Doctoral Thesis Dependent Types in Practical Programming
澳洲casper参考答案
澳洲casper参考答案澳洲Casper参考答案澳洲Casper（Casper Test）是澳大利亚一项用于评估申请医学、护理等相关专业的考试。
该考试旨在评估考生的沟通、合作、解决问题和道德判断等能力，以确保他们能够胜任未来的医疗工作。
在这篇文章中，我们将探讨一些可能的Casper题目，并提供参考答案。
一、情境背景假设你是一名医学院的申请者，你正在参加Casper考试。
以下是一些可能遇到的情境背景和相应的参考答案。
1. 情境背景：你是一名医学生，正在实习期间遇到一个困扰你的伦理问题。
你的导师要求你为一个患者提供一种实验性的治疗方法，但你对该方法的效果和风险存在疑虑。
参考答案：在这种情况下，你可以首先与导师进行沟通，表达你的疑虑和担忧。
你可以提出你的观点，并询问是否有其他可行的治疗方法。
同时，你也可以寻求其他专家的意见，以便做出更明智的决定。
最重要的是，你应该始终将患者的利益放在首位，并确保你的行动符合伦理和专业标准。
2. 情境背景：你是一名医学生，在一次实习中，你遇到了一个非常困难的患者，他对医生的建议持怀疑态度，并且不愿意接受治疗。
参考答案：在这种情况下，你可以试图与患者建立良好的沟通和信任关系。
你可以倾听患者的意见和担忧，并试图解释你的观点和建议。
如果患者仍然不愿意接受治疗，你应该尊重他们的决定，并寻求其他可能的解决方案。
重要的是要记住，患者的自主权和尊严应该始终被尊重。
二、道德判断Casper考试还可能涉及一些道德判断的问题。
以下是一些可能的情境和参考答案。
1. 情境背景：你是一名医生，你的患者患有一种终末期疾病，他的病情非常严重，无法逆转。
患者的家人希望你隐瞒病情，不告诉患者实际情况。
参考答案：在这种情况下，你应该遵循医学伦理的原则，尊重患者的知情权。
你应该与患者进行坦诚的沟通，告诉他实际的病情和预后。
同时，你也可以与患者的家人进行沟通，帮助他们理解患者的处境，并提供支持和安慰。
2. 情境背景：你是一名医生，你的患者需要进行一种治疗，但他没有足够的经济能力支付治疗费用。
作文长文的英语怎么说
When referring to a long essay in English,you can use several expressions depending on the context and the specific type of long essay you are discussing.Here are some common terms:1.Long Essay:The most straightforward term,simply referring to an essay of considerable length.2.Extended Essay:This term is often used in academic contexts,especially in the International Baccalaureate IB program,where students write an extended essay as part of their coursework.3.Research Paper:This term is typically used for a long,indepth essay that involves extensive research and analysis.4.Dissertation:A long,formal treatise on a specific subject,usually written by a candidate for a university degree.5.Thesis:Similar to a dissertation,a thesis is a long essay presenting an argument based on research,often required for a masters or doctoral degree.6.Term Paper:A long essay typically assigned at the end of a semester,often involving research and analysis.7.Major Essay:This term might be used in a university or college setting to denote a significant essay that carries substantial weight in a course.8.Expository Essay:A type of long essay that explains or interprets a topic,often used in academic settings.9.Reflective Essay:A long essay that reflects on personal experiences or insights,often used in personal development or educational contexts.10.Argumentative Essay:A long essay that presents an argument and supports it with evidence and reasoning.11.Analytical Essay:A long essay that involves the critical analysis of a topic,often breaking it down into its components.12.Descriptive Essay:A long essay that describes a person,place,thing,or experience in detail.13.Narrative Essay:A long essay that tells a story or recounts an experience,often froma personal perspective.14.Illustrative Essay:A long essay that uses examples to explain a concept or argument.parative Essay:A long essay that compares two or more subjects,often to highlight similarities and differences.Remember,the choice of term can depend on the academic level,the subject matter,and the specific requirements of the assignment.。
医学英语作文常用动词
医学英语作文常用动词在医学英语作文中，使用恰当的动词可以使文章更具说服力和清晰度。
以下是一些常用的医学英语作文中常见的动词：1. Diagnose 诊断。
Doctors diagnose illnesses based on symptoms and medical tests.医生根据症状和医学检查来诊断疾病。
2. Treat 治疗。
Physicians treat patients using various methods such as medication, surgery, or therapy.医生使用各种方法治疗患者，如药物、手术或治疗。
3. Prescribe 开药方。
Doctors prescribe medications to alleviate symptoms or cure diseases.医生开药方来缓解症状或治疗疾病。
4. Monitor 监测。
Nurses monitor patients' vital signs to ensure their condition is stable.护士监测患者的生命体征以确保他们的情况稳定。
5. Administer 管理，施行。
Nurses administer medications to patients according to the doctor's orders.护士按照医生的嘱咐给患者服药。
6. Evaluate 评估。
Physicians evaluate the effectiveness of treatmentsthrough regular examinations and tests.医生通过定期检查和测试评估治疗的有效性。
7. Document 记录。
Healthcare professionals document patients' medical history and treatment plans.医护人员记录患者的病史和治疗计划。
学术英语-医学-Unit-8-Text-A-翻译
学术英语-医学-U n i t-8-T e x t-A-翻译(总5页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Unit 8 Text A涉及人体受试者研究的伦理原则和指导方针实践与研究的分界为了明确哪些行为应该接受审查以便保护研究受试者的利益，就得把生物医学研究及行为学研究与进行公认的治疗实践区别开来，这很重要。
研究与实践之间的区别模糊不清，部分原因是两者可能同时发生（例如为了评估某个治疗而设计的研究），也因为当“实验”和“研究”没有明确的界定时，明显偏离标准医疗实践的行为常被称作“实验”。
“医疗实践”一词大多系指那些只为增进病人或顾客健康所采取的而且有一定成功希望的干预措施。
医疗实践或行为实践的目的系为特定个人提供诊断、预防性处置或治疗。
与之相比，“研究”一词系指为测试某种假设而采取的行动，可以得出结论，从而拓展或增进概括性知识（诸如理论、原则以及对一些事物之间关系的表述)。
研究一般有一个正式的计划，计划中有预设的目的及达到目的所需的步骤。
基本伦理原則“基本伦理原则”指一些总体性判断，用以评判许多特殊伦理规则以及对人的一些行为所做的评价是否合理的基本理据。
除了我们文化传统中所公认的原则之外，涉及人体受试者研究的基本伦理原则有三个：尊重个人原则、善行原则及公正原则。
1.尊重个人尊重个人至少包含两个伦理信念：第一，个人应该被视为有自主行为能力；第二，自主能力受损者应受保护。
尊重个人的原则因此一分为二，成为两个不同的道德要求：承认自主权的要求和自主能力受损者要受保护的要求。
对大多数涉及人体受试者的研究而言，尊重个人即要求受试者自愿参加研究且对研究有充分了解。
然而有些情况下这一原则的应用并不明确。
让囚犯参与研究是一个有指导意义的例子。
一方面，似乎按照尊重个人的原则要求的话，不应该剥夺囚犯自愿参加研究的机会。
而从另一方面讲，在监狱条件下，囚犯可能要么受到巧妙的胁迫、要么迫于过度的压力才参加研究活动,否则他们并不愿意自愿参加。
论文中引用和参考文献的规范
论文中引用和参考文献的规范引言：在学术研究中，引用和参考文献的规范是非常重要的，它不仅能保证学术诚信，还能增强论文的可信度和严谨性。
本文将介绍引用和参考文献的规范，以及其在论文写作中的应用。
一、引用的定义和作用引用是指在论文中使用其他文献的内容和观点，以支持自己的论证和观点。
通过引用他人的研究成果，可以丰富自己的内容，证明研究观点的可靠性，并向读者提供更多参考资料。
二、引用的方式和注意事项1. 直接引用：当需要引用原文的词句时，可以使用直接引用的方式，在引用的内容前后加上引号，并注明出处。
例如：XXX（年份）指出：“……”（页码）。
2. 间接引用：当需要引用原文的观点或思想时，可以使用间接引用的方式，将其用自己的语言进行表述，并注明出处。
例如：根据XXX （年份）的研究，可以得出结论：“……”。
在引用的过程中，需要注意以下几点：1. 引用内容要准确无误，不能歪曲原文的意思。
2. 引用内容必须与自己的研究课题相关，并能够支持自己的主张。
3. 引用内容的选择应该精准合适，避免过多或过少。
三、参考文献的规范参考文献是引用所依据的文献资料清单。
在论文的结尾或章节末尾，需要列出参考文献的相关信息，以便读者查阅。
参考文献的书写格式主要包括以下内容：1. 书籍：作者（年份）书名，出版地：出版社。
2. 期刊文章：作者（年份）文章标题，期刊名，卷号（期号），起止页码。
3. 学位论文：作者（年份）论文标题，学位论文，学位授予单位。
4. 网络资源：作者（年份）文章标题，网站名称，网址链接（不加链接）。
5. 其他类型文献的引用规范可参考相应的学术标准或指导手册。
在书写参考文献时，需要注意以下几点：1. 对于作者多于三人的文献，可以只列出第一作者，其后加上“等”或“et al.”表示即可。
2. 期刊文章的卷号和期号应以斜体形式书写。
3. 参考文献的排序一般按照作者姓氏的字母顺序进行，同一作者多篇文章的情况按时间顺序进行。
医学考博必会词汇
医学考博必会词汇【中英文实用版】英文文档：Medical Doctoral Examination Essential VocabularyThe medical doctoral examination is a challenging test that requires a deep understanding of medical terminology and concepts.To succeed in this examination, it is important to familiarize oneself with essential medical vocabulary.This article provides a list of essential medical terms that are commonly encountered in doctoral examinations.1.Anatomy - The study of the structure of the human body.2.Physiology - The study of the functions of the human body.3.Pathology - The study of diseases and their causes.4.Pharmacology - The study of drugs and their effects on the body.5.Microbiology - The study of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi.6.Immunology - The study of the immune system and its functions.7.Genetics - The study of genes and heredity.8.Epidemiology - The study of the distribution and causes of diseases in populations.9.Clinical medicine - The practice of medicine focused on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.10.Surgical procedures - The techniques and methods used insurgical operations.11.Diagnostic imaging - The use of imaging techniques, such as X-rays and MRIs, to visualize the inside of the body.12.Therapeutics - The study of the treatment and prevention of diseases.13.Pharmacokinetics - The study of how the body absorbs, distributes, and excretes drugs.14.Biochemistry - The study of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms.15.Molecular biology - The study of the structure and function of biological molecules.These terms are just a starting point, and there are many other medical terms that are important for the medical doctoral examination.It is important to study and understand these terms in the context of their respective fields to have a comprehensive understanding of medical concepts.中文文档：医学考博必备词汇医学考博考试是一项具有挑战性的测试，要求深入理解医学术语和概念。
医生的重要性英语作文
Doctors play an integral role in society,and their importance cannot be overstated. They are the frontline warriors in the battle against diseases,providing care and treatment to patients in need.Here are some key points that highlight the significance of doctors in our lives:1.Health Preservation and Promotion:Doctors are instrumental in maintaining and improving public health.They educate individuals on preventive measures,healthy lifestyles,and the importance of regular checkups,which can lead to early detection and treatment of diseases.2.Disease Diagnosis and Treatment:The primary function of a doctor is to diagnose illnesses and prescribe appropriate treatments.They use their medical knowledge and skills to alleviate suffering and,in many cases,save lives.3.Medical Research and Innovation:Doctors contribute to the advancement of medical science through research.They are often involved in clinical trials,which are essential for the development of new drugs,treatments,and medical technologies.4.Emergency Response:In times of crisis,such as natural disasters or pandemics, doctors are crucial in providing immediate medical assistance.They are trained to handle emergencies and can make a significant difference in the survival rates of affected populations.5.Mental Health Support:Doctors are not only concerned with physical health but also play a vital role in mental health care.They provide counseling,therapy,and medication to help patients cope with mental health issues.6.Advocacy for Health Policies:Many doctors are advocates for health policies that can improve the healthcare system and the overall health of the population.They use their expertise to influence legislation and public health initiatives.cation and Training:Doctors are also educators,training the next generation of medical professionals.They pass on their knowledge and experience to medical students, nurses,and other healthcare workers,ensuring that the quality of healthcare is maintained and improved.8.Ethical Considerations:Doctors are often faced with ethical dilemmas in their practice. They must balance the needs of the patient with the broader implications of their decisions,often requiring them to uphold the principles of medical ethics.munity Service:Many doctors volunteer their time and skills to serve communities in need,both domestically and internationally.They provide medical care in underserved areas,contributing to global health equity.10.Personalized Care:Doctors offer personalized care to their patients,taking into account individual medical histories,preferences,and cultural backgrounds.This personalized approach is essential for effective patient care and satisfaction.In conclusion,doctors are indispensable to society.Their multifaceted roles ensure that we have a healthcare system that is responsive,innovative,and focused on the wellbeing of individuals and communities alike.The importance of doctors extends beyond the walls of a hospital or clinic they are essential to the fabric of our social and economic health.。
2022年考研考博-考博英语-西南大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷(带答案)试题号：74
2022年考研考博-考博英语-西南大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题Doctors are interested in using lasers as a surgical tool in operations on people who are （）to heart attack.问题1选项A.proneB.disposedC.infectiousD.accessible【答案】A【解析】考察形容词词义辨析。
prone “有…倾向的，易于…的”；disposed “有...倾向的”；infectious “传染的”；accessible “易接近的”。
句意：医生们在对易于患心脏病的病人进行外科手术时，热衷于使用激光作为手术工具。
选项A符合题意。
2.单选题It is unfair to （）from these two incidents and say that all young men are reckless drivers.问题1选项A.deduceB.generalizeC.minimizeD.transfer【答案】A【解析】考察动词词义辨析。
deduce “推论”；generalize “概括，推广”；minimize “使减到最少；最小化”；transfer “转让，转接”。
句意：从这两件事来推断是不公平的，说所有的年轻人都是莽撞的司机。
选项A符合题意。
3.单选题I told him that I would （）him to act for me while I was away from office.问题1选项A.identifyB.authorizeC.rationalizeD.justify【答案】B【解析】考察动词词义辨析。
identify “确定；鉴定”；authorize “批准，认可；授权给”； rationalize “使……合理化”；justify “证明...是正当的；替......”。
国际神经病学神经外科学杂志参考文献格式
国际神经病学神经外科学杂志参考文献格式国际神经病学神经外科学杂志参考文献格式在学术研究和论文写作中，参考文献是一个至关重要的部分。
正确地引用参考文献可以有效地支撑论点，增加文章的可信度。
而对于国际神经病学神经外科学杂志，其参考文献格式更是需要特别注意。
接下来，将逐步介绍国际神经病学神经外科学杂志参考文献格式的要求。
一、文献类型在国际神经病学神经外科学杂志中，常见的文献类型包括期刊文章、书籍、会议论文、专利、学位论文、报告、网络资源等。
在引用参考文献时，需要明确文献的类型，并按照相应的格式进行引用。
二、期刊文章期刊文章是学术研究中最常见的文献类型之一。
在国际神经病学神经外科学杂志中，对于期刊文章的引用格式要求严格。
一般情况下，期刊文章的引用格式包括作者尊称、文章标题、期刊名称、年份、卷号、期号和页码范围。
例如：作者. 文章标题. 期刊名称, 出版年份, 卷号(期号): 页码范围.三、书籍对于书籍的引用，同样需要符合国际神经病学神经外科学杂志的格式要求。
书籍的引用格式包括作者尊称、书名、出版地、出版商、出版年份等。
例如：作者. 书名. 出版地: 出版商, 出版年份.四、会议论文会议论文是学术交流的重要形式，其引用格式也需要特别注意。
在引用会议论文时，需要包括作者尊称、文章标题、会议名称、出版地、出版商、出版年份等信息。
例如：作者. 文章标题. 会议名称, 出版地: 出版商, 出版年份.五、网络资源随着互联网的普及，学术研究中引用网络资源的情况越来越多。
在国际神经病学神经外科学杂志中，对于网络资源的引用格式也有详细的要求，包括作者尊称、文档标题、网站名称、发表或更新日期、网址等。
例如：作者. 文档标题. 网站名称, 发表或更新日期, 网址.总结回顾国际神经病学神经外科学杂志对于参考文献的引用格式要求严格。
在撰写研究论文时，我们需要严格按照期刊对于不同类型文献的引用格式要求进行引用，以确保文献的准确性和规范性。
肺动脉高压指南
ESC GuidelinesGuidelines on diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertensionThe Task Force on Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of CardiologyTask Force members:Nazzareno Galie`(Chairperson)1(Italy),Adam Torbicki (Poland),Robyn Barst (USA),Philippe Dartevelle (France),Sheila Haworth (UK),Tim Higenbottam (UK),Horst Olschewski (Germany),Andrew Peacock (UK),Giuseppe Pietra (Switzerland),Lewis J.Rubin (USA),Gerald Simonneau (Co-Chairperson)(France)ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG):Silvia G.Priori (Chairperson)(Italy),Maria Angeles Alonso Garcia (Spain),Jean-Jacques Blanc (France),Andrzej Budaj (Poland),Martin Cowie (UK),Veronica Dean (France),Jaap Deckers (The Netherlands),Enrique Fernandez Burgos (Spain),John Lekakis (Greece),Bertil Lindahl (Sweden),Gianfranco Mazzotta (Italy),Keith McGregor (France),Joa˜o Morais (Portugal),Ali Oto (Turkey),Otto A.Smiseth (Norway)Document reviewers:Gianfranco Mazzotta (CPG Review Coordinator)(Italy),Joan Albert Barbera (Spain),Simon Gibbs (UK),Marius Hoeper (Germany),Marc Humbert (France),Robert Naeije (Belgium),Joanna Pepke-Zaba (UK)Table of ContentsIntroduction.........................2245Clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension .2245Idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension ...2246Risk factors and associated conditions ......2246Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease andpulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis .....2247Classification of congenital systemic-to-pulmonary shunts ...............2247Pathology of pulmonary arterial hypertension ...2248Pulmonary arteriopathy ...............2248Pulmonary occlusive venopathy ..........2248Pulmonary microvasculopathy ...........2249Pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension .2249Diagnostic strategy ....................2250Clinical suspicion of pulmonary hypertension ..2251Detection of pulmonary hypertension.......2251ECG ..........................2251Chest radiograph..................2251Transthoracic Doppler-echocardiography (TTE).........................2251Pulmonary hypertension clinical classidentification ......................2252Pulmonary function tests and arterialblood gases .....................2252Ventilation and perfusion (V/Q)lung scan..2252High resolution CT of the lung (2252)Contrast enhanced spiral CT of the lung,pulmonary angiography andmagnetic resonance imaging ..........2252Pulmonary arterial hypertension evaluation (type,exercise capacity,hemodynamics)....2253Blood tests and immunology ..........2253Abdominal ultrasound scan ...........2253Exercise capacity .................22530195-668X/$-see front matterc 2004The European Society of Cardiology.Published by Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.09.0141Corresponding author.Nazzareno Galie `,MD,Institute of Cardiology,University of Bologna,Via Massarenti,9,40138Bologna,Italy.Tel.:+39051349858;fax:+39051344859.E-mail addresses:n.galie@tuno.it,amanes@orsolamalpighi.med.unibo.it (N.Galie `)European Heart Journal (2004)25,2243–2278Hemodynamics (2253)Lung biopsy (2254)Assessment of severity (2254)Clinical variables (2254)Exercise capacity (2254)Echocardiographic parameters (2255)Hemodynamics (2255)Blood tests (2255)Treatment (2256)Introduction to level of evidence and grade of recommendation (2256)General measures (2256)Physical activity (2257)Travel/altitude (2258)Prevention of infections (2258)Pregnancy,birth control andpost-menopausal hormonal therapy (2258)Haemoglobin levels (2258)Concomitant medications (2258)Psychological assistance (2258)Elective surgery (2258)Pharmacological treatment (2259)Oral anticoagulant treatment (2259)Diuretics (2259)Oxygen (2259)Digitalis and dobutamine (2259)Calcium-channel blockers (2260)Synthetic prostacyclin and prostacyclinanalogues (2260)Epoprostenol (2260)Treprostinil (2262)Sodium beraprost (2262)Inhaled Iloprost (2263)Intravenous Iloprost (2263)Endothelin-1receptor antagonists (2263)Bosentan (2263)Sitaxsentan (2264)Ambrisentan (2265)Type5phosphodiesterase inhibitors (2265)Sildenafil (2265)Combination therapy (2265)Interventional procedures (2265)Balloon atrial septostomy (2265)Lung transplantation (2266)Treatment algorithm (2266)Specific conditions (2268)Paediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (2268)Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with Eisenmenger syndrome (2269)Porto-pulmonary hypertension (2269)Pulmonary arterial hypertension associatedwith HIV infection (2270)Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with connective tissue diseases (2271)Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease andpulmonary capillary haemangiomatosis (2272)Acknowledgements (2273)Appendix A.List of Abbreviations (2273)References (2273)PreambleGuidelines and Expert Consensus Documents aim to present all the relevant evidence on a particular issue in order to help physicians to weigh the benefits and risks of a particular diagnostic or therapeutic proce-dure.They should be helpful in everyday clinical deci-sion-making.A great number of Guidelines and Expert Consensus Documents have been issued in recent years by the European Society of Cardiology(ESC)and by different organisations and other related societies.This profu-sion can put at stake the authority and validity of guidelines,which can only be guaranteed if they have been developed by an unquestionable decision-making process.This is one of the reasons why the ESC and others have issued recommendations for formulating and issuing Guidelines and Expert Consensus Documents.In spite of the fact that standards for issuing good quality Guidelines and Expert Consensus Documents are well defined,recent surveys of Guidelines and Expert Consensus Documents published in peer-reviewed jour-nals between1985and1998have shown that methodo-logical standards were not complied with in the vast majority of cases.It is therefore of great importance that guidelines and recommendations are presented in formats that are easily interpreted.Subsequently,their implementation programmes must also be well con-ducted.Attempts have been made to determine whether guidelines improve the quality of clinical practice and the utilisation of health resources.The ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines(CPG) supervises and coordinates the preparation of new Guidelines and Expert Consensus Documents produced by Task Forces,expert groups or consensus panels.The chosen experts in these writing panels are asked to pro-vide disclosure statements of all relationships they may have which might be perceived as real or potential con-flicts of interest.These disclosure forms are kept onfile at the European Heart House,headquarters of the ESC. The Committee is also responsible for the endorsement of these Guidelines and Expert Consensus Documents or statements.2244ESC GuidelinesThe Task Force has classified and ranked the useful-ness or efficacy of the recommended procedure and/or treatments and the Level of Evidence as indicated in IntroductionPulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH)is defined as a group of diseases characterised by a progressive increase of pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR)leading to right ventricular failure and premature death.1The median life expectancy from the time of diagnosis in patients with idiopathic PAH (IPAH),formerly known as primary pul-monary hypertension (PPH),before the availability of dis-ease-specific (targeted)therapy,was 2.8years through the mid-1980s.2PAH includes IPAH 3and pulmonary hypertension associated with various conditions such as connective tissue diseases (CTD),congenital systemic-to-pulmonary shunts,portal hypertension and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)infection.4All these condi-tions share equivalent obstructive pathological changes of the pulmonary microcirculation 5,6suggesting shared pathobiological processes among the disease spectrum of PAH.7In the past decade,we have witnessed major ad-vances in our understanding of the mechanism of disease development,in the diagnostic process,and in the treat-ment of PAH.The identification of mutations in the bone morpho-genetic protein receptor 2(BMPR2)in the majority of cases of familial PAH (FPAH)has been a major ad-vance in the elucidation of the pathogenic sequencein PAH.8,9A variety of cellular abnormalities have been described in the pulmonary vasculature of af-fected patients that may play important roles in the development and progression of PAH.7These include pulmonary endothelial dysfunction 10characterised by altered synthesis of nitric oxide,thromboxane A2,prostacyclin and endothelin,impaired potassium chan-nels and altered expression of the serotonin trans-porter in the smooth muscle cells and enhanced matrix production in the adventitia.7The diagnosis is now more clearly defined according to a new clinical classification and with consensus reached on algorithms of various investigative tests and proce-dures that exclude other causes and ensure an accurate diagnosis of PAH.11In addition,non-invasive markers of disease severity,either biomarkers or physiological tests that can be widely applied,have been proposed to reli-ably monitor the clinical course.11,12Finally,the numerous controlled clinical trials performed recently in PAH can allow us to abandon a clin-ical-based treatment strategy and adopt an evidence-based therapy that includes new classes of drugs such as prostanoids,13endothelin receptor antagonists 14and type 5phosphodiesterase inhibitors.15The present guidelines are intended to provide clear and concise indications for the practical use of the new clinical classification,and a brief description of the new pathological classification and of the recent patho-genetic insights.The diagnostic process will be discussed in order to propose a logical sequence of investigations for aetiology identification,disease assessment and fol-low-up.Special emphasis will be devoted to the evi-dence-based treatment algorithm that has been defined according to the ESC proposals for the Level of Evidence classification and the Grade of Recommendation 16for the available therapies.Clinical classification of pulmonary hypertensionPulmonary hypertension (PH)is defined by a mean pul-monary artery pressure (PAP)>25mmHg at rest or >30mmHg with exercise.17Current classification of PH is pre-sented in Table 1.It is a result of extensive discussion and represents a consensus accommodating our present understanding of pathophysiology as well as of clinical-based differences or similarities within PH.Understand-ing and correct clinical application of the classification should be aided by the following discourse.PH was previously classified into 2categories:PPH or secondary PH depending on the absence or the presence of identifiable causes or risk factors.3,17The diagnosis of PPH was one of exclusion after ruling out all causes of PH.In 1998,during the Second World Meeting on PH held in Evian –France,a clinical-based classification of PH was proposed.18The aim of the ‘‘Evian classification’’was to individualise different categories sharing similar-ities in pathophysiological mechanisms,clinical presen-tation and therapeutic options.Such a clinicalESC Guidelines 2245classification is essential in communicating about individ-ual patients,in standardising diagnosis and treatment,in conducting trials with homogeneous groups of patients, and lastly in analysing novel pathobiological abnormali-ties in well characterised patient populations.Obviously, a clinical classification does not preclude other classifi-cations such as a pathological classification based on his-tologicalfindings,or a functional classification based on the severity of symptoms.The2003Third World Sympo-sium on PAH held in Venice–Italy provided the opportu-nity to assess the impact and the usefulness of the Evian classification and to propose some modifications.It was decided to maintain the general architecture and philosophy of the Evian classification.However, some modifications have been proposed,mainly:to abandon the term‘‘primary pulmonary hypertension–PPH’’and to replace it with‘‘idiopathic pulmonary arte-rial hypertension–IPAH’’,to reclassify pulmonary veno-occlusive disease(PVOD)and pulmonary capillary haemangiomatosis(PCH),to update risk factors and associated conditions for PAH,and to propose some guidelines in order to improve the classification of con-genital systemic-to-pulmonary shunts(Table1).The aim of these modifications was to make the‘‘Venice clin-ical classification’’more comprehensive,easier to follow and widespread as a tool.Idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertensionThe term PPH was retained in the Evian classification because of its common use and familiarity,and because it was emblematic of50years of intense scientific and clinical research.However,the use of the term‘‘pri-mary’’facilitated the reintroduction of the term‘‘sec-ondary’’that was abandoned in the Evian version because it was used to describe very heterogeneous conditions.In order to avoid any possible confusion in Venice it was decided that thefirst category termed ‘‘pulmonary arterial hypertension–PAH’’should in-clude three main subgroups:[1.1]idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension–IPAH,[1.2]familial pulmonary arterial hypertension–FPAH and[1.3]pulmonary arte-rial hypertension related to risk factors or associated conditions–APAH.Risk factors and associated conditionsA risk factor for PH is any factor or condition that is sus-pected to play a predisposing or facilitating role in the development of the disease.Risk factors may include drugs and chemicals,diseases or phenotype(age,gen-der).The term of‘‘associated conditions’’is usedwhen 2246ESC Guidelinesa statistically significantly increased incidence of PAH is found with a given predisposing factor,without,how-ever,meeting‘‘Koch’s postulate’’for causal relation-ship.Since the absolute risk of known risk factors for PAH is generally low,individual susceptibility or genetic predisposition is likely to play an important role.During the Evian meeting in1998,different risk factors and associated conditions were categorised according to the strength of their association with PH and their prob-able causal role.‘‘Definite’’indicates an association based on several concordant observations including a major controlled study or an unequivocal epidemic.‘‘Very likely’’indicates several concordant observations (including large case series and studies)that are not attributable to identified causes.‘‘Possible’’indicates an association based on case series,registries or expert opinions.‘‘Unlikely’’indicates risk factors that were sus-pected but for which controlled studies failed to demon-strate any association.According to the strength of the evidence,Table2 summarises,risk factors and associated conditions al-ready known19and novel‘‘possible’’risk factors for PAH that were identified recently,according to several case series or case reports.The new possible risk factors include haematological conditions such as asplenia sec-ondary to surgical splenectomy,20sickle cell disease,21 b-thalassaemia22and chronic myeloproliferative disor-ders23(polycythaemia vera,essential thrombocytaemia and myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia accompanying chronic myeloid leukaemia or the myelodysplastic syn-drome).Possible risk factors include also rare genetic or metabolic diseases such as type1a glycogen storage disease(Von Gierke disease),24Gaucher’s disease25and hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia(Osler–Weber–Rendu disease).26Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease and pulmonary capillary haemangiomatosisIn the Evian classification,PVOD was included in the pulmonary venous hypertension category that consists predominantly of left-sided heart diseases and PCH was included in the last and heterogeneous group of PH caused by diseases that directly affect the pulmon-ary vasculature.The similarities in the pathological features and clinical presentation,along with the pos-sible occurrence of pulmonary oedema during epo-prostenol therapy,suggest that these disorders mayoverlap.Accordingly,it seems logical to include PVOD and PCH within the same group,most appropriately within the category of PAH.In fact,the clinical pre-sentation of PVOD and PCH is generally similar to that of IPAH and the risk factors or conditions associated with PAH and PVOD/PCH are similar and include the scleroderma spectrum of the disease,HIV infection, and the use of anorexigens.Thus,in the new clinical classification(Table1),the PAH Clinical classification group1includes another subgroup termed PAH associ-ated with significant venous or capillary involvement (Clinical class1.4).Classification of congenitalsystemic-to-pulmonary shuntsThe proposed classification of congenital systemic-to-pulmonary shunts takes into account the type and the dimensions of the defect,the presence of associated extracardiac abnormalities and the correction status(Ta-ble3).All these factors are relevant for the development of PH and Eisenmenger physiology and the prognosis.Eisenmenger syndrome can be caused by simple or complex(about30%of cases)congenital heart defects.27ESC Guidelines2247Among simple defects,ventricular septal defects appear to be the most frequent,followed by atrial septal defects and patent ductus arteriosus.27It is calculated that10%of patients with ventricular septal defects of any size that are older than2years can develop Eisenmenger syndrome as compared to4–6%of subjects with atrial septal de-fects.28,29For patients with large defects,almost all cases with truncus arteriosus,50%of cases with ventricu-lar septal defects and10%of those with atrial septal de-fects will develop PAH and pulmonary vascular disease.30 In patients with atrial septal defects,those with sinus venosus defects have an higher incidence of PAH(16%) as compared to ostium secundum defects(4%).31 The development of PAH with pulmonary vascular dis-ease appears to be related to the size of the defect.In fact,with small-to moderate-size ventricular septal de-fects only3%of patients develop PH.32,33In contrast with larger defects(>1.5cm in diameter),50%will be affected. In case of small defects(ventricular septal defects<1cm and atrial septal defects<2cm of effective diameter as-sessed by echo)the exact pathophysiological role of the heart defect on the development of PAH is unknown.In some patients severe PAH can be detected after ‘‘successful’’correction of the heart defect.In many of these cases it is not clear if irreversible pulmonary vascular lesions were already present before the surgical interven-tion or if the pulmonary vascular disease has progressed despite a successful ually an early correc-tion prevents the subsequent development of PAH. Pathology of pulmonary arterial hypertensionPAH includes various forms of PH of different aetiologies but similar clinical presentation,and in many cases sim-ilar response to medical treatment.Histopathological changes in various forms of PAH are qualitatively similar5 but with quantitative differences in the distribution and prevalence of pathological changes in the different com-ponents of the pulmonary vascular bed(arterioles,capil-laries or veins).The following updated pathological classification has been proposed at the Third World Sym-posium on PAH of Venice(Table4).6Pulmonary arteriopathyThe main histopathological features of pulmonary arteri-opathy include medial hypertrophy,intimal thickening, adventitial thickening and complex lesions.Medial hypertrophy is an increase in the cross sec-tional area of the media of pre and intra-acinar pulmon-ary arteries.It is due to both hypertrophy and hyperplasia of smooth musclefibers as well as increase in connective tissue matrix and elasticfibers in the med-ia of muscular arteries.Intimal thickening may be concentric laminar,eccen-tric or concentric non-laminar.Ultrastructurally and im-muno-histochemically the intimal cells show features of fibroblasts,myofibroblasts and smooth muscle cells.Adventitial thickening occurs in most cases of PAH but it is more difficult to evaluate.Complex lesions.The plexiform lesion is a focal prolif-eration of endothelial channels lined by myofibroblasts, smooth muscle cells and connective tissue matrix.These lesions are at an arterial branching point or at the origin of a supernumerary artery,distally to marked oblitera-tive intimal thickening of the parent artery.The fre-quency of the plexiform lesions in PAH remains undetermined.Arteritis may be associated with plexi-form lesions and it is characterised by a necrosis of the arterial wall withfibrinoid insudation and infiltration with inflammatory cells.All the above changes are seen typically in clinical classification(Table1)groups 1.1(IPAH), 1.2(FPAH) and1.3(APAH).Pulmonary occlusive venopathy(also called pulmonary veno-occlusive disease)Pulmonary occlusive venopathy accounts for a relatively small proportion of cases of PH;main histo-pathological features consist of extensive and diffuse occlusion of pul-monary venules and veins of various sizes.The luminal occlusion can be either solid or eccentric.In addition, the media may be thickened.In pulmonary occlusive ven-opathy,large amounts of haemosiderin are found both within the cytoplasm of alveolar macrophages and type II pneumocytes,as well as deposits in the interstitium. The capillary vessels are engorged and prominent and they may be so tortuous as to mimic pulmonary capillary haemangiomatosis.Pulmonary arterioles can show remodelling with medial hypertrophy and intimalfibro-sis.Plexiform lesions andfibrinoid arteritis are not de-scribed in pulmonary occlusive venopathy.The pulmonary interstitium frequently shows oedema inthe 2248ESC Guidelineslobular septa,which may progress to interstitialfibrosis. Lymphatics within the lung and pleura are also dilated. These changes are seen typically in clinical classification (Table1)group1.4.1(PVOD).Pulmonary microvasculopathy(also called pulmonary capillary haemangiomatosis) Pulmonary microvasculopathy is another rare condition characterised by localised capillary proliferation within the lung.The distribution of pulmonary microvasculopa-thy is usually panlobar and patchy.The abnormal prolif-erating capillaries infiltrate the walls of arteries and veins invading muscular walls and occluding the lumen. In the areas of capillary proliferation,pulmonary haemo-siderosis,characterised by haemosiderin-laden macro-phages and type II pneumocytes,is also present. Similar to pulmonary occlusive venopathy,the pulmon-ary arteries in pulmonary microvasculopathy show marked muscular hypertrophy and intimal thickening. These changes are seen typically in clinical classification (Table1)group1.4.2(PCH).Finally,there are unclassifiable conditions with atyp-ical histopathological features or inadequate sampling of blood vessels.Pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertensionThe exact processes that initiate the pathological changes seen in PAH are still unknown even if we now understand more of the mechanisms involved.It is recog-nised that PAH has a multi-factorial pathobiology that in-volves various biochemical pathways and cell types.The increase of PVR is related to different mechanisms including vasoconstriction,obstructive remodelling of the pulmonary vessel wall,inflammation and thrombosis.Pulmonary vasoconstriction is believed to be an early component of the pulmonary hypertensive process.34 Excessive vasoconstriction has been related to abnormal function or expression of potassium channels in the smooth muscle cells35and to endothelial dysfunction.10 Reduced plasma levels of a vasodilator and antiprolifera-tive substance such as Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide has been shown in patients with PAH.36Endothelial dysfunction leads to chronically impaired production of vasodilators such as nitric oxide(NO)and prostacyclin along with overexpression of vasoconstric-tors such as thromboxane A2(TxA2)and endothelin-1 (ET-1).10Many of these abnormalities both elevate vas-cular tone and promote vascular remodelling.The process of pulmonary vascular remodelling in-volves all layers of the vessel wall and is characterised by proliferative and obstructive changes that involve sev-eral cell types including endothelial,smooth muscle and fibroblasts.6,7In addition,in the adventitia there is in-creased production of extracellular matrix including collagen,elastin,fibronectin,and tenascin.37Angiopoie-tin-1,an angiogenic factor essential for vascular lung development,seems to be upregulated in cases of PH correlating directly with the severity of the disease.38 Also inflammatory cells and platelets may play a sig-nificant role in PAH.In fact,inflammatory cells are ubiq-uitous in PAH pathological changes and pro-inflammatory cytokines are elevated in the plasma of PAH patients.39 Alterations in the metabolic pathways of serotonin,a pulmonary vasoconstrictor substance stored in platelets, have also been detected in PAH patients.40Prothrombotic abnormalities have been demonstrated in PAH patients41and thrombi are present in both micro-circulation and elastic pulmonary arteries.6In fact,fibri-nopeptide A levels that reflect thrombin activity,42and TxA2levels,43are both elevated in patients with IPAH.Despite the identification of mutations in the BMPR2 in the majority of cases of familial PAH,8,9the pathobio-logical links between this genetic abnormality and the development of pulmonary vascular hypertensivedisease ESC Guidelines2249have not been clarified.On the other hand,the high fre-quency of‘‘true’’sporadic IPAH cases and reduced pen-etrance of familial PAH(only20%of BMPR2gene mutation carriers manifest the disease),suggests that additional triggers are required for the development of the condition.Mechanisms could be second somatic mutations within an unstable BMPR-2pathway,44poly-morphisms for genes related to PAH[serotonin trans-porter gene(5HTT),40nitric oxide synthase(ec-NOS) gene45and carbamyl-phosphate synthase(CPS)gene46] or any stimulus able to disrupt pulmonary vascular cells growth control.In addition there may be further genes, possibly related to the BMP/TGF-b v pathway,to be iden-tified.Indeed,mutations in the TGF-b v receptors,acti-vin-receptor-like kinase1(ALK-1)and endoglin,have been identified in PAH patients with a personal or family history of hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia,i.e. Osler–Weber–Rendu.26,47Even if many pathobiological mechanisms have been identified in the cells and tissues of PAH patients,the ex-act interactions between these mechanisms in initiating and progressing the pathological processes are not well understood.Possible theoretical pathways(Fig.1)in-clude the classical interaction between genetic predispo-sition and risk factors that may induce changes in different cell types(smooth muscle cells,endothelial cells,inflammatory cells,platelets)and in the extracel-lular matrix of pulmonary microcirculation.The imbalance between thrombogenic,mitogenic,proinflam-matory and vasoconstrictive factors as opposed to anticoagulant,antimitotic and vasodilating mechanisms may initiate and perpetuate interacting processes such as vasoconstriction,proliferation,thrombosis and inflammation in the lung microcirculation.These mecha-nisms are responsible for the initiation and progression of pathological obstructive changes typical of PAH.The consequent increase of PVR leads to right ventricular overload and eventually to right ventricular failure and death.Future studies are required tofind which,if any,of these abnormalities initiates PAH and which are best tar-geted to cure the disease.Diagnostic strategyThe diagnostic process of PH requires a series of investi-gations that are intended to make the diagnosis,to clar-ify the clinical class of PH and the type of PAH and to evaluate the functional and haemodynamic impairment. For practical purposes it can be useful to adopt a sequen-tial approach that includes four stages(Fig.2):I.Clinical suspicion of pulmonary hypertensionII.Detection of pulmonary hypertensionIII.Pulmonary hypertension clinical class identification IV.Pulmonary arterial hypertension evaluation(type, functional capacity,haemodynamics)2250ESC Guidelines。
学术英语 医学 Unit 6 Text A 翻译
Unit 6 Text A寻求临终护理数十年前，大多数人在自己家中去世，但是医疗方面的进步已经改变了这一情况。
如今，大多数美国人在医院或是疗养院中度过生命的最终时光。
他们中有些人是为了治疗疾病进了医院，有些可能是选择长期住在疗养院。
越来越多的人在生命的尽头开始选择临终关怀。
死亡没有一个称得上“合适”的地点。
何况，我们死亡的地方，大多数情况下也并非我们可以决定的。
但如果有选择的机会，每个人及其家属，都应该考虑究竟怎样的临终护理最为适合，在哪里可以享受到这样的关怀，家人和朋友能否提供帮助，以及他们应该如何支付相应的费用。
医院及疗养院64岁的George有充血性心力衰竭病史。
一天晚上，他因为胸痛被送入医院。
他与他最亲近的人事先便已决定，在任何情况下都要让医生使用最大努力来延续他的生命。
所以当他需要相应的治疗时，他选择了医院，因为那里有全天候工作的医生和护士。
医院提供一整套的治疗、检查及其他医疗照护。
一旦George的心脏出现持续衰竭，医院的重症监护病房（ICU）或冠心病重症监护病房（CCU）就可以提供及时的救护。
尽管医院有相关的规定，在有些情况下执行具有一定的弹性。
如果George的医生认为他的病情并没有因为治疗有所好转，并濒临死亡，他的家属可以要求更加宽松的探视时间。
如果他的家属想从家中给他带一些私人物品，可以向工作人员询问物品的尺寸限制或是是否需要消毒。
不论George住在ICU、CCU还是两病床的病房，其家属都可以要求更多的私人空间。
在医院环境中，对临终病人来说，身边永远会有知道该如何照料他的医务人员。
这一点令病人及其家属得以安心。
已有越来越多的人在生命尽头的时候选择疗养院，因为在这里，护理人员是随叫随到的。
疗养院有时也被称为专业护理所，在临终护理方面有利有弊。
与医院不同，疗养院里并不是全天候都有医生在场。
然而，由于临终护理可以事先安排，在病人濒临死亡时，不需要事先咨询医生而开展照护。
如果濒死病人已经在疗养院住了一段时间，家属很可能已经和护理人员建立了一定的关系，因而与医院相比，这里的护理工作更具个性化。
帕金森病诊断标准解读
警示 征象
(10条)
Postuma RB，et al. Mov Disord. 2015 Oct;30(12):1591-601.
精选ppt
11
支持性标准
多巴胺能药物治疗具有明确且显著的有效应答 出现左旋多巴诱导的异动症 临床体格检查记录的单个肢体静止性震颤(既往或本次检查) 至少一项用于鉴别诊断PD特异性大于80%的辅助测试结果阳性
括轻微的改变。以上改变通过客观评分(治疗后 UPDRS-III
评分改善超过 30%)或主观(可靠的患者或看护者提供明确证
实存在显著改变)记录
2
明确且显著的「开/关」期波动；必须在某种程度上包括可预
测的剂末现象
Postuma RB，et al. Mov Disord. 2015 Oct;30(12):1591-601.
• 吸气性呼吸功能障碍：白天或夜间吸气性喘鸣或者频繁的吸气性叹息
• 在发病 5 年内出现严重的自主神经功能障碍
Postuma RB，et al. Mov Disord. 2015 Oct;30(12):1591-601.
精选ppt
21
警示征象(Red Flags)
• 在发病 3 年内由于平衡损害导致的反复(>1 次/年)摔倒 • 发病 10 年内出现不成比例地颈部前倾(肌张
精选ppt
13
推荐用于PD诊断的辅助测试
• 符合该项标准的辅助诊断测试是指在大多数研究中(至少3个来自不 同中心的研究)标记物具有大于80%的特异性 ✓ 嗅觉减退 ✓ MIBG闪烁扫描清晰记录心脏交感神经去神经
1. Postuma RB，et al. Mov Disord. 2015 Oct;30(12):1591-601.
医学考博有关的英文阅读理解
医学考博有关的英文阅读理解English:Studying for a doctorate in medicine involves a rigorous and in-depth examination of various medical disciplines. The program typically includes coursework, clinical rotations, and research. Doctoral students are required to attend classes in advanced medical subjects such as biochemistry, pharmacology, pathology, and physiology. They also spend time in clinical settings, working with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians. Additionally, they are expected to conduct original research and produce a dissertation that contributes to the field of medicine. The journey to obtaining a doctorate in medicine is a demanding but rewarding one, requiring a deep commitment to the study of medicine and a passion for advancing the understanding and practice of healthcare.中文翻译:攻读医学博士学位需要对各种医学学科进行严格深入的考察。
适应adaptation名词解释
适应adaptation名词解释
适应（Adaptation）是一个生物学名词，指细胞和由其构成的组织、器官对于内、外环境中各种有害因子的刺激作用而产生的非损伤性应答反应。
这个过程在形态学上一般表现为萎缩、肥大、增生和化生，涉及到细胞数目、细胞体积或细胞分化的改变。
具体反应机制包括细胞特殊的受体功能向上或向下调节，新合成的蛋白质或由合成一种蛋白质向合成另一种蛋白质转换，以及某种原有蛋白质产生过多。
同时，适应也包含着生物结构的适应性，指的是生物各层次的结构（从大分子、细胞、组织、器官，乃至由个体组成的种群等）都与功能相适应。
这种结构与相关的功能（包括行为、习性等）适合于该生物在一定环境条件下的生存和延续。
例如，鱼鳃的结构及其呼吸功能适合于鱼在水环境中的生存，陆地脊椎动物肺的结构及其功能适合于该动物在陆地环境的生存。
雅思医学作文模板及范文
雅思医学作文模板及范文英文回答：Medical IELTS Essay Template。
Introduction。
Begin with a clear thesis statement that addresses the prompt.Provide a brief overview of the topic and its significance.Body Paragraph 1。
Discuss the first key argument/evidence supporting your thesis.Provide specific examples, data, or research findings to support your claim.Use transitional words to connect ideas and ensure coherence.Body Paragraph 2。
Discuss the second key argument/evidence supporting your thesis.Again, provide specific examples, data, or research findings to support your claim.Consider contrasting viewpoints or counterarguments and address them briefly.Body Paragraph 3 (optional)。
If necessary, provide an additional argument or perspective to further strengthen your thesis.Use transitional words to indicate the shift in perspective or the logical flow of ideas.Conclusion。
医师执业资格证职业范围移植
医师执业资格证职业范围移植英文回答：Scope of Medical Practice for Medical Licensure Transfer.The scope of medical practice for medical licensure transfer varies depending on the regulations of the licensing board or agency in each jurisdiction. In general, the scope of practice for physicians who have transferred their license is the same as the scope of practice for physicians who are initially licensed in that jurisdiction.However, there may be some limitations or restrictions on the scope of practice for physicians who havetransferred their license. For example, some jurisdictions may require physicians who have transferred their license to complete additional training or education before they are allowed to practice certain procedures or treatments. Other jurisdictions may have different requirements forphysicians who have transferred their license from out-of-state.It is important to check with the licensing board or agency in the jurisdiction where you plan to practice to determine the scope of practice for physicians who have transferred their license.中文回答：医师执业资格证职业范围移植。
医学英语句法结构
医学英语句法结构1. 广泛使用被动结构。
医学英语句法的一个特征是广泛使用被动结构（passive structure）来叙述医学现象和事物的发生、过程、性质、特点、目标、原因等。
医学英语句法中广泛使用被动结构，是医学英语文体追求叙述客观性和规范性的一个重要手段。
客观的表述是科学尊重客观事实的一个重要标志。
被动结构由于避免了不必要的人称代词，不仅避免叙事时的主观性，又使句子结构更加经济、紧凑。
2. 经常使用存在句结构和形式主语结构。
医学英语句法另一个特征是经常使用存在句结构和形式主语结构。
英语的存在句表示何处存在何人或何物，或表示何处出现或消失何人或何物。
英语存在句结构基本形式是There + be + 名词性短语+ 修饰成分。
3. 普遍使用非谓语动词形式。
非谓语动词形式包括动词不定式短语、动名词短语和分词短语，在句子中充当句子的主语、表语、宾语和补足语。
动词不定式短语和动名词短语可充当句子的主语、表语、宾语和补足语。
动词不定式和分词短语可在句子中作状语，表示时间、方式、目的、原因、结果等意义。
4. 频繁使用介词词组。
介词词组用来准确而简练表示事物之间的时间、空间、隶属、依附、因果等逻辑关系。
在医学英汉翻译中善用介词来表达各种关系，是翻译好医学英语的一个要点。
5. 大量使用名词化结构。
名词化（nominalization）是指使用抽象名词及其构成的介词词组来表达动作意义。
用抽象名词及其构成的介词词组来表达，可取得简练、凝重和浓缩的效果。
名词化手段有助于使句子的语体更加正式，更具有抽象特点。
6. 广泛使用从句和长句。
医学科学要阐明人的生命健康与各种事物间错综复杂的关系，需要用复杂的语法关系来表达复杂的思维，单个简单句和并列的简单句难以做到这一点，而需要借组各种从句。
除同位语从句外，英语的句法结构中使用更多的是定语从句和状语从句。
从句交错重叠、句子长度大，这是医学英语的又一个文体特点。
我对医生点个赞作文英语
The doctor deserves a thumbsup for their dedication and commitment to saving lives and improving the health of their patients.Here are some reasons why doctors are worthy of praise:cation and Training:Becoming a doctor requires years of education and training. They invest a significant amount of time and effort to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to treat various medical conditions.2.Long Working Hours:Doctors often work long hours,including nights,weekends,and holidays.They are always ready to attend to their patients needs,even when it means sacrificing their personal time.3.Patient Care:Doctors provide compassionate care to their patients.They listen to their concerns,diagnose illnesses,and offer treatment plans that are tailored to each individuals needs.4.Continual Learning:Medicine is a constantly evolving field.Doctors must stay uptodate with the latest research and advancements in their specialty to provide the best possible care.5.Coping with Stress:The job of a doctor can be incredibly stressful,dealing with lifeanddeath situations regularly.They must maintain their composure and make critical decisions under pressure.6.Advocacy for Health:Doctors often advocate for their patients,ensuring they receive the necessary care and resources,and sometimes even fighting for policy changes that benefit public health.7.Research and Innovation:Many doctors contribute to medical research,pushing the boundaries of what is known and developing new treatments and procedures that can save lives.munity Service:Some doctors go above and beyond their regular duties to provide medical services in underserved areas or during times of crisis,such as natural disasters or pandemics.9.Ethical Practice:Doctors adhere to a strict code of ethics,ensuring that they treat all patients with dignity and respect,and prioritize their wellbeing above all else.10.Inspiring Others:The work of doctors can inspire others to pursue careers inhealthcare,contributing to the overall advancement of the medical field.In conclusion,doctors play a vital role in society,and their hard work,dedication,and commitment to their patients wellbeing make them deserving of a thumbsup.。
soap式问题描述法在住院医师学术思维培养中的应用
soap式问题描述法在住院医师学术思维培养中的应用以《P式问题描述法在住院医师学术思维培养中的应用》为标题，写一篇3000字的中文文章近年来，随着医药卫生技术的不断发展，医生在医疗实践中扮演着更加重要的角色。
同时，住院医师学术思维培养也受到了越来越多的重视。
P式问题描述法（PQRST）作为一种常用的思维技巧，已经成为学术思维培养的一种重要手段之一。
本文通过系统讨论、分析和总结，将重点放在P式问题描述法在住院医师学术思维培养中的应用，旨在为住院医师的学习提供参考和建议。
首先，P式问题描述法是一种问题描述技术，根据所要解决的问题提出了五个相关的问题，分别是P（情况）、Q（原因）、R（症状）、S（影响）、T（解决方案）。
通过对P式问题描述法进行深入研究，住院医师可以更好地理解和分析问题，并能够有效地组织想法和解决问题，从而提高学术思维培养能力。
其次，P式问题描述法可以用于住院医师学术思维培养的多种场合。
首先，当患者来就诊时，住院医师可以通过P式问题描述法科学地征求患者的病史，以更全面准确地判断病情，并采取更有效更合理的治疗方案。
此外，当用药时，住院医师可以借助P式问题描述法，通过对药物的来源、剂量、用法和作用等进行全面的分析，以确保药物使用的安全性。
在临床实践中，住院医师可以采用P式问题描述法，对各种争论性话题进行深入研究，从而发展自己独特的专业视角。
最后，在实施P式问题描述法时，需要注意以下几点：首先，要确定清晰的问题，以避免想法中出现混乱和空洞；其次，要记住重要概念，及时进行对比和对照，以增强有效思维；最后，要聚焦解决的重点，使用P式问题描述法来进行详细的细节推理，以达到更好的问题解决效果。
综上所述，P式问题描述法在住院医师学术思维培养中有着重要的作用。
它不仅有助于住院医师科学地搜集病史，合理用药，还能够促进住院医师对实际问题的深入研究，增强有效思维，进一步提高学术思维培养能力。
因此，建议住院医师们重视运用P式问题描述法，以提升实际临床实践的水平。
普通遗传学名词解释(英文)
遗传（heredity）:指亲代与子代之间相似的现象。
变异（variation）:指亲代与子代之间、子代个体之间存在的差异。
染色体（chromosome）:指细胞分裂过程中，由染色质聚缩而呈现为一定数目和形态的复合结构。
有丝分裂（mitosis）:又称间接分裂，是高等植物细胞分裂的主要方式，包含细胞核分裂和细胞质分裂两个紧密相连的过程。
减数分裂（meiosis）:又称成熟分裂，是性母细胞成熟时，配子形成过程中发生的一种特殊的有丝分裂方式。
由于形成子细胞内染色体数目比性母细胞减少一半，因此称为减数分裂。
联会（synapsis）:减数分裂偶线期开始出现同源染色体配对现象，即联会。
姊妹染色单体（sister chromatid）：二价体中一条染色体的两条染色单体，互称为姊妹染色单体。
同源染色体（homologous chromosome）：指形态、结构和功能相似的一对染色体，他们一条来自父本，一条来自母本。
性状（character）：生物体所表现的形态特征和生理特性的总称。
单位性状（unit character）:把生物体所表现的性状总体区分为各个单位，这些分开来的性状称为单位性状。
相对性状（contrasting character）等位基因(allele)：位于同源染色体上，位点相同，控制着同一性状的基因。
测交（test cross）：是指被测验的个体与隐性纯合体间的杂交。
基因型(genotype)：也称遗传型，生物体全部遗传物质的组成，是性状发育的内因。
表现型(phenotype)：生物体在基因型的控制下，加上环境条件的影响所表现性状的总和。
染色单体（Chromatid）又称染色分体，是染色体的一部分。
在减数分裂或有丝分裂过程中，复制了的染色体中的两条子染色体。
非姐妹染色单体（non-sister chromatid）:两个同源染色体中由不同着丝点相连的染色单体，就叫非姐妹染色单体。
着丝粒(centromere)：在细胞分裂时染色体被纺锤丝所附着的位置。
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Applicable Skills
Software Development Programming languages Platforms
Operating systems, Networking, Parallel computing, Program veri cation, User interface C, C++, Java, Perl, FORTRAN, LISP, SML, Pascal, Prolog Most versions of UNIX, Windows, TCP/IP, X11, Motif, Mach
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Academic Experience
(continued)
Relevant Experience
06/92 to 08/94 and Summer 95 Maintaining and improving a very large theorem proving system TPS, which consists of more than 100,000 lines of code written in Common Lisp. Assistant Professor Dept. of Computer Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University 07/88 to 06/92 Responsible for teaching Mathematical Logic and Discrete Mathematics at undergraduate level and Type Theory at graduate level. Also responsible for designing a programing language based upon equational reasoning and supervising the internship of undergraduate students.
Papers on line
Published papers Available at /~hongwei/publications.html Manuscripts Available at
/~hongwei/manuscripts.html
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Hongwei Xi
Department of Computer Science and Engineering Oregon Graduate Institute of Science and Technology P. O. Box 91000 Portland, OR 97291-1000 Home: +1 503 649 7624 Work: +1 503 748 1584 Fax: +1 503 748 1548 Internet: hongwei@ World Wide Web: /~hongwei/
02/96 to 08/98 This work strengthens the current type system of the functional programming language ML with a restricted form of dependent types. It not only provides the programmer with signi cantly more information to catch program errors at compile-time, but also enables the compiler writer to obtain type information for optimizing code generation. As a signi cant application, we have shown how to eliminate array bound checks in real code. Instructor Carnegie Mellon Action Program Summer 1997 An introductory calculus course for minority students Instructor Dept. of Mathematical Sciences, Carnegie Mellon Univ. Summer 1997 and Summer 1996 Calculus II for Humanities and Social Sciences
Consultant The 8th Construction Company, Shanghai 07/90 to 05/91 Designing a graphics system on PC for drawing owcharts and monitoring construction schedules. Consultant The Construction Branch of Bao Shan Steel Factory, Shanghai 06/91 to 06/92 Using software monitoring the construction of the No. 3 furnace in Bao Shan Steel Factory, which is the largest in China.
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Refereed Papers
(continued)
Publication in Journals
Publication in Conferences
(continued) Hongwei Xi, Upper Bounds for Standardization and an Application, Journal of Symbolic Logic (to appear). An earlier version with the same title appeared in Proceedings of the 5th Kurt Godel Colloquium, 1997. Peter B. Andrews, Matthew Bishop, Sunil Issar, Dan Nesmith, Frank Pfenning, and Hongwei Xi, TPS: A Theorem Proving System for Classical Type Theory, Journal of Automated Reasoning, 16(3), pp. 321-353, 1996. Hongwei Xi, On recursively enumerable degrees (in Chinese with English abstract), Math. Semiannual of Nanjing University, China, 1989.
Hongwei Xi and Frank Pfenning, Dependent Types in Practical Programming. In Proceedings of ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages (POPL), pp. 214{227, San Antonio, January 1999. Hongwei Xi and Frank Pfenning, Eliminating Array Bound Checking Through Dependent Types. In Proceedings of ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI), pp. 249{257, Montreal, June 1998. Hongwei Xi, Towards Automated Termination Proofs through \Freezing" . In Proceedings of 9th International Conference on Rewriting Techniques and Applications (RTA), LNCS, vol. 1379, pp. 271{285, Tsukuba, April 1998. Hongwei Xi, Evaluation under Lambda-Abstraction. In Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Programming Languages, Implementations, Logics, and Programs (PLILP), LNCS, vol. 1292, pp. 259-273, Southampton, September 1997. Hongwei Xi, Upper Bounds for Standardization and an Application. In Proceedings of the 5th Kurt Godel Colloquium (KGC), LNCS, vol. 1289, pp. 335-348, Vienna, August 1997. A detailed version is to appear in the Journal of Symbolic Logic. Hongwei Xi, Simulating Eta-Expansions with Beta-Reductions in the Second-Order Polymorphic Lambda-Calculus. In Proceedings of Logical Foundations of Computer Science (LFCS), LNCS, vol. 1234, pp. 399-409, Yaroslavl, July 1997. Hongwei Xi, Weak and Strong Beta Normalizations in Typed Lambda-Calculi. In Proceedings of Typed Lambda Calculi and Applications (TLCA), LNCS, vol. 1210, pp. 390-404, Nancy, April 1997. Hongwei Xi, Dead Code Elimination through Dependent Types. In Proceedings of First International Workshop on Practical Aspects of Declarative Languages(PADL '99), San Antonio, January 1999. Hongwei Xi, Generalized Lambda-Calculi (abstract). In the meeting report of the 4th Workshop on Logic, Language, Information and Computation (WoLLIC), Logic Journal of Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics (IGPL), vol. 5(6), pp. 925-927, Fortaleza (Ceara), August 1997. Peter B. Andrews, Matthew Bishop, Sunil Issar, Dan Nesmith, Frank Pfenning, and Hongwei Xi, TPS: An interactive and automatic tool for proving theorems of type theory, In Je rey J. Joyce and Carl-Johan H. Seger, editors, Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Higher Order Logic Theorem Proving and Its Applications, Springer-Verlag LNCS 780, pp 366-370, Vancouver, August 1993. Hongwei Xi, On branching and nonbranching recursively enumerable degrees (in Chinese), National Logic Conference, Shantou University, China, October 1990.