Phonology音韵学框架
Phonology 音位学
Phonology is the study of sound patterns of language (i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and thefunction of each sound.It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the formthey do.Phone 音子: the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unitii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]Phoneme 音位：are abstract mental units that represent soundsi) phonological unitii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked withMinimal pairs 最小对比对: The sounds that cause changes in the changing of a word arecalled the “minimal pairs”Allophone s 音位变体：phonetic forms that don ’t contrast are called allophones, they are the various pronunciations ofa phoneme or phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme. Phonemic Transcription : / / =Broad TranscriptionPhonetic Transcription :[ ]=Narrow TranscriptionComplementary distribution 互补分布: when two phones are mutually exclusive(i.e. appear in differentenvironments), they are in complementary distribution( which means they are allophones of the same phoneme)..peak [ph]----speak [p]two different phones . [ph ] , [ p] are variants of the phoneme /p/.allophones of the same phoneme. in complementary distribution.This phenomenon is called Allophony(音位变体现象) or Allophonic Variation （同音位变体）.Free variation 自由变体：If two sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound foranother does not cause a change of meaning, they are said to be in free variationThe allophones can be in complementary distribution （互补分布） if they occur in different contexts.peak ---- speakaspirated [ph]---- unaspirated [p]The allophones can be in free variation （自由变体）if they occur in the same context.cup [kh ʌph] ---- cup[kh ʌp¬]Phonological ProcessesA target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environment s or context s.Phonological rules are general rules that indicate this change.•Assimilation (同化) : can [kãn], tan [tãn]•Epenthesis (增音): boxes [bכksәz]Assimilation:Phonological Term Phonetic Term ExamplesAssimilation:Coarticulation:regressive assimilation逆同化anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音can [kæn]tenth [tenθ]progressive assimilation顺同化perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音map [mæp][+nasal] / ______[+nasal][+dental] /______[+dental][+velar] /______[+velar][-voiced] Epenthesis：•The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.•The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)•The /әz/ appears after sibi lants (咝音)•Epenthesis rule•z s / [-voice, C] _____ (Devoicing)•Ø ә / sibilant _____ z (Epenthesis)(Ø indicates an empty position.)Distinctive Features•Speech sounds are divided up into classes according to a number of properties.•The property that can distinguish one phoneme from another is a distinctive featureSuprasegmental features （超音位特征）are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllabic structure: two parts, the rhyme(or rime)(韵基) and the onset(节首). As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus(节核), the consonant(s) after it will be termed coda(节尾).Sonority scale响阶：。
英语语言学 框架知识 中文版
一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: （1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the sameobject is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武断性2） productivity 创造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement移位性5） cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
语言学Phonology
[l] in [pleis]
pronounced.
Allophones are any of the different variants of a phoneme, which share more phonetic features in common and which are phonetically conditioned each.
sounds are put together (sound patterns) and used to convey meaning Phoneme
2.1 Some important definitions:
2.1.1 Phone（音子）; 2.1.2 Phoneme（音位）& Allophones（音位变体）;
2.2 Ways to identify phonemes:
2.2.1 Minimal pair（最小对立对）; 2.2.2 Complementary distribution（互补分布）; 2.2.3 Phonetic similarity（语音相似性）; 2.2.4 Free variation（自由变体）.
最小音差对是指除在相同位置上的发音 2.2.1 Minimal Pair 不同以外，其余部分发音都相同的两个词。
Examples:
Definition:
[pit] vs. [bit] [bet] vs. [bæ t] [mo] vs. [mõ]
A minimal pair refers to two different words which are identical in every way in pronunciation except one sound that takes place at the same position.
西方主要翻译理论学派总结
most basic structures of Chomsky’s model,for Nida,kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate(详尽复杂的) surface structures[用来构成语言复杂表层结构的基本结构成分].Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor(受体)language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:Literal transfer字面转移--minimal最低度~--literary书面~2）Analysis:generative-transformational grammar（转换生成语法by Chomsky）’s four types of functional classEvent(verb)事件：行动、过程等发生的事Object(noun)实体：具体的人和物Abstract(quantities and qualities,adjective)抽象概念Relational(gender,qualities,prepositions and conjunctions)关系2,Basic factors in translation1)The nature of message:content V.S.form2)The purpose(s)of the author/translatorTypes of purposes identified by Nida:①for information②suggest a behavior③imperative(祈使，命令)purpose3)The audiences(4types):children;new literates;average literate adult;specialists3,Relatedness(相关)of language&culture4,Two basic orientations(方向)in translating1)Formal Equivalence(F-E):focuses on the message itself,in both form and content.•Principles governing F-E:①grammatical units语法单元②consistency in word usage词语用法前后一致，连贯性③meanings in terms of the source context源语语境意义2)D-E(dynamic equivalence):①based on the principle of equivalent effect(•Principles governing it)②aiming at complete naturalness of expression;③unnecessary to understand the source culture.•Economic~can be transferable with cultural~.实际上三种形式均可互相转化。
chapter 4 phonology
Rule 3: deletion rule(省略规则) A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. eg.(1) signature, designation, paradigmatic • (2) sign, design, paradigm deleted • In the second group, /g/ is _______.
• 音位有时还可能有free variants
互补分布
当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体 不区别意义，并且永远不会出现在相同的位 置上，那么它们被称为处于互补分布。 [p]/[pʰ]是两个不同的音子，即音位/p/的变化 形式。[p]只出现在[s]之后，而[pʰ]只出现在其 他位置。 /p/→[p]/[s]͟ [pʰ]剩余位置 注：——是/p/出现的位置
phonetics and phonology
Phonetics General (concerned with speech sounds as such without reference to their function in a particular language). Descriptive Classificatory Particular (having a particular language or languages in view) Functional (concerned with the working or functioning of speech sounds in a language or languages) Functional phonetics p137
自由变体
音系学笔记
2013．07．31第三讲1．非对比性音段与对比性音段的交替和对比2．底层概念。
对比性特征contrastive feature英语中的送气与不送气是羡余特征，而在汉语中则是对比性特征。
在对比性特征虽然能区分对比性音段，但对比性音段并不能区分语素（变体）。
一个音位总是一个音位传统结构主义音位学中所说的音位在生成音系学中是被推导出来。
而在传统结构主义音位学中，音位是基础性的东西，并非推导而来。
同一语素的表层交替形式必须满足一条基本原则：所有表层交替形式必须源于同一语素的底层形式，并且是同一套音系规则推导的结果。
不能通过音系规则联系起来的语素变体形式不能视为交替形式。
在音系学中，零形式也是重要的形式。
Ad hoc rule(专设规则，特殊规则)小结：交替不仅涉及非对比性音段或特征，而且涉及对比性音段或特征。
分析的步骤：1．观察与概括2．构拟所有语素的底层形式3．写出音系规则，确定音系规则的应用顺序4．写出推导过程词末阻塞音清化规则不管是推导出来的，还是直接源于底层的，同一符号具有相同的语音学解释。
（也就是说，它的发音与语音形式在同一种语言中应该是相同的）也有人认为，源于底层的和推导出来的语音形式不同（以闽南语的变调为例）。
需注意规则运用的程序dental-drop应用在先，l-drop应用在后，是后是词末阻塞音清化规则。
阻断bleeds 馈给feeds前一条规则的应用导致下一条规则不适用，则为阻断；前一条规则的应用导致下一条规则的适用，则为馈给。
Chamorro查莫罗语：元音的前化与弱化选择重读音节当底层。
Tonkawa：元音脱落对Tonkawa语元音脱落现象的分析说明抽象的底层表达形式（即在表层从不出现的形式）的必要性和合理性。
第一步：语素分析找出所有语素的所有表层形式root past passive neuter applied reciprocal golssfd第二步：构ＮＩ底层表达形式，写出音系规则并确定音系规则的应用顺序。
戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 2 Phonology
戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 2 Phonology●2.1语言的语音媒介●2.1.1语言的语音媒介定义：The limited range of sounds which are meaningful inhuman communication constitute the phonic medium of language在人类交流中有意义的、有限的声音构成了语言的语音媒介（就是人类可以用发音器官发出的，并且能在交流中起作用的那些声音）●2.1.2语音定义：The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds我们把其中单个的声音成为语音。
individual sounds 单个的声音语音the speech sounds●2.2语音学●2.2.1What is phonetics语音学phonetics 的定义●定义：Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.语音学是指对于语言的语音媒介进行得研究，它关注世界中的所有语音。
●2.2.2three branches of phonetics语音学被研究的三个角度●articulatory phonetics发音语音学●the longest history发展历史最悠久●auditory phonetics听觉语音学●acoustic phonetics声学语音学●recording the sounds waves on spectrograph用频谱仪记录声波●2.2.3 Organs of speech发音器官●the pharyngeal cavity咽腔--the throat喉咙●the oral cavity 口腔--the mouth嘴巴●speech organs发音器官●the tongue舌头●the uvula小舌●the soft palate or the velum软腭●the hard palate硬腭●the teeth ridge齿龈●the teeth齿●the lips唇●如何发音●舌和软腭阻塞-[k],[g]●硬腭和舌前之间的空间变窄--[j]●舌尖和齿龈之间的阻塞--[t][d]●前齿上部和舌尖部分阻塞--[θ][ð]●上唇和下唇阻塞--[f][v]●双唇之间阻塞--[m][n][ŋ]●the nasal cavity 鼻腔--the nose鼻子●鼻音化：鼻腔张开，让气流全部或部分通过，例如三个鼻辅音[m][n][ŋ]●通过声带震动产生的2个语音特征●voicing浊化●voiceless清音●2.2.4 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--broad and narrow transcriptions语言的正字法表征--宽式标音和严式标音●broad transcription宽式标音●国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet, 挑选出一个字母，用来代表一个语音●用代表字母的符号来标音the transcriptions with letter-symbols only transcription标音●narrow transcription严式标音●定义●“严式音标”用来记录“音素”，音标写在方括号 [ ] 之间。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
新篇简明英语语言学 Chapter Two Phonology
二、知识点2.2.1 Three branches of phonetics 语音学的三个分支⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（longest established, mostly developed ）Studies how speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Studies how sounds are perceived by the hearer.⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.2.2.2 Organs of Speech 发音器官1. Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔（the throat-喉咙）2. Oral cavity–口腔（the mouth-口）greatest source of modification of air stream found here 气流调节的最主要源泉来自口腔The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other所有器官中，舌头最灵活，而且比其他任何器官能控制更多的发音。
3. Nasal cavity–鼻腔（the nose-鼻）2.2.3 Orthogarphic representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcription 语音的正字表征—宽式和严式标音*Distinctions between broad and narrow transcriptionBroad transcription：the transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription：the transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类元音和辅音之间的实质性区别：元音产生的过程中，来自肺部的气流不受任何阻塞。
新编简明英语语言学 课件 chapter 2 音系学
双元音
Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
▪ Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
单元音
▪ Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音 [ai], [ei], [iə], [eə], [uə], [au], [əu], [ɔi].
Chapter 2 Phonology
▪ phonetics
--- What is ponetics? 什么是语音学
--- organs of speech 发音器官
--- Orthographic representation of speech sounds 语音的正字标音法
--- Classification of English speech sound 英语语音的分类
e.g. pit & spit
送气音和非送气音
Nasality -- nasal & non-nasal 鼻音和非鼻音
e.g. bank & back
Orthographic representation of speech sounds
---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)（国际音标） .The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.
chap2 phonetics
2.2 Organs of speech
The pharyngeal cavity:
Vibration (振动) of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in E n g l i s h .
英语元音表（31页）
• Cardinal vowel: are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowel of existing languages.
15
14
咽 腔
• A. The pharyngeal cavity: • 13 windpipe气管 12 glottis/vocal cords, 11 pharyngeal cavity • B. The oral cavity: • 1/2 lips, 3/4 teeth, 5 teeth ridge(alveolus), 牙龈6 hard palate,7 soft palate (velum), 14 uvula,小舌 8 tip of tongue, 9 blade of tongue, 10 back of tongue • C. Nasal cavity: 15
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view: From the speaker‘s point of view: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds, which results in articulatory phonetics.
英语语言学概论 Chapter4 Phonology(音位学)
Phonology(音位学)Phonetics is a study of the production,transmission and perception of speech sounds, and their physical properties.Phonemes音位are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. Allophones 音位变体are the different realizations of a particular phoneme in a language. Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment in a stream of speech.Minimal pair最小对立体：a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.3 conditions: 1 the two forms are different in meaning; 2 the two forms are different in one segment; 3 the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words: teach---cheat, read—dearIf two or more sounds never appear in the same enviornment, that is, each sound only appears in the enviornment where the other never occurs, they are in complementary distribution.互补分布pen—pet, pat—spat—tap, lead—realIf two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.Will—till 对比分布When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, they are in free variation. 自由变体A distinctive feature区别性特征is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,like /nasal/,/voiced/. put forward by Jakobson.The assimilation rule同化原则the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.Deletion rule删除: delete a sound although it is orthographically represented Sequential rules顺序:state the possible combination of phonemes and the constraints over such a combination for a language.suprasegmental features(超切分特征) features that have effect on more than one segment, which also known as prosody(韵律语音特征): stress, tone, intonation and juncture.stress(重音,重读) some nouns are stressed on the first syllables while the verbs are stressed on the second syllables:Tone(声调): the level of pitch that is used in a linguistically contrastive ways.Tone language: ma ma ma ma(妈,麻马骂)Intonation(语调) 5 intonations: the falling tones: certainty; the rising tones: uncertainty, the level tones: undecided yet whether known or unknown,juncture(连音): the boundary features that may demarcate grammatical units:A name an aimnarrow transcription(严式音标):symbolizes all the possible speech sounds, broad transcription(宽式音标): transcribes or indicates only the only those speech sounds that distinguish one word from another in a language . It is phonemic.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题3
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能 metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学 phonology形态学 Morphology句法学 syntax语义学 semantics语用学 pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one ofthe unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of thevocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征 aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音 diphthongs,有元音过渡 vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingb.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学 phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
古代汉语训诂学知识点总结
古代汉语训诂学知识点总结一、训诂学的概念训诂学（Phonology）是古代汉语研究的一部分，主要研究古代文字的发音和意义。
训诂学包括音韵学和古文字学两大部分，音韵学主要研究古文字的音韵变化规律，古文字学主要研究古文字的形体结构和发音意义的相互关系。
训诂学研究的对象是古代文字，是对古代文字的发音和意义的研究。
二、训诂学的发展训诂学最早起源于春秋战国时期，当时的学者开始研究古代文字的发音和意义。
随着时间的推移，训诂学不断发展，形成了不同的派别和学术体系。
宋代刘大櫆、戴复古、舒元成等学者，明代吴承恩、刘玉山、毛晋等学者，清代戴震、许衡等学者，都对古代文字的发音和意义进行了深入研究，丰富了训诂学的理论体系，并提出了许多有价值的见解。
三、训诂学的基本内容1、音韵学：音韵学主要研究古代文字的音韵变化规律。
古代文字是通过声母、韵母和声调来表示发音的。
音韵学研究的内容包括声母的发音规律、韵母的发音规律、声调的发音规律等。
古代文字的音韵变化规律是古代汉语的基础，对于了解古代汉语的发音和意义具有非常重要的意义。
2、古文字学：古文字学主要研究古代文字的形体结构和发音意义的相互关系。
古代文字的形体结构包括字形结构、字义结构和字音结构等。
字形结构主要研究字的形体特征，包括笔画结构、构造方式等；字义结构主要研究字的意义特征，包括义符、义音等；字音结构主要研究字的发音特征，包括声母、韵母和声调等。
古文字学的研究内容非常广泛，对于了解古代汉语的文字特点和语言发展具有非常重要的意义。
四、训诂学的主要方法训诂学的研究方法主要有文字考证法、文字比较法、音韵演变法、字形分析法等。
1、文字考证法：文字考证法是训诂学的基本方法之一，主要通过文字的形体结构和发音意义的相互关系，找出古代文字的发音和意义。
文字考证法是训诂学的基本方法之一，是研究古代文字的发音和意义的重要手段。
2、文字比较法：文字比较法是训诂学的一种方法，主要通过比较不同时期、不同地区、不同文化背景的文字形体结构和发音意义，找出古代文字的发音和意义。
语言学phono的logy音韵学
❖ Distinctive features (binary features)
Phone, phoneme and allophone
（音素、音位、音位变体）P37
1 Phone （音素）
Phone is a term used to refer to the smallest perceptible discrete （不连续的）segment of sound in a stream of speech. Phones do not necessarily distinguish words from each other.
n
0
l.r
J
❖ 1. voiced palatal affricate /d3/ ❖ 2. voiceless labiodental fricative /" ❖ 3. voiced alveolar stop /d/
• /g p b d/ • /f p m 9 v b / • /z v s d g / • /t z d n s / • / m n b r]/ */gkbdp vt/
Bilabial Labiode Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar glottal ntal
Stops
VL P VD b
t
k
d
g
Fricatives VL
f
s
J
h
VD affricates VL
VD
V
dz
3
tj
d3
Nasals Liquids glides
VD m VD VD w
The oral cavity
•:* The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity. The speech organs located in this cavity are:
音韵学复习提纲
音韵学复习提纲1.什么是音韵学？音韵学的分支？音韵学(historical phonology)，又叫声韵学，或者历史语音学。
是研究汉语各个时期的语音系统及其演变的学科。
是一门传统的学科，已经有上千年的历史。
在古代是“小学”的一个门类，是“经学”的附庸。
音韵学可以分为四个门类：今音学：以《切韵》系韵书爲对象，研究魏晋南北朝到隋唐时期汉语的语音系统。
这里的“今”是传统意义上的。
（中古音）古音学：是相对“今音学”来说的，以《诗经》的用韵和谐声字爲主要材料，研究先秦两汉时期汉语的语音系统。
（上古音）等韵学：得名于等韵图。
用字母、等、呼等概念分析反切原理和发音方法，并以韵图的形式分析汉语的音节结构。
北音学：对象是近代反映北方语音的韵书、韵图。
（近代音）2.关于声母的概念（1）声母聲母(initial consonant)是指音節開頭的輔音。
在音節開頭没有輔音的情况下，也可以認爲存在一個“零聲母”。
而實際上普通話中真正的零聲母是非常少的。
實際發音中往往帶有一个喉塞音或同部位的半元音。
聲母由輔音構成，但是輔音並不一定是聲母。
輔音還可以充當韻尾。
（-m, -n, -ŋ, -p, -t, -k, -l, -ʔ）。
有些輔音（一般是響輔音）還可以自成音節：呣m（北京），五ŋ、唔m（廣州）。
甚至跟聲母相拚成一个音節：湯thŋ，鋼kŋ，郎nŋ，桑sŋ（廈門）。
（2）声类反切上字的分类，由反切上字系联、归纳而来。
《广韵》中452个反切上字，最多可以分析为52声类。
（3）字母在音韵学上，古代学者称呼声母的别名，指字音的开头部分。
字母的產生與佛教的傳播有關。
在翻譯佛經的過程中，人們接觸到一種跟漢語、漢字完全不同的語言和文字，即梵語文。
梵文是一種拚音文字，以輔音字母爲中心，元音用附加符号表示。
受梵文的啟發，中國的音韻學家創立了字母。
最早創制字母的人一般認爲是唐末的和尚守温。
他的字母有三十個，見於敦煌發現的《守温韻學殘卷》。
现在音韵学上流传的三十六字母是经后人曾补过的，它大致代表了唐、宋间汉语语音系统的三十六个声母。