The Fuel Temperature Variation Used as Fuel Diesel-Palm Oil Mixtures under Constant Fuel Consump
气候变化的原因英语作文
气候变化的原因英语作文Climate change is a complex and multifaceted issue that has been attracting increasing attention from people all over the world. The causes of climate change are diverse and range from natural factors to anthropogenic activities. In this article, I will explore the reasons for climate change in detail.Natural factors play a significant role in climate change. One of the main natural causes is volcanic eruptions. When volcanoes erupt, they release large amounts of gases and ash into the atmosphere, which can affect the Earth's climate. For example, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 released a large amount of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, which led to a temporary cooling effect known as "volcanic winter".Another natural factor is the variation in solar radiation. The amount of solar radiation received by the Earth can vary due to changes in the Sun's output and theEarth's orbit. For instance, a decrease in solar radiation can lead to cooler temperatures and vice versa. However, the impact of natural factors on climate change isrelatively small compared to anthropogenic activities.Anthropogenic activities are the primary cause of climate change. One of the main anthropogenic factors is the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane. These gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to global warming. The main sources of greenhouse gas emissions are fossil fuel combustion and deforestation.Fossil fuel combustion is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. The burning of coal, oil, and gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. As the demand for energy continues to grow, fossil fuel combustion is expected to remain a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions in the future.Deforestation is another important source of greenhouse gas emissions. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from theatmosphere and store it in their trunks and branches. However, when trees are cut down, the carbon dioxide they have absorbed is released back into the atmosphere. Deforestation has occurred extensively in tropical rainforests, which are rich in biodiversity and play a crucial role in maintaining the Earth's climate.In addition to greenhouse gas emissions, other anthropogenic activities also contribute to climate change. For example, land-use change, such as the conversion of natural habitats into agricultural land, can affect the Earth's climate by altering the albedo (reflectivity) ofthe surface. Industrialization and urbanization have led to increases in air pollution and the release of aerosols, which can affect cloud formation and precipitation patterns.The impact of climate change is already being felt around the world. Rising temperatures are leading tomelting glaciers and sea level rise, which can have devastating effects on coastal communities and island nations. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and droughts, are becoming more frequent andsevere. These events cause significant damage to infrastructure, disrupt economic activities, and pose a threat to human lives.The solutions to climate change require global cooperation and action. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions through energy efficiency, renewable energy, and sustainable transportation are crucial. Protecting and restoring forests can help mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Promoting sustainable land use and managing natural resources responsibly can also help mitigate the impact of climate change.In conclusion, climate change is a complex issue that results from a combination of natural factors and anthropogenic activities. The primary cause of climate change is the emission of greenhouse gases, particularly from fossil fuel combustion and deforestation. The impact of climate change is already being felt and requires urgent action to mitigate its effects and adapt to the newrealities of a changing climate.。
BOSCH 氧传感器 LSF 标准
Produkt / Product:Heated Planar Lambda Sensor Typ / Type:LSF 4.2Bestellnummer / Part Number:0 258 006 ... Angebotszeichnung / Offer Drawing: A 258 ... ...Bemerkung / Comment:Nr. Index SeitePageÄnderungRevisionDatumDateGS-EX/ENG2-HamGS-EX/ENG--Erstausgabe / First Edition27.5.03gez Hamann gez NeumannContents1.Characteristics32.Application conditions53.Functional values84.Environmental test specification125.Carrying out tests166.Evaluation of field parts177.Design variations188.Installation instructions19Reference SpecificationsApplication guideline KGS_LSHandling instruction Y 258 E00 000Temperature measurement sensors Y 258 E00 006Test method: measurement temperature and Y 258 E00 007thermoshockMeasurement in propane gas Y 258 P02 042Measurement in synthetic gas Y 258 E00 004For design variations different values are marked.For explanation of variations see section 7.GeneralThe lambda sensor LSF4 is a planar 2-state λ=1 sensor of ZrO2 (Nernst-principle) with an integrated heater.It can be used for 2-state closed loop control of λ=1 automotive engines as well as catalyst monitoring sensor in OBD systems.Note: values signed with [N] in this document are nominal values or guide values. They depend directly on other values which are specified with tol-erances elsewhere in this paper.1.Characteristics1.1Electrical connection-sensor signal:2-pole, isolated ground-sensor heater:2-pole1.2Isolation resistance:(all measurements in static air, heater off)-between housing and each heater- and sensorcircuit connector pin for new sensors atroom temperature, measured with 800V DC:≥ 30 MΩ-between heater and sensor circuit for newsensors at room temp., meas. with 800V DC:≥ 30 MΩ-between heater and sensor circuit at 570°Chexagon temperature, new and after agingacc. to section 4.1, measured with 12V DC:≥ 500 kΩ-between sensor circuit and housing at 570°Chexagon temperature, new and after agingacc. to section 4.1, measured with 12V DC:≥ 10 kΩ1.3Heater performanceNominal heater power with 13 V heater voltagein propane gas burner Y 258 P02 042 at 350°C:7 Watt[N]Short term max. heater current with13 Volt at -40°C ambient temperature: ≤ 2.1 A[N]Nominal heater cold resistance atroom temperature for new sensor,including cable and connector:9.0 Ω[N]1.4 Heater supply Nominal voltage:12 VMaximum permissible effective heater voltage V H,eff,max - continuous:12 ... 14 V - max. 1 % of total life time ≤ 15 V(exhaust gas temperature ≤ 850°C)- short-term for max. 75 s.≤ 18 V(exhaust gas temperature ≤ 350°C)Maximum system supply voltage V Batt,max ≤ 16.5 V (with duty cycle of heater to V H,eff,max )- short time voltage peak for 60ms≤ 28 V(10 times over lifetime,ceramic temperature ≥ -40°C)Test voltage:13±0.1 V(for tests in section 3 an 4)Minimum frequency of heater duty cycle control:≥ 2 HzNote: the use of the sensor with 24V power systems is not permissible except if a voltage converter systems is used.During the condensation water phase the heater power must be limited (by heater power duty cycling), to rule out thermo shock damage of the sensor ceramic, see measuring method Y 258 E00 007.Heater voltage during condensation water phase V H,eff ≤ 4 V← application specific → time after start2.Application conditions2.1Temperature measurementsTemperature measurements are performed with a special sensor equipped with NiCrNi thermocouples, see sketch. Sensor Type "MABCD" has measurementpoints at the upper side of the PTFE formed hose (T upperhose), the cable grom-met (T grommet), the hexagon of the sensor housing (T hexagon) and for the exhaust gas temperature (T exhaustgas).For more information see description of temperature measurement sensorsY 258 E00 006 and measurement method Y 258 E00 007.T Exhaustgas T Grommet T Upperhose2.2Storage temperature (passive):-40°C ... +100°CStorage conditions see handling instruction Y 258 E00 0002.3Operating temperaturesExhaust gas (T Exhaustgas):≤ 930°CMinimum exhaust gas temperatureis to be tested application specific.Recommendation:≥ 150°CHexagon of the sensor housing (T Hexagon):≤ 570°CCable grommet (PTFE formed hose)- sensor side (T Grommet):≤ 250°C- cable side (upperhose crimp, T Upperhose):≤ 200°CCable and protective sleeve:≤ 250°CConnector:≤ 120°Cresp. according toconnector supplier spec.2.4Maximum temperatures2.4.1max. 250 h accumulated over lifetimeExhaust gas (T Exhaustgas):≤ 1030°CHexagon of the sensor housing (T Hexagon):≤ 650°C2.4.2max. 40 h accumulated over lifetime in intervals of max. 10 minutesCable grommet (PTFE formed hose)- sensor side (T Grommet):≤ 280°C- cable side (upperhose crimp, T Upperhose):≤ 230°CCable and protective sleeve:≤ 280°CNotes:If the gas temperature of 930°C is exceeded, the heater power must beswitched off.If the max. gas temperature exceeds 930°C or hexagon temperature exceeds570°C, the use of a longer thread boss is recommended (see section 8.9).If the operating temperature is exceeded (within the max. temperaturelimits) for more then 10 minutes without break, the sensor function might be affected during this time.2.5When condensation water is present at exhaust side, the heater power of thesensor must be limited, see 1.4.2.6Permissible vibrations(measured at the sensor housing)Stochastic vibrations:≤ 1000 m/s2(peak level)Sinusoidal vibrations-vibration displacement:≤ 0.3 mm-vibration acceleration:≤ 300 m/s22.7Continuous DC, sensor circuit≤| 10 µA |exhaust gas temperature ≥ 350°CContinuous AC (f ≥ 1 Hz)≤ 10 µAexhaust gas temperature ≥ 350°C2.8Maximum sensor internal resistance that can beused for indication of ready-to-control mode:10 kΩ2.9Permissible fuel additivesIn accordance with DIN EN228 for commerciallyavailable unleaded fuel.For use of leaded fuel see section 6.22.10Oil consumption and oil brandPermissible figures and data must be determined by thecustomer by the way of adequate large-scale tests.Guide value: ≤ 0.7 l/1000 km2.11LifetimeThe technical development of the sensor is aligned to a service life of160.000 km and a maximum life time of 10 years.A sensor with the protection tube variation “d4” (see sec. 7.1) is designedfor a service life of 250.000 km and a maximum life time of 15 years.Failure criterion is the non-compliance with the functional values asmentioned in section 6.The following conditions must be fulfilled in order to reach this service life:-Application conditions acc. to section 2.-Installation conditions acc. to section 8.-Checking of each application/installation location according to applica-tion guideline KGS_LS-Usage of a RB approved sensor connector with single chamber sealing and gold plated sensor signal contacts.The commercial warranty and liability is regulated in the conditions ofdelivery, independent of the above figures. The aforesaid information onlifetime for which the product has been construed shall in no case be aguarantee regarding the condition or quality of the product.3.Functional valuesSpecial hints for carrying out test bench measurements:Due to low gas speed and lack of gas pulsation in the propane gas burner,the sensors have a reduced gas exchange at the active sensor ceramic ele-ment. This leads to a different behavior of the dynamic sensor characteris-tics compared to real vehicle exhaust gas conditions. Especially the re-sponse times in the propane gas burner are badly reproducible and therefore only to be understood as guide values.Due to the technical design of the gas test benches (PSG and propane gas burner) these measurement data cannot be used for capability calculations.The 850°C measurement in propane gas burner is only permissible if this exhaust temperature in the field has been reached or exceeded for an ex-tended period of time.New sensors and sensors from defined endurance-run programs are measuredwith an applied test voltage as in sec. 1.4, if not otherwise specified.3.1Sensors with protection tube …d1“Measurement with synthetic gas test bench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C New After 500 h After 2000h StaticCharacteristic λ statat 450 mV output 1.005±0.004 1.006±0.005 1.009±0.007Closed Loop Testλ dyn1.009±0.004 1.010±0.005 1.012±0.006frequency (Hz)2.9 ± 0.72.9 ± 0.72.5 ± 1.0Measured with synthetic gastest bench Y 258 E00 004 at 20°CLight-off time (s)Time to reach a sensor output of 600mV with rich gas of λ=0.97≤ 12 ≤ 12 ≤ 123.2Sensors with protection tube …d2“ (see sec. 8)Measurement with synthetic gas testbench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C New After 500 h After 2000hStatic Characteristic λ statat 450 mV output1.002±0.006 1.003±0.007 1.007±0.007Closed Loop Testλ dyn 1.008±0.004 1.009±0.005 1.011±0.006 frequency (Hz) 2.3 ± 1.0 2.3 ± 1.0 2.3 ± 1.0 Measured with synthetic gastest bench Y 258 E00 004 at 20°CLight-off time (s)Time to reach a sensor outputof 600mV with rich gas of λ=0.97≤ 12≤ 12≤ 123.3Sensors with protection tube …d4“ (see sec. 8)Measurement with synthetic gas testbench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C New After 500 h After 3000hStatic Characteristic λ statat 450 mV output1.006±0.006 1.007±0.007 1.008±0.007Closed Loop Testλ dyn 1.010±0.004 1.010±0.005 1.010±0.006 frequency (Hz) 2.7 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 1.0 Measured with synthetic gastest bench Y 258 E00 004 at 20°CLight-off time (s)Time to reach a sensor outputof 600mV with rich gas of λ=0.97≤ 12≤ 12≤ 123.4Measurement with special gas composition for sensors after operationdownstream catalystSensors which are used in an application downstream catalyst are measured with a special gas composition. This composition corresponds to a gas after an aged catalyst with 97% HC conversion rate. These characteristics arevalid for the specified test gas only. In an engine exhaust, the gas compo-sition might be different, depending on application.Characteristics for all protection tube variants, new and after endurance run downstream catalyst, acc. to sec. 4.1.2Measurement with synthetic gas testbench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C with special gas composition Heater voltageU H = 10VHeater voltageU H = 13Vλ stat at 450 mV sensor output1,0000 ± 0,00101,0000 ± 0,0010λ stat at 600 mV sensor output0,9999 ± 0,00100,9998 ± 0,0010λ stat at 700 mV sensor output0,9996 ± 0,00100,9990 ± 0,00154.Environmental test specificationEach test must be carried out with new sensors. If not otherwise specified, after the tests the sensors must fulfil the functional values of aged(2000/3000h) sensors as in section 3. The sensor heater is operated with a test voltage as in sec. 1.4, if not otherwise specified.4.1Engine endurance runFor measurements of functional values after endurance test the sensors have to be fitted into the exhaust system of a λ=1 controlled gasoline engine.Speed and load are changed in a 6-cycle program so that a temperature curve is reached in the sensor tip as per sketch.-Fuel: according to DIN EN228 for commercially available unleaded fuel.-Oil consumption ≤ 0,04 l/h.-Oil brand: multi-range oil viscosity 10W-40, API specification SF.Compliance with the temperature limits as per section 2 must be ensured by adequate cooling. The sensor heater is switched on in the test (13±0.5V).After the test the functional values for aged sensors in section 3 must be fulfilled.The exhaust gas temperature is set by varying engine speed and load.The temperature at the hexagon is limited by additional air cooling.Test time: 500h and 2000h (sensors with protection tube ...d1“ and (2)500h and 3000h (sensors with protection tube …d4“)4.1.1The sensors are installed upstream catalyst.4.1.2The sensors are installed downstream catalyst.T1 = exhaust gasT2 = housing hexagon4.2Sinusoidal vibration test acc to IEC 68-2-6 test FcTest equipment: electrodynamic vibratorTest between 50...150 Hz at constant amplitude ± 0,3 mm and between150...500 Hz at constant acceleration of ± 300 m/s2.Frequency change velocity: 1 octave/min.Test duration:8 h to be performed in all 3perpendicularplanes.Sensor mounting: see sketchAmbient temperature:25 ± 3 °C.The heater has to be switched on during the test.4.3Random vibration testTest equipment: Random vibration test benchas per Bosch standard N42 AP 411.Acceleration: 1000 m/s2 (peak level)Test duration: 24 hSensor mounting: see sketchAmbient temperature: 25 ± 3°CThe heater has to be switched on during the test.Sensor mounting for 4.2 and 4.330320129020 1221683745°46281022A4.4Test with damp heat, cyclic (12+12-hour cycle)acc. to IEC 68-2-30, test DbNo. of cycles: 21max. air temperature: 40°CThe heater has to be switched off during this test.4.5Salt mist test acc. to IEC 68-2-11, test KaTesting time: 288 hThe sensor heating is switched on 5 minutes before and during testing. In order to prevent water from reaching the sensor ceramic a stainless steel sleeve is screwed onto the sensor thread for proper sealing.4.6Change of temperature acc. to IEC 68-2-14, test NaMinimum temperature: -40 °CMaximum temperature: 130 °CExposure duration at each temp.: 30 min.No. of temperature cycles: 250The heater has to be switched off during this test.4.7Sulfur dioxide test with general condensation of moistureacc. to DIN EN ISO 6988No. of cycles: 6 (24 h for each cycle)The heater has to be switched off during this test. In order to protect the sensor ceramic a stainless steel sleeve is screwed onto the sensor thread for proper sealing.4.8Submergence test acc. IEC 529, IPx7Water level 150 mm above sensor cable outlet. Test duration is 30 min. The connection system must be out of the water during the test.The sensor voltage is monitored during the test. ∆ U ≤ 10 mV.The sensor heating is switched on 5 minutes before and during testing. In order to prevent water entering the sensor ceramic a stainless steel sleeve is screwed onto the sensor thread for sealing.4.9Wire pull testThe mounted sensor has to withstand an axial force of 100 N applied to the wire harness for 1 min.4.10Fuel resistance test (FVP-test)The exhaust gas side of the sensor is exposed to Pentane vapor in a testchamber (pressure 5mbar). The soak time is 2 h. After this the sensor isremoved and the heater is switched on. The sensor signal in ambient air is monitored for 120 min. A failure is defined as a decrease of the sensorslean output voltage below -100 mV.4.11Fine leak testThe gas leakage is measured from exhaust gas side with an air pressure of4 bar. The leakage rate must be smaller than 0.1 ml/min.4.12Drop test acc. to IEC 68-2-32 test Ed proc. 1The sensor is dropped to a concrete floor from a height of 1m for one time.4.13Test to Silicon sensitivityEngine test run with additional silicon content in fuel.The sensors are fitted in the exhaust pipe of a λ=1 controlled engine as in5.1, but with the following conditions:exhaust gas temperature: 400°Ctest time: 6 hSi content in fuel: 0.12cm3/l Oktamethylcyclotetrasiloxane fuel consumption over the test time: 18 lTest evaluation: static lambda in synthetic gas (see section 4) must bewithin the range of 1.000 ... 1.0165.Carrying out testsNote:Product audit tests are carried out for monitoring the product quality on a regular basis.DV tests are only carried out with new sensor types in the design verifica-tion phase.6.Evaluation of field partsIn case of complaints about the products they are effectively free of fault through attainment of the following characteristic data:6.1Sensors from operation with unleaded fuelMeasurement in propane gas burner test bench Y 258 P02 042 at 350°CSensors with protection tube d1d2d4800±60800±60815±60 Sensor voltage (mV)at λ=0.97 (CO=1%)50±4050±4050±40 Sensor voltage (mV)at λ=1.10Internal resistance (kΩ)≤1.0≤1.0≤1.0<125<400<400 Response time (ms)600 mV ... 300 mV< 60<400<200 Response time (ms)300 mV ... 600 mVHeater current (A)0.48±0.100.48±0.100.48±0.10If these figures are fulfilled, the sensor will be capable of closed loop control under normal operation conditions. However since a vehicle's ex-haust gas emission values also depend to a great extent upon other compo-nents in the system (engine, catalytic converter, mounting position,closed-loop control circuit), these figures cannot be taken as a reliable indication of emissions behavior in an emission test.6.2Sensors from operation with leaded fuelMeasurement in propane gas burner test bench Y 258 P02 042 at 350°CSensor voltage (mV)≥ 625at λ=0.97 (CO=1%)Sensor voltage (mV)-100 (80)at λ=1.10Internal resistance (kΩ)≤ 1Response time (ms)≤ 800600 mV ... 300 mVResponse time (ms)≤ 800300 mV ... 600 mVHeater current (A)≥ 0.30Depending on the lead contents of the used fuel the expected service life time is:-for 0.6 g Pb/l: 20 000 km-for 0.4 g Pb/l: 30 000 km-for 0.15 g Pb/l: 60 000 kmIn general, when using leaded fuel the sensor will be replaced, whenfunctional problems occur, e.g. unstable idle speed, driveability problems.The system diagnose functions should be rechecked for the reduced demands on the sensor and the increased response times when leaded fuel is used.7.Design variationsThe following variations are available:7.1Protection tubes•Sensor with protection tube type “d1” with big holes.•Sensor with protection tube type “d2” with smaller holes.•Sensor with protection tube type “d4” with smaller holes.Sensors with d2 and d4 tube can be applied in cases of high particulateconcentration in the exhaust gas. The d2 protection tube gives also a par-tial improvement regarding the resistance against condensation water in the exhaust gas at engine start (thermoshock).7.2PTFE formed hose•Longer PTFE hose at cable grommet for installation with critical•temperature conditions in the sensor area.•Shortened PTFE hose at cable grommet.Note: the temperature resistance is the same for both types at the defined measuring points.8.Installation instructionsThe sensor installation point and the sensor functionality in the fullsystem must be assured sufficiently by the customer through appropriate ve-hicle tests under realistic conditions of use.8.1Installation in the exhaust system must be at a point guaranteeing repre-sentative exhaust gas composition whilst also satisfying the specified tem-perature limits.8.2The heater power must always be switched on and operated respecting thedata in section 1.4, if necessary by heater voltage duty cycling. Atbooster starts the heater must be switched off.8.2.1To avoid signal injection of the heater voltage in the λ-sensor signalcircuit while the sensor is cold (high sensor resistance), the sensor sig-nal must not be evaluated for control or diagnose in the first 4 secondsafter full heater start.8.3The sensor ceramic element is heated up quickly after heater start.After heating up the ceramic all occurrence of condensation water, whichcould damage the hot ceramic, must be ruled out.To allow early heating of the sensor to reach a fast sensor activity, the sensor installation location design must be selected in a way to minimize exhaust-side stressing of the sensor with condensation water.If this is not possible by design measures, the start of the sensor heater must be delayed until demonstrably no more condensation water appears.8.3.1Design measures:-Locate sensor as close to the engine as possible, respecting max. al-lowed temperature range-The exhaust pipe in front of the sensor must not contain any pockets, projections, protrusions, edges flex-tubes etc. to avoid accumulation ofcondensation water. A downwards slope of the pipe is recommended.-Make sure, that the front hole of the double protection tube does not point against exhaust gas stream.-Attempt to achieve rapid heating-up of the exhaust pipes in the area in front of the sensor and also of the complete sensor thread boss area, toavoid developing of condensation water-The sensor thread boss must be designed as shown in 8.9 to reach a rapid heat up of the sensor protection tube area. Make sure, that the protec-tion tube is fully reaching into the exhaust gas stream.8.3.2System measures:-Never switch on sensor heater before engine start.-Delay of sensor heater start or power control of the sensor heater, e.g.as a function of engine and ambient temperature (see sec. 1.4) Test method for evaluation see Y 258 E00 007.8.4Installation angle must be inclined at least 10° towards horizontal (elec-trical connection upwards). Thus preventing the collection of liquids be-tween sensor housing and sensor element during the cold start phase.Other installation angles must be inspected and tested individually.8.5Avoid excessive heating up of the sensor cable grommet, particularly whenthe engine has been switched off after running under max. load conditions.8.6The use of cleaning/greasing fluids or evaporating solids at the sensorplug connection is not permitted.8.7Assembly with special high temperature resistant grease on the screw-inthread (e.g. Bosch-No. 5 964 080 112 for the 120g tin).8.8Tightening torque: 40-60 Nm, material characteristics and strength of thethread must be appropriate.8.9Recommended material for thethread boss in the exhaust pipe:Temperature resistant stainlesssteel, e.g.X 5 CrNi 18 10, DIN 17440 1.4301or 1.4303 or SAE 30304 or SAE30305 (US standard)Thread boss dimensions should beas in sketch, note that sensorthread must be covered com-pletely.Recommendation(*): For hot appli-cations (T Hexagon>570°C orT gas>930°C) the thread boss shouldbe min. 13mm to avoid overheatingof the protection tube weldingand to cool down the sensor hexa-gon.If the length is ≥16mm (max. 22mm permissible) the danger of thermo shock will be increased due to condensation water formation inside the protection tube. This must be covered separately by measurements described in Y 258E00 007.8.10Electrical connectors: A waterproof version is required.8.11The sensor and connection must be covered when underbody sealant (wax, taretc.) or spray oil is applied to the vehicle.8.12The influence of contamination which enters the exhaust gas through theintake air or as a result of fuel, oil, sealing materials etc., and thusreaches the λ-sensor is application specific and must be determined by cus-tomer tests.8.13The sensor must not be exposed to strong mechanical shocks (e.g. while thesensor is installed). Otherwise the sensor element may crack without visi-ble damage to the sensor housing.8.14For physical reasons the sensor needs ambient air at its reference gasside. Replacement of the air volume inside the sensor must be guaranteed bya sufficient air permeability of the wires and the connectors between sen-sor and ECU. The breathability should be higher than 1 ml/minute at a test pressure of 100mbar.8.15Underfloor installation of the sensor at a distance from the engine re-quires an additional check of the following points:-positioning of the sensor with respect to stone impact hazard-positioning and fixing of cable and connector with respect to mechanical damage, cable bending stress and thermal stress.8.16The PTFE formed hose is part of the reference air volume of the sensor andmust be kept sealed and undamaged. For installation, the minimum bendingradius of the hose must be 20mm (for long PTFE hose) resp. 12mm (for short hose). Keep the PTFE formed hose away from sharp edges and avoid con-tact/friction with frame/engine assembly.The first fixing point for the cable to the car body should be 200mm to400mm after the end of the PTFE formed hose, depending on movement of the exhaust system.8.17The sensor must not be exposed to continuous, one-sided dripping of water,e.g. by the air conditioning condensation water outlet. The thermal stresscould lead to mechanical damage of the sensor.8.18Additional instructions for the installation downstream of the catalyticconverter (data for OBDII applications)-Between catalyst and sensor location absolute gas tightness of the exhaust system must be ensured.-When the sensor is installed in the exhaust pipe there should be no discon-nectable connections between catalytic converter and sensor (e.g. flange, clamp-screw joint).-In order to protect the active sensor ceramic the sensor heater voltage must be power controlled after engine start during the condensation water phase, see 1.4.8.19Note for application of sensors downstream the catalytic converter:the sensor output on the rich side (≥600mV) is temperature dependent. For the outer loop control with the rear sensor the ceramic temperature of the sensor element should be kept to a constant temperature (control of heater power depending on engine operation conditions).Recommended guide value for application: 600°C ... 700°C ceramic tempera-ture, corresponding to a sensor internal resistance R I,N of 300Ω...120Ω(measured with 1...4kHz) for new sensors. The temperature data are guidevalues[N], the temperature of the assembled sensor can not be measured.Temperature dependency of sensor output downstream catalyst [N] (schematic)450,00500,00550,00600,00650,00700,00750,00800,00T Keramik / °CTemperature dependency of internal resistance, average and scatter band(guide value [N])。
甲醇发动机燃烧特性研究
1 /2
（ 2）
pmi
=
1 m
m
∑p
j =1
mi
（
j）
（ 3）
式中： m 为循环数； pmi（ j） 为 j 循环的平均指示压力。
文中对甲醇发动机和汽油机的燃烧参数进行了
对比分析，以循环油量作为对比基准，因为甲醇燃料
和汽油燃料的热值不同，对比时把 M85 甲醇燃料换
算成汽油当量，换算方法如式（ 4） 所示。
Q' M85
= QM85
× HM85 H汽油
（ 4）
式中，Q
' M85
和
QM85 分别为
M85
的汽油当量循环油量
和 M85 的循环油量； HM85 和 H汽油 分别为 M85 和汽油
变动来判断燃烧稳定性，以变动系数 δimep 来评价发 动机的循环变动水平，循环变动系数公式如下：
δimep
=
δpmi pmi
（ 1）
式中，δpmi为平均指示压力的标准偏差； pmi 为平均指
示压力的平均值； δpmi和pmi 的计算公式为：
( ) δpmi =
1 m
m
∑(
j =1
pmi （
j）
－ pmi ) 2
11
表 1 试验用发动机参数
发动机型式 自然吸气、直列
缸径 × 行程 / mm × mm 87． 5 × 83． 1
排量 /L 2
燃料喷射方式
压缩比
汽油
M85 *
进气道喷射
10
12
* 注： 表示体积分数为 15% 的汽油和 85% 的甲醇混合而成的燃料。
1． 2 关键参数说明
中英文文献翻译—变速器油温的控制
附录ATransmission oil temperature controlFor people who buy the car, reliability and fuel efficiency is the second oftwoimportant price considerations. No doubt, for the new owner is concerned, the most terrifying thing on the way to remove car. In addition, owner and expect the car can try to durable. Meanwhile, due to current global fuel prices have risen to make owners pay more attention。
thefuelefficiency, and hope to try to reduce carbon emissions. Auto power transmission system includes an internal combustion engine, transmission and more than a gear than wheels. Engine torque and speed will be needed for the railway traction power and car in the transmission of conversion. In addition, the transmission can also control wheel rotation direction. Manual and automatic transmission speed generally fall into two. Automatic transmission can automatically control friction unit, selection of gear ratios and shift. Automatic transmission will adopt hydraulic oil to achieve lubrication and frozen effect, hydraulic oil is a very special liquid, can be in any severe conditions operation. Automatic transmission oil (the main function of ATF) from the motivation for: transferred engine torque converter power transmission device; Absorb the torque converter produces thermal and moved to the front of a frozen device; car As clutch friction of the coolest refrigerants, it can absorb and by clutch or take out meshing the heat energy produced; Through a complex hydraulic control system, the liquid pressure transmission to the system USES valve, servo machines, pump, clutch always pump, hydraulic pipe and pipe to control; As a planetary gears, bearings, servo machines, clutch and target group-exact marketing of lubricant and coolant.Automatic transmission oil in operating temperature (about 90 °C / °F) viscosity 195 is general very low. But if the oil temperature is too low (for example is 0 ° C / 30 °F below), its viscosity will greatly increased, lead to a very high drag torque (dragtorque). As a result, gear meshing, it can cause is commonly synchronous devices of this couldn't cope with high torque force. If gear can't mesh or shift, car will not start. For this reason, "cold start" program will respond to the oil temperature and activated, to ensure that at least one gear can succeed mesh. Warm car driving car started after process when, unless required by obvious acceleration or dragged heavyobjects (such as trailer), otherwise the hydraulic oil temperature will only slowly rising, but it also means drag torque will slowly rising. If the car is chronically high drag torque environment, synchronous devices will overload and damaged. In gearbox to add some loss, will shift some moved to higher speed valve and improve the quality of the gearbox lubricant, these all can accelerate the process of car warm up. Thus, engine, gearbox and catalyst can be quickly reach best operation temperature. The faster transmission is the optimum operating temperature, can be used to save fuel consumption and faster start the gear shift program. Gear shifting part through hydraulic or electronic is starting valve to control, these shifting unit start-up will significantly by the influence of the temperature of automatic transmission oil, reason is with the temperature and the viscosity will rise significantly, so the temperature can influence the degree of pressure and time characteristics. Once the automatic transmission oil gets hot, its temperature variation of amplitude will increase, so the shift when the set standard oil, must consider the problems about the oil temperature. Under high temperature operation, no doubt, automatic transmission oil very vulnerable to the influence of the temperature of cryogenic, but compared to the reaction of the reaction temperature, the much more. The process of automatic transmission will produce a lot of friction, and these will generate a lot of friction heat. Liquid will constantly stir in torque converter and pump in the mouth and current meters of hydraulic circuits. Whenever variable speed shift, clutch components will produce more than box of oil can take the heat. The transmission, the greater the load of the heat generated by then, box of oil will become more heat. General traditional transmission oil temperature can allow maximum temperature for 80 to 100 °C or 175 ° F, and to 212 special transmission oil temperature can be as high as 110 ℃to 130 °F or 230 to 265. However, nowadays advanced automobile transmission oil temperature could be as high as 120 to 150 ℃or 250 to 300 °F, and for heavy trucks for example is 18 rounds of freight trains, if it in hot weather, the oil temperature under driving even to 170 °C 160 °F or 320 to 340. Such a high oil temperature can cause box of oil and variable speed component damage. Transmission oil working life, in the high temperature environment, the working life of the transmission oil can be reduced. Once the temperature above normal operation level (90 °C / 195 °F above), lubricants oxidation speed will increase, so the effective life be shortened. Based on the law 娒designated, when the temperatureabove normal operation temperature 。
物理学专业英语
华中师范大学物理学院物理学专业英语仅供内部学习参考！2014一、课程的任务和教学目的通过学习《物理学专业英语》，学生将掌握物理学领域使用频率较高的专业词汇和表达方法，进而具备基本的阅读理解物理学专业文献的能力。
通过分析《物理学专业英语》课程教材中的范文，学生还将从英语角度理解物理学中个学科的研究内容和主要思想，提高学生的专业英语能力和了解物理学研究前沿的能力。
培养专业英语阅读能力，了解科技英语的特点，提高专业外语的阅读质量和阅读速度；掌握一定量的本专业英文词汇，基本达到能够独立完成一般性本专业外文资料的阅读；达到一定的笔译水平。
要求译文通顺、准确和专业化。
要求译文通顺、准确和专业化。
二、课程内容课程内容包括以下章节：物理学、经典力学、热力学、电磁学、光学、原子物理、统计力学、量子力学和狭义相对论三、基本要求1.充分利用课内时间保证充足的阅读量（约1200~1500词/学时），要求正确理解原文。
2.泛读适量课外相关英文读物，要求基本理解原文主要内容。
3.掌握基本专业词汇（不少于200词）。
4.应具有流利阅读、翻译及赏析专业英语文献，并能简单地进行写作的能力。
四、参考书目录1 Physics 物理学 (1)Introduction to physics (1)Classical and modern physics (2)Research fields (4)V ocabulary (7)2 Classical mechanics 经典力学 (10)Introduction (10)Description of classical mechanics (10)Momentum and collisions (14)Angular momentum (15)V ocabulary (16)3 Thermodynamics 热力学 (18)Introduction (18)Laws of thermodynamics (21)System models (22)Thermodynamic processes (27)Scope of thermodynamics (29)V ocabulary (30)4 Electromagnetism 电磁学 (33)Introduction (33)Electrostatics (33)Magnetostatics (35)Electromagnetic induction (40)V ocabulary (43)5 Optics 光学 (45)Introduction (45)Geometrical optics (45)Physical optics (47)Polarization (50)V ocabulary (51)6 Atomic physics 原子物理 (52)Introduction (52)Electronic configuration (52)Excitation and ionization (56)V ocabulary (59)7 Statistical mechanics 统计力学 (60)Overview (60)Fundamentals (60)Statistical ensembles (63)V ocabulary (65)8 Quantum mechanics 量子力学 (67)Introduction (67)Mathematical formulations (68)Quantization (71)Wave-particle duality (72)Quantum entanglement (75)V ocabulary (77)9 Special relativity 狭义相对论 (79)Introduction (79)Relativity of simultaneity (80)Lorentz transformations (80)Time dilation and length contraction (81)Mass-energy equivalence (82)Relativistic energy-momentum relation (86)V ocabulary (89)正文标记说明：蓝色Arial字体（例如energy）：已知的专业词汇蓝色Arial字体加下划线（例如electromagnetism）：新学的专业词汇黑色Times New Roman字体加下划线（例如postulate）：新学的普通词汇1 Physics 物理学1 Physics 物理学Introduction to physicsPhysics is a part of natural philosophy and a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry,and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy.Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.Core theoriesThough physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of nature (within a certain domain of validity).For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research, and a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) 【艾萨克·牛顿】.University PhysicsThese central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.Classical and modern physicsClassical mechanicsClassical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies at rest), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter including such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and pneumatics.Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics the physics of animal calls and hearing, and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light.Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy.Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.Modern PhysicsClassical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of1 Physics 物理学observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on the very large or very small scale.For example, atomic and nuclear physics studies matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified.The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale, as it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in large particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics.Quantum theory is concerned with the discrete, rather than continuous, nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level, and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena.The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with relative uniform motion in a straight line and the general theory of relativity with accelerated motion and its connection with gravitation.Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in all areas of modern physics.Difference between classical and modern physicsWhile physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match their predictions.Albert Einstein【阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦】contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with space-time and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light.Max Planck【普朗克】, Erwin Schrödinger【薛定谔】, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales.Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity.General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved space-time, with which highly massiveUniversity Physicssystems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.Research fieldsContemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support research in Physics education.Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968)【列夫·朗道】, who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.Condensed matter physicsCondensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the super-fluid and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials,and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics.Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.Atomic, molecular and optical physicsAtomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter–matter and light–matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules.1 Physics 物理学The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of high-energy physics.Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light.Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.High-energy physics (particle physics) and nuclear physicsParticle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them.In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy accelerators,detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model.●The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) thatinteract via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces.●Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons,W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively).●The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson.Nuclear Physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.University PhysicsAstrophysics and Physical CosmologyAstrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleo-synthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle (On a sufficiently large scale, the properties of the Universe are the same for all observers). Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model (the standard model of Big Bang cosmology) of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter.Current research frontiersIn condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. Particle accelerators have begun probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the super-symmetric particles, after discovery of the Higgs boson.Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory1 Physics 物理学of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity.Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sand-piles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems.Vocabulary★natural science 自然科学academic disciplines 学科astronomy 天文学in their own right 凭他们本身的实力intersects相交，交叉interdisciplinary交叉学科的，跨学科的★quantum 量子的theoretical breakthroughs 理论突破★electromagnetism 电磁学dramatically显著地★thermodynamics热力学★calculus微积分validity★classical mechanics 经典力学chaos 混沌literate 学者★quantum mechanics量子力学★thermodynamics and statistical mechanics热力学与统计物理★special relativity狭义相对论is concerned with 关注，讨论，考虑acoustics 声学★optics 光学statics静力学at rest 静息kinematics运动学★dynamics动力学ultrasonics超声学manipulation 操作，处理，使用University Physicsinfrared红外ultraviolet紫外radiation辐射reflection 反射refraction 折射★interference 干涉★diffraction 衍射dispersion散射★polarization 极化，偏振internal energy 内能Electricity电性Magnetism 磁性intimate 亲密的induces 诱导，感应scale尺度★elementary particles基本粒子★high-energy physics 高能物理particle accelerators 粒子加速器valid 有效的，正当的★discrete离散的continuous 连续的complementary 互补的★frame of reference 参照系★the special theory of relativity 狭义相对论★general theory of relativity 广义相对论gravitation 重力，万有引力explicit 详细的，清楚的★quantum field theory 量子场论★condensed matter physics凝聚态物理astrophysics天体物理geophysics地球物理Universalist博学多才者★Macroscopic宏观Exotic奇异的★Superconducting 超导Ferromagnetic铁磁质Antiferromagnetic 反铁磁质★Spin自旋Lattice 晶格，点阵，网格★Society社会，学会★microscopic微观的hyperfine splitting超精细分裂fission分裂，裂变fusion熔合，聚变constituents成分，组分accelerators加速器detectors 检测器★quarks夸克lepton 轻子gauge bosons规范玻色子gluons胶子★Higgs boson希格斯玻色子CERN欧洲核子研究中心★Magnetic Resonance Imaging磁共振成像，核磁共振ion implantation 离子注入radiocarbon dating放射性碳年代测定法geology地质学archaeology考古学stellar 恒星cosmology宇宙论celestial bodies 天体Hubble diagram 哈勃图Rival竞争的★Big Bang大爆炸nucleo-synthesis核聚合，核合成pillar支柱cosmological principle宇宙学原理ΛCDM modelΛ-冷暗物质模型cosmic inflation宇宙膨胀1 Physics 物理学fabricate制造，建造spintronics自旋电子元件，自旋电子学★neutrinos 中微子superstring 超弦baryon重子turbulence湍流，扰动，骚动catastrophes突变，灾变，灾难heterogeneous collections异质性集合pattern formation模式形成University Physics2 Classical mechanics 经典力学IntroductionIn physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and technology.Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. Besides this, many specializations within the subject deal with gases, liquids, solids, and other specific sub-topics.Classical mechanics provides extremely accurate results as long as the domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of light. When the objects being dealt with become sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce the other major sub-field of mechanics, quantum mechanics, which reconciles the macroscopic laws of physics with the atomic nature of matter and handles the wave–particle duality of atoms and molecules. In the case of high velocity objects approaching the speed of light, classical mechanics is enhanced by special relativity. General relativity unifies special relativity with Newton's law of universal gravitation, allowing physicists to handle gravitation at a deeper level.The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as Newtonian mechanics, and is associated with the physical concepts employed by and the mathematical methods invented by Newton himself, in parallel with Leibniz【莱布尼兹】, and others.Later, more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to reformulations of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. These advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend substantially beyond Newton's work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics. Ultimately, the mathematics developed for these were central to the creation of quantum mechanics.Description of classical mechanicsThe following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it often2 Classical mechanics 经典力学models real-world objects as point particles, objects with negligible size. The motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters: its position, mass, and the forces applied to it.In reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. (The physics of very small particles, such as the electron, is more accurately described by quantum mechanics). Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the additional degrees of freedom—for example, a baseball can spin while it is moving. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them as composite objects, made up of a large number of interacting point particles. The center of mass of a composite object behaves like a point particle.Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as where an object is in space and its speed. It also assumes that objects may be directly influenced only by their immediate surroundings, known as the principle of locality.In quantum mechanics objects may have unknowable position or velocity, or instantaneously interact with other objects at a distance.Position and its derivativesThe position of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed reference point, O, in space, usually accompanied by a coordinate system, with the reference point located at the origin of the coordinate system. It is defined as the vector r from O to the particle.In general, the point particle need not be stationary relative to O, so r is a function of t, the time elapsed since an arbitrary initial time.In pre-Einstein relativity (known as Galilean relativity), time is considered an absolute, i.e., the time interval between any given pair of events is the same for all observers. In addition to relying on absolute time, classical mechanics assumes Euclidean geometry for the structure of space.Velocity and speedThe velocity, or the rate of change of position with time, is defined as the derivative of the position with respect to time. In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and subtractive as vector quantities; they must be dealt with using vector analysis.When both objects are moving in the same direction, the difference can be given in terms of speed only by ignoring direction.University PhysicsAccelerationThe acceleration , or rate of change of velocity, is the derivative of the velocity with respect to time (the second derivative of the position with respect to time).Acceleration can arise from a change with time of the magnitude of the velocity or of the direction of the velocity or both . If only the magnitude v of the velocity decreases, this is sometimes referred to as deceleration , but generally any change in the velocity with time, including deceleration, is simply referred to as acceleration.Inertial frames of referenceWhile the position and velocity and acceleration of a particle can be referred to any observer in any state of motion, classical mechanics assumes the existence of a special family of reference frames in terms of which the mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively simple form. These special reference frames are called inertial frames .An inertial frame is such that when an object without any force interactions (an idealized situation) is viewed from it, it appears either to be at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. They are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's physical laws originate in identifiable sources (charges, gravitational bodies, and so forth).A non-inertial reference frame is one accelerating with respect to an inertial one, and in such a non-inertial frame a particle is subject to acceleration by fictitious forces that enter the equations of motion solely as a result of its accelerated motion, and do not originate in identifiable sources. These fictitious forces are in addition to the real forces recognized in an inertial frame.A key concept of inertial frames is the method for identifying them. For practical purposes, reference frames that are un-accelerated with respect to the distant stars are regarded as good approximations to inertial frames.Forces; Newton's second lawNewton was the first to mathematically express the relationship between force and momentum . Some physicists interpret Newton's second law of motion as a definition of force and mass, while others consider it a fundamental postulate, a law of nature. Either interpretation has the same mathematical consequences, historically known as "Newton's Second Law":a m t v m t p F ===d )(d d dThe quantity m v is called the (canonical ) momentum . The net force on a particle is thus equal to rate of change of momentum of the particle with time.So long as the force acting on a particle is known, Newton's second law is sufficient to。
轮机英语听力与会话问题及答案一二
轮机英语听力与会话问题及答案一二轮机英语听力与会话第一/二章问题及答案1 .How long have you ever worked on board?I have worked on board for two years.2. Which certificate do you have now?I have the fourth engineer's certificate3. what is you marital status? How many departments are there on board?I am single. There are three departments on board. Engine,deck and service department.4. How many people are there in your family?Are you marriedThere are three people in my family,father,mother and me.No,I amnot married5. How many countries have you ever been to?About si x countries; such -as Russia，Japan、and America and so on:6. when did you begin to work on boards?, what kind L of ship have you worked off?I began to work on board in, 2007.I have worked on container ship and oil tanker7. How many important canals are there all over the world?There are three important canals in the world，There are Suez, and kiel, Canal 8. Can you tell me what is the most important thing for a' seafarerIt is safety.9.What kind of main engine and auxiliary engine have you worked on?I have worked on several models. For example, Main engine: MANkz70/1200,generator engine,YANMAR6ML27010. Which classification saciety is your ship registered with?CCS (china classification society).11. Have you worked any ship that caused damage in critical equipment?Yes, I worked on one ship with main engine piston break.12. How did you make your maintace schedules?I make maintena n ce schedules according to my company’sPMS and condition of equipments13. Could you list international conventions concerning marine. Skipping?For example: SOLAS, STCW, MARPOL, and so on.14. Could you tell the usages of the STCW convention?STCW established an international standard for the training, certification aced watch deeping for the seafarers.15. What is the purpose of Classification Society? Could you list some of them?The purpose of classification survey is to evaluate the situation of a ship and the management of a company and its ship.Classification Societies are such as:CCS,ABS,DNV,GL,NK and so on16. Could you list different kind of ship s surveys?They are annadl survey,intermediate survey,special survey,temporaryand so on.17. What does UMS stand for? Have you served UMS.UMS stands for Unattended Machinery Space.I have severed UMS.18. Have you even experienced PSC inspection? Where andwhen was your last inspection?Yes. Last month in Singapore.19. What should be. paid attention to in the overhaul of cylinder?All safety measures must be observed and proper working procedure on reference book must be followed.20. Before entering an enclosed space such as ballast tank,what action will you take?check content of oxygen and ventilation.21.Please tell me the minimum safe oxygen percentage for the safety of the workers in an enclosed space.More than 18％and no more than 23% of oxygen in an enclosed space will be OK for the safety of the workers.第二章.问答1 .Please introduce one type of the main engine.The main engine is large bore,two-stroke, crosshead type with turbo charging system,2. Please introduce fuel injection process of electronically Controlled main engine.The fuel is injected' into cylinders via a “common rail”.Each injectorhas a solenoid valve which is operated by an electronic control unit for accurate control of injector opening time.3.Pease introduce dual fuel technology of main engine.This kind of main engine can burn both natural gas and fuel oil.4.Why is the two-stroke engine widely used as the main engine on board ship ?Because of its high output,efficiency and reliability.5.Why is the air exchanging .quality of four-stroke enginemore than that of two-stroke engine?Because the air exchanging course of four-stroke is separate,but the air exchanging course of two-stroke almost happens at the same time.6.Please introduce three moving parts of marine main engine.They are crankshaft, connecting rod and piston.7.What’s the sequence of the four strokes in a four-stroke diesel engine? They are suction,compression, expansion, and exhaust strokes.8. Please introduce Four fixing parts of marine main engine.They are bed plate,frame,scavenge air box and cylinder block.9.What is called a wording cycle of a marine diesel engine?The operation between two fuel injections is called a working cycle, 10.What is the foundation of an engine?It is the bedplate.11.What are the function and feature of the tie rods?It is to hold the bedplate，frames and cylinder blocks together.12.What is the function of tie governor?Its function is to control the engine speed.13.What is the feature of the governor?The governor maintains the engine speed at the desired value by regulating injected fuel amount of each cylinder per cycle.14.What is used for connecting the piston rod and connecting rod?It is the crosshedead .15. What is used for sealing between tie crankcarse and scavenging air box?It is piston rod stuffing box16.What are the two types of cooling system in the engine room?They are fresh water system and sea water cooling system.17.What's the function of the head tank in the cooling water system? Expansion, air releasing, water make-up and water treatment.18.Please introduce the open cooling system.The open cooling system has heat exchanger,circulating pump, continuous circuits with a drain tank open to atmosphere.coolant returns to the drain tank aver pumping into the system.19.Please introduce the close cooling system.The close cooling system has heat exchanger,circulating pump and continuous circuits with a head tank open to atmosphere.Coolant returns to the suction o} purr}p after pumping into the system.20.Please introduce the central cooling system:It uses sea water to cool down low temperature fresh water in central coolers.And then low temperature fresh water is circulated by pump to cool down all the other coolers in the engine room. With less equipment in contact v}rith seawater, the central cooling water system reduces corrosion problems.21.What's the advantage of the central cooling rwater system?with less equipment in contact with seawater; the central cooling water system reduces corrosion problems22.How to control fuel oil viscosity of main engine?The fuel oil viscosity is regulating by fuel oil’s temperature.23.Please introduce two sub-system of the fuel oiI system.They are the fuel supply system and the fuel injection system.24. Please spear out the function of the fuel oil vhf viscosityregulator. It controls the fuel oil viscosity by regulating the oil’s temperature.25.How does the fuel oil viscosity regulator work?It controls the fuel oil's viscosity regulating the oil's temperature.26.Please tell at least three composition of fuel oil.They are sulphur, ash content and cetane number.27.Please name at least three of the main factors to select a fuel oil. They are viscosity specific gravity and flash point.28.What is the usual coolant used in marine diesel engine?The usual coolants are fresh water.29.Why sea water is not used directly as a coolant In diesel engine?Because seawater is corrosive30.What's the advantage of oil-cooling pistion?The advantage is the same oil for oil-cooling piston as system lubrication.No leak problem exists in this system31.What's the disadvantage of water-cooling pistion?Leakage from cooling system to lubrication system can cause contamination of the oil, and spend a lot of management work32. What’s the function of the lubricating oil used in marine diesel engine?The function of the lubricating oil is not only to lubricate the running surfaces, but also to carry away a great deal of heat.33.How do you clean the lube oil filters?We should dismantle and clean the lube oil filter./By washing with diesel oil 34.When do you clean the fuel oil filters?When the pressure drop in the fuel oil filter is excessive./ The filter is clogged by impurities35. Why must the cylinder oil have alkalinity?In order to neutralize the acid products of combustion.36.What's the function of the cylinder oil?It's used to lubricating cylinders/transfer the heat and reducing the wear and tear./ Lubrication, sealing and removing heat.37. How do you start the air compressor?Check lube oil and cooling water first, then open the drain cock, start the air compressor final.38. What do you pay attention to when you stand by engine?Checked various pressure and temperatures, warm up the engine, turn the engine with turning gear and so on.39. Do you know the reasons why the engine does not start on air?Maybe the starting air pressure is too low or the turning gear is still engaged.40. What should you periodically do for the air reservoir?I should drain water from air reservoir.41. What's the function of gas exchange in diesel engine?To supply of fresh air and removal of exhaust gas. / To supply fresh air and exhaust the wasted gas.42. What's the function of the supercharging in diesel engine?The foundation is increased air density will raise scavenge efficiency.43. How do you operate the main engine in cold weather?I will warm up the main engine gradually.44. How do you heat the main engine?By circulating the cooling water which is heated to proper temperature.45. How do you change diesel oil into fuel oil?Fuel oil heated to proper temperature and open the fuel oilvalve.46. How do you change fuel oil into diesel oil?Shut the steam valve; decrease the fuel oil temperature, open diesel oil valve. 47. What is the function of steering gear?The function of the steering gear is to control the ship’s course.48. How do you measure the clearance of the main bearings?We measure the clearance by means of a feeler or lead.49. How do you measure the crank deflection of the main engine?By crank deflection gauge.50. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts black smoke?The combustion was not sufficient.( The air supply is too low or The fuel valves or atomizers are defective.)51. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts blue smoke?Because the lube oil is burnt due to blow-by.52. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts yellow smoke?Because of too much sulphur in the fuel oil.53. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts white smoke?The fuel oil contains too much water or cooling water leakage.54. What is the function of the turning gear?The turning gear is used to turn the engine.55. What does CPP stand for?It stands for Controllable Pitch Propeller.56. What does VIT stand for?VIT stands for variable injection timing.57. What's the type of the freshwater generator?Multi-stage flash water generator58. What's the type of the fuel oil separator?It’s centrifugal.59. What’s the function of the fuel oil separator?The fuel oil separator is used to separate impurities and water from the fuel oil. 60. What's the type of the oily water separator?It’s Gravity separation, adsorbents, floccul ents, ultrafilter, chemical addition with temperature-enhanced centrifugal devices and polymeric surface modified filtration.61. What's the function of the oily water separator?It’s used to prevent the ship from discharging oil while pumping out bilge water. 62. What's the function of the incinerator?It is used to burn the oil sludge and solid waste.63. What is the oil content limit when pumping out the bilge?The oil content limit is 15 PPM.64. What is hot work?It includes gas welding and electric welding.65. Why do you often carry out the water treatment for the boiler?Because the contamination of the water will cause problem, so we should treat it at regular intervals. / Because the impurities form scale.66. What boiler is used on a motor ship at sea?Exhaust gas boiler is used on a motor ship when the ship is at sea.67. What boiler is used on a motor ship in port?Donkey boiler is used on a motor ship when the ship is in port.68. How do you decide to overhaul the main engine generally?According to specific working condition and requirement of instruction book.69. What is the function of the soot-blower?The soot-blower is to blow away soot and the products combustion from the tube surface.70. How do you grind the valve plate of air compressor?Grind it in the path of “8” shape71. What is used to connect a diesel engine and a generator?The coupling is used to connect a diesel engine and a generator.72. What is the most common marine refrigeration?The compression refrigeration is the most commonly used type of marinerefrigeration.73. Please introduce four components required for a compression refrigerationsystem.They are the compressor, condenser, liquid receiver, and evaporator.74. How do you fill Freon 22 into the refrigeration system?Through the special passage for Freon 22.75.Why does the refrigerating compressor start and stop frequently?Because it is low-pressure controller differential set too close, lack of refrigerant, dirty or iced evaporator, leaky liquid line solenoid valve, restricted line strainer. 76. What equipment is used to handle the anchors?The windlass is used to handle the anchors.77. Please name at least three items of deck machinery.There are many machines on deck, such as windlass, derrick, winch and so on.78. How do you drain off air of the injection pump?By using vent screw.79. How do you clean the disc of an oil separator?With disc cleaner.80. What should be prepared before disassembly of cylinder for main engine/auxiliary engine?Special tools, draining off the residual oil and water.81. How do you manage sewage?Drop in sterilized medicine regularly; keep the blower in constant working.。
加州大学伯克莱分校(UCB)核工系相关课程习题5
tgap gap
tC c
Cladding
R Fuel
Fuel-cladding gap (filled initially with ~10 atm He
Coolant
T0 TS q' 4k S
TCI TCO
1 Bq' exp 1 Bk S 4 Aq' as B 0 4
6
- cracks predominantly radial – do not interfere with heat conduction
1
Hourglassing of cracked pellet
“hard” PCMI
2
3
“Soft” PCMI starts
PCMI = pellet-cladding mechanical interaction
E = Young’s modulus = 168 Gpa (T0-TS)fract ~ 105oC
Cracking occurs on startup
5
Fuel relocation and the onset of PCMI
1. Initial cracking/relocation: 40-50% reduction of initial hot gap size crack volume “relocated” inside fuel 2. Fission-product swelling causes i) fuel surface contacts the cladding (“soft” PCMI) ii) ~ 50% of crack volume closes (“hard” PCMI ) 3. see Memo #3 for detailed analysis
新SAT评分详解及样题
* Combined score of two raters, each scoring on a 1– 4 scale 1-4
SAT 1. Composite Score 2 2. SAT raw score 3 3. SAT Test Score Evidence-Based Reading and Writing raw score 4. SAT Studies OG 1—15 5. SAT Subscore 7 Cross-section Score 3 Section Score 400—1600
3.
)
25+15min 49
:35min 44
2-12 25min
2-8 50min
History Questions 1-5 are based on the following passage.
This passage is adapted from a speech delivered by Congresswoman Barbara Jordan of Texas on July 25, 1974, as a member of the Judiciary Committee of the United States House of Representatives. In the passage, Jordan discusses how and when a United States president may be impeached, or charged with serious offenses, while in office. Jordan’s speech was delivered in the context of impeachment hearings against then president Richard M. Nixon.
小学上册I卷英语第3单元测验试卷
小学上册英语第3单元测验试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.I have a _______ (plan) for the weekend.2.I like to go ______ (滑冰) at the rink with my friends.3.I believe that everyone should have a hobby. Mine is __________.4.I like to ________ cartoons.5.What is the capital of Anguilla?A. The ValleyB. Blowing PointC. Sandy GroundD. South HillA6.Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and _____.7.The music is very _______ (loud).8.What do you call the event where people come together to enjoy music?A. ConcertB. FestivalC. ShowD. GatheringA9.I have a collection of ______ (邮票) from many different countries.10.My dad is a wonderful __________ (父亲) who supports my dreams.11.What do we call the science of studying space?A. BiologyB. ChemistryC. AstronomyD. Geology12.I enjoy participating in debates to improve my __________.13.What is 8 - 4?A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 514.The main gas produced by decay is __________.15.What do you call a person who teaches students?A. StudentB. TeacherC. PrincipalD. NurseB16.The _____ (猫) is known for its independence.17.Coral reefs are built by tiny marine ______.18.We can make music with our ____ toys. (乐器玩具)19. A horse gallops quickly across the _______.20.The flowers smell _______ (good).21.The weather is _____ (sunny/cloudy) today.22.I _____ (love) chocolate.23.She _____ (runs) every morning.24.What do you call a house for bees?A. NestB. HiveC. DenD. Burrow25.The cat is ________ on the sofa.26.My teacher encourages us to be __________ (独立的).27.The chemical reaction between an acid and a base is called _____.28.What do you call the process of converting sunlight into energy in plants?A. PhotosynthesisB. RespirationC. FermentationD. Digestion29.What is the primary ingredient in a cake?A. FlourB. SugarC. EggsD. Milk30.The capital of the Cayman Islands is __________.31.My uncle teaches me about ____.32. A __________ is a chemical reaction that produces sound and light.33.What do we call a group of lions?A. PackB. PrideC. TroopD. FlockB34.My friend enjoys _______ (动词) on weekends. 她的活动很 _______ (形容词).35.In a displacement reaction, an element replaces another element in a _____.36.Napoleon Bonaparte was a leader in __________ (法国).37.It is ___ in the morning. (cool)38.What do you call a story that is not true?A. FactB. FictionC. RealityD. History39.My dad loves to watch __________. (综艺节目)40.My grandma knits ____ (scarves) for the winter.41.The gift is _____ (for/from) you.42. A lion roars loudly in the _______ as it searches for food.43.We need to water the ______ every day.44. A solution with a low pH is considered ______.45.What is the process of converting a gas to a liquid called?A. EvaporationB. CondensationC. PrecipitationD. SublimationB46.My friend, ______ (我的朋友), has a pet rabbit.47.I enjoy attending concerts because I love listening to __________ live.48.The ancient Egyptians built ________ to transport goods.49.Satellites are used for communication and ______.50.What do you call the act of putting things away?A. StoringB. HidingC. DisposingD. OrganizingA51.The country with the highest population density is ________ (人口密度最高的国家是________).52.We participate in ________ (workshops) regularly.53.The children are ________ in the playground.54.The __________ is a major river in Asia. (湄公河)55.We went to the ________ last week.56.The rabbit has fluffy ______.57.How many eyes does a typical human have?A. OneB. TwoC. ThreeD. FourB58.The __________ (文化差异) can lead to misunderstandings.59. A gas can be compressed because its particles are ______ apart.60.What do we call the light that comes from the sun?A. MoonlightB. StarlightC. SunlightD. TwilightC61.My friend has a pet ______ (仓鼠) that loves to run.62.What do you call a person who studies the stars?A. AstronomerB. AstrophysicistC. CosmologistD. Meteorologist63.The __________ (历史的理解深度) enriches perspectives.64.We are going to the ______ (mountains) for vacation.65.What is the term for a person who studies the oceans?A. OceanographerB. Marine BiologistC. GeologistD. EnvironmentalistA66.The ice cream is ________ cold.67. A _______ is a reaction that produces gas bubbles.68.Which animal is known for its shell?A. FishB. TurtleC. DogD. CatB69.What do we call the process of changing from solid to liquid?A. MeltingB. FreezingC. BoilingD. EvaporatingA70.I wear _____ (glasses/hats) to see better.71.He is playing with his ________.72.What do we call the study of the Earth's physical features?A. GeographyB. GeologyC. CartographyD. EcologyA Geography73.The ______ (果实) can be red or green.74.The ______ teaches us about health and nutrition.75.The __________ (城市设施) support the community.76.The capital of Malawi is ________ (利隆圭).77. A compound that can change color in different pH levels is called an ______.78.I enjoy visiting ______ during summer break.79.My sister enjoys __________ (写作) her own stories.80.What do we call a massive star that has exhausted its nuclear fuel?A. Red GiantB. White DwarfC. Neutron StarD. Black Hole81. A chemical formula indicates the ratio of elements in a ______.82.What do we call a baby horse?A. FoalB. CalfC. KidD. LambA83.I have a big ______ in my room.84.The zebra's stripes help it blend into ______ (环境).85.I love to _____ (sketch) plants in nature.86. A ______ is a liquid that can dissolve a solute.87.s lose their leaves ______ (每年). Some tre88.He is very _____ (勤劳) and works hard every day.89.The ______ (蟒蛇) can swallow prey much larger than itself.90.The ______ (花坛) adds color to any garden.91.She is _____ (talking) to her friend.92. A chemical _______ shows how many atoms of each element are in a molecule.93. A simple machine like a lever helps us to ______ (lift) heavy things.94.The stars are ___ (twinkling/shining).95.What do we call the study of heredity and variation?A. GeneticsB. EvolutionC. BiologyD. Ecology96.She likes to ________ books in the library.97.What is the opposite of ‘clean’?A. DirtyB. NeatC. TidyD. Clear98.My dad loves to ________ (园艺).99.The chemical formula for ethyl alcohol is _______.100.The ________ (向日葵) turns towards the sun and is very bright.。
轮机英语听力与会话第三版口述及问答答案
第一章公共用语口述1. The engine room.(1) Position of the engine room on board.(2) Type of marine machinery in the engine room.(3) Feature of marine machinery in the engine room.The engine room is generally located at the stern near the ship bottom.In the engine room, there are a lot of machinery and systems, such as the main engine, generators, air compressors, oily water separator, boilers, pumps, all kinds of coolers, valves and so on.The main engine is the largest and most important machines. It is the heart of the engine room; it can supply power for the vessel’s propulsion; boilers for producing steam; fresh water generator used to produce fresh water from seawater; air compressor to supply compressed air; s teering gears for the control of the ship’s course. The modern improvement of control systems results in machinery space remaining unattended for long periods. That is UMS (Unattended Machinery Space).2. The engine department.(1) Introduction of the importance of the engine department on board.(2) Introduction of personnel of the engine department.(3) Description of work in the engine department.The engine department is an extremely important department. It is responsible for all maintenance and operation of the electrical and mechanical equipment. Besides the engines in the engine room, the engine department crew is responsible for all of the sewage, air conditioning, lighting, and water on the ship. Without the engine department, the ship would not move.There are 4 engineers and 3 motormen and 2 electricians in the engine department on board my ship. We come form different parts of the country. But we all love our work and always help each other.We work in the engine room every day and do watch keeping in turn. We do maintenance on the main engine and the auxiliary machineries there. We also check the pressure and the temperature of the fuel and cooling systems. When we are on duty, we should keep the machines in good condition and keep the engine room clean and tidy.3. Self-introduction.(1) Your education background.(2) Your working experience.(3) Your family.My name is ×××. I graduated from Qingdao Harbor V ocational & Technical College in 2009, majoring in marine engineering. I have worked on board for two years. Now I am a fourth engineer. I love my job. There are three people in my family:my father, my mother, and I. My father is a teacher and my mother is a doctor.4. Your daily work on board.(1) Your position on board.(2) Your duties during watch keeping.(3) Your experiences.I am the fourth engineer on board ship. My duty time is 8-12 a.m. and 8-12 p.m. My main work is to ensure that the main propulsion plant, auxiliary machinery and steering gear are in good order. The current operational parameters of all machinery should be observed, such as the exhaust gases temperature of main engine, the cylinder jacket outlet cooling water temperature and pressure etc. During watch, the bridge orders must be promptly carried out. Any abnormal parameters in relation to the equipment should be paid attention.5. Watch-keeping in the Engine Room.(1) The engineer on duty works for 4 hours each watch.(2) He has to keep everything in good order.(3) He is going to hand over the shift.When a ship is at sea, each engineer should keep a duty-watch for 4 hours. During his duty watch, the engineer makes some tour inspection of the engine room and put down all the figures into the engine room log book. He has to keep everything in order. When his watch is finished, he should tell the relieving officer the present condition of the engine room before handing over the watch.6. Could you introduce yourself?(1) What’s your name?(2) Where did you graduate?(3) What education degree do you have now?My name is ×××. I graduated from Qingdao Harbor V ocational & Technical College in 2009, majoring in marine engineering. I got a college diploma.回答1. How long have you worked on board?I have been working on board for 2 years.2. Which certificate do you have now?I have a fourth engineer’s certif icate.3. What is your marital status? How many departments are there on board?I’m still single. There are 3 departments on board. They are the engine department, the deck department and the service department.4. How many people are there in your family? Are you married?There are four: my father, my mother, my sister and I.No, I’m still single.5. How many countries have you ever been to?I have been to five countries: The United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.6. When did you begin to work on board? What kind of ship have you worked on?I began to work on board two years ago.It’s a cargo ship, registered with CCS(China Classification Society).7. How many important canals are there all over the world?The Panama Canal, the Suez Canal and the Kiel.8. Can you tell me what the most important thing is for a seafarer?Good skills in the corresponding work and proficiency in English.9. What kinds of main engine and generator engine have you worked on?Large slow speed crosshead type marine diesel engine and A.C generator.10. Which classification society is your ship registered with?C.C.S., that is, China Classification Society.11. Have you worked any ship that caused damage in critical equipments?No, I served my job cautiously, and my colleagues were also very responsible. We kept the vessel in safe operation.12. How do you make your maintenance schedules?( Make the repair plan; make the repair list according to theCompany＇s repair principle and instruction book ; prepare for the spare parts and stores )13. Could you list international conventions concerning marine shipping?STCW, SOLAS, MARPOL, ISM Code, and so on.14. Could you tell the usages of the STCW convention?It provides the standards of Training, Certification, and Watch-keeping forSeafarers.15. What is the purpose of Classification Society? Could you list some of them?The purpose is to ensure safety of ship and human life, and prevent pollution of the environment. The famous Classification socie ties are Lloyd’s, D.N.V., A.B.S.,B.V.,C.C.S., and so on.16. Could you list different kinds of ship’s surveys?There is annual survey, special survey, docking surveys, and so on.17. What does UMS stand for? Have you served UMS?UMS stands for Unattended Machinery Space. Yes, I have served UMS.18. Have you even experienced PSC inspection? Where and when was your lastinspection?Yes, I have experienced PSC inspection many times. Last July, I have experienced such inspection in New York.19. What should be paid attention to in the overhaul of a cylinder?1）. Give a “No Starting Engine” sign;2）. Close valves of the oil and water system to the cylinder and drop out the remaining water it;3）. Observed all safety measures,i.e. to ensure safe to personnel,all parts of the main engine,tools used to work on it;4). Mark on all parts dismantled from the cylinder to ensue reassemble them as theoriginal relative position;20. Before entering an enclosed space such as ballast tank, what action will youtake?( Test the oxygen percentage and wear an self-contained breathing apparatus)21. Please tell me the minimum safe oxygen percentage for thesafety of the workers in an enclose space?18%.第二章机舱日常业务口述1. Please describe the difference between the diesel engine and the gasolineengine.The main difference between the diesel engine and the gasoline engine include: 1) The combustion medium of a diesel engine is diesel oil or fuel oil, while that for agasoline engine is gas oil.2) The diesel engine is ignited through compression of hot, high pressure oil/air mixture, but the gasoline engine is ignited by electrical spark plug.3) For diesel engine, the air and oil is mixed inside the cylinder, while for gasoline engine, they are mixed outside the cylinder.2. Xiao Wang is a cadet of the engine department, who just graduated from Shanghai Marine University. How do you introduce all the engine room to him?First, I will tell the cadet the importance of the engine room. Second, I should introduce the various machinery and systems in the engine room, such as the main engine, the generator engine, boilers, pumps, the refrigerating system, and the air conditioning system. Third, I will show him how to operate the various equipment and devices safely, and introduce as much safety knowledge as I can.3. Xiao Zhang is a three-year student majoring in marineengineering from Shanghai Marine University. How do youintroduce the equipment and machinery in the engine room to him.Same answer as question No 2.4. Look at the illustration and say something about the disposal of the shafting and diesel engine.The power of the diesel engine is transmitted to the propeller through the transmission system. The items of transmission system include various shafts, such as the thrust shaft, one or more intermediate shafts and tail shaft. These shafts are supported by the thrust block, intermediate bearings and the stern tube bearing. The propeller consist of a boss with several blades. The thrust is transmitted along the shafting to the thrust block and finally to ship structure.5. Look at the illustration and say something about the probability of disposal of medium-speed and high-speed diesel engine.When the ship is sailing at full speed, it needs four engines running. When the ship is sailing at half speed, it requires two engines running. While the ship is operating at about 30 % of full speed, one engine is enough to meet its power requirement. That is, the ship can be operated with single engine, double engines, or four engines according the load condition. Generally, when the ship is sailing at sea speed, it has four engine running, while it approaches the wharf, it has two.6. Look at the illustration and say something about structure of the main engine. The structure of the main engine is as follows: the construction mainly includes bedplate, frame, cylinders, pistons, connecting rod, main bearing and crankshaft. The crankshaft rests in main bearings built into cross girders of the bedplate. On the top of A frames there is a scavenging air box. The bedplate, frames and cylinder blocks are secured together by long tie-rods. A piston consists of a lower part called piston skirt and an upper part called piston crown.7. Look at the illustration and say something about stress status of the moving parts.The moving parts shown in the illustration mainly include the piston, the connecting rod, and the crankshaft. These are all critical parts of the engine. According to the specific condition shown in the picture, the piston is under compression force, the connecting rod is under tension stress and compression force, while the crankshaft is under the torsion forces.8. Look at the illustration and say the type of piston head shape in diesel engine. Pistons can be divided into two main classes: the crosshead type pistons and the trunk type pistons. The top surface of the crosshead piston can be flat, sunken or convex. The piston shown in the illustration is the crosshead type piston with a sunken surface. It has the advantage of increasing the air turbulence and improvingthe oil and air mixing quality. Its disadvantage is that the cylinder volumetric clearance will be larger.9. Look at the illustration and say the types of piston ring.The piston rings shown in the illustration has the shape of rectangle or trapezoid. Some of them are rounded on the external top or bottom edges. Among these piston rings, No.1 and No.2 are sealing rings, No. 3 and No. 4 are scraper rings, while the No.5 is a distributor ring. Generally, each piston is provided with five or six piston rings.10. Please describe the lubricating mode of main engine.Large marine diesel engines of crosshead construction generally have two systems of lubrication: a totally loss system feeding the cylinders and a circulating system lubricating the running gear and cooling the pistons. Oil is supplied to the cylinder liner wall and piston rings by means of mechanical lubricators. The lube oil to the various moving parts enables the formation of an oil film which reduces friction and wear.11. Talk about the working principle of purifier according to the picture given.The removal of impurities and water from fuel oil and lube oil is very important for the good working conditions of the engine. This is achieved by the centrifugal purifier. In consists of an electric motordrive to a vertical shaft on the top of which is mounted the bowl assembly. The high-speed rotation is a purifier which can produce acentrifugal force many thousand times larger than the force of gravity. After the bowl fulfilled with clean water, the dirty oil is admitted into the center of the bowl, passes up through a stack discs and out through the top.During this process, the action of centrifugal force causes the clean oil to flow inwards and the water and impurities flow outwards. The water and impurities form a sludge, which moves outwards along the undersides of the discs to the periphery of the bowl. The excessive water will flow out through the water outlet and the sludge can be discharged at regular intervals. Thus, the whole process could continuously go on.12. Talk about the working principle of oily water separator according to thepicture given.Oily water separators are used to ensure that ships do not discharge oil when pumping out the bilge water, or oily water from oil tanks or any water contaminated space. The main principle of separation is the gravitational difference between oil and water.1) The separator is first filled with clean water.2) The oily water mixture is then pumped into the coarse separating space. Here some oil will separate and rise into the oil collection space.3) The remaining mixture now flows down into the fine separating space. More oil will separate out. The almost oil-free water passes into the central pipe and leaves the separator unit.13. Talk about the anti-pollution equipment on board ship.The anti-pollution equipment on board ship includes oily water separator, incinerator and sewage treatment plant. Oily water separators are used to ensure that ships do not discharge oil when pumping out bilge water or oily water from oil tanker or any oil contaminated space. They should be used in conjunction with some forms of filters if greater purity is required. The incinerators are used to burn the solid waste. And some biological sewage treatment plants are in use to treat the sewage water the whole ship produced. All these equipment must be kept in good order; otherwise we would not pass the PSC inspection.14. Talk about the operation of the ballast system.The ballast system is arranged to ensure that water can be drawn from any tank or the sea and discharged to any other tank or the sea as required to trim the vessel. Combine or separate mains for suction and discharge may be provided. Where a tank or cargo space can be used for ballast or dry cargo then either a ballast or bilge connection will be required. The system must therefore be arranged so that only the appropriate pipeline is in service; the other must be securely blanked or closed off. The automatic filling of any tank may be obtained by opening the valve of sea water main connected to the discharge main. For operating the ballast system, care must takenwhen we open or close the relative valves. Usually the ballast pump is centrifugal pump, so it must be operated according to the requirement.15. Talk about the operation of the bilge water system.The operation of the bilge system is an important routine work. It needs great care. When the operation of the bilge system is needed, the following procedure must be observed:1) Discharge the bilge tanks one by one.2) Open and close the relevant valves when changing over to another tankaccording to the operation procedure.3) Stop pumping out when the bilge tank is nearly empty.4) Pay attention to the filters and mud-boxes to ensure no clogging5) The discharge must meet the relative legislative requirements.6) The operation must be recorded and reported to C/E.The duty engineer should discharge the bilges before handing over a watch. And relief engineer should check the bilge level when taking over a watch.问答1. Please introduce one type of the main engine.(I．MAN-B&W diesel engine. It is a slow-speed 2-stroke crosshead type marine diesel engine.)2. Please introduce fuel injection process of electronically controlled main engine.( It employs electronic control injection system and makes use of electric sensors to monitor parameters of ME under various operation conditions)3. Please introduce dual fuel technology of main engine.This kind of main engine can burn both light oil and fuel oil used in large medium speed engine.The former can be directly used by the main engine but the latter should be heated before using.4. Why is the two-stroke engine widely used on board ship?Because the two-stroke engine can develop twice the power of the four-stroke engine of the same size, and its thermal efficiency is higher.5. Why is the air exchanging quality of four-stroke engine morethan that of two-stroke engine?Four-stroke engine has an enough overlap between inlet valve opening and exhaust valve closing6. Please introduce three moving parts of marine main engine.They are piston, crankshaft and connecting rod.7. What’s the sequence of the four strokes?They are suction, compression, expansion and exhaust.8. Please introduce four fixing parts of marine main engine.Bedplate, cylinder block, scavenge air box and frame.9. What is called a working cycle of diesel engine?The operation between two fuel injections.10. What is the foundation of diesel engine?It is the bed-plate.11. What are the function and feature of the tie rods?To hold the bedplate, A-frames and cylinder block together.12. What is the function of the governor?It is to regulate the speed of the main engine.13. What is the feature of the governor?Instantaneous speed, regulating speed fluctuation, and so on14. What is used for connecting the piston rod and connecting rod?It is the crosshead.15. What is used for sealing between the crankcase and scavenging air box?It is the piston rod stuffing box.16. What are the two types of the cooling system?They are closed freshwater cooling system and open seawater cooling system. 17. What’s the function of the head tank in the cooling water system?It is used for expansion of water and water make-up.18. Please introduce the open cooling system.( With the open cooling system, water is pumped in from outside the ship and is drained off into the sea after it completes its function. )19. Please introduce the close cooling system.In the closed cooling system, the fresh water is circulated through the engine. Here the engine is cooled and the water is also cooled. Itcirculates vertically to the top where the engine and the water are warmest.20. Please introduce the central cooling system.Central cooling system is based on the same design principles with conventional sea water cooling system but with a central cooler contacted with seawater and one additional set of pump.21. What’s the advantage of the central cooling water system?With less equipment in contact with sea-water, the corrosion problems are much reduced in the central cooling system.22. How to control fuel oil viscosity of main engine?By using the fuel oil viscosity regulator to control the oil temperature.23. Please introduce two sub-systems of the fuel oil system.They are the fuel supply system and the fuel injection system.24. Please speak out the function of the fuel oil viscosity regulator.It is to control the oil viscosity by regulating the oil temperature.25. How does the fuel oil viscosity regulator work?By regulating the oil’s temperature.26. Please tell at least three composition of fuel oil.Sulphur, ash content , cetane number, mechanical impurities,water content27. Please name at least three of main factors to select a fuel oil.Viscosity, calorific value, sulphur content, flash point, setting point, specific gravity.28. What is the usual coolant in marine diesel engine?Fresh water, lube oil and seawater.29. Why seawater is not used directly as a coolant in diesel engine?Because of its corrosive effect.30. What’s the advantage of oil-cooling system?The advantage is the same oil also can be used for lubrication and any leakage will not cause corrosive problem.31. What’s the disadvantage of water-cooling piston?Cooling water leakage can pollute the lube oil.32. What’s the function of the lubricating oil in main engine?It is to reduce friction, remove heat, and neutralize acid condition and so on.33. How do you clean the lube oil filters?( first using the light diesel oil and brushes, then using the compressed air to blow through )34. When do you clean the fuel oil filters?When the filters are clogged by impurities.The difference of pressure between before and after the filter is too big. （滤器的前后压差太大）35. Why must the cylinder oil have alkalinity?It is used to neutralize the acid conditions.36. What’s the function of the cylinder oil?It is used to lubricate, neutralize acid and remove heat.37. How do you start the air compressor?Unload and then start it automatically or manually38. What do you pay attention to when you stand by engine?( check up engine telegraph, clock,sterring gear;heat and check the fuel, lubricating oil and cooling water at working level; all valves in the various systems are operational , etc)39. Do you know the reasons why the engine does not start on air?Starting air pressure too low, incorrect timing of starting air valve, stop-valve on air line being closed and so on40. What should you periodically do for the air reservoir?We should drain water from it periodically.41. What’s the function of gas exchange in diesel engine?To supply fresh air and remove exhaust gases.42. What’s the function of supercharging in diesel engine?To increase the power of the engine.43. How do you operate the main engine in cold weather?I will gradually warm up the main engine.44. How do you heat the main engine?Heat the cylinder water and then start the pump to circulate the cooling water to proper temperature45. How do you change diesel oil into fuel oil?Diesel oil heated to proper temperature and open the fuel oil valve slowly （gradually）46. How do you change fuel oil into diesel oil?Shut the steam valve of the fuel oil , decrease the fuel oil temperature, open diesel oil valve and then close the fuel oil valve.47. What is the function of the turning gear?It is used to turn the main engine.48. How do you measure the clearance of the main bearings?We will use lead wire or feeler.49. How do you measure the crank deflection of the main engine?By crank deflection gauge50. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts black smoke?Maybe the air supply is too low, or the fuel valves or atomizers are defective. 51. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts blue smoke?Lube oil more than normal52. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts yellow smoke?The content of sulphur in the fuel oil is higher than normal.53. Do you know why the diesel engine exhausts white smoke?Water content is more than normal.54. What is the function of the steering gear?It is t o control the ship’s course.55. What does CPP stand for?It stands for Controllable Pitch Propeller.56. What does VIT stand for?Variable injection timing57. What’s the type of the freshwater generator?Multi-stage flash water generator( flash evaporator and boiling evaporator)58. What’s the type of the fuel oil separator?Centrifugal.59. What’s the function of the fuel oil separator?Remove water and impurities.60. What’s the type of the oily water separator?Gravity filtration and absorption.61. What’s the function of the oily water separator?It ensures that the oil content in the water to be discharged into the sea doesn’t exceed the required limit.62. What’s the function of the incinerator?It is to Burn the oil sludge and solid wastes.63. What is the oil content limit when pumping out the bilge?Not more than 15 ppm.64. What is the hot work?It includes gas welding, gas cutting and electric welding.65. Why do you often carry out the water treatment for the boiler?We do it to prevent corrosion and scale inside the boiler. .66. What boiler is used on a motor ship at sea?An exhaust gas boiler is used when the ship is at sea.67. What boiler is used on a motor ship in port?A donkey boiler is used when the ship is in port.68. How do you decide to overhaul the main engine generally?According to specific working condition and requirement of instruction book. 69. What is the function of the soot blower?The soot-blower is to blow away soot and the products combustion from the tube surface.70. How do you grind the valve plate of air compressor?Grind it in the path of “8” shape.71. What is used to connect a diesel engine and a generator?It is the coupling.72. What type is the most common marine refrigeration?The compression refrigeration is the most commonly used type.73. Please introduce four components required for a compression refrigerationsystem.They are the compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator.74. How do you fill Freon 22 into the refrigeration system?(The outlet of refrigerant steel bottle slops downwards, and keeping the cooling water circulating, then start the air compressor )75. Why does the refrigerating compressor start and stop frequently?Because of lack of refrigerant, dirty or iced evaporator, leaky liquid line solenoid valve or other reasons.76. What equipment is used to handle the anchors?The windlass is used to handle the anchors.77. Please name at least three items of deck machinery.They are mooring winches, cranes, windlass and so on.78. How do you drain off air of the injection pump?By-using vent screw.79. How do you clean the disc of an oil separator?With disc cleaner.80. What should be prepared before disassembly of cylinder formain engine/auxiliary engine?Special tools, draining off the residual oil and water81. How do you manage sewage?Drop in sterilized medicine regularly, and keep the blower in constant working..第三章驾机联系口述munications with officers.In order to ensure the safe navigation of the ship, frequent communication betweenthe engineers and officers is necessary. The usual means of communication is by telephone and telegraph. If the communication between the engine room and the bridge fails, the ship will be endangered. The records of communication should be maintained which will provide evidence in the event of an accident at sea. Noon report is also a good means of communication between the engine room and the bridge.Duty officer and duty engineer should exchange information about the time of standby engine, testing steering gear, checking up clock and telegraph during navigation.2.Noon report.Noon report is a good means of communication between the engine room and the bridge. Formally, it should be presented by the captain to the chief engineer or vice versa. But in practice, it is often prepared by the second officer or the third engineer. When the ship isat sea, the noon report should be exchanged daily. While the ship is in port, it will be presented once several days. The noon report from the engine room to the bridge mainly includes the average speed of the main engine, the storage of the water, fuel oil, lube oil and so on. While the noon report from the bridge to the engine room mainly includes the ship’s position in term of longitude and latitude at noon, the average navigation speed and so on.3.Take over watch.Taking over the watch is a very important procedure in watch keeping. The relieving engineer should arrive at the engine room fifteen minutes early. He should check the operation and condition of the steering gear, the main engine, the auxiliary engines, boilers and other important equipments and systems. He should also check the storage of daily service oils and water. If there is any problem, such as equipment failure, the relieving engineer should be told what has been done, any unfinished work, information from the bridge and so on.4.Hand over watch.At the completion of the watch, each member of watchkeepingshould hand over to his relief, ensuring that the relief is competent to take over and carry out his duties effectively. Before going off duty, the engineer in charge of the watch shall ensure that all events related to the main and auxiliary machinery are suitalby recorded. He should tell the relieving engineer the standing orders , special instructions and unfinished work, if any. If he has any reason to believe that the relieving engineer is not capable of carrying out the watchkeeping duties effectively, he shall not hand over the watch and the chief engineer shall be notified.5.Stand by engine before departure.When stand by engine before departure, the following items should be checked.1) All necessary supply pumps running and warming-up system, standby pumps selected in auto start mode.。
Fuel cell 燃料电池简介 英文
1
Introduction
2
Advantages
3
Classification
Contents
1
Introduction
2
Advantages
3
Classification
Fuel Cell Description
Fuel Cell Description
Changing energy
▪ Both use an electrolyte to conduct ions
Fuel Cells and Batteries Differences
▪ A battery is an energy storage device that has a fixed amount of chemical energy ▪ A fuel cell will keep producing electricity as long as fuel is supplied ▪ Fuel cell reactions do not degrade over time
Transportation Application
Contents
1
Introduction
2
Advantages
3
Classification
Environment Pollution
Environment Pollution has been a great threat.
Global warming
Obtaining electricity
Using air source
▪ At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. ▪ The protons flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. ▪ At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water.
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译44变速器油温的控制
附录ATransmission oil temperature controlFor people who buy the car, reliability and fuel efficiency is the second oftwoimportant price considerations. No doubt, for the new owner is concerned, the most terrifying thing on the way to remove car. In addition, owner and expect the car can try to durable. Meanwhile, due to current global fuel prices have risen to make owners pay more attention。
thefuelefficiency, and hope to try to reduce carbon emissions. Auto power transmission system includes an internal combustion engine, transmission and more than a gear than wheels. Engine torque and speed will be needed for the railway traction power and car in the transmission of conversion. In addition, the transmission can also control wheel rotation direction. Manual and automatic transmission speed generally fall into two. Automatic transmission can automatically control friction unit, selection of gear ratios and shift. Automatic transmission will adopt hydraulic oil to achieve lubrication and frozen effect, hydraulic oil is a very special liquid, can be in any severe conditions operation. Automatic transmission oil (the main function of ATF) from the motivation for: transferred engine torque converter power transmission device; Absorb the torque converter produces thermal and moved to the front of a frozen device; car As clutch friction of the coolestrefrigerants, it can absorb and by clutch or take out meshing the heat energy produced; Through a complex hydraulic control system, the liquid pressure transmission to the system USES valve, servo machines, pump, clutch always pump, hydraulic pipe and pipe to control; As a planetary gears, bearings, servo machines, clutch and target group-exact marketing of lubricant and coolant.Automatic transmission oil in operating temperature (about 90 °C / ° F) viscosity 195 is general very low. But if the oil temperature is too low (for example is 0 ° C / 30 ° F below), its viscosity will greatly increased, lead to a very high drag torque (dragtorque). As a result, gear meshing, it can cause is commonly synchronous devices of this couldn't cope with high torque force. If gear can't mesh or shift, car will not start. For this reason, "cold start" program will respond to the oil temperature and activated, to ensure that at least one gear can succeed mesh. Warm car driving car started after process when, unless required by obvious acceleration or dragged heavy objects (such as trailer), otherwise the hydraulic oil temperature will only slowly rising, but it also means drag torque will slowly rising. If the car is chronically high drag torque environment, synchronous devices will overload and damaged. In gearbox to add some loss, will shift some moved to higher speed valve and improve the quality of the gearbox lubricant, these all canaccelerate the process of car warm up. Thus, engine, gearbox and catalyst can be quickly reach best operation temperature. The faster transmission is the optimum operating temperature, can be used to save fuel consumption and faster start the gear shift program. Gear shifting part through hydraulic or electronic is starting valve to control, these shifting unit start-up will significantly by the influence of the temperature of automatic transmission oil, reason is with the temperature and the viscosity will rise significantly, so the temperature can influence the degree of pressure and time characteristics. Once the automatic transmission oil gets hot, its temperature variation of amplitude will increase, so the shift when the set standard oil, must consider the problems about the oil temperature. Under high temperature operation, no doubt, automatic transmission oil very vulnerable to the influence of the temperature of cryogenic, but compared to the reaction of the reaction temperature, the much more. The process of automatic transmission will produce a lot of friction, and these will generate a lot of friction heat. Liquid will constantly stir in torque converter and pump in the mouth and current meters of hydraulic circuits. Whenever variable speed shift, clutch components will produce more than box of oil can take the heat. The transmission, the greater the load of the heat generated by then, box of oil will become more heat. Generaltraditional transmission oil temperature can allow maximum temperature for 80 to 100 °C or 175 °F, and to 212 special transmission oil temperature can be as high as 110 ℃ to 130 ° F or 230 to 265. However, nowadays advanced automobile transmission oil temperature could be as high as 120 to 150 ℃ or 250 to 300 ° F, and for heavy trucks for example is 18 rounds of freight trains, if it in hot weather, the oil temperature under driving even to 170 °C 160 ° F or 320 to 340. Such a high oil temperature can cause box of oil and variable speed component damage. Transmission oil working life, in the high temperature environment, the working life of the transmission oil can be reduced. Once the temperature above normal operation level (90 ° C / 195 ° F above), lubricants oxidation speed will increase, so the effective life be shortened. Based on the law 娒designated, when the temperature above normal operation temperature 。
气象科技英语翻译
Like a fish in the ocean, man is confined to a very shallow layer of atmosphere.The gaseous envelope of the Earth is physically inhomogeneous in both the vertical and horizontal directions, although the horizontal inhomogeneity is much less marked than the vertical inhomogeneity.Various criteria have been devised for dividing the atmosphere into layers. This division can be based on the nature of the vertical temperature profile, on the gaseous composition of the air at different altitudes, and the effect of the atmosphere on aircraft at different altitudes, etc. The division based on the variation of the air temperature with altitude is used most commonly in the meteorological literature.According to a publication of the agrological commission of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1961, the Earth’s atmosphere, is divided into five main layers: the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere. These layers are bounded by four thin transition regions: the tropospause, the stratospause, the mesospause, the thermospause .The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere between the Earth’s surface and the tropopause. The temperature drops with increasing height in the troposphere, at a mean rate of 6.5 ℃per kilometer (lapse rate). The upper boundary of the troposphere lies at a height of approximately 8 to 12 km in the polar and troposphere contains about 75% of the total 就像海洋中的鱼一样,人类被局限在大气中一个非常狭窄的层次之内。
热能与动力工程专业英语译文-第一章译文
Through the application of thermodynamic principles, modern heat engines have been developed.We are facing the reality that fossil fuel reserves are diminishing and will be insufficient in the forseeable future.Consequently, to those who study thermodynamics, increasing efficiency in the use of fossil fuels and the development of alternate sources of thermal energy are the real challenges to technology for today and tomorrow.Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with energy, its conversion from one form to another, and the movement of energy from one location to another. Thermodynamics is involved with energy exchanges and the associated changes in the properties of the working fluid or substance.Although thermodynamics deals with systems in motion, it does not concern itself with the speed at which such processes or energy exchanges occur.Thermodynamics, like other physical sciences, is based on observation of nature. Engineering thermodynamics consists of several parts, such as basic laws, thermal properties of the working fluids, process and cycle and so on.Energy is a primitive (原始的）property. We postulate（假定）that it is something that all matter has.Kinetic energy and potential energy are two forms of mechanical energy.A change of the total energy is equal to the rate of work done on the system plus the heat transfer to the system.Enthalpy can be used either as an extensive property H or as an intensive property h.The two terms v2/2 and gz represents kinetic energy and potential energy respectively. Although the net heat supplied to a thermodynamic system is equal to the net work done by the system, the gross energy supplied to the system must be greater than the net work done by the system.Not all of the input heat is available for producing output work because some heat must always be rejected by the system.Related to the second law statements are the concepts of availability of energy, entropy, process reversibility and thermal efficiency.In all reversible processes there is no change in the availability of the energy evolved in the process.Due to this concept of availability of energy, the following statements can be made: Only a portion of heat energy may be converted into work.Entropy S is an abstract thermodynamic property of a substance that can be evaluated only by calculation.From the above expression one can find that the value of entropy of the system will increase when the heat is transferred into the system.Processes that return to their initial state are called cyclic processes.The Carnot cycle is most efficient cycle possible operating between two given temperature levels.In the ideal Rankine cycle the efficiency may be increased by the use of a reheater section. The process of reheating in general raises the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the cycle, thus raising the theoretical efficiency.After partial expansion the steam is withdrawn from the turbine and reheated at constant pressure. Then it is returned to the turbine for further expansion to the exhaust pressure. For the portion of the heat-addition process from the subcooled liquid to saturated liquid, the average temperature is much below the temperature of the vaporization and superheating process.From the viewpoint of the second law, the cycle efficiency is greatly reduced.If this relatively low-temperature heat-addition process could be raised, the efficiency of the cycle would more nearly approach that of the Carnot cycle.The refrigeration cycle is used to transfer energy (heat) from a cold chamber, which is at a temperature lower than its surroundings.The basic refrigeration cycle consists of a sequence of processes utilizing a working fluid, called the refrigerant, usually in continuous circulation within a closed system.The refrigerant receives energy in the evaporator (cold chamber) at a temperature below that of the surroundings, and then rejects this energy in the condenser (hot chamber) prior to returning to its initial state.In the absence of friction these mechanical energies are completely interchangeable; that is, one unit of potential energy can be ideally converted into one unit of kinetic energy, and vice versa.It represents energy modes on the microscopic level, such as energy associated with nuclear spin, molecular binding, magnetic-dipole moment, molecular translation, molecular rotation, molecular vibration, and so on.In a static fluid, there is no motion of one layer of fluid relative to an adjacent layer, so there are no viscous shear forces.A knowledge of fluid statics is necessary for the solution of many familiar problems, such as the determination of total water force on a dam, the calculation of pressure variation throughout the atmosphere.With no relative motion between fluid particles, there are no shear forces acting on the element, only normal forces (due to pressure) and the gravity force.In order to solve problems in fluid flow, it is often necessary to determine the variation of pressure with velocity from point to point throughout the flow field.As one knows, a streamline is a continuous line drawn in the direction of the velocity vector at each point in the flow.For one-dimensional flow, the flow properties of which do not vary in the direction normal to the streamline, the constant in the Bernoulli equation is the same for all streamlines. The term pv is called flow work (energy/mass), the term v2/2 is the kinetic energy per unit mass; and gz is the potential energy per unit mass.There are two basic types of flow, each possessing fundamentally different characteristics. The first type is called laminar flow, the second turbulent flow.The transverse movement of a particle of fluid from a faster-moving layer to aslower-moving layer will have the effect of increasing the velocity in the slower-moving layer.The inlet length required to attain fully developed flow is dependent on the type of flow.In an analysis of flow through a pipe, we are interested in the type of flow, whether laminar or turbulent, since the shear stress and resultant frictional forces acting on the fluid vary greatly for the two types.Another way of looking at the difference between laminar and turbulent flows is to consider what happens when a small disturbance is introduced into a flow.The thickness of the laminar sublayer depends on the degree of turbulence of the main stream—the more turbulent the flow, the thinner the sublayer.We know that when a fluid flows through a pipe, the layer of fluid at the wall has zero velocity; layers of fluid at progressively greater distances from the pipe surface have higher velocities, with the maximum velocity occurring at the pipe centerline.However, even though the velocity fluctuations are small, they have a great effect on the flow characteristics.Furthermore, with the large number of random particle fluctuations present in a turbulent flow, there is a tendency toward mixing of the fluid and a more uniform velocity profile. When smoke leaves a cigarette, it travels upward initially in a smooth, regular pattern; at a certain distance above the cigarette, however, the smoke breaks down into an irregular pattern.Even in turbulent pipe flow, with the great majority of the flow characterized by rough, irregular motions, there will always be a thin layer of smooth laminar flow near a wall, for the particle fluctuations die out near a boundary.When the central of core region of the flow disappears, the flow is termed fully developed viscous flow.The science of heat transfer is concerned with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer taking place in a system. Heat flow will take place whenever there is a temperature gradient.Heat conduction is the term applied to the mechanism of internal energy exchange from one body to another, or from one part of a body to another.Heat conduction is realized by the exchange of the kinetic energy of the molecules by direct contact or by the drift of free electrons in the case of heat conduction in metals.The Fourier law may be used to develop an equation describing the distribution of the temperature throughout a heat-conducting solid.The term “steady state conduction” was defined as the condition which prevails when the temperatures of fixed points within a heat-conducting body do not change with time.The te rm “one-dimensional” is applied to a heat conduction problem when only one space coordinate is required to describe the distribution of temperature within a heat-conducting body.The solution of heat conduction problems involves, in general, the writing of the general heat conduction equation in terms of the appropriate number of arbitrary constants and then the evaluating of these constants by use of the imposed boundary conditions.The electrical analogy may be used to solve more complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal resistances.When fluid flows over a solid body or inside a channel while temperatures of the fluid and the solid surface different, heat transfer between the fluid and the solid surface takes place as a consequence of the motion of fluid relative to the surface.The multiplicity of independent variables results from the fact that convection transfer is determined by the boundary layers that develops on the surface.The velocity boundary layer is defined as the thin layer near the wall in which one assumes that viscous effects are important.It should be emphasized that a thermal boundary layer can also be defined as the region between the surface and the point at which the fluid temperature has reached a certain percentage of the fluid temperature.The thermal boundary layer is generally not coincident with the velocity boundary layer, although it is certainly dependent on it.Numerous analytic expressions are available for the prediction of heat transfer coefficient in laminar tube flow.There are numerous important engineering applications in which heat transfer for flow over bodies such as a flat plate, a sphere, a circular tube, or a tube bundle are needed.The temperature variation within the fluid will generate a density gradient which, in a gravitational field, will give rise, in turn, to a convective motion as a result of buoyancy forces.The fluid motion set up as a result of the buoyancy force（浮力）is called free convection, or natural convection.The flow velocity in free convection is much smaller than that encountered in forced convection; therefore, heat transfer by free convection is much smaller than that by forced convection.According to the different condensing situation, condensation can be divided into filmwise condensation and dropwise condensation.The phenomenon of heat transfer in boiling is extremely complicated because of a large number of variables involved and very complex hydrodynamic developments occurring in the process.All bodies continuously emit energy because of their temperature, and the energy thus emitted is called thermal radiation.The radiation energy emitted by a body is transmitted in the space in the form of electromagnetic waves according to Maxwell’s classic electro magnetic wave theory or in the form of discrete photons according to Planck’s hypothesis(假说）.The emission or absorption of radiation energy by a body is a bulk process; that is, radiation originating from the interior of the body is emitted through the surface.Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate heat transfer between two or more fluids at different temperatures.The C.O.P. of a refrigerating machine is ratio of Refrigerating effect to Work input.The C.O.P. of a refrigerator, unlike the efficiency of a heat engine can be much larger than unity.The essential parts of a vapor compression system are Evaporator Compressor condenser, and Expansion valve.There are three types of vapor compressor: reciprocating, rotary, centrifugal.A vapor absorption system uses heat (thermal) energy to produce refrigeration.In an absorption system, the commonly used working substance is a solution of refrigerant and solvent.The four important factors involved in a complete air conditioning installation are:(i) Temperature control, (ii) Humidity control , (iii) Air movement and circulation, (iv) Air filtering, cleaning and purification .Give some applications of refrigerationdomestic refrigerationcommercial refrigerationindustrial refrigerationManufacture and preservation of medicinesPreservation of blood and human tissuesProduction of rocket fuelsComputer functioningmarine and transportation refrigerationWhat is a vapor compression system?A typical Vapor Compression Refrigeration SystemComponentsEvaporator: Heat exchangers for refrigerant to absorb heat from refrigerated space Compressor: to raise the temperature and pressure of refrigerant by compression Condenser: Heat exchangers for refrigerant to reject heat to the environmentReceiver tank: a reservoir to store the liquid refrigerantExpansion valve: or Refrigerant flow control, to reduce refrigerant pressureCycle diagramsWhat is the working principle of a vapor absorption system?Absorption refrigeration cycleA vapor absorption system uses heat (thermal) energy to produce refrigeration.In an absorption system, the commonly used working substance is a solution of refrigerant and solvent, such as Ammonia/water and Water/lithium bromide.A absorption refrigeration system also contains an evaporator and condenser which operate in exactly same way as for vapor compressor cycle.There is a second circuit around which an absorbent or solvent fluid flows. The evaporated refrigerant vapor is absorbed into the solvent at low pressure, and there is a net surfeit of heat for this process.The solvent, now diluted by refrigerant is raised to the high pressure by a liquid pump. High pressure refrigerant vapor is then produced by the addition of heat to the mixture, in the generator.Nuclear energy results from changes in the nucleus of atoms.As a nucleus splits, it releases a tremendous amount of heat.The nucleus splitting process is completely fissioned, it will create as much heat as the burning of 1500 short tons of coal.In 1911 the physicist Ernest Rutherford first discovered the existence of a subatomic particle, later referred to as the nucleus.In 1938, two German chemists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann reported they had produced the element barium by bombarding(轰击) uranium with neutrons.This reaction had in fact split an uranium nucleus into two nearly equal fragments(碎片）, one of which was a barium（钡）nucleus and another was a krypton（氪）nucleus.Albert Einstein developed his famous relativity theory and related the matter to energy by the equation E=mc2.Cadmium（镉）rods were used to control the chain reaction.By 1960, nuclear power generating systems in the range of 150 to 200 MW were in commercial operation.Free neutron capture upsets the internal force, which holds together the tiny particles called protons and neutrons in the nucleus.Besides the heat energy produced, fission releases an average of two or three neutrons and such nuclear radiation as gamma rays.If one of the neutrons emitted is captured by another fissionable nucleus, a second fission takes place in the manner similar to the first.When the fission becomes self-sustaining, the process is called a chain reaction.Nuclear reactors used for electric power generation consist of four main parts.They are (1) the fuel core, (2) the moderator and coolant, (3) the control rods, and (4) the reactor vessel .The fuel core contains the nuclear fuel and is the part of the reactor in which the fission takes place.In fission process the fertile materials( for instance, the U-238 ) are converted to fissile. Fertile: 可变成裂变物质的The nuclear fuel is generally contained in cylindrical rods surrounded by cladding materials，such as aluminum(铝), magnesium(镁), zirconium(锌), stainless steel, and graphite(石墨). The moderator is the substance used in nuclear reactor to reduce the energy of fast neutrons to thermal neutrons.The reactor coolant is used to remove heat from the reactor fuel core, including light water, heavy water, air, carbon dioxide, helium, sodium(钠), potassium(钾), and some organic liquids.Control rods are long metal rods that contain such elements as boron硼, cadmium镉, or hafnium罕. These elements absorb fast neutrons and therefore help control a chain reaction.The reactor vessel is a tanklike structure that holds the reactor core and other internals. The two principal types are the PWR and BWR. Both reactors use enriched uranium and light water as coolant as well as moderator.The coolant first flows downward through the annular space between the shield wall and the core barrel into a plenum at the bottom of the vessel.Then the coolant reverses its direction and flows upward through the fuel core.The heated coolant is collected at the upper plenum and exits the vessel through outlet nozzles.A reactor coolant system is usually designed with two or more closed coolant loops connected to the PWR, each containing its own steam generator and coolant pump.The steam-water mixture from the tube bundle passes through a steam swirl旋转vane叶片assembly where steam is separated from the water.In addition to the steam generator, each coolant loop in the PWR has its own pump.An electrically heated pressurizer is connected to one of the coolant loops and is used to serve the whole coolant system.The pressurizer is used to maintain the coolant pressure during steady-state operation, and to limit the pressure changes, preventing the pressure from exceeding the design limit. Boiling water nuclear steam supply system mainly consists of reactor vessel and reactor coolant circuits.Unlike the PWR, BWR system does not have the intermediate heat exchanger, or steam generator, between the coolant loop and the feedwater and steam system.For a BWR plant, steam is generated within the nuclear reactor and transferred directly to the steam turbine.A disadvantage of the BWR system is that radioactive carry-over into the steam must be guarded against and special provisions made to reduce leakage at the shaft seals of the turbine.The plant, having a peak capacity of 12 kWe, has been intended as a demonstration and a pilot plant for electricity production from solar energy.The plant is composed of three main parts: a field of flat plate solar water collectors (primary circuit); a hot water storage tank (interface); and a turbo-generator group (secondary circuit).The operating mechanism of the plant is based on the principle of converting solar energy into thermal energy.The converted energy is then stored in the hot water storage tank until reaching a temperature level of 100°C (called the index temperature), which triggers the startup of the turbo-generator group operation.The primary circuit of the plant consists of 396 flat plate solar collectors covering a net aperture area of 760 m2.The converted solar energy into thermal energy is stored in a sensible heat form within a water storage tank.The geometry of the storage tank presents the advantage of favoring the forming of a thermal stratification within the storage.The turbo-generator group (TGG) consists of an evaporator, a turbine, a condenser and an alternator.The evaporator and the condenser are both heat exchangers made of copper tubes allowing the heat transfer between the fluid and both the hot and cold sources.The turbine is of a single stage type characterized by an axial flux having a rotation speed of 900 rpm.A parabolic concentrator unit is designed to increase the temperature at the bottom of the storage tank whenever the climatic conditions are favorable.。
2022年考研考博-考博英语-湘潭大学考试预测题精选专练VII(附带答案)卷10
2022年考研考博-考博英语-湘潭大学考试预测题精选专练VII（附带答案）第1套一.综合题(共25题)1.单选题Lines of latitude run horizontally and are parallel to the Equator and lines of longitude run vertically. They（）at the North and South Poles.问题1选项A.convergeB.convokeC.convoyD.convulse【答案】A【解析】动词词义辨析。
根据句意‘纬线水平平行于赤道和经线相垂直。
它们在南北两极聚集。
’可知这里是说经线和纬线的位置，根据常识可知经线和纬线相互垂直，在南极和北极两个地方是聚集的，A选项converge"聚集，靠拢”；B选项convoke“召集”； C选项convoy“护送”；D选项convulse“震撼”。
根据句意确定A选项正确。
2.翻译题Like waistlines in many prosperous countries, cell phones are going XXL and some of their owners are struggling to tuck them in.Jeremy Roche, 47 years old, owns a Samsung Galaxy Note II phone that is about 75% larger than the original Apple Inc. iPhone, and roughly the size and heft of an extra-large Hershey’s chocolate bar, with about an inch nibbled off the end. It “did feel weird” at first to hold his big phone to his head for calls, he says, but now he loves his ample screen. After years of evolution from brick-size monstrosities into slim pocket devices, cell phones are going in reverse. South Korea's Samsung Electronics Co. is credited —or blamed 一 with bringing big phones back into the mainstream with devices like the original 5.3-inch Note, introduced outside the U.S. in late 2011.Some tech reviewers at the time derided the big phone as “silly”，and “a phone designed for giants.” But sales boomed, and other makers have followed with still-bigger “phablets”, as techiesarc beginning to call them—a cross between a phone and a tablet.Fares Fay ad, a 39-year-old consultant in Dubai, says he used to think a 3.5-inch cell phone screen was just right, until he tried the iPhone 5, which has a 4-inch screen. “I don’t believe I can go back to the slightly smaller screen,” Mr. Fay ad says,Some ergonomics experts wor ry lame phones could pose an injury risk. “As the stretch to reach all areas of the screen increases, we might start to see more serious repetitive stress injuries --- likely to the thumbs --- in larger touch-screen devices”, says Anthony Andre, a professor of human factors and ergonomics at San Jose State University.【答案】就像许多富裕国家居民的腰围一样，如今手机的尺寸也在逐渐增大，一些手机用户在费尽心思想把它们塞进自己的兜里。
BOSCH 氧传感器 LSF 标准
Produkt / Product:Heated Planar Lambda Sensor Typ / Type:LSF 4.2Bestellnummer / Part Number:0 258 006 ... Angebotszeichnung / Offer Drawing: A 258 ... ...Bemerkung / Comment:Nr. Index SeitePageÄnderungRevisionDatumDateGS-EX/ENG2-HamGS-EX/ENG--Erstausgabe / First Edition27.5.03gez Hamann gez NeumannContents1.Characteristics32.Application conditions53.Functional values84.Environmental test specification125.Carrying out tests166.Evaluation of field parts177.Design variations188.Installation instructions19Reference SpecificationsApplication guideline KGS_LSHandling instruction Y 258 E00 000Temperature measurement sensors Y 258 E00 006Test method: measurement temperature and Y 258 E00 007thermoshockMeasurement in propane gas Y 258 P02 042Measurement in synthetic gas Y 258 E00 004For design variations different values are marked.For explanation of variations see section 7.GeneralThe lambda sensor LSF4 is a planar 2-state λ=1 sensor of ZrO2 (Nernst-principle) with an integrated heater.It can be used for 2-state closed loop control of λ=1 automotive engines as well as catalyst monitoring sensor in OBD systems.Note: values signed with [N] in this document are nominal values or guide values. They depend directly on other values which are specified with tol-erances elsewhere in this paper.1.Characteristics1.1Electrical connection-sensor signal:2-pole, isolated ground-sensor heater:2-pole1.2Isolation resistance:(all measurements in static air, heater off)-between housing and each heater- and sensorcircuit connector pin for new sensors atroom temperature, measured with 800V DC:≥ 30 MΩ-between heater and sensor circuit for newsensors at room temp., meas. with 800V DC:≥ 30 MΩ-between heater and sensor circuit at 570°Chexagon temperature, new and after agingacc. to section 4.1, measured with 12V DC:≥ 500 kΩ-between sensor circuit and housing at 570°Chexagon temperature, new and after agingacc. to section 4.1, measured with 12V DC:≥ 10 kΩ1.3Heater performanceNominal heater power with 13 V heater voltagein propane gas burner Y 258 P02 042 at 350°C:7 Watt[N]Short term max. heater current with13 Volt at -40°C ambient temperature: ≤ 2.1 A[N]Nominal heater cold resistance atroom temperature for new sensor,including cable and connector:9.0 Ω[N]1.4 Heater supply Nominal voltage:12 VMaximum permissible effective heater voltage V H,eff,max - continuous:12 ... 14 V - max. 1 % of total life time ≤ 15 V(exhaust gas temperature ≤ 850°C)- short-term for max. 75 s.≤ 18 V(exhaust gas temperature ≤ 350°C)Maximum system supply voltage V Batt,max ≤ 16.5 V (with duty cycle of heater to V H,eff,max )- short time voltage peak for 60ms≤ 28 V(10 times over lifetime,ceramic temperature ≥ -40°C)Test voltage:13±0.1 V(for tests in section 3 an 4)Minimum frequency of heater duty cycle control:≥ 2 HzNote: the use of the sensor with 24V power systems is not permissible except if a voltage converter systems is used.During the condensation water phase the heater power must be limited (by heater power duty cycling), to rule out thermo shock damage of the sensor ceramic, see measuring method Y 258 E00 007.Heater voltage during condensation water phase V H,eff ≤ 4 V← application specific → time after start2.Application conditions2.1Temperature measurementsTemperature measurements are performed with a special sensor equipped with NiCrNi thermocouples, see sketch. Sensor Type "MABCD" has measurementpoints at the upper side of the PTFE formed hose (T upperhose), the cable grom-met (T grommet), the hexagon of the sensor housing (T hexagon) and for the exhaust gas temperature (T exhaustgas).For more information see description of temperature measurement sensorsY 258 E00 006 and measurement method Y 258 E00 007.T Exhaustgas T Grommet T Upperhose2.2Storage temperature (passive):-40°C ... +100°CStorage conditions see handling instruction Y 258 E00 0002.3Operating temperaturesExhaust gas (T Exhaustgas):≤ 930°CMinimum exhaust gas temperatureis to be tested application specific.Recommendation:≥ 150°CHexagon of the sensor housing (T Hexagon):≤ 570°CCable grommet (PTFE formed hose)- sensor side (T Grommet):≤ 250°C- cable side (upperhose crimp, T Upperhose):≤ 200°CCable and protective sleeve:≤ 250°CConnector:≤ 120°Cresp. according toconnector supplier spec.2.4Maximum temperatures2.4.1max. 250 h accumulated over lifetimeExhaust gas (T Exhaustgas):≤ 1030°CHexagon of the sensor housing (T Hexagon):≤ 650°C2.4.2max. 40 h accumulated over lifetime in intervals of max. 10 minutesCable grommet (PTFE formed hose)- sensor side (T Grommet):≤ 280°C- cable side (upperhose crimp, T Upperhose):≤ 230°CCable and protective sleeve:≤ 280°CNotes:If the gas temperature of 930°C is exceeded, the heater power must beswitched off.If the max. gas temperature exceeds 930°C or hexagon temperature exceeds570°C, the use of a longer thread boss is recommended (see section 8.9).If the operating temperature is exceeded (within the max. temperaturelimits) for more then 10 minutes without break, the sensor function might be affected during this time.2.5When condensation water is present at exhaust side, the heater power of thesensor must be limited, see 1.4.2.6Permissible vibrations(measured at the sensor housing)Stochastic vibrations:≤ 1000 m/s2(peak level)Sinusoidal vibrations-vibration displacement:≤ 0.3 mm-vibration acceleration:≤ 300 m/s22.7Continuous DC, sensor circuit≤| 10 µA |exhaust gas temperature ≥ 350°CContinuous AC (f ≥ 1 Hz)≤ 10 µAexhaust gas temperature ≥ 350°C2.8Maximum sensor internal resistance that can beused for indication of ready-to-control mode:10 kΩ2.9Permissible fuel additivesIn accordance with DIN EN228 for commerciallyavailable unleaded fuel.For use of leaded fuel see section 6.22.10Oil consumption and oil brandPermissible figures and data must be determined by thecustomer by the way of adequate large-scale tests.Guide value: ≤ 0.7 l/1000 km2.11LifetimeThe technical development of the sensor is aligned to a service life of160.000 km and a maximum life time of 10 years.A sensor with the protection tube variation “d4” (see sec. 7.1) is designedfor a service life of 250.000 km and a maximum life time of 15 years.Failure criterion is the non-compliance with the functional values asmentioned in section 6.The following conditions must be fulfilled in order to reach this service life:-Application conditions acc. to section 2.-Installation conditions acc. to section 8.-Checking of each application/installation location according to applica-tion guideline KGS_LS-Usage of a RB approved sensor connector with single chamber sealing and gold plated sensor signal contacts.The commercial warranty and liability is regulated in the conditions ofdelivery, independent of the above figures. The aforesaid information onlifetime for which the product has been construed shall in no case be aguarantee regarding the condition or quality of the product.3.Functional valuesSpecial hints for carrying out test bench measurements:Due to low gas speed and lack of gas pulsation in the propane gas burner,the sensors have a reduced gas exchange at the active sensor ceramic ele-ment. This leads to a different behavior of the dynamic sensor characteris-tics compared to real vehicle exhaust gas conditions. Especially the re-sponse times in the propane gas burner are badly reproducible and therefore only to be understood as guide values.Due to the technical design of the gas test benches (PSG and propane gas burner) these measurement data cannot be used for capability calculations.The 850°C measurement in propane gas burner is only permissible if this exhaust temperature in the field has been reached or exceeded for an ex-tended period of time.New sensors and sensors from defined endurance-run programs are measuredwith an applied test voltage as in sec. 1.4, if not otherwise specified.3.1Sensors with protection tube …d1“Measurement with synthetic gas test bench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C New After 500 h After 2000h StaticCharacteristic λ statat 450 mV output 1.005±0.004 1.006±0.005 1.009±0.007Closed Loop Testλ dyn1.009±0.004 1.010±0.005 1.012±0.006frequency (Hz)2.9 ± 0.72.9 ± 0.72.5 ± 1.0Measured with synthetic gastest bench Y 258 E00 004 at 20°CLight-off time (s)Time to reach a sensor output of 600mV with rich gas of λ=0.97≤ 12 ≤ 12 ≤ 123.2Sensors with protection tube …d2“ (see sec. 8)Measurement with synthetic gas testbench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C New After 500 h After 2000hStatic Characteristic λ statat 450 mV output1.002±0.006 1.003±0.007 1.007±0.007Closed Loop Testλ dyn 1.008±0.004 1.009±0.005 1.011±0.006 frequency (Hz) 2.3 ± 1.0 2.3 ± 1.0 2.3 ± 1.0 Measured with synthetic gastest bench Y 258 E00 004 at 20°CLight-off time (s)Time to reach a sensor outputof 600mV with rich gas of λ=0.97≤ 12≤ 12≤ 123.3Sensors with protection tube …d4“ (see sec. 8)Measurement with synthetic gas testbench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C New After 500 h After 3000hStatic Characteristic λ statat 450 mV output1.006±0.006 1.007±0.007 1.008±0.007Closed Loop Testλ dyn 1.010±0.004 1.010±0.005 1.010±0.006 frequency (Hz) 2.7 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 1.0 Measured with synthetic gastest bench Y 258 E00 004 at 20°CLight-off time (s)Time to reach a sensor outputof 600mV with rich gas of λ=0.97≤ 12≤ 12≤ 123.4Measurement with special gas composition for sensors after operationdownstream catalystSensors which are used in an application downstream catalyst are measured with a special gas composition. This composition corresponds to a gas after an aged catalyst with 97% HC conversion rate. These characteristics arevalid for the specified test gas only. In an engine exhaust, the gas compo-sition might be different, depending on application.Characteristics for all protection tube variants, new and after endurance run downstream catalyst, acc. to sec. 4.1.2Measurement with synthetic gas testbench Y 258 E00 004 at 350°C with special gas composition Heater voltageU H = 10VHeater voltageU H = 13Vλ stat at 450 mV sensor output1,0000 ± 0,00101,0000 ± 0,0010λ stat at 600 mV sensor output0,9999 ± 0,00100,9998 ± 0,0010λ stat at 700 mV sensor output0,9996 ± 0,00100,9990 ± 0,00154.Environmental test specificationEach test must be carried out with new sensors. If not otherwise specified, after the tests the sensors must fulfil the functional values of aged(2000/3000h) sensors as in section 3. The sensor heater is operated with a test voltage as in sec. 1.4, if not otherwise specified.4.1Engine endurance runFor measurements of functional values after endurance test the sensors have to be fitted into the exhaust system of a λ=1 controlled gasoline engine.Speed and load are changed in a 6-cycle program so that a temperature curve is reached in the sensor tip as per sketch.-Fuel: according to DIN EN228 for commercially available unleaded fuel.-Oil consumption ≤ 0,04 l/h.-Oil brand: multi-range oil viscosity 10W-40, API specification SF.Compliance with the temperature limits as per section 2 must be ensured by adequate cooling. The sensor heater is switched on in the test (13±0.5V).After the test the functional values for aged sensors in section 3 must be fulfilled.The exhaust gas temperature is set by varying engine speed and load.The temperature at the hexagon is limited by additional air cooling.Test time: 500h and 2000h (sensors with protection tube ...d1“ and (2)500h and 3000h (sensors with protection tube …d4“)4.1.1The sensors are installed upstream catalyst.4.1.2The sensors are installed downstream catalyst.T1 = exhaust gasT2 = housing hexagon4.2Sinusoidal vibration test acc to IEC 68-2-6 test FcTest equipment: electrodynamic vibratorTest between 50...150 Hz at constant amplitude ± 0,3 mm and between150...500 Hz at constant acceleration of ± 300 m/s2.Frequency change velocity: 1 octave/min.Test duration:8 h to be performed in all 3perpendicularplanes.Sensor mounting: see sketchAmbient temperature:25 ± 3 °C.The heater has to be switched on during the test.4.3Random vibration testTest equipment: Random vibration test benchas per Bosch standard N42 AP 411.Acceleration: 1000 m/s2 (peak level)Test duration: 24 hSensor mounting: see sketchAmbient temperature: 25 ± 3°CThe heater has to be switched on during the test.Sensor mounting for 4.2 and 4.330320129020 1221683745°46281022A4.4Test with damp heat, cyclic (12+12-hour cycle)acc. to IEC 68-2-30, test DbNo. of cycles: 21max. air temperature: 40°CThe heater has to be switched off during this test.4.5Salt mist test acc. to IEC 68-2-11, test KaTesting time: 288 hThe sensor heating is switched on 5 minutes before and during testing. In order to prevent water from reaching the sensor ceramic a stainless steel sleeve is screwed onto the sensor thread for proper sealing.4.6Change of temperature acc. to IEC 68-2-14, test NaMinimum temperature: -40 °CMaximum temperature: 130 °CExposure duration at each temp.: 30 min.No. of temperature cycles: 250The heater has to be switched off during this test.4.7Sulfur dioxide test with general condensation of moistureacc. to DIN EN ISO 6988No. of cycles: 6 (24 h for each cycle)The heater has to be switched off during this test. In order to protect the sensor ceramic a stainless steel sleeve is screwed onto the sensor thread for proper sealing.4.8Submergence test acc. IEC 529, IPx7Water level 150 mm above sensor cable outlet. Test duration is 30 min. The connection system must be out of the water during the test.The sensor voltage is monitored during the test. ∆ U ≤ 10 mV.The sensor heating is switched on 5 minutes before and during testing. In order to prevent water entering the sensor ceramic a stainless steel sleeve is screwed onto the sensor thread for sealing.4.9Wire pull testThe mounted sensor has to withstand an axial force of 100 N applied to the wire harness for 1 min.4.10Fuel resistance test (FVP-test)The exhaust gas side of the sensor is exposed to Pentane vapor in a testchamber (pressure 5mbar). The soak time is 2 h. After this the sensor isremoved and the heater is switched on. The sensor signal in ambient air is monitored for 120 min. A failure is defined as a decrease of the sensorslean output voltage below -100 mV.4.11Fine leak testThe gas leakage is measured from exhaust gas side with an air pressure of4 bar. The leakage rate must be smaller than 0.1 ml/min.4.12Drop test acc. to IEC 68-2-32 test Ed proc. 1The sensor is dropped to a concrete floor from a height of 1m for one time.4.13Test to Silicon sensitivityEngine test run with additional silicon content in fuel.The sensors are fitted in the exhaust pipe of a λ=1 controlled engine as in5.1, but with the following conditions:exhaust gas temperature: 400°Ctest time: 6 hSi content in fuel: 0.12cm3/l Oktamethylcyclotetrasiloxane fuel consumption over the test time: 18 lTest evaluation: static lambda in synthetic gas (see section 4) must bewithin the range of 1.000 ... 1.0165.Carrying out testsNote:Product audit tests are carried out for monitoring the product quality on a regular basis.DV tests are only carried out with new sensor types in the design verifica-tion phase.6.Evaluation of field partsIn case of complaints about the products they are effectively free of fault through attainment of the following characteristic data:6.1Sensors from operation with unleaded fuelMeasurement in propane gas burner test bench Y 258 P02 042 at 350°CSensors with protection tube d1d2d4800±60800±60815±60 Sensor voltage (mV)at λ=0.97 (CO=1%)50±4050±4050±40 Sensor voltage (mV)at λ=1.10Internal resistance (kΩ)≤1.0≤1.0≤1.0<125<400<400 Response time (ms)600 mV ... 300 mV< 60<400<200 Response time (ms)300 mV ... 600 mVHeater current (A)0.48±0.100.48±0.100.48±0.10If these figures are fulfilled, the sensor will be capable of closed loop control under normal operation conditions. However since a vehicle's ex-haust gas emission values also depend to a great extent upon other compo-nents in the system (engine, catalytic converter, mounting position,closed-loop control circuit), these figures cannot be taken as a reliable indication of emissions behavior in an emission test.6.2Sensors from operation with leaded fuelMeasurement in propane gas burner test bench Y 258 P02 042 at 350°CSensor voltage (mV)≥ 625at λ=0.97 (CO=1%)Sensor voltage (mV)-100 (80)at λ=1.10Internal resistance (kΩ)≤ 1Response time (ms)≤ 800600 mV ... 300 mVResponse time (ms)≤ 800300 mV ... 600 mVHeater current (A)≥ 0.30Depending on the lead contents of the used fuel the expected service life time is:-for 0.6 g Pb/l: 20 000 km-for 0.4 g Pb/l: 30 000 km-for 0.15 g Pb/l: 60 000 kmIn general, when using leaded fuel the sensor will be replaced, whenfunctional problems occur, e.g. unstable idle speed, driveability problems.The system diagnose functions should be rechecked for the reduced demands on the sensor and the increased response times when leaded fuel is used.7.Design variationsThe following variations are available:7.1Protection tubes•Sensor with protection tube type “d1” with big holes.•Sensor with protection tube type “d2” with smaller holes.•Sensor with protection tube type “d4” with smaller holes.Sensors with d2 and d4 tube can be applied in cases of high particulateconcentration in the exhaust gas. The d2 protection tube gives also a par-tial improvement regarding the resistance against condensation water in the exhaust gas at engine start (thermoshock).7.2PTFE formed hose•Longer PTFE hose at cable grommet for installation with critical•temperature conditions in the sensor area.•Shortened PTFE hose at cable grommet.Note: the temperature resistance is the same for both types at the defined measuring points.8.Installation instructionsThe sensor installation point and the sensor functionality in the fullsystem must be assured sufficiently by the customer through appropriate ve-hicle tests under realistic conditions of use.8.1Installation in the exhaust system must be at a point guaranteeing repre-sentative exhaust gas composition whilst also satisfying the specified tem-perature limits.8.2The heater power must always be switched on and operated respecting thedata in section 1.4, if necessary by heater voltage duty cycling. Atbooster starts the heater must be switched off.8.2.1To avoid signal injection of the heater voltage in the λ-sensor signalcircuit while the sensor is cold (high sensor resistance), the sensor sig-nal must not be evaluated for control or diagnose in the first 4 secondsafter full heater start.8.3The sensor ceramic element is heated up quickly after heater start.After heating up the ceramic all occurrence of condensation water, whichcould damage the hot ceramic, must be ruled out.To allow early heating of the sensor to reach a fast sensor activity, the sensor installation location design must be selected in a way to minimize exhaust-side stressing of the sensor with condensation water.If this is not possible by design measures, the start of the sensor heater must be delayed until demonstrably no more condensation water appears.8.3.1Design measures:-Locate sensor as close to the engine as possible, respecting max. al-lowed temperature range-The exhaust pipe in front of the sensor must not contain any pockets, projections, protrusions, edges flex-tubes etc. to avoid accumulation ofcondensation water. A downwards slope of the pipe is recommended.-Make sure, that the front hole of the double protection tube does not point against exhaust gas stream.-Attempt to achieve rapid heating-up of the exhaust pipes in the area in front of the sensor and also of the complete sensor thread boss area, toavoid developing of condensation water-The sensor thread boss must be designed as shown in 8.9 to reach a rapid heat up of the sensor protection tube area. Make sure, that the protec-tion tube is fully reaching into the exhaust gas stream.8.3.2System measures:-Never switch on sensor heater before engine start.-Delay of sensor heater start or power control of the sensor heater, e.g.as a function of engine and ambient temperature (see sec. 1.4) Test method for evaluation see Y 258 E00 007.8.4Installation angle must be inclined at least 10° towards horizontal (elec-trical connection upwards). Thus preventing the collection of liquids be-tween sensor housing and sensor element during the cold start phase.Other installation angles must be inspected and tested individually.8.5Avoid excessive heating up of the sensor cable grommet, particularly whenthe engine has been switched off after running under max. load conditions.8.6The use of cleaning/greasing fluids or evaporating solids at the sensorplug connection is not permitted.8.7Assembly with special high temperature resistant grease on the screw-inthread (e.g. Bosch-No. 5 964 080 112 for the 120g tin).8.8Tightening torque: 40-60 Nm, material characteristics and strength of thethread must be appropriate.8.9Recommended material for thethread boss in the exhaust pipe:Temperature resistant stainlesssteel, e.g.X 5 CrNi 18 10, DIN 17440 1.4301or 1.4303 or SAE 30304 or SAE30305 (US standard)Thread boss dimensions should beas in sketch, note that sensorthread must be covered com-pletely.Recommendation(*): For hot appli-cations (T Hexagon>570°C orT gas>930°C) the thread boss shouldbe min. 13mm to avoid overheatingof the protection tube weldingand to cool down the sensor hexa-gon.If the length is ≥16mm (max. 22mm permissible) the danger of thermo shock will be increased due to condensation water formation inside the protection tube. This must be covered separately by measurements described in Y 258E00 007.8.10Electrical connectors: A waterproof version is required.8.11The sensor and connection must be covered when underbody sealant (wax, taretc.) or spray oil is applied to the vehicle.8.12The influence of contamination which enters the exhaust gas through theintake air or as a result of fuel, oil, sealing materials etc., and thusreaches the λ-sensor is application specific and must be determined by cus-tomer tests.8.13The sensor must not be exposed to strong mechanical shocks (e.g. while thesensor is installed). Otherwise the sensor element may crack without visi-ble damage to the sensor housing.8.14For physical reasons the sensor needs ambient air at its reference gasside. Replacement of the air volume inside the sensor must be guaranteed bya sufficient air permeability of the wires and the connectors between sen-sor and ECU. The breathability should be higher than 1 ml/minute at a test pressure of 100mbar.8.15Underfloor installation of the sensor at a distance from the engine re-quires an additional check of the following points:-positioning of the sensor with respect to stone impact hazard-positioning and fixing of cable and connector with respect to mechanical damage, cable bending stress and thermal stress.8.16The PTFE formed hose is part of the reference air volume of the sensor andmust be kept sealed and undamaged. For installation, the minimum bendingradius of the hose must be 20mm (for long PTFE hose) resp. 12mm (for short hose). Keep the PTFE formed hose away from sharp edges and avoid con-tact/friction with frame/engine assembly.The first fixing point for the cable to the car body should be 200mm to400mm after the end of the PTFE formed hose, depending on movement of the exhaust system.8.17The sensor must not be exposed to continuous, one-sided dripping of water,e.g. by the air conditioning condensation water outlet. The thermal stresscould lead to mechanical damage of the sensor.8.18Additional instructions for the installation downstream of the catalyticconverter (data for OBDII applications)-Between catalyst and sensor location absolute gas tightness of the exhaust system must be ensured.-When the sensor is installed in the exhaust pipe there should be no discon-nectable connections between catalytic converter and sensor (e.g. flange, clamp-screw joint).-In order to protect the active sensor ceramic the sensor heater voltage must be power controlled after engine start during the condensation water phase, see 1.4.8.19Note for application of sensors downstream the catalytic converter:the sensor output on the rich side (≥600mV) is temperature dependent. For the outer loop control with the rear sensor the ceramic temperature of the sensor element should be kept to a constant temperature (control of heater power depending on engine operation conditions).Recommended guide value for application: 600°C ... 700°C ceramic tempera-ture, corresponding to a sensor internal resistance R I,N of 300Ω...120Ω(measured with 1...4kHz) for new sensors. The temperature data are guidevalues[N], the temperature of the assembled sensor can not be measured.Temperature dependency of sensor output downstream catalyst [N] (schematic)450,00500,00550,00600,00650,00700,00750,00800,00T Keramik / °CTemperature dependency of internal resistance, average and scatter band(guide value [N])。
pisa2006科学试题
Document: ReleasedPISAItems_Science.docPISA RELEASED ITEMS - SCIENCEDecember 2006Table of ContentsS126: Biodiversity (3)S127: Buses (6)S128: Cloning (8)S129: Daylight (11)S195: Semmelweis’ Diary (16)S210: Climate Change (22)S212: Flies (24)S251: Calf Clones (28)S253: Ozone (31)S307: Corn (37)S409: Fit for Drinking (40)S414: Tooth Decay (45)S420: Hot Work (48)S423: Mousepox (50)S433: Stickleback Behaviour (53)S439: Tobacco Smoking (59)S441: Starlight (63)S448: Ultrasound (64)S470: Lip Gloss (67)S472: Evolution (69)S505: Bread Dough (72)S507: Transit of Venus (76)S515: Health Risk? (79)S516: Catalytic Converter (82)S526: Major Surgery (86)S529: Wind Farms (90)Source Publications for Released Items (94)S126: BiodiversityBiodiversity Text 1Read the following newspaper article and answer the questions which follow.BIODIVERSITY IS THE KEY TO MANAGING ENVIRONMENTAn ecosystem that retains a high biodiversity (that is, a wide variety of living things) is much more likely to adapt to human-caused environment change than is one that has little. Consider the two food webs shown in the diagram. The arrows point from the organism that gets eaten to the one that eats it. These food webs are highly5simplified compared with food webs in real ecosystems, but they still illustrate a key difference between more diverse and less diverse ecosystems. Food web B represents a situation with very low biodiversity, where at some levels the food path involves only a single type of organism. Food web A represents a more diverse ecosystem with, as a result, many more alternative feeding pathways. 10Generally, loss of biodiversity should be regarded seriously, not only because the organisms that have become extinct represent a big loss for both ethical and utilitarian (useful benefit) reasons, but also because the organisms that remain have become more vulnerable (exposed) to extinction in the future.Source: Adapted from Steve Malcolm: ‘Biodiversity is the key to managing environment’, The Age , 16 August 1994.FOOD WEB A FOOD WEB BEucalypt Beetle Spider Lizard SnakeWattle Tea TreeLeaf HopperButterfly LarvaeParasitic Wasp HoneyeaterRobinButcher BirdNative CatNative CatButcher BirdSnakeLizard RobinParasitic WaspLeaf HopperWattleQuestion 3: BIODIVERSITY S126Q03 In lines 9 and 10 it is stated that “Food web A represents a more diverse ecosystem with, as a result, many more alternative feeding pathways.”Look at FOOD WEB A. Only two animals in this food web have three direct (immediate) food sources. Which two animals are they?A Native Cat and Parasitic WaspB Native Cat and Butcher BirdC Parasitic Wasp and Leaf HopperD Parasitic Wasp and SpiderE Native Cat and HoneyeaterBIODIVERSITY SCORING 3QUESTION INTENT: Process: Demonstrating knowledge and understandingTheme: EcosystemsArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 1: A. Native Cat and Parasitic WaspNo creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.Question 4: BIODIVERSITY S126Q04 Food webs A and B are in different locations. Imagine if Leaf Hoppers died out in both locations. Which one of these is the best prediction and explanation for the effect this would have on the food webs?A The effect would be greater in food web A because the Parasitic Wasp has onlyone food source in web A.B The effect would be greater in food web A because the Parasitic Wasp hasseveral food sources in web A.C The effect would be greater in food web B because the Parasitic Wasp has onlyone food source in web B.D The effect would be greater in food web B because the Parasitic Wasp hasseveral food sources in web B.BIODIVERSITY SCORING 4QUESTION INTENT: Process: Drawing/evaluating conclusionsTheme: BiodiversityArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 1: C. The effect would be greater in food web B because the Parasitic Wasp has only one food source in web B.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.S127: BusesQuestion 1: BUSES S127Q01 A bus is driving along a straight stretch of road. The bus driver, named Ray, has a cup of water resting on the dashboard:1 2waterdriving directionSuddenly Ray has to slam on the brakes.What is most likely to happen to the water in the cup?A The water will stay horizontal.B The water will spill over side 1.C The water will spill over side 2.D The water will spill but you cannot tell if it will spill at side 1 or side 2.BUSES SCORING 1QUESTION INTENT: Process: Demonstrating knowledge and understandingTheme: Forces and movementArea: Science in technologiesFull creditCode 1: C. The water will spill over side 2.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.Question 4: BUSES S127Q04-0189 Ray’s bus is, like most buses, powered by a petrol engine. These buses contribute to environmental pollution.Some cities have trolley buses: they are powered by an electric engine. The voltage needed for such an electric engine is provided by overhead lines (like electric trains). The electricity is supplied by a power station using fossil fuels.Supporters for the use of trolley buses in a city say that these buses don’t contribute to environmental pollution.Are these supporters right? Explain your answer. .................................................... ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................BUSES SCORING 4QUESTION INTENT: Process: Demonstrating knowledge and understandingTheme: Energy transformationsArea: Science in Earth and environmentFull creditCode1: Gives an answer in which it is stated that the power station also contributes to environmental pollution:• No, because the power station causes environmental pollution as well.• Yes, but this is only true for the city itself; the power station however causesenvironmental pollution.No creditCode 0: No or yes, without a correct explanation.Code 8: Off task.Code 9: Missing.Example responsesCode 1:• Yes and No. The buses don’t pollute the city which is good, but the power stationdoes pollute and that’s not very good.• The buses do contribute to the environmental pollution by using fossil fuels butthey’re not as harmful as normal buses with all their gases. [Note: This answercan be given the benefit of the doubt.]Code 0:• Well they have no outlet so no harmful smoke goes into the air which candamage the O-zone layer, and having electricity created by fossil fuels is alsomore environmental friendly.• Yes, they are. Because electricity isn’t harmful for the environment we only useup our Earth’s gas.S128: CloningRead the newspaper article and answer the questions that follow.Question 1: CLONING S128Q01 Which sheep is Dolly identical to?A Sheep 1B Sheep 2C Sheep 3D Dolly’s fatherCLONING SCORING 1Full creditCode 1: A. Sheep 1No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.Question 2: CLONING S128Q02 In line 14 the part of the udder that was used is described as “a very small piece”. From the article text you can work out what is meant by “a very small piece”.That “very small piece” isA a cell.B a gene.C a cell nucleus.D a chromosome.CLONING SCORING 2Full creditCode 1: A. a cell.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.Question 3: CLONING S128Q03In the last sentence of the article it is stated that many governments have alreadydecided to forbid cloning of people by law.Two possible reasons for this decision are mentioned below.Are these reasons scientific reasons?Circle either “Yes” or “No” for each.Reason: Scientific? Cloned people could be more sensitive to certain diseases thanYes / Nonormal people.People should not take over the role of a Creator. Yes / NoCLONING SCORING 3Full creditCode 1: Yes, No, in that order.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.S129: DaylightRead the following information and answer the questions that follow. DAYLIGHT ON 22 JUNE 2002Today, as the Northern Hemisphere celebrates its longest day, Australians will experience their shortest.In Melbourne*, Australia, the Sun will rise at 7:36 am and set at 5:08 pm, giving nine hours and 32 minutes of daylight. Compare today to the year’s longest day in the Southern Hemisphere, expected on 22 December, when the Sun will rise at 5:55 am and set at 8:42 pm, giving 14 hours and 47 minutes of daylight.The President of the Astronomical Society, Mr Perry Vlahos, said the existence of changing seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres was linked to the Earth’s 23-degree tilt.*Melbourne is a city in Australia at a latitude of about 38 degrees South of the equator.Question 1: DAYLIGHT S129Q01 Which statement explains why daylight and darkness occur on Earth?A The Earth rotates on its axis.B The Sun rotates on its axis.C The Earth’s axis is tilted.D The Earth revolves around the Sun.DAYLIGHT SCORING 1Full creditCode 1: A. The Earth rotates on its axis.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.Question 2: DAYLIGHT S129Q02 - 01 02 03 04 11 12 13 21 99 In the Figure light rays from the Sun are shown shining on the Earth.Suppose it is the shortest day in Melbourne.Show the Earth’s axis, the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere and the Equator on the Figure. Label all parts of your answer.DAYLIGHT SCORING 2Note: the important features when marking this question are:1. The Earth’s axis is drawn tilted towards the Sun within the range 10° and 45° from vertical for credit: refer to the following diagram:Outside of 10° and 45° to vertical range: no credit.2. The presence or absence of clearly labelled Northern and Southern Hemispheres, or one Hemisphere only labelled, the other implied.3. The equator is drawn at a tilt towards the Sun within the range 10° and 45° above horizontal for credit: refer to the following diagram:CREDIT FOR AXIS10O 23O 45OFigure: light rays from SunThe equator may be drawn as an elliptical line or straight line.Outside of 10° and 45° to horizontal range: no credit.Full creditCode 21: Diagram with Equator tilted towards the Sun at an angle between 10° and45° and Earth’s axis tilted towards the Sun within the range 10° and 45°from vertical, and the Northern and or Southern Hemispheres correctlylabelled (or one only labelled, the other implied).Partial creditCode 11: Angle of tilt of axis between 10° and 45°, Northern and / or SouthernHemispheres correctly labelled (or one only labelled, the other implied), butangle of tilt of Equator not between 10° and 45°; or Equator missing.CREDIT FOR EQUATOR 10O23O45ONS A EquatorAxis N Equator Axis N NAxisS S EquatorCode 12: Angle of tilt of Equator between 10° and 45°, Northern and / or SouthernHemispheres correctly labelled (or one only labelled, the other implied), butangle of tilt of axis not between 10° and 45°; or axis missing.Code 13: Angle of tilt of Equator between 10° and 45°, and angle of tilt of axisbetween 10° and 45°, but Northern and Southern Hemispheres notcorrectly labelled (or one only labelled, the other implied, or both missing).No creditCode 01: Northern and or Southern Hemispheres correctly labelled (or one only, theother implied) is the only correct feature.Code 02: Angle of tilt of Equator between 10° and 45° is the only correct feature.NS AxisEquator N S Axis Equator N Axis Equator Axis EquatorN SEquatorCode 03: Angle of tilt of axis between 10° and 45° is the only correct feature.AxisCode 04: No features are correct, or other responses.SNCode 99: Missing.S195: Semmelweis’ DiarySemmelweis’ Diary Text 1‘July 1846. Next week I will take up a position as “Herr Doktor” at the First Ward of the maternity clinic of the Vienna General Hospital. I was frightened when I heard about the percentage of patients who die in this clinic. This month not less than 36 of the 208 mothers died there, all from puerperal fever. Giving birth to a child is as dangerous as first-degree pneumonia.’These lines from the diary ofIgnaz Semmelweis (1818-1865)illustrate the devastating effects of puerperal fever, a contagious disease that killed many women after childbirth. Semmelweiscollected data about the numberof deaths from puerperal fever in both the First and the SecondWards (see diagram).Physicians, among them Semmelweis, were completely in the dark about the cause of puerperal fever. Semmelweis’ diary again:‘December 1846. Why do so many women die from this fever after giving birth without any problems? For centuries science has told us that it is an invisible epidemic that kills mothers. Causes may be changes in the air or some extraterrestrial influence or a movement of the earth itself, an earthquake.’Nowadays not many people would consider extraterrestrial influence or anearthquake as possible causes of fever. But in the time Semmelweis lived, many people, even scientists, did! We now know it has to do with hygienic conditions. Semmelweis knew that it was unlikely that fever could be caused by extraterrestrial influence or an earthquake. He pointed at the data he collected (see diagram) and used this to try to persuade his colleagues.Diagram184118421843184418451846Year15105Number of Deaths First WardSecondWardNumber of Deaths per 100 deliveries from puerperal feverQuestion 2: SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY S195Q02- 01 02 03 04 11 12 13 21 99 Suppose you were Semmelweis. Give a reason (based on the data Semmelweis collected) why puerperal fever is unlikely to be caused by earthquakes. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY SCORING 2QUESTION INTENT: Process: Drawing/evaluating conclusionsTheme: Human biologyArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 21: Refers to the difference between the number of deaths (per 100 deliveries) in both wards.• Due to the fact that the first ward had a high rate of women dying compared towomen in the second ward, obviously shows that it had nothing to do withearthquakes.• Not as many people died in ward 2 so an earthquake couldn’t have occurredwithout causing the same number of deaths in each ward.•Because the second ward isn’t as high, maybe it had something to do with ward 1.• It is unlikely that earthquakes cause the fever since death rates are so differentfor the two wards.Partial creditCode 11: Refers to the fact that earthquakes don’t occur frequently.• It would be unlikely to be caused by earthquakes because earthquakes wouldn’thappen all the time.Code 12: Refers to the fact that earthquakes also influence people outside the wards.• If there were an earthquake, women from outside the hospital would have gotpuerperal fever as well.• If an earthquake were the reason, the whole world would get puerperal fevereach time an earthquake occurs (not only the wards 1 and 2).Code 13: Refers to the thought that when earthquakes occur, men don’t get puerperal fever.• If a man were in the hospital and an earthquake came, he didn’t get puerperalfever, so earthquakes cannot be the cause.• Because girls get it and not men.No creditCode 01: States (only) that earthquakes cannot cause the fever.• An earthquake cannot influence a person or make him sick.• A little shaking cannot be dangerous.Code 02: States (only) that the fever must have another cause (right or wrong).• Earthquakes do not let out poison gases. They are caused by the plates of theEarth folding and faulting into each other.• Because they have nothing to do with each other and it is just superstition.• An earthquake doesn’t have any influence on the pregnancy. The reason wasthat the doctors were not specialised enough.Code 03: Answers that are combinations of Codes 01 and 02.• Puerperal fever is unlikely to be caused by earthquakes as many women dieafter giving birth without any problems. Science has told us that it is an invisibleepidemic that kills mothers.• The death is caused by bacteria and the earthquakes cannot influence them. Code 04: Other responses.• I think it was a big earthquake that shook a lot.• In 1843 the deaths decreased at ward 1 and less so at ward 2.• Because there aren’t any earthquakes by the wards and they still got it. [Note:The assumption that there were no earthquakes at that time isn’t correct.] Code 99: Missing.Semmelweis’ Diary Text 2Part of the research in the hospital was dissection. The body of a deceased person was cut open to find a cause of death. Semmelweis recorded that the students working on the First ward usually took part in dissections on women who died the previous day, before they examined women who had just given birth. They did not pay much attention to cleaning themselves after the dissections. Some were even proud of the fact that you could tell by their smell that they had been working in the mortuary, as this showed how industrious they were!One of Semmelweis’ friends died after having cut himself during such a dissection. Dissection of his body showed he had the same symptoms as mothers who died from puerperal fever. This gave Semmelweis a new idea.Question 4: SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY S195Q04 Semmelweis’ new idea had to do with the high percentage of women dying in the maternity wards and the students’ behaviour.What was this idea?A Having students clean themselves after dissections should lead to a decrease ofpuerperal fever.B Students should not take part in dissections because they may cut themselves.C Students smell because they do not clean themselves after a dissection.D Students want to show that they are industrious, which makes them carelesswhen they examine the women.SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY SCORING 4QUESTION INTENT: Process: Recognising questionsTheme: Human biologyArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 1: A. Having students clean themselves after dissections should lead to a decrease of puerperal fever.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.Question 5: SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY S195Q05-01 02 11 12 13 14 15 99 Semmelweis succeeded in his attempts to reduce the number of deaths due to puerperal fever. But puerperal fever even today remains a disease that is difficult to eliminate.Fevers that are difficult to cure are still a problem in hospitals. Many routine measures serve to control this problem. Among those measures are washing sheets at high temperatures.Explain why high temperature (while washing sheets) helps to reduce the risk that patients will contract a fever. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY SCORING 5QUESTION INTENT: Process: Demonstrating knowledge and understandingTheme: Human biologyArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 11: Refers to killing of bacteria .• Because with the heat many bacteria will die.• Bacteria will not stand the high temperature.• Bacteria will be burnt by the high temperature.• Bacteria will be cooked. [Note: Although “burnt” and “cooked” are notscientifically correct, each of the last two answers as a whole can be regardedas correct.]Code 12: Refers to killing of microorganisms, germs or viruses.• Because high heat kills small organisms which cause disease.• It’s too hot for germs to live.Code 13: Refers to the removal (not killing) of bacteria.• The bacteria will be gone.• The number of bacteria will decrease.• You wash the bacteria away at high temperatures.Code 14: Refers to the removal (not killing) of microorganisms, germs or viruses.• Because you won’t have the germ on your body.Code 15: Refers to sterilisation of the sheets.• The sheets will be sterilised.No creditCode 01: Refers to killing of disease.• Because the hot water temperature kills any disease on the sheets.• The high temperature kills most of the fever on the sheets, leaving less chanceof contamination.Code 02: Other responses.• So they don’t get sick from the cold.• Well when you wash something it washes away the germs.Code 99: Missing.Question 6: SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY S195Q06 Many diseases may be cured by using antibiotics. However, the success of some antibiotics against puerperal fever has diminished in recent years.What is the reason for this?A Once produced, antibiotics gradually lose their activity.B Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics.C These antibiotics only help against puerperal fever, but not against otherdiseases.D The need for these antibiotics has been reduced because public health conditionshave improved considerably in recent years.SEMMELWEIS’ DIARY SCORING 6QUESTION INTENT: Process: Demonstrating knowledge and understandingTheme: BiodiversityArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 1: B. Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics.No creditCode 0: Other responses.Code 9: Missing.S210: Climate ChangeClimate Change Text 1Read the following information and answer the questions which follow.WHAT HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTE TO CLIMATE CHANGE?The burning of coal, oil and natural gas, as well as deforestation and variousagricultural and industrial practices, are altering the composition of the atmosphere and contributing to climate change. These human activities have led to increased concentrations of particles and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The relative importance of the main contributors to temperature change is shown in Figure 1. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane have a heating effect. Increased concentrations of particles have a cooling effect in two ways, labelled ‘Particles’ and ‘Particle effects on clouds’.Figure 1: Relative importance of the main contributors to change intemperature of the atmosphere.Bars extending to the right of the centre line indicate a heating effect. Bars extending to the left of the centre line indicate a cooling effect. The relative effect of ‘Particles’ and ‘Particle effects on clouds’ are quite uncertain: in each case the possible effect is somewhere in the range shown by the light grey bar.Source: adapted from /ipcc/qa/04.htmlCooling Relative ImportanceHeatingQuestion 1: CLIMATE CHANGE S210Q01-01289 Use the information in Figure 1 to develop an argument in support of reducing the emission of carbon dioxide from the human activities mentioned. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... CLIMATE CHANGE SCORING 1QUESTION INTENT: Process: CommunicatingTheme: The Earth and its place in the universeArea: Science in Earth and environmentFull creditCode 2: Carbon dioxide is the main factor causing an increase in atmospheric temperature/causing climatic change, so reducing the amount emitted willhave the greatest effect in reducing the impact of human activities.Partial creditCode 1: Carbon dioxide is causing an increase in atmospheric temperature/causing climatic change.No creditCode 0: Other responses, including that an increase in temperature will have a bad effect on the Earth.Code 8: Off task.Code 9: Missing.Example responsesCode 2:• The emission of CO2 causes significant heating to the atmosphere and thereforeshould be lessened. [Note: The term “significant” can be considered asequivalent to “most”. ]• According to figure 1 reduction in the emission of carbon dioxide is necessarybecause it considerably heats the earth. [Note: The term “considerable” can beconsidered as equivalent to “most”.]Code 1:• The burning of fossil fuel such as oil, gas and coal are contributing to the buildup of gases in the atmosphere, one of which is carbon dioxide (CO2). This gasaffects the temperature of the earth which increases causing a greenhouseeffect.Code 0:• The way that humans could help control carbon dioxide levels to drop would beby not driving a car, don’t burn coal and don’t chop down forests. [Note: Noconsideration given to the effect of carbon dioxide on temperature.]S212: FliesFlies Text 1Read the following information and answer the questions which follow.FLIESA farmer was working with dairy cattle at an agricultural experiment station. The population of flies in the barn where the cattle lived was so large that the animals’ health was affected. So the farmer sprayed the barn and the cattle with a solution of insecticide A. The insecticide killed nearly all the flies. Some time later, however,the number of flies was again large. The farmer again sprayed with the insecticide. The result was similar to that of the first spraying. Most, but not all, of the flies were killed. Again, within a short time the population of flies increased, and they were again sprayed with the insecticide. This sequence of events was repeated five times: then it became apparent that insecticide A was becoming less and less effective in killing the flies.The farmer noted that one large batch of the insecticide solution had been made and used in all the sprayings. Therefore he suggested the possibility that the insecticide solution decomposed with age.Source: Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998, p. 75.Question 1: FLIES S212Q01-01234589 The farmer’s suggestion is that the insecticide decomposed with age. Briefly explain how this suggestion could be tested. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................FLIES SCORING 1QUESTION INTENT: Process: Identifying evidenceTheme: Chemical and physical changesArea: Science in life and healthFull creditCode 5: Applies to answers in which three variables (type of flies, age ofinsecticide, and exposure) are controlled eg. Compare the results from anew batch of the insecticide with results from the old batch on two groupsof flies of the same species that have not been previously exposed to theinsecticide.。
完整版民航专业英语词汇
本文档下载自文档下载网，内容可能不完整，您可以点击以下网址继续阅读或下载：/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d完整版民航专业英语词汇英语专业民航专业英语词汇民航专业英语词汇民航专业英语词汇民航专业英语词汇 Main service points:主勤务点arrangement: 驾驶舱布局console: 机长操纵台shield panel: 遮光板面板console:观察员操纵台gear free fall lever compartment:起落架自由落下手柄舱pedestal forward panel:控制台前面板pedestal:控制台stand:控制台partition:驾驶舱分区: 机库breathing equipment PBE: 呼吸保护器handle: 摇臂pin: 锁销lateral unlocking: 座位横向锁locking(neutral position): 座位锁longitudinal unlocking：座位纵向锁real unlocked/locked：：：：rest upward/downward setting：locking：靠背锁reclining：靠背调节height locking：座位高度锁upward/downward setting：座位上下调整support pushbutton:locking pin:横侧锁销control handle:人工操纵手柄:插塞/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d actuator:电动致动器off fitting:emergency evacuation:座舱应急逃离window emergency exit:座舱窗口应急出口:通用性protection:致动器保护control device: CCD 光标控制器光标控制器光标控制器光标控制器stripped bar:白色斜纹条白色斜纹条白色斜纹条白色斜纹条panel:复原面板复原面板复原面板复原面板selector knob:显示选择器旋钮altitude data:无线电高度数据acceleration pointer: FPA加速指针checklist: ECL 电子检查单Database loading page: ECL数据载入页面Closed loops:闭环fuel quantity:clutter: 整理box: 蓝绿色盒子dual concentric rotary knob:同心双旋钮bay:电子舱20-slot cabinet:插槽柜shield lights control panel:panel: 制导面板/storm panel lighting: 泛光灯面板照明holder lighting control /doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dknob:crew reading lights:机组阅读灯aperture size of light pattern:调整照明灯孔sign control panel:搬扭开关toggle switch:bow lights :cabin temperature rotating knob:light reset switch:dome light:厕所顶灯tank capacity and fault indication:水箱容量和故障显示lights : 航徽灯colored solid square:有色实心方快cockpit door:座舱加强门mechanic door latch: 机电门闩compartment:废物舱cradle : 通话手机托架units : 氧气面罩放出装置gasper outlets: 换气口deploy tool:reading light:独立阅读灯flap:disposal:废物箱lights:航图灯lights: 顶灯flood /storm light:萤光泛光灯/cockpit emergency flood light: 客舱/座舱应急泛光灯:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029descape path: 应急撤离线路strip: 荧光发光带flap:slide: 逃生滑梯handle:slide handle:逃生滑梯手柄Lock/vent flap handle:bar: 束缚杆束缚杆束缚杆束缚杆control unit：燃油调节器 ramp扶梯line:吃水线door:检查盖door:handle:锁销sensor: 近地传感器girt:fittings:device:漂浮设备line: 系绳系绳系绳系绳cylinder pressure readiness inspection window:充气瓶压力检查窗 Girt bar engagement indicator window:inflation handle:人工充气手柄gauge:压力表.GO indication: 无冲压指示indication: 冲压指示handle:放气手柄pin:主销handle:lever:安全手柄emergency egress:应/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d急出口passive lock:panel:protected openings: 防火孔/口:窥视孔compressor:空气压缩机faucet：厕所水龙头tanks: 贮藏箱:停机坪停机坪停机坪停机坪drain valve:自动排放活门: 塞满mast heater: 排水加热器waste system:真空污水系统flushing switch:冲洗电门system controller:净水系统控制器/drain nipple:/sink:收水池，水箱:水龙头filter: 滤水器Toilet bowl:抽水马桶tube:外溢排水管sensor:杆式水量传感器/ drain valve:加/放水阀level sensor: 液位/面传感器line:污水管line:冲水管waste servicing panel:真空污水检查面板drain ball valve handle:污水排泄阀手柄extinguishing system: 灭火系统configuration monitoring system:自动配置监控系统dispatchable:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d: management system:空气管理系统flow control valve:主件流量控制活门temperature rotating knob: 座舱温度旋钮fan:再循环风扇attendant control panel:乘务控制面板bleed button:交输引气按键air button: 引气按键bleed valves:发动机引气活门bar:条纹mode selector knob:增压方式选择旋钮valve:外流活门field elevation:着陆机场标高pressure indication:压差指示synoptic page: ECS 简图页面shutoff valves status:空气关断活门状态页面:斜的valve scale /pointer: 排放活门刻度/指针line:排放管cart:地面气源车:control valve:流量控制阀/high stage bleed valve:低压/高压引气活门start ground cart:发动机启动地面气源车发动机启动地面气源车发动机启动地面气源车发动机启动地面气源车air bleed valve:风/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d扇空气引气活门RAM air valve:应急冲压空气活门air valve:风尚空气活门pressure check valve:低压单向活门ice supply ducting:防冰引气供气管道detection system:过热探测系统loop sensing:双环探测Trim pressure duct:VALVES瓣状活门source:引气源priority logic: 引气优先逻辑data set: TDS 起飞数据设置bay ventilation:货舱通风cooling packs: ECS 散热主件flow control valve:主件流量控制阀pull-up mode:座舱拉升方式compartment ventilation:电子设备舱通风power distribution assembly:辅助配电组件integrated control center: 应急集控中心cooling air:强制散热散空气air circuit: RAM 空气电路ram air ventilation valve:应急冲压空气通风活门bay:再循环舱pressure port:静压孔pressure control system:座舱压力控制系统differential press/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dure:负压差:孔，口orifice:探测孔altitude rate of change: 座舱高度变化率altitude change rate: 座舱高度变化率pressure variation rate: 座舱压力变动率rate of variation:压力变动率differential pressure limiter: 最大压差限制器of 0.11psi:偏差isolation valve: 引气隔离活门guidance control: 水平导航控制guidance control: 垂直导航控制:同步selector knob: HDG 选择旋钮approach status annunciator: 自动驾驶进近状态信号器holding mode: 高度保持方式pre-selected window: 高度预选窗guidance cue: 飞行指引仪引导提示符servo:主侍服control system :TCS 推力系统reverser trigger: 反推触发器declutter button: FD整理键processing module: 飞控系统处理组件pitch trim:自动俯仰配平AP servo:Aileron/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d AP servo: hot spare channel: 热备用通道thrust compensation: 升降舵推力补偿/first office load feel: 机长/副驾驶载荷感应the heading bug to the current heading: 航向同步航向同步航向同步航向同步preview mode: 进近预览方式进近预览方式进近预览方式进近预览方式pitch based guidance: 基于襟翼俯仰的引导protection: 超速保护profile:纵向/垂直剖面altitude constraint: 航路点高度限制compensation:温度补偿angle: 下降角angle:航迹角/altitude limit protection: 速度/高度限制保护constraint:速度限制reversion: 速度恢复速度恢复速度恢复speed protection: 闩锁速度保护闩锁速度保护闩锁速度保护闩锁速度保护rate command: 配平指令rating selection: 推力等级选择lever angle trim:推力手柄角配平control quadrant:油门操纵杆:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d control mode: 速度控制方式level change thrust control mode: 飞行高度改变的推力控制方式Takeoff thrust control mode:起飞推力控制方式around thrust control mode:复飞推力控制方式thrust hold mode:起飞推力保持方式mode: 减速方式thrust: 限制推力rating type transition logic:自动功率型过度逻辑cooler inlet:空气三热器进气口air inlet silencer: APU进气口消音器operational envelope: APU 运行包线图selector knob :APU 选择旋钮emergency stop button: APU 应急停车键RPM indication: APU 转速表EGT indication: APU排气温度表fuel supply: APU 燃油供应fuel pump:喷射器燃油泵master switch: APU 总电门starter controller:电子启动器控制器starter generator:无刷启动发电机period: 冷却时间級;短管spool down 發動機減速up 發動機加速down period:发动机减速时间fault isolation:电气故障隔离:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029drBus tie contactor:母联接触器power quality requirement：AC电能质量规定flow line: 电力线lift system actuation:大升力系统启动shedding:减负荷electronic integrated device:电气电子集成设备circuit breaker:热跳开关mechanical relays: 电子机械继电器distribution:负载分配负载分配负载分配state power controller: 固态电力控制器select key:行选择键logic:优先逻辑shedding protection:减负荷保护rotor (N1 rotor speed):(N2 rotor speed):激励器lever detent:reverser trigger:反推触发器handle:灭火手柄protection control panel:防火保护控制面板control panel:发动机控制面板/stop selector knob:启动/关断选择旋钮selector knob:点火选择旋钮wing anti-ice cyan line:level:推力级rating mode indication:推力等级方式显示:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dN1 request indication: re-light system: 自动重起系统level:变动级/oil heat exchanger:燃油/滑油热交换器cooled oil cooler:燃油致冷式滑油散热器metering valve:燃油计量活门filter blockage:燃油滤堵塞stator vanes:可变静子叶扇driven actuator:燃油驱动致动器efficiency:压缩机效率injector:燃油喷嘴fuel pump:喷射器燃油泵system:bearings:Accessory gearbox:附件齿轮箱quantity sensors:滑油量传感器pumping elements:回油泵元件and scavenge pump:nozzle:drain: 收油池:坑filter bypass:start relief valve:冷启动释放活门:detector: 金属探测器screens:回油筛gear box:转换齿轮箱cutout speed:启动机关断速度selector knob:点火选择旋钮start selector knob:发动机启动选择旋/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d钮idle speed:地面慢车速度reverser stowing:function:互锁功能locks:启动器锁lock:condition monitoring:发动机状态监控inlet air temperature:发动机进气温度speed data:风扇速度数据vibration monitoring system:飞机抖动监控系统dry monitoring:自动干转监控calculation:takeoff:灵活起飞reduced takeoff thrust:减功率起飞推力temperature:假定温度flex takeoff thrust:最小灵活起飞推力rated takeoff thrust:最大额定起飞推力takeoff reduction limit:灵活起飞推力减少限制request valve:reserve:起飞保留mode setting:默认方式设置rated temperature:start ：热启动light off：无点火start:延迟启动OVER limit protection: ITT 超温限制保护start high ITT prevention：发动机启动ITT温度过高预防fire extinguisher han/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029ddle:发动机灭火器手柄fire extinguisher button:Hydraulic shutoff valve:液压关短活门and low –rate cargo extinguisher bottle: 货舱大/小功率灭火瓶detection system test button:火警探测系统测试键fire protection system:发动机防火系统extinguisher handle:灭火手柄fairing:机身整流罩bleed air shutoff valve:发动机引气关断活门fire detector:气源火警探测器smoke detection:货舱烟雾探测器outflow valve:通风排放活门sensor:烟雾传感器control system:飞控系统roll spoiler:多功能横滚扰流板spoiler:地面扰流板actuator:液压制动器cables:操纵纲索actuator control electronics:主控电子装置control module:飞控组件hydraulic actuators:电子液压启动器mechanical actuators:trim switch:俯仰配平电门/Trim disconnect button:/flap selector lever::///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dparbrake lever:减速板手柄trim system 1 cutout button:control mode panel:飞控方式面板control mode button:disconnect handle:升降舵断开手柄disconnect handle:solid green pointer:control:模拟操纵/elevator surface actuator:方向舵/升降舵舵面驱动器area network bus:limiting:level function:高级功能standard communication bus: ASCB航空电子标准通讯汇流条diagnostics:系统诊断maintenance computer 中央维护计算机 CMCthrust compensation:升降舵推理补偿control module:刹车控制组件sensor electronic module:近地传感器电子组件augmentation commands:空速增益指令faults:潜在故障:电池Reference thrust setting:基准推力值column displacement:驾驶杆移位mechanism:分离机械handle:分离手柄:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029drTail strike avoidance: TSA 尾撬尾撬尾撬尾撬limiter：迎角限制器threshold: AOA 标准标准标准标准rate:俯仰变化率main trim switches: 手轮主配平电门servo motor: 电器侍服马达stabilizer actuator:水平安定面致动器auto trim:减速板自动配平trim motor:电动配平马达mach trim:自动马赫配平down tendency:机头下沉趋势/AFT torque tubes:scheduling:增益计划增益计划增益计划增益计划gain:方向舵增益effectiveness:方向舵效率rod:内接连杆assembly:脚蹬组件dumping:偏航阻尼偏航阻尼偏航阻尼偏航阻尼system:surface:缝翼翼面slotted flap surfaces:双槽襟翼操纵面driven unit： PDU 动力驱动组件protection:不对称保护不对称保护不对称保护不对称保护skew sensor:电子不对称传感器protection:电气过载保护电气过载保护电/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d气过载保护电气过载保护angle:偏转角度wheel displacement:驾驶杆偏移brake efficiency:机轮刹车效率distance:停止距离control laws configuration:approach mode: 大角度进近方式大角度进近方式大角度进近方式大角度进近方式low rate:trim low rate:low rate:line：下滑线Aiming point下滑点angle：上升角angle：下降角 ALPHA门警告MODE：CONFIGURATION 不稳定模式：构型不当UNSTABLE MODE：：：：STEEP 不稳定模式不稳定模式不稳定模式不稳定模式：：：：下降剖面陡下降剖面陡下降剖面陡下降剖面陡 EXCESSIVE BANK ANGLE 坡度大OF FLAP ALTITUDE LIMIT襟翼超高度限制SPEED速度超限NEGATIVE ACCELEARTION （IN FLIGHT）飞行中垂直过载小POSITIVE ACCELERATION（IN FLIGHT）飞行中垂直过载大LAW ：Direct law 警告ALERT：DESCENT高度警告：下降/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dCONFIGURATION（AT GO—AROUND）：复飞构型错LANDING：：：：着陆跳起着陆跳起着陆跳起着陆跳起FLARE：：：：着陆有平飘着陆有平飘着陆有平飘着陆有平飘ACCELERATION （AT LANDING）：接地垂直过载大DEVIATION （AT LANDING）：着陆航向不稳定（接地—地速50KTS） PITCH LOW （AT TOUCHDOWN）接地时刻俯仰角小LIMIT SPEED HIGH轮胎限制速度大SPEED AT LANDING接地速度小SPEED AT LANDING接地速度大GEAR OUT OF SEQUENCE起落架放出顺序错OF SPEEDBRAKES DURING FINAL APPROAC最终进近使用扰流板LANDING FLAP SETTING着陆构型设置过晚着陆构型设置过晚着陆构型设置过晚着陆构型设置过晚of flaps/slats limit speed in conf full ：构型时襟构型时襟构型时襟/缝翼限制速度超缝翼限制速度超缝翼限制速度超缝翼限制速度超限限限限cycling during final approach：：：：最终进近横向姿态变化大最终进近横向姿态变化大最终进近横向姿态变化大最终进近横向姿态变化大:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d cycling during final approach最终进近俯仰姿态变化大最终进近俯仰姿态变化大最终进近俯仰姿态变化大最终进近俯仰姿态变化大：：：最终进近俯仰角小最终进近俯仰角小最终进近俯仰角小最终进近俯仰角小deviation：：：：航向道偏差大航向道偏差大航向道偏差大航向道偏差大slope deviation低于下滑道低于下滑道低于下滑道低于下滑道rate of descent进近下降率大进近下降率大进近下降率大进近下降率大thrust reduction收油门过晚收油门过晚speed low进近速度小speed high进近速度大进近速度大进近速度大进近速度大Slope: shallow下降坡度下降坡度下降坡度下降坡度：：：小小小、、、、Slope: STEEP下降坡度下降坡度下降坡度下降坡度：：大大大大Operating Altitude exceedence：高度超限configuration change (during initial climb) 初始爬升构型改变过早初始爬升构型改变过早初始爬升构型改变过早初始/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d爬升构型改变过早lost高度损失(初始爬升rate high(during initial climb, 初始爬升俯仰率大out speed low爬升速度小positive Acceleration：：：：起飞阶段垂直过载大起飞阶段垂直过载大起飞阶段垂直过载大起飞阶段垂直过载大off speed high离地速度大离地速度大离地速度大离地速度大起飞时左右发起飞时左右发起飞时左右发N1不匹配不匹配不匹配不匹配speed exceedence滑行速度大地貌飛行地貌飛行地貌飛行地貌飛行（（（（Contour FlyingFlyingContour FlyingFlying））））障礙物超越障礙物超越障礙物超越障礙物超越（（（（Obstruction Clearance ClearanceObstruction Clearance Clearance））））Sturnturnteep turnturn：：：：小转弯小转弯小转弯小转弯空中動作（In-/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dflight maneuver）特定飛航動作（*Specific flight characteristics）接近失速及改正（Approaches to stall and recovery）*環繞進場（Circling approach）誤失進場（Missed approach） Navigation radio sensor:导航无线电传感器tape indications:空速速度带显示airspeed /mach readout:airspeed bug: 选择空速游标speed: takeoff final segment speed:retraction speed reference:襟翼收上速度基准trend vector: 空速趋势矢量climb speed:进近爬升速度speed:基准速度flap selection speed:最佳襟翼收上速度down speed:飘降速度maneuvering speed:襟翼机动速度speed:抖杆速度speed awareness tape:低速意识带/Mmo Barber Pole: 标杆速度Selected vertical speed direction arrow:选定升降速度方向箭头vertical speed readout:选定升降速度值speed scale:tape indication:/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d高度带显示or double line chevrons: 单或双线V形标记hashed box:correction:气压修正trend vector:高度趋势矢量indication: ADI 显示path reference line /readout: 飞行航迹基准线/读数acceleration pointer: FPA加速指针limit indicator:俯仰姿态限制指示器shaker AOA: 失速抖杆AOAAOA: 实际AOA/skid indicator: 滑动指示器scale /low bank limit ARC: 横滚刻度/小坡度限制弧triangle:turns:小转弯glide slop deviation: ILS 下滑道偏离approach path: 垂直进航迹vertical deviation: FMS垂直偏离Trapezoidal form:不规则四边形/VOR lateral deviation: ILS/VOR侧向偏离crossbar:起飞十子杆pitch chevron annunciator:俯仰过大V形信号牌altitude indication:雷达高度指示selected readout:最小选择读数beacon annunciation:指点标/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d信号test data monitor annunciator: 图形测试数据监控器信号牌source annunciation:姿态源信号data source annunciation:大气数据源信号altitude constraint annunciation: VNAVA高度限制信号track alert annunciation:垂直航迹预警信号navigation source annunciation:主导航源信号heading readout: 选定航向读数pointer:方位指针select point:航道选择点deviation indicator: 侧向偏离显示器angle bug:偏流角游标 Dilution of Precision精度扩散因子精度扩散因子精度扩散因子精度扩散因子 Bearing source annunciator：方位源信号牌Selected heading bug:选定航向游标select preview pointer:航道选择预览指针track readout:目标航迹读数reckoning mode:推测领航方式sensitivity mode annunciator: 进近敏感性方式信号牌selection:距离选择radar returns: 气象雷达回波position indica/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dtor：天线位置指示器annunciation:随动显示随动显示随动显示随动显示/HIS miscompare: 不匹配profile indications:水平剖面指示profile indications:垂直剖面指示track line:水平航迹线progress window: FMS 进程窗heading out of view arrow:选定航向隐藏箭头track annunciations:十子航迹信号horizontal flight path:计划水平航路trajectory line:飞机空气轨迹线situation display:垂直状态显示alert checkbox:目标预警复选框/检查盒echo attenuation compensation technique checkbox:雨反射波衰减补偿技术复 14选框/检查盒compensation tilt check box:高度补偿倾斜复选框/检查盒detection checkbox:颠簸探测复选框/检查盒indication display:增益指示显示sensitivity level:接收机灵敏度stabilization checkbox:天线稳定复选框/检查盒scan checkbox:扇形扫描复选框/检查盒standby override:强制等待超控键:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d sensors:雷电传感器of occurrence symbols: 发生率符号mode:雷电方式clear function:雷电删除功能pad:草稿display:索引显示control button:灯光亮度控制键buttons:功能键link:数据链rating selection:推力功率选择control panel:显示控制面板Full compass:全罗盘mode: ARC 方式path reference:飞行航迹基准electronic standby system IESS 集成电子备用系统barometric pressure indication:基准气压压力指示altitude indication:米制高度指示altitude:负高度rotary knob:气压设置旋钮：卡位wheel chronometer:驾驶盘时钟magnetic compass:备用磁罗盘communication:遮光板通讯microphone controls:手持麦克风：：：：头戴式耳机头戴式耳机头戴式耳机头戴式耳机头戴式耳机microphone：：：:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d：station:annunciation button: 选择呼叫信号键voice data recorder: DVDRpanel:复原面板logic cycle:复原逻辑循环probe:多功能探测管slip effects:侧滑效应pressure: 全压pressure:静压Resistive heater element:防热散失加温元件sink rate variation:飞机下沉率变动mandatory parameters:强制记录参数corrected altitude:气压修正高度phase: 校准阶段acceleration:侧向加速card:罗盘卡line: 罗盘准线:盘/碟/碗radio cabinet:模块式无线电机柜type:静噪类型noise squelch: 信噪静噪信噪静噪信噪静噪信噪静噪/noise squelch high:level squelch :信号电平静噪mode: emission mode: 发射方式power:载波功率dispersion: 功率耗散 Clarifier:无线电干扰消除器Capture a frequency: 频/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d率截/捕获management function”通讯管理功能–oriented communication: 面向字符通讯communication: 语音通讯operational communication:航空公司运营通讯/events reports: 故障/事件报告:上传reference unit:惯性基准单元/组件:截获aiding:高度帮助aiding:速度帮助:提示符提示符提示符提示符airspace: 指定空域field:mapping:地面测绘receiver transmitter antenna unit:集成收发机天线组件集成收发机天线组件集成收发机天线组件集成收发机天线组件weather detection mode:雷达天气探测方式mapping mode:地面测绘方式mode:从模式/方式/用户方式MODE:/forced standby mode:备用/强制备用方式of sweep: 扫描范围/角function:倾斜功能compensation tilts function:高度补偿倾斜功能losses: 衰减损失Transmit inhibit relay::///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dr 发射抑制继电器MAP data: 导航MAP 数据initialization data:性能初始化数据track alert:垂直航迹预警cruise altitude:初始巡航高度/late descent:下降早/迟speed plan:FMS速度计划Speed command flight phase:速度指令飞行阶段speed limit activation logic:进近速度限制激活逻辑speed constraints:航路点速度限制database: 导航数据库database:用户数据库database:飞机数据库learning function: “smart performance”route identifier:公司航路代号position integrity estimate:FMS 位置整体估计track alert:侧向航迹预警steep climb:大角度上升offset:横横横横/侧向偏至角侧向偏至角侧向偏至角侧向偏至角and system configuration:维修和系统构型identification:导航识别initialization:位置初始化initialization: 性能初始化sel/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dection:航路选择a flight route: 创建飞行航路flight route:备用飞行航路marker:机位标记of No turn: 航线临界点航线临界点航线临界点航线临界点endurance:最大续航能力range:最大航程schedule:速度计划climb increment:分段爬升增量size 分段爬升高度间隔差/C：top of climb目標爬升最高點 S/C：step of climb 階段爬升起點符號 E/D: end of descent目標下降終止點 T/D：top of descent目標下降點allowance :可用燃油fuel:意外情况备份燃油cruise wind:平均巡航风deviation:温度差异altitude ：升限estimated fuel remaining:最新估计余油:励磁Exciter:励磁器Redundancy:冗余/备份Cowl:route:支线line:支线航线fix:支线定位点approach course:最后进近航段flight simulator:全飞模拟机base simulation:固定模拟机speed schedule:襟翼速/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d度计划controls:飞行操纵面switch:浮子开关conservation: 节油 Throttle Position Idle ：：：：節流閥位於怠速節流閥位於怠速節流閥位於怠速節流閥位於怠速TIE(埠栓埠栓埠栓埠栓(S)(空調套件空調套件空調套件空調套件和和和和HUMIDIFIER(增濕器增濕器增濕器增濕器)FLOW(高流量開關高流量開關高流量開關高流量開關REFERENCE SYSTEM慣性參考系統慣性參考系統慣性參考系統慣性參考系統air:air outlet:bracket:cap:毂盖exciter: 点火励磁器guide vanes:进气引导叶扇/片/导向叶片air route:国际航线:联锁pump: 喷射泵/引射泵:折接wire 跨接线跨接线跨接线跨接线actuator: 电力致动器switch:极限电门light:聚光灯light:泛光灯::///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029darconfirm entry prompt: 输入提示符of merit:指标值climb /descent:大角度上升/下降:百叶窗waypoint:飞跃航路点time/distance: 出航时间/距离Procedure turn angle:程序转弯角point:穿越点of NO turn:航线临界点航线临界点航线临界点航线临界点: 洋红色time point:/longitude crossing:横向/纵向穿越abeam:点切cable:随动钢索随动钢索随动钢索随动钢索idle:空中慢车/高慢idle:地面慢车/地慢blade and vane cooling: 涡轮转子和静子叶片散热涡轮转子和静子叶片散热涡轮转子和静子叶片散热涡轮转子和静子叶片散热case cooling:涡轮机匣散热compartment cooling valve:涡轮段散热活门涡轮段散热活门涡轮段散热活门涡轮段散热活门gearbox: 传动齿轮箱Thrust lever travel: 油门杆行程油门杆行程油门杆行程lever angle:推力手柄角overhaul: 大修时间大修时间大修时间大/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d修时间lever resolver angle: 推力手柄解算器角度reverser directional valve: 反推换向活门反推换向活门反推换向活门反推换向活门couple:热电耦locator beacon: 水下定位信标ground level:地标位置地标位置地标位置地标位置deviation indicator: 偏航图显示器rating panel: 推力等级面板wing tanks::风转flow line:燃油供油管/defueling control panel: 加油/放油控制面板tank:收油槽/收油油箱tank: 通气防波油箱/缓冲油箱breaking:level indicator/dipstick: 磁性燃油尺引射泵引射泵引射泵ejector pumps: 回油引射泵回油引射泵回油引射泵回油引射泵motive flow :发动机引射流发动机引射流发动机引射流发动机引射流motive line:发动机引射管发动机引射管发动机引射管发动机引射管inlet port: 引射泵进口Collector Box:燃油集油箱:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dling point:加油点conditioning unit:燃油加温调节器燃油加温调节器燃油加温调节器燃油加温调节器Gravity refuel port:重力加油口hydraulic pump:电动driven hydraulic pump:液压泵Power transfer unit:动力转换器flow line: 液压管system distribution box: 液压系统分配箱critical function:飞行临界功能飞行临界功能飞行临界功能飞行临界功能restart: 风转启动load:扭力载荷transducer: 温度传感器cavitations: 泵空隙现象piston:机械泵motor: 液压马达unloader valve:液压泵卸栽活门limiter valve:流量限制活门air manifold pressure: 引气总管压力air temperature:引气温度ice flow line:防冰管防冰管防冰管防冰管fogging: 防雾缝翼防冰空中自箭缝翼防冰空中自箭缝翼防冰空中自箭wheel unit:双轮组件power/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029ded steering system:release button:电动转弯操纵系统gear lever lock:起落架手柄锁gear extension compartment:备用起落架释放舱overridden switch:起落架超控电门gear warning inhibition button:起落架警告抑制键parking brake handle:应急停留刹车手柄line:刹车管/parking brake effectiveness: 应急/停留刹车效应/parking accumulator pressure:应急/停留刹车蓄压器压力 Steering handle:转弯手柄wheel:手轮disengage switch:转弯操纵脱离电门wheel steering system:前轮转弯操纵系统lights:牵引灯Proximity sensor electronic module: 近地传感器电子组件gear free fall lever compartment:起落架自由下落手柄舱sensor:下位锁传感器lock:机械锁absorber:减震器springs:下位锁弹簧wear pin:刹车装置磨损检查销刹车装置磨损检查销wheel protection: 拖胎保护拖胎保护拖胎保护:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dpar 拖胎保护braking: 差动刹车wheel braking: 拖胎刹车拖胎刹车拖胎刹车拖胎刹车spinning:机轮旋转Fusible plugs:易熔塞易熔塞易熔塞易熔塞bracket outer face assembly:刹车支架外表组件steering control module:前轮转弯控制组件test:steering mode:手轮转弯方式pedal steering mode:方向舵脚瞪转弯方式wheel steering mode:自由机轮转弯方式cylinder:可充液压缸oxygen generator:化学制氧器breathing equipment:呼吸保护器呼吸保护器呼吸保护器呼吸保护器deploy selector knob:面罩打开选择器旋钮deployed indicator light: 面罩打开指示灯yellow star:明亮黄色星星inflation control valve:面罩带充氧控制活门stowage box:面罩储存盒oxygen dilution:氧气自动稀释氧气自动稀释氧气自动稀释氧气自动稀释:膜transparent/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029d oxygen hose:透明氧气软管unit:分配组件Mask retainer :面罩卡圈disk:安全片/隔膜warning pushbutton:主警告键caution pushbutton:主预警键cutout button:失速警告切断键proximity terrain inhibit pushbutton:近地地形抑制键override switch : 襟翼超控电门guidance escape mode engagement : 飞行制导脱离方式接通飞行制导脱离方式接通escape mode:风切变脱离方式Map overlay format window:：TCAS MAP 重叠格式显示窗advisory:决断咨询Square:实心正方形circle:实心圈diamond:空心菱形zoom format window: TCAS 放大格式显示窗selection: 绝对高度选择selection:距离选择zone: 避让区避让区避让区避让区to zone: 飞往区飞往区飞往区飞往区不规则四边形:长方形inverse video:倒影warning/alert tones/bells/ horns/ c/doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dlicks/beeps/ voice message/ chime/chord Stick shaker motor: 失速震杆器马达Forward looking terrain:前方地形function:意识功能(Terrain clearance floor) function 最小离地高度功能最小离地高度功能最小离地高度功能最小离地高度功能awareness display: 地形意识显示地形意识显示地形意识显示地形意识显示flight into terrain: CFIT 可控撞地飞行可控撞地飞行可控撞地飞行可控撞地飞行algorithmclearance: 离地高度Ground clearance:离地高度clearance:越障高度clearance :垂直间隔垂直间隔垂直间隔垂直间隔descent rate:过大下降率closure to terrain: 离地太近离地太近离地太近离地太近rate:下降率loss after takeoff:起飞后高度损失terrain clearance:不安全离地高度glide slopeglide slope:bank angle：坡度角过大descent:提前下降提前下降提前下降提前下降:///doc/00cdb36c11bb8d2bba53029dain mapping selection: 地形测绘选择地形测绘选择地形测绘选择地形测绘选择—up：弹出dots pattern: 密集点模式/low relative altitude:较大/小相对高度escape guidance mode:风切变脱离引导方式 Stick shaker firing angle:震杆器触发角震杆器触发角震杆器触发角震杆器触发角airplane:闯入飞机。
温度变化对加油机示值误差的影响及控制研究
温度变化对加油机示值误差的影响及控制研究作者：张晨洁来源：《品牌与标准化》2024年第01期【摘要】本文主要介绍了加油机的检定原理，借此分析温度变化对加油机示值误差的影响，并有针对性地提出控制措施，以期为相关部门改善加油机计量的相关工作提供一定参考。
【关键词】温度；加油机；计量检定；测量误差【DOI編码】10.3969/j.issn.1674-4977.2024.01.062Research on the Influence and Control of Temperature Changes on the Indication Error of the Fuel DispenserZHANG Chenjie（Market SupervisionAdministration of Xihua County， Henan Province， Zhoukou 466600，China）Abstract： This article mainly introduces the calibration principle of the fuel dispenser. By analyzing the influence of temperature variation on the indication error of the fuel dispenser， it puts forward the targeted control measures. In order to provide some reference for relevant departments to improve the measurement of fuel dispensers.Keywords： temperature； fuel dispenser； metrological verification； measurement error目前，国内检定加油机示值误差采用静态容积法，需要人工读取温度值，然后通过容量计算得出数据结果。
2023年教师资格之中学英语学科知识与教学能力考前冲刺试卷B卷含答案
2023年教师资格之中学英语学科知识与教学能力考前冲刺试卷B卷含答案单选题（共30题）1、The fuel gas,if__________some air,burns more rapidly.A.involved inB.connected withC.mixed withD.joined in【答案】 C2、The process of perceiving others is rarely translated(to ourselves or others) into cold,objective terms．"She was 5 feet 8 inches tall, had fair hair, and wore a colored skirt．" More often, we try to get inside the other person to pinpoint his or her attitudes, emotions, motivations,abilities, ideas, and characters． Furthermore, we sometimes behave as if we can accomplish this difficult job very quickly--perhaps with a two-second glance．A.we don't accept the idea that we might never fully know another personB.we often get information in a casual and inexact wayC.we pay more attention to other people's motivations and emotionsD.we often have face-to-face conversation with him【答案】 B3、The pair of English phonemes音素 _ differ in the place of articulation发音部位.A.// and //B./θ/ and /e/C./d/ and /z/D./m/ and /n/【答案】 D4、In ordinary conversations, participants are expected, first of all, to __________, otherwise,communication would break down.A.stand straightB.coordinateC.speak the truthD.cooperate【答案】 D5、Passage 2A.The United StatesB.South KoreaC.JapanD.RussiaJ【答案】 C6、请阅读短文，完成此题。