson1986;Serrano et al.1992;Thoman et al.1999);however,growth performance indexes for the two species were not responsive to changes in dietary lipid level over15%, which is in agreement with the results of Craig et al.(1999)and Gaylord and Gatlin(2000). No signiﬁcant protein-sparing effect by exces-sive dietary lipid was observed with the hybrid striped bass,which is in agreement with the ob-servations of Gallagher(1999)and also with those of Gaylord et al.(2003)who studied sum-mer founder(Paralichthys dentatus).Dietary energy(from protein,fat,and carbo-hydrate)has been postulated to be one of the main factors inﬂuencing feed intake inﬁsh(re-viewed by de la Higuera2001).The daily feed intake of hybrid striped bass in this study was signiﬁcantly inhibited by the total dietary energy as well as lipid,which supported this the-ory.It also was the only test response in this study that was inﬂuenced by total dietary energy.It is not known whether this phenome-non results from lipid itself or the energy pro-vided by dietary lipid.Jobling and Miglavs (1993)found that body fat accumulation andHIGH-PROTEIN DIET EV ALUATION WITH HYBRID STRIPED BASS AND RED DRUM427energy depots inﬂuenced appetite ofﬁsh.The key adipokine leptin,which is involved in food intake control,has been characterized with terrestrial animals.However,our study failed to show a noticeable correlation between daily feed intake and IPF ratio or whole-body lipid in hybrid striped bass.This phenomenon needs further investigation.Body condition indexes including HSI and IPF ratio were signiﬁcantly inversely inﬂuenced by dietary protein level in the present study.This could partially be explained by improved die-tary E:P ratio as well.The linear regression anal-ysis showed a moderate but signiﬁcant inﬂuence of dietary E:P ratio on HSI and IPF ratio of both species.In addition,whole-body protein of both hybrid striped bass and red drum was signiﬁ-cantly inﬂuenced by dietary protein level and E:P ratio in this study,which is in agreement with responses of striped bass(Woods et al.1995), hybrid striped bass(Keembiyehetty and Wilson 1998),red drum(Webb and Gatlin2003),and otherﬁsh species such as rainbow trout,Onco-rhynchus mykiss(Azevedo et al.2004);chinook salmon,Oncorhynchus tshawytscha(Azevedo et al.2004);Asian sea bass,Lates calcarifer (Williams et al.2003);and Japanese seabass, Lateolabrax japonicus(Ai et al.2004).Lipid in the diet did not appear to inﬂuence whole-body lipid,HSI,or IPF ratio of hybrid striped bass in this study.This indicates that once a threshold of dietary lipid content is reached, any further increase did not contribute to addi-tional depot lipid in tissues of this species. However,red drum responded differently to excessive dietary lipids.Whole-body lipid, HSI,and IPF of red drum juveniles increased linearly with dietary lipids,which is in agree-ment with reported observations in juveniles (,5g initial weight;Daniels and Robinson 1986;Serrano et al.1992;Gatlin2002)and sub-adults(;150g initial weight;Turano et al. 2002).The substantial differences in body condition indexes and whole-body composition of juve-nile hybrid striped bass and red drum have been indirectly observed from the published literature on these two species over the past two decades. However,because of the tremendous inﬂuences of nutrition on body indexes and composition, these species differences were not fully substan-tiated until the direct comparison was made in this study.Except for the difference in salinity of the culture system used for the two feeding trials,all other environmental factors were con-trolled indistinguishably.The differences in HSI,IPF ratio,whole-body protein,lipid,mois-ture,and ash between the two species were sub-stantial and signiﬁcant,although both species exhibited similar rapid growth on the experi-mental diets.Hybrid striped bass can store2–2.5times more IPF and greater whole-body lipid than red drum,which is undesirable because of production waste and accelerated lipid rancidity. According to Ramseyer(2002),whole-body nitrogen content or crude protein ofﬁsh includ-ing hybrid striped bass and red drum is strongly dependent on theﬁsh wet weight.The observa-tion in the present study was in agreement with this analysis.However,only20.8and25.5% of the variation in whole-body protein were attributable toﬁnal weight of hybrid striped bass and red drum,respectively,in the present study. By contrast,dietary protein contributed44.1% of variation in whole-body protein of hybrid striped bass,compared to22.4%for red drum. Considering the variousﬁnal weights of hybrid striped bass and red drum fed the experimental diets,changes in whole-body protein were attributable to bothﬁsh and dietary protein levels.Our studies with juvenile hybrid striped bass and red drum showed that both species fed high-protein and high-lipid diets showed over-whelming growth performance compared toﬁsh fed a commercial reference diet,which may indicate manipulating nutrient density of the diet is a strategy to increaseﬁsh growth and pos-sibly production efﬁciency.The IPF ratios of both hybrid striped bass and red drum fed the high-protein and high-lipid diets were elevated compared to published values for these two species,which might cause reduced dress-out percentage and oxidative stability of product.A thorough investigation on the economics of production using these types of diets is still needed.Of the combinations of various protein and lipid levels in the present study,the diet428BURR ET AL.。

Auger电子能谱(AES)

2.5俄歇电子产额
俄歇电子产额或跃迁
几率决定俄歇谱峰强度，直接关系到元素的定量分析。俄歇电子与特征X射线是两个互相关联和竞争的发射过程。
俄歇电子产额与原子序数的关系
由图可知，Z<19，发射俄歇电子的几率在90％以上；随Z的增加，X射线荧光产额增加，而俄歇电子产额下降。Z<33时，俄歇发射占优势。
M5 M4 M3 M2 M1 L3 L2 L1 K
AES Auger效应
电子能级、X射线能级和电子数
4f5/2 4f5/2 4d5/2 4d3/2 4p3/2 4p1/2 4s1/2

每种元素的各种
Auger 电子的能量是识别该元素的重要依据。
3. 俄歇电子能谱仪的组成
主要组成部分：电
子枪、能量分析器、二次电子探测器、（样品）分析室、溅射离子枪和信号处理与记录系统等。样品和电子枪装置需置于超高真空分析室中。
俄歇谱仪示意图
3.1 电子枪
电子枪是用于激发Auger电子的装置。
扫描Auger显微探针(SAM)
目前，最好的SAM的初级电子束直径为<15
nm，其空间分辨能力很高。
在实际的分析过程中，可用的最小束径一般
大于电子枪的最小束径。因为：(1)束径越细，使得信噪比下降。(2)样品的抗辐照损伤的能力对束径的大小有限制。(3)束斑漂移对束径也有限制。
扫描Auger显微探针(SAM)
1）根据最强的俄歇峰能量，查《俄歇电子能谱
手册》，确定元素。 2）标注所有此元素的峰。 3）微量元素的峰，可能只有主峰才能在图谱上观测到。 4）未标识峰可能是能量损失峰。通过改变入射电子能量辨别。注意：化学环境对俄歇谱的影响造成定性分析的困难(但又为研究样品表面状况提供了有益的信息)，应注意识别。

XPS1

Probe: Ions
Ions Out: Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) Time of Flight SIMS (ToF SIMS)
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP MS)
Ions In
Surface Interface Surface and Interface Analysis
Introduction
宏观物体表面
------Surfaces to Ponder
Mars
Earth
Moon Planetary surface: Silicate rock, Sand, clays, and so on.
Comparative Information on the Surface Analytical Techniques
Comparative Information on the Surface Analytical Techniques
Comparative Information on the Surface Analytical Techniห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ues
Probe: Electrons
Electrons Out: Auger electrons Secondary electron imaging Backscattered electron imaging Transmitted electrons Electrons In Photons out: Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) Wavelength Dispersive Spectroscopy (WDS)

Hybrid Reflective-crack Relief System At Greater Peoria ：混合型反射裂缝的救济制度在大皮奥里亚知识课

– GlasGrid® 8502 Fabric
– 12.5 mm x 12.5 mm (0.5 x 0.5 inch) opening
– 1.5 m wide strip application over base isolation
interlayer
– Pressure-activated coating
– Viscoelastic Characterization – Tensile Strength
▪ Disk-shaped Compact Tension Test (DC[T])
– ASTM D7313-07 – Fracture Energy of Asphalt Concrete
Test Temperature = -10 C Tensile Strength (MPa)
Milling
Overlay Paving
Paving the SAMI
Rolling the SAMI
14
After Milling
Before Milling
Milling Benefits
Remove Block and Longitudinal Cracks
Eliminates Crack Cupping and Associated Bump
▪ Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayers (or SAMIs)
– ‘Sand Anti-Fracture Mixtures (SAF)’ – ‘Strain-Tolerant Interlayer Mixtures’ – ‘Reflective Crack Relief Interlayers (RCRI)’

一对极磁铁

一对极磁铁小时候，詹姆斯·平弗德（James Pinfold）喜欢玩磁铁。

他回忆，那种无形的力量把金属物体吸在一起或分开，令他惊讶不已。

出于好奇，他曾经把一块磁铁锯成两半，试图把磁铁的北极和南极分开。

像其他曾经尝试过的人一样，平弗德最终只能得到一对更小的两极磁铁。

现在，平弗德已经是阿尔伯塔大学（University of Alberta）的物理学家了，他说：“我曾想，‘这太不可思议了’，为什么就没有独立的磁极呢？“平弗德从未停止思考这个问题。

如今他领导着一个实验，目的是寻找具有单个磁荷的理论粒子，这种单一磁荷有了北极就没有南极，反之亦然，它被称为磁单极子。

在物理学家提出的种种关于统一自然界基本力的理论中，它们的存在似乎是完全可能的，甚至是不可避免的。

然而几十年来，这种麻烦的粒子始终躲避着科学的搜寻。

科研人员已经搜寻了天空、海水和冰块，他们从北极和南极洲采集岩石样本，在陨石和月球尘埃中进行搜索，在近10 亿年前的矿石中寻找它们的踪迹。

可以说，在科学的历史上，无论从时间还是空间的角度，没有别的东西经历过同样规模的搜寻。

但是至今我们仍然一无所获。

但是物理学家们并没有打算认输。

平弗德正在耗资40 亿美元的大型强子对撞机（Large Hadron Collider，LHC）上进行实验，通过筛选亚原子碎片寻找具有单极子特征的粒子。

科学家们也在密切关注来自太空的宇宙单极子。

甚至可以说，我们有可能已经发现了这神奇的粒子。

（图片来源：Dan Bishop/Discover）何必这样大费周章呢？因为磁单极子也许有助于打破粒子物理学当前的僵局。

经过了几十年的建立，标准模型（Standard Model）的框架已经能用量子力学的语言精确描述自然界四种基本力中的三种及其伴随的粒子。

然而，作为所有科学中最成功的理论之一，标准模型仍不完整，它无法描述引力，也不能解释暗物质的问题——这种神秘物质的量远超常规物质，是可见物质的5倍。

Resources-Conservation-and-Recycling

Resources,Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 1232–1251Contents lists available at ScienceDirectResources,Conservation andRecyclingj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /r e s c o n r ecReviewSustainable options of post treatment of UASB efﬂuent treating sewage:A reviewAbid Ali Khan a ,∗,Rubia Zahid Gaur a ,V.K.Tyagi a ,Anwar Khursheed a ,Beni Lew b ,Indu Mehrotra a ,A.A.Kazmi aa Department of Civil Engineering,IIT Roorkee,NH 58,Uttrakhand 247667,India bThe Volcani Center,Institute of Agriculture Engineering,Bet Dagan 50250,Israela r t i c l ei n f oArticle history:Received 19February 2010Received in revised form 16May 2011Accepted 17May 2011Keywords:High rate micro-aerobic treatment systems NBMSPost settling treatment step Polishing methods SewageUASB post treatmenta b s t r a c tThe upﬂow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)process is reported to be a sustainable technology for domes-tic wastewaters treatment in developing countries and for small communities.However,the inability of UASB process to meet the desired disposal standards has given enough impetus for subsequent post treat-ment.In order to upgrade the UASB based sewage treatment plants (STPs)to achieve desired efﬂuent quality for disposal or for reuse,various technological options are available and broadly differentiated as primary post-treatment for the removal of organic and inorganic compounds and suspended matter;secondary post-treatment for the removal of hardly degradable soluble matter,colloidal and nutrients;and polishing systems for removals of pathogens.Hence,this paper discusses the different systems for the treatment of UASB reactor efﬂuent treating sewage.Additionally,a comparative review,an economic evaluation of some of the emerging options was conducted and based on the extensive review of different integrated combination,i.e.UASB-different aerobic systems,a treatment concept based on natural bio-logical mineralization route recognized as an advanced technology to meet all practical aspects to make it a sustainable for environmental protection,resource preservation and recovering maximum resources.© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Contents 1.Introduction ............................................................................................................................................12332.Post treatment options of UASB reactor’s efﬂuent ....................................................................................................12352.1.Characteristics of efﬂuent of UASB reactor treating domestic wastewater . (1235)2.1.1.BOD,COD and TSS ....................................................................................................................12352.1.2.N and P ................................................................................................................................12352.1.3.Reduced compounds..................................................................................................................12352.1.4.Microbial pathogenic indicators (1236)2.2.Post settling systems (1236)2.2.1.Conventional post settling methods..................................................................................................12362.2.2.Flotation methods .. (1238)2.3.Physical and biological micro-aerobic methods (including removal/or recovery of dissolved gases)........................................12382.4.High rate biological aerobic methods (including nitriﬁcation–denitriﬁcation steps).........................................................12392.5.Low rate primary post treatment systems (including valorization/or removal of nutrients).................................................12422.6.Final polishing steps ............................................................................................................................12443.Discussion/summary ...................................................................................................................................12453.1.Solutions for sustainability and environmental protection ....................................................................................12463.2.Selection of sustainable technology ............................................................................................................12464.Conclusions.............................................................................................................................................1249References. (1249)∗Corresponding author.E-mail addresses:abidkdce@iitr.ernet.in ,dee.abid@ (A.A.Khan).0921-3449/$–see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.05.017A.A.Khan et al./Resources,Conservation and Recycling55 (2011) 1232–125112331.IntroductionAnaerobic treatment of domestic wastewater is not a new con-cept and from time immemorial septic tanks,soak pits,cesspool, etc.have been used.Since these systems can only partially treat the sewage and,the efﬂuent still contains high concentration of organic matter,suspended solids and nutrients,the interest for sewage treatment switched over to aerobic treatment systems.There are numerous aerobic treatment systems some of which include,acti-vated sludge process(ASP),ﬂuidized bed reactors(FBR),trickling ﬁlter(TF),aerated lagoons and oxidation ponds.Regardless of the good treatment performance and low land requirement of aerobic systems;these methods suffer from plentiful drawbacks as com-pared to anaerobic treatment systems(also summarized in Table1) (Lettinga,2008):•Energy intensive;•Production of high and poorly stabilized sludge(60–70%of incoming COD is converted to biomass);•High investment and operational/maintenance cost;•Complex infrastructure.Though,most of the above mentioned drawbacks are not asso-ciated with oxidation ponds but high land area is needed which is very uneconomical in densely populated countries like India. Therefore,these mentioned drawbacks make the anaerobic sys-tems suitable for rural areas and developing countries.With the advent of high rate anaerobic systems such as up-ﬂow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor(UASB),anaerobic contact process, anaerobicﬁlter(AF)orﬁxedﬁlm reactors andﬂuidized bed reac-tors,which promote a good contact between the inﬂow wastewater and the micro-organisms at high concentration and consequently high organic matter removal at short retention times,the strategy for the treatment of sewage was shifted back to anaerobic process which has the advantages of low cost,energy recovery in the form of biogas,operational simplicity,low energy consumption,and low production of digested sludge.In1970s,due to the energy crisis and relatively less expensive treatment concept,the UASB process was recognized as one of the most feasible method for the treatment of sewage in developing tropical and sub-tropical countries like India, Brazil and Colombia whereﬁnancial resources are generally scarce.Since1980,the discussion on the applicability of UASB pro-cess for the treatment of sewage has been presented by Lettinga and co-researchers(Lettinga et al.,1980,1981,1993;Lettinga and Hulshoff Pol,1986;Seghezzo et al.,2002;von Sperling and Chernicharo,2005;Lettinga,2008)and the results indicated that about70%chemical oxygen demand(COD)removal can be achieved in warm climates countries(Schellinkhout et al.,1985;Souza,1986; Siddiqi,1990;Khan,2011).Presently about30UASB based STPs were installed in India since late1980s and more than20are under construction(MoEF,2005and2006).Therefore,single step UASB process undoubtedly experienced as an attractive option in warm climate regions.However,the treatment efﬁciency decreases with the decrease in temperature, reaching a50%COD removal at15◦C(Elmitwalli et al.,2001; Singh and Viraraghavan,2002;Lew et al.,2003).The UASB reactor performance at low temperatures can be improved by chang-ing its conﬁguration like incorporating settler above the GLSS (gas–liquid–solid separator),or adding the AF at the top of the UASB reactor,making it as a high rate anaerobic hybrid reactor and extended(staged)types of UASB-systems,viz.UASB-reactors com-pleted with an AF or supplemented with additional sludge digester operated at optimal temperature for stabilizing sludge‘extracted’from the UASB reactor,which following its stabilization in the digester partially will be return to the UASB reactor in order to keep the methanogenic activity at a sufﬁciently high level.The per-formance of UASB-Digester system for organic matter removal was observed substantially better at temperature of15◦C as compared to single step UASB reactor at low temperature(Mahmoud,2002). The two-step UASB system was studied by various authors(Sayed and Fergala,1995;Halalsheh,2002;Seghezzo,2004).However, results showed similar performance of the two-step reactor in com-parison to a one-step system,due to lower removal efﬁciencies in the second stage,which was attributed to low sludge retention time (SRT).Typical problems of highly loaded UASB reactors like sludge ﬂotation and washout of active biomass were observed,mainly at temperatures below20◦C.Wang(1994)evaluated a two stage sys-tem composed of UASB-EGSB(expanded granular sludge bed)for sewage treatment at low temperature.The primary objective of the ﬁrst-step treatment was the removal and partial hydrolysis of sus-pended COD and the second-step process observed to convert the dissolved COD to energy rich methane gas.Chernicharo and Machado(1998)studied pilot scale system composed of three units viz.;416L UASB reactor operated at6h and4h hydraulic retention time(HRT)followed by two anaero-bicﬁlters in upﬂow and downﬂow modes operated in parallel.The anaerobicﬁlters had a total capacity of102L(32L of packing mate-rial),operated at HRT varying from24to1.5h(upﬂow velocities varied from0.06to1.44m/h).The selection of upward and down-ﬂow mode of AFs operation was to identify the extent of removal of organic matter due to physical mechanisms of sedimentation andﬁltration that are predominant in upward mode or biochemi-cal stabilization mechanisms of COD removal.The downﬂow mode was meant to induce attached growth as a bioﬁlm that favours the biochemical stabilization.The UASB reactor performed well almost achieving above80%removal of COD.The results depicted that the AFs additionally promoted the removal which improved the overall efﬁciency of the system within the ambit of only anaero-bic regime.The overall COD and biological oxygen demand(BOD) removal varied from85to95%and the concentration ofﬁnal efﬂu-ent COD ranged from60to90mg/L and the BOD and SS values were less than40and25mg/L,respectively.However,the authors sug-gested that UASB-AF system could be an option for the treatment of domestic sewage in developing countries,since the system could be operated at an HRT of6h for UASB and3–4h for AF resulting in very compact and low cost treatment besides this there was no energy consumption.Similarly,Elmitwalli et al.(1999)and Lew et al.(2004)com-pared the performances of a hybrid UASB-ﬁlter and a classical UASB reactor for the treatment of domestic wastewater at different oper-ational temperatures(28,20,14and10◦C)and loading rates.For each temperature studied a constant COD removal was observed as long as the upﬂow velocity was lower than0.35m/h in both reactors.However,at lower temperature of14and10◦C the UASB reactor showed a better COD and TSS removal than the hybrid reac-tor.Again Elmitwalli et al.(2003)studied a composite system of two step anaerobic system followed by aerobic system consist-ing of anaerobicﬁlter,anaerobic hybrid reactor and tricklingﬁlter (AF+AH+TF)at low temperature.The operating conditions such as HRT and temperature were more or less similar to other two step systems.The treatment performance of two step anaerobic system (AF+AH)was improved from63%to85%by adding the TF.The treated efﬂuent of this staged system can be reused for restricted irrigation and nutrient can be recycled.Mahmoud et al.(2004)investigated a combined UASB-CSTR (completely stirred tank reactor)digester system,where the accu-mulated sludge from the UASB reactor was then directed to a CSTR-digester,operating at35◦C for further treatment.Results showed that the UASB-CSTR digester had a better performance than a single stage UASB reactor at15◦C.The removal efﬁciencies for total,suspended,colloidal and dissolved COD were72,74,74and1234 A.A.Khan et al./Resources,Conservation and Recycling55 (2011) 1232–1251Table1Drawbacks of aerobic wastewater treatment systems asﬁrst biological treatment step compared to the application of anaerobic wastewater treatment asﬁrst step.Drawbacks of aerobic system over anaerobic systems1.Energy demanding instead of energy producing2.Production of huge amounts of(generally poorly stabilized and quite voluminous)excess sludge3.High land requirements for the total treatment system(consisting of primary settlers,the AeWT-systems,secondary settlers,sludge thickeners,sludge stabilization methods,sludge dewatering,and sludge drying beds)4.High investment and operation/maintenance costs(more labor intensive)e of technically rather complex mechanical equipment with relatively short lifetime6.More complex in operation and maintenance,i.e.higher dependency on specialists7.Need of a much more complex infra-structure,such as power supply,consequently a high vulnerability8.Formation of recalcitrant organic compounds(e.g.humic acids)from in essence well biodegradable compounds due to exposure of oxygen9.Poor degradation of compounds such as azo-dyes,PAC’s,nitro-aromatics10.Occasionally serious mal-odor nuisance problemsAdvantages of aerobic system over anaerobic systems11.The efﬂuent quality of aerobic systems is better than anaerobic systems12.Can produce Efﬂuent of non-potable reuse quality13.Nutrient Removal Possible14.No immediate oxygen demand15.Aesthetically(Color,Turbidity)better quality16.No odor related problemsSource:Adapted from Lettinga(2008).62%,respectively.The performance of the UASB-digester system at low temperatures is similar to the removal observed at28◦C.The problem of solids accumulation observed at low temperatures can be handled by incorporating a sludge digester with UASB reactor.In all cases,changes in conﬁguration of the UASB system such as addition of the AF and digester system improved the COD removal at low temperatures(lower than20◦C),however,the efﬂuent com-position was very similar to the composition observed for singe UASB reactors operating at25–28◦C(Table2).Further,due to growing concern over the impact of sewage con-tamination of rivers and lakes and increasing scarcity of water in the world along with rapid population increase in urban areas gives reason to consider appropriate technologies for sewage treatment so that sewage can be treated up to reuse standard.The anaerobic processes constitute the core method in the natural biological mineralization(NBM)treatment concept for treatment of low and high strength wastewaters.High rate anaer-obic treatment systems,such as UASB process combined with the complementary NBM system,deﬁnitely represent a possi-ble route to sustainable environmental protection in spirit even towards a more sustainable society.Still researchers realized great challenging improvements in NBM route/ﬁeld in order to get suf-ﬁcient conﬁdence among policy/decision makers,engineers,etc. The maximum reuse/or recovery of resources can be achieved through anaerobic pre-treatment(UASB)followed by the treatment concepts applied based on the natural biological mineralization sequence/or route(NBMS).Moreover,at the same time less energy consumption can be realized in comparison with purely aerobic treatment systems.Thus by far,the UASB process has been demonstrated as a robust technology for sewage treatment,mainly for developing countries and/or small communities(Lettinga et al.,1980,1993;Hulshoff and Lettinga,1986;van Haandel and Lettinga,1994;Verstraete and Vandevivere,1999;Arceivala,2001;Gnanadipathy and Polprasert, 1993;Sousa and Foresti,1996;Foresti,2001;Chernicharo,2006; Schellinkhout and Collazos,1992;Seghezzo et al.,1998;von Sperling and Chernicharo,2005;Tandukar et al.,2006a,b).More-over,the UASB reactor treating domestic wastewater can produce two main resources,which can be recovered and utilized:methane and the efﬂuent.The valuable byproduct methane produced during COD removal can be recovered(from28%to75%)and transformed into energy (Mendoza et al.,2009).In energy terms,1m3of biogas with75% methane content is equivalent to1.4kW-h electricity.The biogas can be used to run dual fuel generators or street lighting(Arceivala and Asolkar,2007).According to Arceivala and Asolkar(2007) approximately23.5%methane gas was observed dissolved in UASB efﬂuents,therefore,the recovery of dissolved methane gas is dis-cretionary and may not be acceptable in case of sewage treatment due to high expenditure cost and complexity of recovery arrange-ments.However,the methane gas evolved to the headspace(gas phase)can be of much importance and easily collected.For high strength industrial wastewaters the recovery of dissolved methane gas is favored in view of the global warming and its fuel value.More-over,at high temperature the solubility of gaseous compounds,e.g. methane gas decreases.Therefore,the issue of gas recovery espe-cially dissolved methane gas must be carefully reviewed for each individual case in terms of economics and desirability.In spite of well proven advantages,the efﬂuent of UASB reactor does not comply with the efﬂuent discharge standards estab-lished by various environmental agencies(Chernicharo,2006; Tandukar et al.,2006a,b).The efﬂuent of UASB reactor treating sewage contains high nutrient and pathogens including sufﬁciently high amount of residual organic matter.The treated efﬂuent for reuse must meet certain controls such as pathogens concentra-tions follow the WHO(1989)standards.To prevent the pollution of receiving water bodies and make it up to reuse standards,stringent discharge legislations must be required.To develop a national efﬂuent standard,it is necessary to con-sider a variety of local geographical,socio-economic,dietary and industrial conditions(WHO,1989).The national standards there-fore,differ appreciably from the WHO guideline values as well as between different countries.For example,efﬂuent discharge standards in Israel are more stringent than in India:standards guidelines for TSS in Israel are10mg/L whereas in India the val-ues are100mg/L for discharge into water bodies.Moreover,the Flemish standards for efﬂuent discharge(for domestic wastewa-ter)into surface water bodies,which follows the European Union environmental legislations is more/less stringent than the Israeli standard,(BOD=25mg/L;TSS=35mg/L).Despite the differences in guideline,these values are hardly achieved through single anaero-bic processes.Thus,UASB reactor alone renders an efﬂuent which is not suitable for agriculture re-use and/or discharge into water bodies.However,it can be used as aﬁrst step in wastewater treatment mainly for organic matter removal especially in regions whereﬁnancial resources are scarce.To protect the receiving water bodies and to reuse treated water for restricted as well as unre-stricted irrigation,it is necessary to further treat efﬂuent from UASB reactor,i.e.a post-treatment system.The main role of the UASB post-treatment systems is to attain the efﬂuent disposal guidelinesA.A.Khan et al./Resources,Conservation and Recycling55 (2011) 1232–12511235 Table2Treatment performance of lab&full scale UASB reactors treating sewage.Country Capacity Temp.(◦C)HRT(h)Inﬂuent(mg/L)Efﬂuent(mg/L)Removal efﬁciency(%)ReferenceCOD BOD TSS COD BOD TSS COD BOD TSSJapan––6600291333222153–6353–Tandukar et al.(2007)Japan1148L–6532240–19779–6367–Tandukar et al.(2005)India5MLD2510590167–20160–6664–Draaijer et al.(1992)–––84632141741253947738273Goncalves et al.(1998)India5MLD20–3165602104201405310574–7875–8575–89Arceivala(1995)Brazil106L21–25 4.72651501231335933506173Vieira(1988)–110L12–1818465–154163–4265–73Monroy et al.(1988) Colombia35m323–24 5.2430–520–200–250170–65668069Schellinkhout et al.(1988)– 3.7m324–2610–18660300–17866–7378–Nobre and Guimarães(1987) Brazil106L2044241951881706159606969Vieira and Souza(1986) Netherlands120L8–2012500––225––60–90–65–90Lettinga et al.(1983) Netherlands6m32018550––165––70––Lettinga et al.(1981)with a complete removal of organic matter;as well as removal of constituents little affected by the anaerobic treatment,such as nutrients;reduced inorganic(sulﬁde,ferrous,etc.)compounds,and pathogenic organisms(viruses,bacteria,protozoa and helminthes) along with resources recovery,and/or valorization of mineralized compounds.The complete removal of organic pollutants could be possible if the sewage can be treated via a sequential anaerobic,micro-aerobic and fully aerobic biodegradation of the pollutants on the basis of processes proceeding according to the biological C–N and S-cycle,together with associated chemical and physical processes Fig.1.This treatment concept enables conserving/or recovery of useful byproducts in the form of fertilizers,soil conditioners and renewable energy.Therefore,the objective of this review paper is to summa-rize,highlight and evaluate different post treatment options for the efﬂuent of UASB reactors treating domestic wastewater in an attempt to fulﬁll the‘Natural Biological Mineralization Route’(NBMR),concept of treatment.The information thus,gathered can be applied to identify appropriate alternative to existing post treatment techniques to upgrade the efﬂuent quality from exist-ing UASB based STPs.Also it provides a justiﬁcation for further research.2.Post treatment options of UASB reactor’s efﬂuentVariety of post treatment conﬁgurations based on various com-binations with UASB was reported in the literature.The treatment performance of different combinations of anaerobic(UASB)and aerobic post treatment system was summarized in Table3.Among these,tricklingﬁlter;TF,submerged aerated bio-ﬁlter;SABF,rotat-ing biological contactor;RBC,wetlands,sequencing batch reactor; SBR,chemically enhanced primary treatment;CEPT and zeolite column,dissolved airﬂotation;DAF,aeration system have been investigated at laboratory and pilot scale.Few systems like polish-ing pond,activated sludge process;wetlands and aerobic lagoons based on pilot and full scale application.The speciﬁc aspect of the post treatment of efﬂuent of UASB reactor treating sewage would be the complete removal of pathogens to protect health of human beings and the highest removal of COD in order to protect environment with recov-ery of energy,i.e.methane and certain compounds such as NH4+–N,NO2−–N,NO3−–N and PO4–P.Therefore,the selection of appropriate sustainable technology should be based on the val-orization of wastewater by recovering and reusing by-products, use simple technologies and concepts which could be selected based on the thorough evaluation of the efﬂuent quality of UASB reactor.2.1.Characteristics of efﬂuent of UASB reactor treating domestic wastewaterThe efﬂuent quality of UASB reactor was measured in terms of BOD,COD,TSS,nutrients such as N and P,reduced compounds,i.e. sulﬁdes and microbial pathogens.2.1.1.BOD,COD and TSSThe efﬂuent biological oxygen demand(BOD)of most of the anaerobic treatment systems such as anaerobic ponds,UASB reac-tors,septic tanks and Imhoff tank treating sewage without any post treatment system has been reported to vary from60to150mg/L (Chernicharo,2006).The COD and total suspended solids(TSS)of the anaerobically treated municipal wastewater ranges between 100to200and50to100mg/L,respectively(Foresti et al.,2006).The process efﬁciency varies with temperature,strength and composi-tion,e.g.fraction of industrial wastewater inﬁltrated and diurnal ﬂuctuations.The efﬂuent soluble mineralized compounds such as ammonia,phosphate and sulﬁdes also certainly varied with these factors.The treatment performance decreases with a decrease in temperature(Lew et al.,2003,2004;Elmitwalli et al.,2001; Wang,1994).The performance of UASB reactors(COD,BOD and TSS inﬂuent,efﬂuent and removal)treating sewage at different temperatures is summarized in Table2.2.1.2.N and PLittle or no nutrient removal may be expected in an anaero-bic system treating domestic wastewater,as reported by several authors(Lettinga et al.,1981;Foresti et al.,2006;Moawad et al., 2009).The reason of the low nutrient removal is that during the anaerobic process,organic nitrogen and phosphorous are hydrolyzed to ammonia and phosphate,which are not removed from the system and in consequence,their concentration increases in the liquid phase.The concentration of ammonia nitrogen and phosphorous in anaerobically treated municipal wastewater have been reported to range from30-50and10-17mg/L respectively (Foresti et al.,2006).2.1.3.Reduced compoundsSulfur compounds exist as sulﬁdes in anaerobic systems efﬂuent treating domestic wastewater.The efﬂuent total sulﬁdes con-centration greatly depends on inﬂuent sulfate concentration and sulfate reducing bacterial activity inside the reactor.Generally, the sulﬁde concentration around7–20mg/L was observed in the UASB efﬂuent treating sewage and it increases the efﬂuent oxygen demand(Walia,2007;Khan,2011).Further,the chemical and bio-chemical oxidation also depends on sulﬁdes concentration along with other reduced species Fe2+and mercaptans.although low fer-rous ion concentration has been observed in the anaerobic efﬂuent1236 A.A.Khan et al./Resources,Conservation and Recycling55 (2011) 1232–1251Fig.1.Natural Biological Mineralization Route(NBMR)of organic matter adapted from(Lettinga,2008).of systems treating domestic wastewater.However,ferrous ions addition to inﬂuent was studied to enhance COD removal.Vlyssides et al.(2007)investigated the effect of ferrous ion on biological activ-ity of UASB reactor.The addition of ferrous ion induces a stable and outstanding conversion rate of COD and was proved to enhance the biological activity of UASB reactor;otherwise the ferrous ions resulted due to reduced environment if sewage was treated by UASB reactor.2.1.4.Microbial pathogenic indicatorsAlthough UASB systems are not designed for pathogenic removal,fecal coliforms reduction is around one order of mag-nitude(from around108to107);while helminth eggs removal efﬁciency has been reported to be60–90%(Chernicharo et al.,2001; von Sperling et al.,2002;Chernicharo,2006;von Sperling and Mascarenhas,2005).Therefore,in order to make the situation ideal for sustainable treatment the high rate anaerobic treatment systems especially UASB rector must be combined with innovative post treatment sys-tems based on NMB sequence.Several post treatment system/or combination of anaerobic pretreatment(i.e.UASB reactor)and fol-lowed by aerobic systems were investigated at laboratory and pilot scale levels for the treatment of sewage.Application of different aerobic systems with UASB reactor for treatment of sewage has given less emphasis on making them sustainable and/or to achieve the recovery of resources.However,most of these combinations were found viable option for the treatment of efﬂuent of UASB reactor.The discussion for the selection of the sustainable technology for the policymakers,engineers,contractors,consultants and author-ities of the public sanitation(PuSan sector)has been presented in discussion/summary part of this review paper.Further,in order to promote them as more sustainable for the treatment of sewage and to improve their treatment performance, these systems/combinations were categorized based on their appli-cation to remove the suspended solids with or without chemical coagulants,soluble organic and inorganic matter,and removal of reduced compounds such as ferrous ions and sulﬁdes and recovery of methane.The major categories were(I)conventional or innovative post settling systems and modernﬂotation methods with or with-out chemical coagulants,etc.for the removal of suspended solids and soluble organic and inorganic compounds like phosphate or termed as primary post treatment options;(II)application of phys-ical methods to remove and recover dissolved methane from the efﬂuent,which is very important issue for the researchers,engi-neers and scientists;(III)high rate primary biological micro-aerobic methods for the removal of highly reduced(malodors)compounds like sulﬁdes and volatile organic S−compounds,Fe2+and colloidal matter;(IV)high rate aerobic systems for nitriﬁcation,when com-bined with denitriﬁcation step;(V)Low rate primary treatment systems including the systems meant for cultivation of biomass, e.g.removing and valorizing nutrients;(VI)polishing steps for high rate removals of pathogens.The post treatment systems thus,cat-egorized can either be used singly or sequentially.2.2.Post settling systemsThe UASB efﬂuent contain highly stabilized suspended mat-ter which can be removed by micro-aeration and settling process. Therefore,proper methods of removal of suspended solids are needed,however,presently at full scale,only STPs natural settling methods are widely used.Moreover,natural settling method is often slow and inefﬁcient and sometimes enhanced by addition of chemical which could easily remove the colloidal andﬁnely dissolved solids and separated by physical aeration.Further the recovery of resources in terms of phosphates and treated efﬂuent if used for irrigation purposes making it an ideal for sustainable option.2.2.1.Conventional post settling methodsOverlandﬂow system(OFS)is a classical example of a full scale natural system in use for UASB efﬂuent post treatment.The system was extensively studied in Brazil under PROSAB and is operated in two phases,characterized by constant and transient hydraulic regime,respectively(Chernicharo et al.,2001).Three slopes(physically identical)for wastewater overlandﬂow consti-tuted the post-treatment system.A very common weed species named Brachiaria humidicola was used as vegetative cover on the slopes.This weed is known for its high rate of nutrient absorption and high resistance againstﬂooding.The application of UASB efﬂuent at lowﬂow rate from0.4to 0.5m3/m h to overlandﬂow system presented a good performance. Theﬁnal efﬂuent concentration of the combined system showed。

如何在国际期刊上发表金属塑性加工方面的学术论文

如何在国际期刊上发表金属塑性加工方面的学术论文张士宏哈尔滨工业大学材料学院，150001电话：641 3365 传真：622 1048E-mail：zbangsh@进行科学研究，其产出应该是学术成果或技术成果，其目的无疑是转变成生产力或用于提高生产力。

为了实现这个目的，在学术期刊或会议上发表你的学术成果是必要的。

否则，他人很难知道你的工作成果和学术水平，也不利于国际同行间的学术交流；同样作为一个单位，其学术水平和科研实力也难以为人了解。

这也是改革开放的一个方面。

发表文章也需要些学问或经验。

我认为应该根据你个人情况和文章学术水平、题材来选择所要发表的杂志。

如果你是一个初出茅庐的年轻学者或学生，在不重复内容和产生版权争议的情况下，你应该尽可能多写文章，多发文章。

如果你已经是一个小有名望的学者了，你就应该以追求文章的质量和杂志的档次为主了。

如果你已是一个富有国际声望的学者，我劝你以文章的质量为主，数量是次要的了。

国际杂志后面一般都注明了文章被检索的情况。

大部分欧美出版、发行国际的工程类杂志都能被EI收录。

欧洲的杂志大都是发行国际、不收版面费的，而美国的大都收版面费，每页100美元左右，超过6页还加倍。

这里的美国，是指由美国学会、出版社或出版公司出版的，不包括主编是美国人，而公司在欧洲的。

欧美的学术期刊编辑出版机制与我国不同。

我国的杂志大都由专职编辑进行主编，这些人往往不是科研工作者；而欧美的杂志主编大多是学术权威，是大学教授或著名科学家，他们是兼职主编，他们亲自组织稿件的评审和杂志的编辑，他们一般不在编辑部，他们与编辑部之间一般靠邮件、传真、电话和E-mail进行合作。

编辑部一般设技术编辑，负责文字和版面编辑，不负责组稿和学术问题。

而我国有些杂志虽然也写了一个著名主编，但往往是名誉的，他并不参与杂志的日常组稿和编辑工作。

欧美的杂志大都是由一些大型跨国出版公司或著名国际学会团体出版发行，公司有专门销售部门和相对固定的发行渠道，不像我国大都挂靠在各个单位，自办发行或由邮局发行。

AES详细介绍

估计实际Auger跃迁特征能量的经验公式为：
EZXY
(Z)
=
EZ
(Z)
−
1 2
[EX

(Z)
+
Ex
(Z
+ 1)]
−
1 2
[EY
(Z)
+
EY
(Z
+ 1)]
EX(Z+1)和EY(Z+1)分别为Z＋1元素的X和Y能级的电离能
Z
Z
5.2 Auger电子强度：电离截面
电离截面是指原子被入射粒子电离产生空穴的几率，σ：
KL1L2,3
KL2,3L1
Auger transition is characterized by (a) presence of core hole and (b) location of two final state holes
电子枪
Z < 15, KLL Z: 16 ~ 41, LMM Z > 42, MNN
利用经验公式计算，即用Zn的束缚能的值，与Cu进行算术平均： CuLMM＝ 932-6-6＝ 920 eV
Auger电子和X-射线荧光
去激发过程中，产生Auger电子，或X-射线荧光，几率之和为 1。
即：
γA + γX = 1
当Z为33, 90时，两者相等
有两个几率的涨落变化，对于给定元素特征峰的选取： 1）Z ≤ 15的元素，采用K系列的俄歇峰； 2）16 ≤ Z ≤ 41的元素，采用L系列的俄歇峰； 3）Z ≥ 42的元素，采用M系列的俄歇峰。
双同心圆筒结构，内筒接地。能量为E0，以42.3°的角度偏离轴向的电子束，通过内筒上的一个缝，被外圆筒上负电势 Vp聚焦，再返回到轴上。此时的电势为：

俄歇能谱

Visualization, CRC Press, 1995.
2005/9/16 - 2
Surface & Materials Group, CCME,PKU
固体表面物理化学
俄歇电子谱历史
俄歇电子，是以其发现者Pierre Auger的名字命名的。1925年Auger 在做Wilson云室实验时观察到俄歇效应，并对其作了正确的解释。
2005/9/16 - 9
SurfaceΒιβλιοθήκη & Materials Group, CCME,PKU
固体表面物理化学
Auger跃迁的标记
一般来说，气体元素的AES可较好地分辨出俄歇群中各谱线的结构，而固体元素则较难，原因如下： 1. 固体元素的半高峰宽（Full-Width-at-Half-Maximum， FWHM）较宽，谱线不易识别； 2. 固体元素俄歇群中各谱峰能量的相对值和相对强度与气态不同，原子周围的环境对俄歇效应有不同影响； 3. 固体元素价电子能带对空穴的屏蔽大为增强，导致俄歇群中的特征能量产生一定位移，这是研究俄歇化学位移的基础。
充能级和Auger电子能级沿用X－射线能级标记K，L，M，……
等作为俄歇跃迁过程的标记。例如，俄歇谱线KLM表示初始
空穴产生在K壳层，L壳层的电子来填充产生的K能级的空穴，
将能量传给M壳层的电子，后者作为Auger电子发射。
同一空穴可以产生不同的俄歇跃迁，当初始空穴在K能
级时，会出现K系列俄歇跃迁，如KLL，KLM，KMN等等。
−
1 2
[
EY
(Z
)
+
EY
(Z
+ 1)]
其中EX(Z+1)和EY(Z+1)分别为Z＋1元素的X和Y能级的电离能。上式实际上是考虑到在Z能级电子被打出后的X或Y能级的电离能与EX(Z)或EY(Z)差别较大，故而用下一个元素的同样能级的电离能EX(Z+1)或EY(Z+1)与分别 EX(Z)或EY(Z)做算术平均。

Process for separating by means of crown ethers th

专利名称：Process for separating by means of crown ethers the uranium and plutonium present inan aqueous medium resulting from thereprocessing of irradiated nuclear fuels发明人：Jacques Foos,Pierre Epherre,Alain Guy,Marc Lemaire,Rodolph Chomel,GerardCauquil,Pierre Patigny,Alain Vian申请号：US07/367487申请日：19890616公开号：US05028402A公开日：19910702专利内容由知识产权出版社提供摘要：Process for separating plutonium from uranium contained in a nitric acid aqueous solution from the reprocessing of irradiated fuels comprising plutonium, uranium and fission products by means of crown ethers. Nitric acid aqueous solution (5) containing plutonium, uranium and fission products is contacted at (2) with an organic liquid membrane (3) containing a crown ether. The uranium and plutonium are extracted in the liquid membrane (3) and then transferred by said membrane into a receiving solution (7), which becomes enriched with uranium, because the latter is transferred more rapidly than the plutonium. The crown ether can be DCH 18 C6 or DB 18 C6.申请人：COGEMA COMPAGNIE GENERAL DES MATIERES NUCLEAIRES代理机构：Pearne, Gordon, McCoy & Granger更多信息请下载全文后查看。

Convertible baby bed

专利名称：Convertible baby bed发明人：FRANCOIS, GIRARD,AUGER, PIERRE申请号：EP89402122.9申请日：19890726公开号：EP0356277A1公开日：19900228专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：In this convertible baby bed, the head and foot elements are each constituted by two horizontal crosspieces which are fixed in a removable manner to thecorresponding feet and between which there is arranged a certain number of verticalbars which are mounted removably on these crosspieces. Furthermore, a set of elements is provided, which are intended to permit the conversion of this baby bed into a normal bed, this set comprising two long lateral sections (4b), which have the length of a normal bed, and two sets of horizontal crosspieces (3b, 5b) which have the width of such a bed and which are capable of being fixed between the feet (6) of the bed in order to modifytheir separation, these crosspieces comprising means of mounting which make it possible to fix between them the bars (7) which were previously mounted between the crosspieces of the baby bed, with different separation. The present baby bed can easily be converted into a normal bed for juniors.申请人：MEUBLES SAUTHON地址：Z.I. Cher-du-Prat F-23000 Gueret FR国籍：FR代理机构：Boutin, Antoine更多信息请下载全文后查看。

OXIDISABLE PYRIDINE DERIVATIVES, THEIR PREPARATION

专利名称：OXIDISABLE PYRIDINE DERIVATIVES, THEIR PREPARATION AND USE AS ANTI-ALZHEIMER AGENTS发明人：MARSAIS, Francis,LEVACHER,Vincent,PAPAMICAEL, Cyril,BOHN,Pierre,PEAUGER, Ludovic,GEMBUS, Vincent,LEFUR, Nicolas,DUMARTIN-LEPINE, Marie-Laurence申请号：EP14702219.8申请日：20140124公开号：EP2948429B1公开日：20180815专利内容由知识产权出版社提供摘要：A compound of the formula (I) in which the dotted lines indicate the presence of at least one double bond; n = 0 to 4; R 3 and R 4 are H, or when n = 1, R 3 and R 4 can also form together a double bond between the carbon atoms, and m = 0, 1 or 2, Z is CH or N or Z is C and -CHR 3 - is =CH- linked by the double bond to the cyclopentanone; or -(-) m - is absent, and Z is NH, >N-alkyl, >N-phenyl, >N-benzyl or >N-heteroaryl; R 8 is alkyl, aryl or heteroaryl which can be optionally substituted; EWG represents an electron withdrawing group selected from the group comprising COOR, COSR, CONRR', CN, COR, CF 3 , SOR, SO 2 R, SONRR', SO 2 NRR', NO 2 , halogen, heteroaryl; and the pharmaceutical salts or tautomers thereof. The compounds of formula (I) are potent in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.申请人：INSA INSTITUT NAT DES SCIENCES APPLIQUEES DE ROUEN,CENTRENATIONAL DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENT C N R S,UNIV DE ROUEN,VFP THERAPIES 地址：FR,FR,FR,FR国籍：FR,FR,FR,FR代理机构：Hirsch & Associés更多信息请下载全文后查看。

EN1998--层合板喷覆成形

Keywords
carbon steel, hot corrosion, Si-base coating, thermal spray
1. Introduction
High-temperature alloys must have good mechanical properties and corrosion resistance and be relatively easy to manufacture. However, it is not likely for a single alloy to have all these properties. Most high temperature alloys are iron-, nickel-, or cobalt-base because these elements have high melting points and are easy to manufacture without problems. Unfortunately, their oxides are not protective enough in the combustion environment of a fossil-fuel power plant at temperatures above 550 °C. Nevertheless, addition of other elements to establish more protective oxides such as Cr2O3, Al2O3, or SiO2 has improved their corrosion resistance. These oxides offer protection due to their low growth rate and the effective barrier they provide against ionic migration (Ref 1-3). The threshold amount required in the alloy for the establishment of a continuous protective oxide layer depends on the alloying elements. Chromium affects the mechanical properties of the alloys the least, but a higher threshold value is required to allow a passive behavior against oxidation (16 to 20%). For aluminum additions, a threshold value of 15% is required (Ref 1, 2), whereas for silicon additions to steel the threshold value is the lowest, 5% (Ref 2, 4, 5). Although the addition of aluminum or silicon gives alloys the best oxidation and corrosion resistance because they form protective oxides with low growth rate, their incorporation can affect the mechanical properties of the alloy. It has been observed that a third element, normally chromium, which forms

Auger电子能谱(AES)

每种元素的各种
Auger 电子的能量是识别该元素的重要依据。
3. 俄歇电子能谱仪的组成
主要组成部分：电
子枪、能量分析器、二次电子探测器、（样品）分析室、溅射离子枪和信号处理与记录系统等。样品和电子枪装置需置于超高真空分析室中。
俄歇谱仪示意图
3.1 电子枪
电子枪是用于激发Auger电子的装置。

N7 N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1
2.3 EAES与 XAES的比较
用电子束作为激发源的优点是：电子束的强度大于X射线源多个数量级；电子束可以进行聚焦，具有很高的空间分辨率；电子束可以扫描，具有很强的图像分析功能；由于电子束束斑直径小，具有很强的深度分析
5.3. 扫描Auger显微探针(SAM)：微区分析
SAM是利用Auger电子能谱研究表面二维元
素分布的一项技术。它是将很细的初级电子束在样品表面扫描，同时选取某一元素 Auger电子峰的能量，使该元素的Auger电子成像。这样，它不仅可以知道样品表面的元素种类、含量，还可以得知各元素在表面的分布情况。
M5 M4 M3 M2 M1 L3 L2 L1 K
AES Auger效应
电子能级、X射线能级和电子数
4f5/2 4f5/2 4d5/2 4d3/2 4p3/2 4p1/2 4s1/2

• Measure Auger signal at many points on the surface. • Creates 3D elemental map of surface. • Requires a highly focused electron beam. • Spatial resolution is about 0.1 μm • Generally use a concentric hemispherical analyzer (CHA) instead of CMA. • When used with an Ar+ sputter beam, composition depth profiling may be done.

俄歇能谱

21953年lander采用电子束激发的auger电子谱aes并分析了应用于表面分析的可能性这才引起人们注意研究aes31967年harris采用锁相放大器lockinamplifier将auger电子信号有效地抽取出来出现了商业化的aes41969年palmberg与合作者采用筒镜分析器cmacylindricalmirroranalyzer使得信噪比大大提高aes从此广泛应用于表面分析成为表面科学最基本和最必要的研究技术
固体表面物理化学
俄歇电子能谱
2004/2/25
北京大学化学与分子工程学院－表面与材料小组
固体表面物理化学
主要参考书
1. D. P. Woodruff and T. A. Delchar, Modern Techniques of Surface Science, Cambridge, 1986. 2. D. Briggs and M. P. Seah, Practical Surface Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1983. 3. 华中一，《真空实验技术》，上海科学技术出版社，1986。 4. 高本辉，崔素言，《真空物理》，科学出版社，1983。 5. 王华馥，吴自勤，《固体物理实验方法》，高等教育出版社，1990。 6. E. Lifshin (editor), Characterization of Materials, VCH, 1994. (叶恒强等译，《材料的特征检测》，两卷本，科学出版社，1998) 7. 黄惠忠等著，《论表面分析及其在材料研究中的应用》，科学技术文献出版社，2002。 8. 王矜奉，《固体物理教程》，山东大学出版社，1999。 9. A. T. Hubbard (Editor), The Handbook of Surface Imaging and Visualization, CRC Press, 1995.

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The 28th International Cosmic Ray Conference Hybrid Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory and Reconstruction of Hybrid Events Abstract The Pierre Auger Observatory is a“hybrid”UHECR detector.The surface detector (SD)and air ﬂuorescence detector (FD)of the observatory are designed for observation of cosmic ray showers in coincidence,with a 10%duty cycle.The resulting data are expected to be superior in quality to those of either the SD or FD operating individually.Hybrid operation,triggering,data acquisition,and event reconstruction were successfully demonstrated during the prototype phase of the project.This paper focuses on 75hybrid events recorded during a four month period of running with the prototype detectors in late 2001and early 2002.The geometric technique for reconstruction of the hybrid events is described and its advantages over the traditional FD-only method are demonstrated.A lateral distribution for the water Cherenkov signals,derived from these data,is presented.1.Introduction
During the hybrid operating period the Auger engineering prototype ob-servatory consisted of an array of 30SD stations positioned on a triangular grid of
1.5km spacing.Two prototype FD telescopes,located some 10km away,viewed the volume of air above the array.The prototype was constructed to test the fea-sibility of the initial design and to discover any changes required for the complete observatory.The hybrid prototype has enabled us to test new concepts in trigger-ing,data communications,merging,and reconstruction procedures.In particular we were able to establish the feasibility of the hybrid ﬁtting scheme from an in-vestigation of the data.Additionally,we were able to check to see whether we can construct a sensible average lateral distribution from the combination of FD and SD information.
2
Method
Mono
20.95860.240.7
4。

Hybrid Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory and Reconstruction of Hybrid Events

现代材料分析方法(英文)

Evaluation of growth performance and whole-body composition of juvenile hybrid striped bass Morone

Auger电子能谱(AES)

XPS1

Hybrid Reflective-crack Relief System At Greater Peoria ：混合型反射裂缝的救济制度在大皮奥里亚知识课

一对极 磁铁

Resources-Conservation-and-Recycling

如何在国际期刊上发表金属塑性加工方面的学术论文

AES详细介绍

俄歇能谱

Process for separating by means of crown ethers th

Convertible baby bed

OXIDISABLE PYRIDINE DERIVATIVES, THEIR PREPARATION

EN1998--层合板喷覆成形

Auger电子能谱(AES)

俄歇能谱

一对极磁铁