儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治:ESPGHAN+临床实践指南欧洲儿科胃肠病、肝病、营养学会专家组共识
ESPGHAN2014儿童胃肠炎指南2015
(Vb,D)(弱推荐,低质量证据)
诊断
细菌性VS非细菌性病原的大便标记物
基于已有数据,不推荐临床上常规使用粪便标
记物来鉴别病毒性和细菌性胃肠炎(Vb,D)(弱推 荐,低质量证据)
诊断
生化实验 01
评估脱水的试验并不准确,通常与临床检查 者的评估结果只达到轻中度吻合(III,C)(弱 推荐,低质量证据)
Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. (小儿胃肠病学与营养杂志) 2014年3月31日
目录
背 景 危 险 因 素 诊 断 治 疗
A
B
流 行 病 学
C
D
临 床 评 危险因素 价
E
F
住 院
G
背景
儿童院内处理
更新版
ESPGHAN/ESPID 欧洲儿童急性胃肠炎(AGE) 循证指南
观察人群
住院
口服补液治疗失败 随访不便和家 庭治疗不便
顽固性或胆汁 性呕吐 可疑外科情况
(Vb,D)(强推荐,低质量证据)
住院
卫生和隔离预防措施
在标准预防措施(手卫生、个人防护设备、污染病
人的护理设备,环境卫生包括纺织品、洗衣房和充足 的病房空间)之外,建议增加接触隔离措施 (Vb,D)(强推荐,极低质量证据)
(III,C)(弱推荐,低质量证据)
临床评价
儿童临床脱水量表(总分:0分~ 8分)
特征 一般状态 眼眶 粘膜(舌) 泪 0 正常 正常 湿润 有泪 1 2
口渴、烦躁或嗜睡但 嗜睡、萎靡、发冷或 易激惹 稍凹陷 粘稠 泪减少 出汗±昏迷 明显凹陷 干燥 无泪
0分表示没有发生脱水;1~4分表示轻微脱水;5 ~ 8分表示中度/重度脱水
(Vb,D) (强推荐,低质量证据)
儿童慢性乙型肝炎防治专家共识2024
儿童慢性乙型肝炎防治专家共识2024儿童感染乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus, HBV)后,可发展为急性乙型肝炎(acute hepatitis B,AHB)或慢性乙型肝炎(chronic hepatitis B,CHB)。
儿童感染HBV的慢性化率远高于成人,且慢性化率与儿童感染时年龄密切相关。
国内外慢性乙型肝炎诊疗指南已明确推荐肝炎活动期的患儿应进行抗病毒治疗,而对乙型肝炎e抗原(hepatitis B e antigen, HBeAg)阳性慢性HBV感染(免疫耐受期)儿童的治疗态度较为保守。
然而,近年多项临床研究证据显示,HBV感染儿童启动抗病毒治疗越早,疗效越好。
例如HBeAg阳性的CHB儿童接受抗病毒治疗后,临床治愈率随着年龄增高显著下降,提示启动治疗的年龄是影响儿童临床治愈(定义见附录1)的重要因素。
虽然包括乙型肝炎疫苗接种在内的母婴阻断等措施显著降低了儿童HBV 感染率,但在经济不发达的国家和地区,阻断母婴传播和预防接种等措施难以普及,导致HBV感染儿童数量较多。
为实现世界卫生组织(World Health Organization,WHO)决议的"2030年消除病毒性肝炎公共卫生危害"目标,建议儿童HBV感染者尽早接受抗病毒治疗,有助于延缓患儿疾病进展,对减轻我国肝病负担具有重要意义。
为帮助临床医师做出合理的治疗决策提供更多的参考和依据,助力儿童HBV感染者尽早获益,共识撰写团队基于国内外慢性乙型肝炎防治指南,结合近年来儿童乙型肝炎抗病毒治疗的临床研究进展,制定本共识,对儿童乙型肝炎的防治意见进一步补充和明确。
本共识由中华医学会感染病学分会、肝病学分会、儿科学分会感染学组和国家感染性疾病临床医学研究中心有关专家,联合统计学、药物学、伦理学和法学等多学科专家共同制定。
共识起草过程中参考了PICO(participant, intervention,comparison,outcome)原则和国际通用的共识制定流程。
欧洲慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南解读
欧洲慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南解读慢性乙型肝炎是一种由乙型肝炎病毒引起的慢性疾病,该病毒可以通过血液传播和性传播。
在欧洲,慢性乙型肝炎的发病率较高,并且可能引起严重的肝脏疾病,如肝硬化和肝癌等。
因此,欧洲肝病学会(EASL)发布了一份慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南,以指导医生更好地治疗慢性乙型肝炎患者。
本文将介绍该指南的主要内容及其意义,并结合实际案例进行解读。
欧洲慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南主要包括以下内容:抗病毒治疗:抗病毒治疗是慢性乙型肝炎治疗的关键,其主要目标是抑制病毒的复制,减轻肝脏炎症,延缓疾病进展。
该指南推荐使用核苷类似物(如拉米夫定、恩曲他滨等)或干扰素类(如普通干扰素、聚乙二醇干扰素等)药物进行治疗。
免疫调节治疗:免疫调节治疗可以增强患者的免疫力,帮助患者更好地抵抗病毒的侵袭。
该指南推荐使用胸腺肽、免疫球蛋白等免疫调节药物进行治疗。
对症治疗:慢性乙型肝炎患者常常伴随着一些症状,如乏力、食欲不振、黄疸等。
该指南推荐针对患者的不同症状进行对症治疗。
让我们通过一个实际案例来解读欧洲慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南。
患者张先生是一位35岁的慢性乙型肝炎患者,他因为感到乏力、食欲不振和黄疸等症状到医院就诊。
经过检查,医生发现他的乙肝病毒DNA定量较高,肝功能异常。
在这种情况下,医生可以采取以下措施:抗病毒治疗:医生可以给张先生使用核苷类似物或干扰素类药物进行治疗,以抑制病毒的复制,减轻肝脏炎症,延缓疾病进展。
免疫调节治疗:同时,医生可以给张先生使用胸腺肽、免疫球蛋白等免疫调节药物进行治疗,以增强他的免疫力,更好地抵抗病毒的侵袭。
对症治疗:针对张先生的乏力、食欲不振和黄疸等症状,医生可以采取相应的对症治疗措施,如给予维生素、护肝药和降黄药等,以缓解他的不适症状。
在这个案例中,我们可以看到欧洲慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南的实际应用。
张先生通过接受抗病毒治疗、免疫调节治疗和对症治疗,有望控制住病情的发展,提高生活质量。
欧洲慢性乙型肝炎治疗指南对于指导医生治疗慢性乙型肝炎患者具有重要的意义。
ESPGHAN2014儿童胃肠炎指南中文简译版-final
存在免疫缺陷的儿童,发生长期慢性严重疾病的风险更大(III,C)(弱推荐,低质量证据)。 营养不良和免疫缺陷是发展中国家存在慢性寄生虫性腹泻的主要危险因素(III,C)(弱推荐,低 质量证据)。
艰难梭菌是某些慢性疾病例如炎症性肠病、肿瘤等严重疾病相关性腹泻的主要致病因素(III,C) (弱推荐,低质量证据).
表 4. 修正的 Vesikari 量表
分数
0
1
2
3
腹泻持续时间,h
0
1-96
24h 内排便次数最大值(腹泻
0
1-3
期间)
呕吐持续时间,h
0
1-24
24h 内呕吐次数最大值
0
1
97-120 4-5
25-48 2-4
≥121 ≥6
≥49 ≥5
体温最高值(℃)
<37.0
37.1-38.4
38.5-38.9
腹泻严重程度及持续时间的危险因素
腹泻的病因
轮状病毒是引起儿童腹泻最严重的病原体(III,C)(强推荐,中等质量证据)。 儿童迁延性腹泻检测到的主要病原体有: -- 轮状病毒、诺如病毒、星状病毒、肠聚集性大肠杆菌和非典型性大肠杆菌(III,C)(弱推
荐,低质量证据) -- 贾第虫(III,A)(弱推荐,中等质量证据) -- 隐孢子虫和溶组织内阿米巴(III,C)(弱推荐,低质量证据)
表 3. 儿童临床脱水量表(总分从 0 分~ 8 分)
特征
0
1
2
一般状态
眼眶 粘膜(舌) 泪
正常
正常 湿润 流泪
口渴、烦躁、嗜睡,触 嗜睡,萎靡,发冷或出
碰时易激怒
汗+/-昏迷
《2017年ESPGHAN立场声明:儿童自身免疫性肝病的诊断和管理》摘译
特别对肝硬化和严重的黄疸的患者。硫嘌呤甲基转移酶(TPMT)活性水平不推荐常规检测预
测硫唑嘌呤毒性。
1.5.3.2 替代疗法(表 4)
AIH 治疗替代提议目的:a)诱导缓解:在疾病开始时尽量减少类固醇的副作用;b)治疗
难治性患者,即那些无法耐受或对标准免疫抑制药物反应迟钝的人,通常被称为“难治者”。
成 年 血 清 检 测 自 身 抗 体 浓 度 ≥1:40 被 视 为 自 身 抗 体 阳 性 。 儿 童 自 身 抗 体 检 测 结 果 ANA≥1:20 以及抗-LKM1≥1:10 即有临床意义。但在疾病急性发作或暴发过程中,均可能出 现自身抗体滴度很低甚至阴性。
抗可溶性肝抗原抗体(抗 SLA)对 AIH 的诊断具有很高的特异性,它的存在可以预示病 情更重和预后更差。抗核中性粒细胞胞浆抗体(pANCA)经常在 AIH-1 中被检出。 1.4 临床特征 青少年 AIH 的患病率未知。儿科自身免疫性肝病的确诊率比以往明显提高: 原因是对该病的认识增强、自身免疫性肝脏疾病的患病率确实有增加、病毒性肝炎的数量减 少。
注:AIH,自身免疫性肝炎;ASC,自身免疫性硬化性胆管炎
常规治疗前两个月大多数患者的氨基转移酶水平会下降 80%,但完全正常可能需要几
个月。加用硫唑嘌呤可减少类固醇用量,加用的时机各个中心不同。85%的患者最终需要添
加硫唑嘌呤。建议谨慎起始就给予类固醇和硫唑嘌呤联合治疗,因为硫唑嘌呤可能有肝毒性,
(龙) 呤
0.1-0.2mg /kg/d 或 5mg/d
1-2mg/ kg/d 病 情需要
时
呤单药 治疗 (AIH-1)
1.2-1.6m g/kg/d
IgG 水平正 常;
2.ANA/SM A 阴性或低 滴度(<1:
2012年欧洲肝病学会慢性乙型肝炎病毒感染管理临床实践指南解读
2012年欧洲肝病学会慢性乙型肝炎病毒感染管理临床实践指南解读王磊1,刘友德2(1.山东大学第二医院 感染/肝病科,济南 250033;2.烟台市传染病医院 肝病科,烟台 264001)基金项目:艾滋病和病毒性肝炎等重大传染病防治“十一·五”国家科技重大专项(2009ZX10002-028);山东省医药卫生科技发展计划(2009HZ036)通讯作者:王磊 Email:wlcrb@2012年欧洲肝病学会(European Association for the Study of the Liver ,EASL )在《肝脏病学杂志》(Journal of Hepatology )上发表了《欧洲肝病学会慢性乙型肝炎病毒感染管理临床实践指南》[1](以下简称欧洲指南)。
该版指南是在2009年版的基础上修订的,指南部分的内容涉及治疗前的病情评估、治疗目标、治疗终点、治疗应答的定义、治疗的适应证、目前治疗的结果、治疗应答的预测、治疗策略:如何治疗、治疗失败、如何监测治疗和停药、严重肝脏疾病患者的治疗、肝移植后乙型肝炎复发的预防、特殊人群的治疗等13个方面。
该欧洲指南目录内容与2009年版相同;但对部分内容进行了更新。
本文就慢性乙型肝炎(chronic hepatitis B ,CHB )抗病毒治疗的若干热点问题,结合我国《慢性乙型肝炎防治指南(2010年版)》[2](以下简称我国指南)做一解读。
1 继续强调了治疗前病情评估的重要性欧洲指南指出并非所有的慢性乙型肝炎病毒(H B V )感染者都伴有丙氨酸氨基转移酶(ALT )的持续升高,那些免疫耐受期的HBV 携带者和免疫控制期的非活动性HBsAg 携带者ALT 是持续正常的,但在HBeAg 阴性的CHB 患者也会有暂时的ALT 正常,所以长期随访监测是必需的,以便及时发现ALT 的升高。
随访不仅要监测肝脏生化学指标(肝功),还应监测HBV DNA 水平。
EASL慢乙肝处理临床实践指南
定期复查
在治疗过程中定期复查,观察疗效及不良反应情况,及时调整治疗方案。
处理其他并发症
08
教育和患者支持
患者教育
为患者提供关于慢性乙肝的教育,包括疾病的原因、传播方式、治疗方法和预防措施等。
资源支持
提供关于慢性乙肝的资料、手册、网站等资源,以便患者获取更多的信息和支持。
提供教育和资源支持
心理辅导
背景和目的
该指南适用于所有诊断为慢乙肝的成年患者。对于儿童和青少年患者,本指南可提供参考,但具体治疗方案应根据儿科医生的建议进行个体化调整。
指南的适用范围
02
病史和体格检查
询问病史
询问患者的年龄、性别、职业等基本信息。
询问患者的饮酒和吸烟习惯,以及是否有其他肝毒性因素。
询问患者的既往病史、家族病史及传染病史。
easl慢乙肝处理临床实践指南
2023-11-05
引言病史和体格检查诊断病情评估治疗
contents
目录
监测和随访预防和管理并发症教育和患者支持结论和未来发展方向
contents
目录
01
引言
乙肝是全球性的公共卫生问题,影响着数亿人的健康。慢乙肝是指乙肝病毒持续感染超过6个月,可导致肝硬化、肝癌等严重并发症。因此,制定针对慢乙肝处理的临床实践指南,旨在为医生提供针对该疾病的标准化、规范化的治疗建议,以改善患者的预后和生活质量。
新的治疗方法和药物
01
尽管目前已有几种抗病毒药物可供选择,但仍需要继续研究新的治疗方法,包括开发更有效的药物和探索联合治疗方案。
未来研究方向和展望
个体化治疗
02
由于患者的病情和基因型各不相同,未来研究应更加注重个体化治疗,为每个患者量身定制最合适的治疗方案。
《2013 ESPGHAN儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治》解读
《2013 ESPGHAN儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治》解读介绍了儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治。
慢性乙型肝炎(Chronic hepatitis B,CHB或称慢性乙肝病毒感染)定义为HBsAg阳性6个月或更长,儿童相对较轻,多数无症状但在成年之前仍有3%~5%的CHB发展为肝硬化和肝细胞癌(HCC)。
受儿科新药许可延迟的影响,几乎没有药物注明可应用于儿童,也没有指出哪些患儿需治疗或什么时候开始治疗,目前没有指南只有专家共识[1]。
1 预防乙肝疫苗接种在高流行区有更高的成本效益比,低流行区则不显著。
(1)仍推荐3剂重组乙肝疫苗接种,首剂在出生后24 h内肌注,后2剂均间隔4周;(2)出生体重105 copies/mL,ALT正常或轻度升高,抗病毒药疗效差;(2)免疫清除(激活)期(活动性慢性乙型肝炎):免疫系统被激活,肝脏坏死炎症重,病毒渐清除。
HBsAg,HBeAg阳性,HBV DNA滴度降低,ALT/AST持续或间歇升高;(3)非活动(低或非复制,免疫控制)期,非活动性携带者:肝组织通常无活动性炎症肝坏死减轻,ALT/AST正常,病毒无复制或低复制,HBeAg血清转换,HBV DNA检测不到,大多数HBsAg阳性、HBeAg阴性、抗HBe阳性;(4)免疫逃逸期:在非活动期中部分发生HBeAg阳转(HBeAg阳性慢性乙型肝炎)或前C/C区变异(HBeAg阴性慢性乙型肝炎),ALT反复升高,HBV再活动[6]。
3 方法由学会(ESPGHAN)挑选的专家组共同编写。
基于“推荐分级的评估,制定与评价(Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation,GRADE)”将治疗推荐力度分为(1)强烈推荐应用,(2)弱推荐;证据质量分为A高质量,B中等质量,C低质量,见图1。
4 治疗终点及应答定义治疗目标是通过减少肝病进展以降低肝硬化及HCC发生的风险[7]。
【VIP专享】儿童慢性乙型肝炎治疗建议
儿童慢性乙型肝炎治疗建议【制订者】庞琳【出处】中华实验和临床感染病杂志(电子版) 2007年11月第1卷第4期【中文正文】本文为《巴基斯坦医学协会杂志》于2007年4月刊登的由Uzma Shah等执笔的儿童慢性乙型肝炎治疗建议,现将该文治疗建议介绍如下。
传播方式乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)可通过围产期母婴传播、通过污染的体液在家庭中横向传播和通过使用未经筛查的血液和血液制品传播,也可通过使用污染的针具、手术和牙科器械传播。
需要进行HBV筛查的儿童主要筛查居住于乙型肝炎高流行区、有输血史和外科手术史、出生时母亲是HBV感染者以及家庭成员中有HBV感染者的儿童。
另外, 有慢性肝病迹象的儿童也需要筛查HBV。
初期筛选试验检查乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原(HBsAg)和抗体(HBsAb) ,血清反应阴性的儿童需进行乙肝疫苗接种,血清反应阳性的患儿需要进一步评估。
表面抗原阳性患儿的初评初评要求提供良好的病史记录和体检资料,一定要询问是否有黄疸、手术、输血史、乙型肝炎患者接触史、慢性肝病史及肝癌家族史。
另外,需进行HBV、丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)及丁型肝炎病毒(HDV)的血清学检查。
如果条件许可,进行HBV DNA定量分析有助于更好地进行初评, HBV DNA >105拷贝/ml即可诊断为HBV感染(表1) 。
表1 慢性乙型肝炎病毒感染的评估初评1. 病史与体检2. 分析肝病的实验室检查2全血细胞计数、肝脏形态及凝血酶原时间3. HBV 复制的检测2HBeAg/ 抗2HBe 、HBV DNA4. 肝病其他病因学检测2抗2HCV 、抗2HDV5. 肝脾的超声检查6. 肝脏活检分级和肝病分期符合慢性肝炎的患者如果考虑治疗,则应该参考肝组织活检的提示。
肝活检的目的是分析肝损害程度及预测预后。
对初评不考虑治疗患者的监测建议HBsAg阳性,血清HBV DNA升高,转氨酶正常的患者应该每3 ~6个月监测1次。
假如在随访期间转氨酶水平升高,则需要更为频繁的监测。
《2018年欧洲肝病学会临床实践指南:慢性肝病患者的营养》摘译
Z 2018[ij#$%^'(bcdkl /0#$mn+o.fgh周义霞,高 雅译,李 武审校(昆明医科大学第一附属医院感染与肝病科,昆明650032)关键词:肝疾病;营养疗法;欧洲;诊疗准则中图分类号:R575 文献标志码:B 文章编号:1001-5256(2018)11-2305-06AnexcerptofEASLClinicalPracticeGuidelinesonnutritioninchronicliverdisease(2018)ZHOUYixia,GAOYa,LIWu.(DepartmentofInfectiousandLiverDiseases,TheFirstAffiliatedHospitalofKunmingMedicalUniversity,Kunming650032,China)Keywords:liverdiseases;nutritiontherapy;Europe;practiceguidelinedoi:10.3969/j.issn.1001-5256.2018.11.008收稿日期:2018-10-17;修回日期:2018-10-17。
作者简介:周义霞(1992-),女,主要从事慢性肝病的临床及基础研究。
通信作者:李武,电子信箱:liwukm@qq.com。
[本文首次发表于JHepatol,2018] 营养不良是肝硬化的常见并发症,与肝功能衰竭的进展以及感染、肝性脑病(HE)和腹水等并发症的高发生率有关。
营养不良、肥胖症和肌少型肥胖症均可导致肝硬化患者预后较差,并降低其生存率。
因此,营养监测和干预对慢性肝病至关重要。
欧洲肝病学会(EASL)之前发布的指南没有涉及晚期肝病的营养和(或)评估营养状况与患者临床转归之间的关系。
因此,EASL理事会组织了一个营养和肝病学专家小组来制订临床实践指南。
指南中的证据质量和推荐强度采用GRADE系统评价方法(表1)。
北美及欧洲小儿胃肠病、肝病和营养协会儿童胃食管反流及胃食管反流病临床指南解读(完整版)
北美及欧洲小儿胃肠病、肝病和营养协会儿童胃食管反流及胃食管反流病临床指南解读(完整版)摘要2018年北美小儿胃肠病、肝病和营养协会及欧洲小儿胃肠病、肝病和营养协会发布了儿童胃食管反流及胃食管反流病临床指南的更新版本。
该指南采用循证医学的方法结合专家观点对儿童胃食管反流及胃食管反流病的诊治提出了若干新的推荐意见,并针对疾病的初筛、检查、治疗及转诊制定了详细的流程。
2006年中华儿科杂志编辑委员会、中华医学会儿科学分会消化学组制定了"小儿胃食管反流病诊断治疗方案(试行)"[1]。
近年来随着相关研究的不断深入,该方案中的部分内容已不适用于当前的临床实践,但目前尚缺乏针对我国儿童胃食管反流(gastroesophageal reflux, GER)及胃食管反流病(gastroesophageal reflux disease,GERD)诊治的最新指南。
北美小儿胃肠病、肝病和营养协会(No rth American Society fo r Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology a n dNutrition,NASPGHAN)及欧洲小儿胃肠病、肝病和营养协会(European Society fo r Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology a n d Nutrition,ESPGHAN)分别于2001年、2009年、2018年3次发布了儿童GER/GERD 临床指南[2,3,4],并于2013年由美国儿科学会授权,制定了儿童GER/GERD儿科医师管理指南[5]。
2018年NASPGHAN/ESPGHAN儿童GER/GERD临床指南作为以往指南的更新版本,提出了若干新的推荐意见,现结合国内的临床实践,将其主要内容作一解读,为国内的儿科医师提供参考。
一、定义2018年NASPGHAN/ESPGHAN指南采纳了2009年形成的关于儿童GER/GERD定义的国际共识[6],将儿童GER定义为胃内容物反流进入食管伴或不伴呕吐,当反流引起不适症状或并发症时,则被定义为GERD。
欧洲儿科胃肠病学、肝病学和营养学会 乳糜泻诊断标准
欧洲儿科胃肠病学、肝病学和营养学会乳糜泻诊断标准在儿科胃肠病学、肝病学和营养学领域,乳糜泻是一种常见的疾病,其诊断标准对于儿童的健康至关重要。
欧洲儿科胃肠病学、肝病学和营养学会(ESPGHAN)制定了乳糜泻的诊断标准,以帮助医生更准确地诊断和治疗患有这种疾病的儿童。
让我们来了解一下乳糜泻的基本概念。
乳糜泻是一种由麦麸蛋白引起的肠道疾病,其特征是小肠黏膜的免疫介导性损害。
乳糜泻患者在摄入麸质后,会产生免疫反应,导致小肠黏膜受损,吸收功能障碍,进而出现腹泻、腹痛、生长迟缓等症状。
ESPGHAN关于乳糜泻的诊断标准主要包括以下几个方面:1. 临床症状:包括腹泻、发育迟缓、腹痛、贫血等表现,这些症状是医生最先注意的线索之一。
2. 血清学标志物:乳糜泻患者的血清中常常可以检测到抗组织转酶抗体(anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies, tTG)和抗腺苷酸抗体(anti-endomysium antibodies, EMA),这些标志物是诊断乳糜泻的重要依据之一。
3. 小肠黏膜活检:通过对小肠黏膜进行活检,可以观察到特征性的黏膜病理改变,如绒毛萎缩、上皮细胞损伤等,从而确诊乳糜泻。
基于以上的诊断标准,医生可以更加准确地诊断和治疗乳糜泻患儿,这对于他们的生长发育和健康至关重要。
回顾这些内容,我们不得不承认,在乳糜泻的诊断和治疗方面,ESPGHAN的标准为医生提供了重要的指导,帮助他们更好地照顾那些患有这种疾病的儿童。
对于家长来说,了解这些诊断标准也可以帮助他们更早地发现孩子的健康问题,并及时寻求专业的医疗帮助。
在我个人看来,乳糜泻的诊断标准不仅是医学界的重要进展,更是对儿童健康的保障。
我希望通过本文的共享,能让更多人关注乳糜泻这一疾病,增进对儿童健康的重视,促进学术界和医学界在这一领域的持续努力和创新。
感谢你的阅读,希望这篇文章能对你有所帮助。
乳糜泻是一种常见的小肠疾病,尤其在儿童中更为常见。
《2013 ESPGHAN儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治》解读
《2013 ESPGHAN儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治》解读作者:陈炎陈亚蓓陶荣芳来源:《中国医学创新》2015年第03期【摘要】介绍了儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治。
【关键词】慢性乙型肝炎;干扰素α;聚乙二醇干扰素;拉米夫定;阿德福韦酯;恩替卡韦;替诺福韦;替比夫定doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-4985.2015.03.037慢性乙型肝炎(Chronic hepatitis B,CHB或称慢性乙肝病毒感染)定义为HBsAg阳性6个月或更长,儿童相对较轻,多数无症状但在成年之前仍有3%~5%的CHB发展为肝硬化和肝细胞癌(HCC)。
受儿科新药许可延迟的影响,几乎没有药物注明可应用于儿童,也没有指出哪些患儿需治疗或什么时候开始治疗,目前没有指南只有专家共识[1]。
1 预防乙肝疫苗接种在高流行区有更高的成本效益比,低流行区则不显著。
(1)仍推荐3剂重组乙肝疫苗接种,首剂在出生后24 h内肌注,后2剂均间隔4周;(2)出生体重HBeAg阳性母亲的婴儿可在出生后12~24 h内同时肌注乙肝免疫球蛋白0.5 mL有90%保护率,因而不论母亲的HBeAg状态,所有HBsAg阳性母亲的亲生儿接种乙肝疫苗和乙肝免疫球蛋白是合理的。
并建议母亲在妊娠的后3个月应用核苷类药物(替诺福韦,拉米夫定,替比夫定)治疗高病毒血症。
哺乳问题:母亲乳头无破裂或出血鼓励母乳喂养,乳母可用干扰素(乳汁中无),而拉米夫定,替诺福韦虽乳汁中少但无资料证明安全性故不推荐,替比夫定无资料也不推荐,恩替卡韦大鼠乳汁中有且有潜在致癌毒性而禁用[4-5]。
2 自然史仍按传统分为4期:(1)免疫耐受期:高病毒复制,肝脏炎症轻,HBsAg,HBeAg阳性,HBV DNA>105 copies/mL,ALT正常或轻度升高,抗病毒药疗效差;(2)免疫清除(激活)期(活动性慢性乙型肝炎):免疫系统被激活,肝脏坏死炎症重,病毒渐清除。
HBsAg,HBeAg阳性,HBV DNA滴度降低,ALT/AST持续或间歇升高;(3)非活动(低或非复制,免疫控制)期,非活动性携带者:肝组织通常无活动性炎症肝坏死减轻,ALT/AST正常,病毒无复制或低复制,HBeAg血清转换,HBV DNA检测不到,大多数HBsAg阳性、HBeAg阴性、抗HBe阳性;(4)免疫逃逸期:在非活动期中部分发生HBeAg阳转(HBeAg阳性慢性乙型肝炎)或前C/C区变异(HBeAg阴性慢性乙型肝炎),ALT反复升高,HBV再活动[6]。
儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治:欧洲儿科胃肠病、肝病、营养学会(ESPGHAN)临床实践指南专家组共识
儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治:ESPGHAN 临床实践指南欧洲儿科胃肠病、肝病、营养学会专家组共识Management of chronic hepatitis B in childhood: ESPGHAN clinical practice guidelines Consensus of an expert panel on behalf of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology andNutrition作者:Etienne M. Sokal, Massimiliano Paganelli, Stefan Wirth, Piotr Socha, Pietro Vajro, Florence Lacaille, Deirdre Kelly, Giorgina Mieli-Vergani摘要:引言在世界范围内大约有3.6 亿(占世界总人口的6%)乙型肝炎(乙肝)病毒(hepatitis B virus,HBV)慢性感染者。
尽管随着乙肝疫苗免疫接种计划在许多国家得到普及和实施以及对献血员的筛查,HBV 的感染率已经大幅度下降,但每年仍有大量的儿童感染HBV,且常常发展为慢性感染,需要得到相应的随访观察[1]。
虽然慢性乙型肝炎(chronic hepatitis B,CHB)在儿童或青少年时期是一个相对良性的过程,但在成人之前仍然分别有3%~5% 和0.01%~0.03% 的慢性携带者发展为肝硬化和肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)[2,3]。
考虑到终生感染的情况,HCC 发生的危险性上升至9%~24%,肝硬化的年发生率为2%~3%[4,5]。
在世界范围内广泛的疫苗接种的目的仍然是消灭HBV 感染及其相关的并发症。
儿童CHB 的治疗受到儿科新药许可延迟的制约。
成人患者已经有了安全有效的抗病毒治疗,但几乎没有药物注明可应用于儿童,也没有告诉人们哪些患儿需要治疗,或什么时候进行治疗,从而优化治疗应答,减少耐药的风险。
2013+ESPGHAN+儿童时期慢性乙型肝炎的诊治指南
Management of chronic hepatitis B in childhood:ESPGHANclinical practice guidelinesConsensus of an expert panel on behalf of the European Societyof Pediatric Gastroenterology,Hepatology and NutritionEtienne M.Sokal 1,⇑, ,Massimiliano Paganelli 1, ,Stefan Wirth 2,Piotr Socha 3,Pietro Vajro 4,Florence Lacaille 5,Deirdre Kelly 6,Giorgina Mieli-Vergani 71Pediatric Gastroenterology &Hepatology,Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique,UniversitéCatholique de Louvain and Cliniques Universitaires Saint Luc,Brussels,Belgium;2Zentrum für Kinder-und Jugendmedizin,HELIOS Klinikum Wuppertal,Witten-Herdecke University,Germany;3Department of Gastroenterology,Hepatology and Eating Disorders,The Children’s Memorial Health Institute,Warsaw,Poland;4Chair of Pediatrics,School of Medicine,University of Salerno,Salerno,Italy;5Hepatogastroenterology-Nutrition Unit,Hôpital Necker-Enfants-Malades,Paris,France;6University of Birmingham,Birmingham Children’s Hospital,Birmingham,United Kingdom;7Paediatric Liver Centre,King’s College London School of Medicine at King’s College Hospital,London,United KingdomIntroductionMore than 360million persons worldwide (6%of the world pop-ulation)are chronically infected by the hepatitis B virus (HBV).Although the incidence of HBV infection has dramatically declined since the implementation of universal immunization programs in several countries and blood-donor screening,a sig-nificant number of children are still infected each year,often developing chronic infection and requiring appropriate follow-up [1].Despite a rather benign course of chronic hepatitis B (CHB)during childhood and adolescence,3–5%and 0.01–0.03%of chronic carriers develop cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC),respectively,before adulthood [2,3].Such a risk for HCC rises to 9–24%when considering the whole lifetime,with an inci-dence of cirrhosis of 2–3%per year [4,5].Worldwide universal vaccination remains the goal for eliminating HBV infection and its complications.Treatment of CHB in childhood has been ham-pered by the chronic delay in licensing new drugs for pediatric use.Safe and effective antiviral therapies are available in adults,but few are labeled for the use in children,and an accurate selec-tion of whom to treat and the identification of the right timing fortreatment are needed to optimize response and reduce the risk of antiviral resistance.Although several guidelines on the manage-ment of adult patients with CHB have been published by major international societies,the clinical approach to infected children is still evolving,and is mostly based on consensus of expert opin-ion [6–9].Ó2013European Association for the Study of the Liver.Published by Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.ContextEpidemiology and preventionSince the WHO recommended global immunization programs for HBV in 1991,the prevalence of HBV infection has declined world-wide [5,10–12].Although among children born in Western Eur-ope and North America HBsAg-positivity is rare,pediatricians are confronted with an increasing number of children adopted from higher prevalence countries,2–5%of whom are still infected with HBV and often carry HBV genotypes which expose them to a higher risk of complications [1,13–15].In countries where donor screening and blood testing have been implemented,the current risk of acquiring HBV infection after blood transfusion is estimated at 1in 500,000per unit expo-sure [16,17].Nevertheless,as HBV nosocomial transmission is still a critical problem,vaccination status of children needs to be checked regularly and all preventive measures have to be strictly respected [18].Mother-to-child transmission accounts for more than 50%of chronic infections in highly endemic areas.After exposure,the risk of chronicity is higher for newborns (90%),infants and chil-dren younger than 5years (25–30%)than for adolescents or adults (<5%)[19,20].Vaccination is the most effective measure to prevent hepatitis B transmission.In highly endemic areas,it is also themostJournal of Hepatology 2013vol.59j814–829Keywords:Hepatitis B virus;Chronic hepatitis B;Treatment;Children;Adoles-cents;Guidelines;Management;Resistance;Breastfeeding;Immunosuppressed;Transplantation;Acute hepatitis B;Pregnancy.Received 1December 2012;received in revised form 9May 2013;accepted 13May 2013⇑Corresponding author.Address:Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology,UniversitéCatholique de Louvain and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc 10,Av.Hippocrate,1200Brussels,Belgium.Tel.:+3227641386/1387.E-mail address:etienne.sokal@uclouvain.be (E.M.Sokal).These authors contributed equally to this work.Abbreviations:ALT,alanine aminotransferases;CHB,chronic hepatitis B;HBIG,hep-atitis B immunoglobulins;HBV,hepatitis B virus;HCC,hepatocellular carcinoma;cccDNA,covalently closed circular DNA;FDA,Food and Drug Administration;IFN,interferon;NA,nucleos(t)ide analogues;PegINF,pegylated interferon;SVR,sustained virological response;ULN,upper limit of normal;VR,virologic response;WHO,World HealthOrganization.Clinical Practice Guidelinescost-effective medical intervention,offering the higher benefit-cost ratio,whereas in low-endemicity countries,such cost-effec-tiveness is not as clear[21–24].Recombinant vaccine induces a seroprotective response(anti-HBs P10mIU/ml)in about95%of subjects vaccinated with three doses[25,26].Thefirst dose of monovalent vaccine should be administered intramuscularly within24hours of birth,and should be followed by2or3doses (monovalent or combined)with a minimum interval of4weeks (A1)[26].Preterm infants weighting<2000g should receive3 doses after the birth dose(B1)[26,147].Postvaccination testing for a protective concentration of anti-HBs is recommended only for high-risk populations(infants born to HBsAg-positive moth-ers and HIV-infected or other immunocompromised subjects), and should be performed1–2months after the end of the vacci-nation schedule(A1)[26].Revaccination with further3doses induces protective anti-HBs response in the majority of non-responders[27,28].Immunocompromised subjects should be tested annually and revaccinated if anti-HBs<10mIU/ml(C1) [148].Although anti-HBs levels have been shown to decrease over time,long-lasting protection has been observed in vacci-nated subjects with undetectable anti-HBs,and at present there is no clear evidence for recommending the administration of a booster dose in immunocompetent individuals[149,150].Testing for coeliac disease,HIV or other causes of immune deficiency might be advisable for non-responders(C2)[29,30,151].Vaccine failure and mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B affect17%of infants born to HBeAg-positive mothers[25].The high viral load related to HBeAg-positivity seems to be the most important factor for breakthrough infection[25,31].Moreover, when the mother is infected by genotype C HBV,intrauterine infection may occur before vaccination can be administred,in addition to hyporesponsivness to vaccination[31,32].When the mother is a chronic carrier,vaccination at birth is not sufficient to avoid vertical transmission,and concurrent intramuscular administration of0.5ml of hepatitis B immunoglobulin(HBIG) is recommended to give immediate passive immunity to the newborn[26,33].Administration of both the vaccine and HBIG to newborns of HBeAg-positive mothers within12–24h of birth allows the achievement of90%protection rate(98%when moth-ers are HBeAg-negative),compared to vaccine alone[25,26,34]. Administration of both vaccine and HBIG is recommended for newborns of HBeAg-positive mothers(A1).Although a clear ben-efit has not been shown for newborns of HBeAg-negative moth-ers,a reduction of the incidence of fulminant hepatitis justifies HBIG administration to all infants born of HBsAg-positive moth-ers[25],regardless of the maternal HBeAg status(C2).High breakthrough infection(17%)and chronicity(54%)rates have been reported in newborns of HBeAg-positive mothers despite concomitant active and passive immunization at birth[25].As breakthrough infection rates are directly correlated to maternal viral load(as well as to HBV genotype C,high HBsAg titer,vaginal delivery,hyporesponsiveness to vaccine and vaccine escape mutants)[25,31,152],treatment with nucleos(t)ide analogues (NA)of highly viraemic women during the last trimester of preg-nancy is currently recommended to prevent vertical transmission (B1,see below)[8].Breastfeeding has been shown not to contribute significantly to HBV transmission from infected mothers to infants who have received active and passive immunoprophylaxis[153,154].In the absence of cracked or bleeding nipples,breastfeeding of prop-erly immunized infants is encouraged(B2).Unlike interferon (IFN),which is not excreted in breast milk,lamivudine and tenofovir are excreted(although no data are available yet for ten-ofovir in humans),but the dose adsorbed by the infants is negli-gible compared to standard oral doses[155,156].Nevertheless, no systematic study has been conducted to evaluate the effects of nucleos(t)ide analogues(NA)absorbed from maternal milk on breastfed infants.Though there are data suggesting that breastfeeding while on lamivudine and tenofovir is safe[156] at present,breastfeeding cannot be recommended,and the risk of potential long-term effects on the infant should be weighed against the risk of stopping the antiviral therapy.Entecavir has not been studied in pregnant women as yet,but was shown to be excreted in breast milk in rats and to have carcinogenic poten-tial both in mice and rats after placental transfer.No data are available yet for telbivudine.Natural historyChronic hepatitis B,defined as positivity for HBsAg for6months or longer,is a mild disease in childhood[1].Most infected chil-dren are asymptomatic,with a normal growth and a normal physical examination[35].The great majority of perinatally infected subjects are HBeAg-positive,with high serum levels of HBV DNA and normal serum alanine aminotransferases(immu-notolerant phase).Transplacental transfer of maternal HBeAg has been suggested to elicit HBe/HBcAg-specific Th cell tolerance in utero[157–160].Such mechanism could explain the different chronicity rates between neonatal and adult infection,as well as the higher chronicity rate in babies born to HBeAg-positive mothers,in whom high-level viral replication leading to large amount of HBeAg would maintain the tolerance to HBV[56].This immunotolerant phase,which lasts10–30years,is usually marked by high viral replication and little liver damage.Never-theless,1.7–4.5%of children and adolescents infected at birth have cirrhosis at liver biopsy[35,36].Over time,HBV DNA levelsfluctuate and ALT levels rise, reflecting the histologicfinding of necroinflammation of liver parenchyma.This phase of active hepatitis leads to seroconver-sion to anti-HBe antibodies in60–95%of patients on long-term follow-up[36,37].ALT levels increase before HBeAg clearance and may remain elevated(withflare-ups in20%of subjects)for 6–12months after seroconversion[11,35,38,39].Most HBsAg-positive,HBeAg-negative,and anti-HBe-positive patients(i.e. those who undergo HBeAg seroconversion)are defined as inac-tive carriers,have absent or low viral replication(HBV DNA <2000IU/ml)and usually inactive liver histology,with normal ALT levels.Over a long-term follow-up(24–29years),inactive carriers with no signs of cirrhosis at seroconversion do not show disease progression,whereas1–5%of HBeAg-positive children develop cirrhosis[2,35,36].Although the incidence of HCC in high HBV prevalence areas has been significantly reduced by global immunization programs, between0.01%and0.03%of children with CHB develop HCC dur-ing childhood(32per100,000person-year)[14,36,40,41].Chil-dren developing HCC are more likely to be males(70%),with cirrhosis(80%),and to have undergone early seroconversion(sug-gesting that necroinflammation during seroconversion to anti-HBe may be severe enough to lead to cirrhosis and HCC) [14,36,40].In adult patients,the long-term risk of both HCC and cirrhosis is directly correlated to serum HBV DNA levels and HBeAg positivity[42–44].No conclusion can be drawn from pediatric studies because of the rarity of HCC during childhood [36,40].The role of viral genotype on the risk ofdeveloping JOURNAL OF HEPATOLOGYJournal of Hepatology2013vol.59j814–829815HCC is still to be clarified in the pediatric population (80%of HCC are in cirrhotic genotype B children,whereas in adults,genotypes C and F are considered at increased risk)[14,45–48].Further-more,the risk of HCC is higher in individuals with a family his-tory of HCC [4].Seroconversion to anti-HBe reduces the risk of developing HCC,but 0.2%of HBeAg-negative adults and 1.6%of asymptomatic HBsAg carriers still develop HCC [49].A subgroup of anti-HBe-positive subjects has active viral rep-lication with abnormal ALT levels and histologically active hepa-titis (HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis).HBeAg-negative hepatitis affects about 10%of pediatric patients,who show a more severe disease progression and have a higher incidence of HCC than HBeAg-negative patients in sustained remission [49].Between 7%and 25%of inactive carriers lose HBsAg and become anti-HBs-positive over a 20-year follow-up [50].Unfortu-nately,spontaneous seroconversion to anti-HBs is a rare event in childhood (0.6–1%/year)[35,36,38].Such an event marks resolu-tion of HBV infection,and leads to an improved liver histology.HBsAg seroclearance,if it occurs before the development of cir-rhosis or HCC and in the absence of concomitant infections,has an excellent long-term prognosis [51].Nevertheless,covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA)persists indefinitely in hepatocytes,and low-level viral replication or reactivation upon immunosup-pression is always possible.Moreover,the HBV genome may inte-grate in the host genome,increasing the risk of HCC development even after HBsAg seroclearance [52,53].As a reflection of the transcriptional activity of cccDNA,HBsAg levels decrease with age and disease progression,being higher dur-ing the immunotolerance phase,lower after seroconversion to anti-HBe,and reaching the lowest levels in inactive carriers [161].MethodsThese guidelines were developed by a panel of experts chosen by the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology,Hepatology,and Nutrition (ESPGHAN).Rec-ommendations were based on evidence from existing papers published before June 2012and,when evidence was not available,on experts’personal experience.Evidence has been evaluated by the authors and classified as high (A),moderate (B),or low (C)quality according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation (GRADE)system [54–56].The strength of recom-mendations (1:strong;2:weak)reflects the extent to which we can be confident that the desirable effects of the intervention outweigh the undesirable effects,and is based on the balance between desirable and undesirable effects,the quality of underlying evidence,variability in values and preferences and the costs of the intervention (Table 1).End points of treatment and definitions of responseThe goal of anti-HBV therapy,in children as in adults,is to improve long-term survival and quality of life by reducing the risk of progressive liver disease,cirrhosis,and HCC.For all patients,the ideal end point of treatment is sustained HBsAg clearance,as it stops disease progression and reduces the risk of HCC,although it occurs in a minority of treated sub-jects (A1)[51,57].When HBsAg seroclearance is not achieved,sustained off-therapy suppression of viral replication (undetectable HBV DNA levels with a sensitive real time polymerase chain reaction assay),associated with durable anti-HBe seroconversion in originally HBeAg-positive patients,is a good end point,being associated with improved prognosis,including decreased risk of HCC (A1)[44].In the absence of off-therapy viral suppression,undetectable HBV DNA under long-term antiviral therapy (maintained virolog-ical response)is the next desirable end point (A1).Reduction of viremia levels leads to decreased liver inflammation and subse-quent normalization of ALT levels,reducing the risk of disease progression [2,35,36,42,43].Response to treatment can be evaluated at biochemical,sero-logical,virological and histological levels.In the few available pedi-atric trials,several end points have been used to evaluate response.A consensus on the definition of response would be required to compare the different clinical trials.Current AASLD and EASL def-initions can be adapted to pediatric clinical trials [6,8]:Biochemical response:normalization of ALT levels,which reflects reduction of histological activity index.ALT level is,however,a difficult parameter to assess because it can fluctuate widely over time and can remain elevated up to 6–12months after HBeAg seroconversion.ALT levels,Table 1.Grading of evidence and recommendations according to the GRADE system [54].Clinical Practice Guidelines816Journal of Hepatology 2013vol.59j 814–829therefore,should be monitored every3months during the first year post-treatment(C1)and every6months during the second year post-treatment(C2).Serological response for HBeAg is defined as HBeAg loss and seroconversion to anti-HBe(only for HBeAg-positive patients);serological response for HBsAg is defined as loss of HBsAg and development of anti-HBs antibodies(valid for all chronic hepatitis B patients).Virological response(VR):undetectable levels of HBV DNA (as determined by a sensible PCR assay)after3–6months of treatment for NA-treated patients or HBV DNA <2000IU/ml after6months and at the end of treatment for IFN-treated patients. Complete response:off-treatment virological response associated with HBsAg loss sustained on long-term fol-low-up.Sustained off-treatment virological response(SVR):VR per-sisting at least12months after cessation of treatment.Maintained virological response:undetectable HBV DNA under long-term antiviral therapy.Partial virological response:decrease in HBV DNA of more than1log10IU/ml but detectable HBV DNA after at least 6months of treatment with NA.Primary non-response:less than1log10IU/ml decrease in HBV DNA levels from baseline after3months of therapy.JOURNAL OF HEPATOLOGY Journal of Hepatology2013vol.59j814–829817Virologic breakthrough:HBV DNA level increase of more than1log10IU/ml during therapy,usually caused by poor adherence to treatment or emergence of a drug-resistant HBV mutant.Histologic assessment of necroinflammatory activity has not been used as a criterion to evaluate response to treat-ment in pediatric studies.Who and when to treatDecision to treat must take into account the mild evolution of the disease during childhood,the risk of disease progression later in life,the development of severe complications in few,not yet well identified children,the efficacy of current antivirals,their side effects,and the limited number of drugs labeled for use in this age group.A treatment algorithm is proposed in Fig.1.The need for treatment should be evaluated at each follow-up visit,in order to initiate antiviral drugs at the earliest signs of liver damage(C2).Children with CHB should undergo physical examination and measurement of serum ALT and HBeAg/anti-HBe levels every6months(C1).In HBeAg-positive patients with persistently elevated ALT,their levels should be monitored every 3months for at least one year(B1).In HBeAg-negative patients, ALT and HBV DNA levels should be measured4-monthly within thefirst year to rule out HBeAg-negative hepatitis.After confir-mation of the inactive carrier status(normal ALT and HBV DNA <2000IU/ml),patients should be monitored every6months (B1).Full blood count and liver function tests should be per-formed yearly(C1).HCC surveillance with liver ultrasound should be done every6–12months,depending on the stage of fibrosis[190].Alpha-fetoprotein(AFP),although widely used, was recently shown to provide insufficient sensitivity and speci-ficity for effective surveillance[191,192].Lifetime follow-up is warranted even for inactive carriers,because of the risk of cirrho-sis,HCC and reactivation of HBV infection,with seroreversion to HBeAg-positive status or progression to HBeAg-negative hepatitis (C1)[49,58].Currently,decision to start treatment is based on ALT levels (which reflect ongoing liver damage),HBeAg positivity,HBV DNA levels,liver histology,family history of HCC,co-existing liver diseases and patient’s treatment history.As the upper limit of normal(ULN)for ALT levels in pediatric age has not been established yet,it is advised that a patient should be considered for antiviral treatment if ALT levels are more than1.5times the laboratory ULN or more than60IU/L (value used as inclusion criterion in the three largest trials in chil-dren[59–61]),whichever is lower(C2)[9].Patients with lower transaminases have fewer chances to achieve serological response[59,60].A lower threshold based on larger pediatric cohorts may be used in future studies to avoid underestimation of liver damage,but this approach may reduce the overall rate of serological response and increase the need of prolonged treat-ment of patients with maintained VR under antiviral drugs[62].Antivirals should be considered for children with elevated serum ALT levels for at least6months(12months if HBeAg-neg-ative),in order to avoid treating patients who are undergoing spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion(C1).In the presence of high ALT levels,assessment of serum HBV DNA levels is important,as high HBV DNA values warrant antivi-ral treatment,whereas low levels should instigate investigations to exclude other causes of liver disease.The cut-off value for HBV DNA,however,has not been defined for children.As young patients have a higher HBV replication rate than adults,a value of20,000IU/ml has been chosen by different authors[7,63]. However,lower values have been associated with progressive liver disease in adults,and latest management guidelines for adult patients identified2000IU/ml to be a more reliable cut-off[6,8].Such a cut-off appears to be appropriate for children as well(C1).In patients older than40years of age,antiviral treatment is advocated in the presence of a high viral load in isolation,as this is an independent risk factor for cirrhosis and HCC[42,43].No data exist in children to support such an approach.Therefore, as response to currently available antivirals in children is partial and limited to specific subgroups,histologic assessment of the degree of inflammation and of the stage offibrosis is recom-mended before considering treatment(A1).Response to both interferon(IFN)-a and NA is more likely when at least moderate necroinflammation or moderatefibrosis is found at liver histol-ogy(A1)[59,64].Although the benefit of treatment has not been established for children with mild inflammation orfibrosis,a family history of HCC may warrant treatment even in children with mild histological changes,as they are at increased risk of developing HCC(B2)[4].Although still not fully validated,non-invasive methods to assess the degree of hepaticfibrosis,such as FibroScan,could prove useful to avoid liver biopsy,especially during follow-up [8,162–165].However,no sufficient data are available in children and,at present,these non-invasive methods cannot substitute for liver biopsy in the decision to treat a child or an adolescent with chronic hepatitis B,as these methods evaluate morefibrosis than necroinflammatory activity(C2).Antiviral treatment with NA should be instituted in HBV infected children undergoing liver transplantation or in recipients of grafts from anti-HBc-positive donors to prevent(or treat) recurrent HBV infection(C1).Prophylactic anti-HBV therapy should also be administered to HBsAg-positive patients who are going to receive immunosuppressive or cytotoxic treatment,as it decreases the risk of mortality and morbidity related to HBV reactivation(B1)[65].Children with cirrhosis,HBV-related glo-merulonephritis,or co-infection with HDV,HCV or HIV are at increased risk for a rapid progression of liver disease.These patients might benefit from treatment even if ALT,HBV DNA lev-els,and liver histology do not match the criteria listed above(C2).If antiviral treatments were able to achieve complete viral control(i.e.,anti-HBs seroconversion),the ideal children to treat would be those tolerant to HBV,in order to obtain the production of neutralizing antibodies before the onset of complications. These children,who have normal or mildly elevated ALT levels and a high viral load,have been shown not to respond to isolated interferon treatment[59,60,66–68]and are not good candidates for current NA therapy because of the risk of developing antiviral resistance[69].A pilot open study in small cohort of tolerant chil-dren has shown promising results with a combined protocol,in which8weeks of lamivudine treatment to decrease the viral load were followed by44weeks of combined lamivudine and IFN-a treatment[70].On the basis of this study,two controlled trials in tolerant children are currently being conducted in the UK (lamivudine/pegylated IFN-a)and in the USA(entecavir/ pegylated IFN-a)[71,72].Until the results of these studies become available,children in the immunotolerant phaseshould Clinical Practice Guidelines818Journal of Hepatology2013vol.59j814–829not be treated,but should be monitored,and treated only if an increase of ALT levels reveals immune activation (A1).Efficacy of currently available therapiesThe U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA)approved five med-ications for treatment of children with CHB:IFN-a ,lamivudine,adefovir,entecavir and,recently,tenofovir.IFN-a can be used in children older than 12months of age,lamivudine starting at 3years of age,adefovir and tenofovir in children aged 12years and older,and entecavir starting from 16years of age.Each of these treatments has advantages and disadvantages (Table 2).Response rates and side effects are summarized in Fig.2and Table 3.So far,none of these medications have been approved by the European Medical Agency for the treatment of children.Predictors of responseSeveral baseline and on-treatment predictors of response have been identified for children treated with IFN-a and lamivudine,whereas no data from pediatric studies exists for other NA.In HBeAg-positive patients,likelihood of response to IFN-a is associated with low HBV DNA levels and elevated ALT levels (more than twice the ULN)before treatment,younger age and female sex (A1)[59,91–93].Elevated ALT levels at baseline areassociated with higher long-term seroconversion rate after treat-ment (B2)[74].Early response to IFN-a is more likely to lead to HBsAg loss than late or no-response (C2)[73].A better response to IFN-a has been shown in adults for viral genotypes A and B,compared to D and C [15,94–96].No pediatric studies have yet investigated the role of genotype on response to antiviral therapy,and genotype determination before treatment is not currently recommended (C2),until the role of the viral genotypeTable 2.Available treatments for chronic hepatitis B in pediatricage.JOURNAL OF HEPATOLOGYJournal of Hepatology 2013vol.59j 814–829819in assigning children to treatment and in predicting response has been clarified.A decrease of the HBsAg serum levels after thefirst 3months of treatment predicts SVR and HBsAg loss in adults treated with pegylated IFN(PegIFN),but no data are available in children treated with IFN-a[97–99].The likelihood to respond to lamivudine is greater in children with higher ALT levels(at least twice the ULN),and high histo-logic activity index at baseline(A1)[60,75].In adult patients, the same parameters,as well as low HBV DNA levels(HBV DNA <2Â108IU/ml),were predictive of response to all NA(A1) [85,90,100,101].No significant difference in response to NA was found among different genotypes(A1)[102,103].In adults,VR at24weeks during treatment with lamivudine or telbivudine (and48weeks during treatment with adefovir)is associated with a higher chance of HBeAg seroconversion,maintained virological response,and lower incidence of resistance(B1)[90,104–106]. The decline of HBsAg serum levels during NA treatment predicts HBeAg seroconversion or HBsAg loss(C2)[107–109]. Treatment strategyCurrently,afinite-duration IFN-a therapy remains the treat-ment strategy of choice for HBeAg-positive children with ele-vated ALT levels(A1),as in this patient population seroconversion to anti-HBs is the main aim.IFN-a is the only available treatment offering a chance of sustained off-treatment VR.It is likely that,as soon as results of trials using PegIFN in children[89]are available,this medication will become the rec-ommended drug.Although adverse effects may be serious and a clear benefit on the long-term remains to be confirmed,the use of IFN-a is not associated with the emergence of genotypic resistance.The recommended regimen is5–10million units per square meter,three times weekly for6months(A1).For PegIFN,studies in adults show the highest HBeAg seroconver-sion rate with48-week treatment schedules[166](A1).IFN-a is contraindicated in children with decompensated cirrhosis, cytopenia,autoimmune disorders,cardiac or renal failure,and in transplanted patients(B1)[68].The possible benefit of prim-ing with corticosteroids has not been proven(C2)[110–112]. On-treatment response was higher with the combination of IFN-a and lamivudine than with IFN-a alone,both in adults and in children,but no benefit was seen for off-treatment response rate[76–80,87,88,167].Thus,the combination is cur-rently not recommended(C2).Furthermore,in adults combined IFN-a and telbivudine treatment has been reported to be asso-ciated with polyneuropathy(A1)[168].IFN-a is the only treat-ment licensed for treating children younger than3years of age, who however rarely require therapy(A1).In this age group,the risk of IFN-related neurotoxicity(although mostly minor and transient)has to be taken into account[59,113].In case of no response,at least6–12months should elapse before considering other therapies,as VR may be achieved during the6months fol-lowing the end of IFN-a treatment(B1).NA used to be second-line therapies because of the high risk of emergence of resistant mutant strains.Nevertheless,the recent FDA approval of NA with higher genotypic barrier to resistance has opened the way for the use of such drugs asfirst-line treat-ment for adolescents.In patients older than12years of age,ten-ofovir(or entecavir for patients P16years old)is the best choice, as response rate is high and resistance is less likely(A1).The recommended dose for tenofovir is300mg once daily,and for entecavir is0.5mg once daily(for nucleoside-naïve patients) (A1).Although not yet approved for the treatment of CHB in patients<12years of age,the use of tenofovir might be safe in younger children,as it is already widely used(and FDA-licensed) for patients older than2years of age with HIV infection.A phase 3clinical trial in2–11-year-old CHB patients is currently under-way[189].Since the approval of tenofovir for adolescents,adefo-vir is no more recommended because of the higher risk of resistance and the lower response rate(B1)[61,81].Afinite-duration treatment with tenofovir or entecavir is pos-sible if seroconversion to anti-HBe is achieved on treatment(C2). Duration of treatments with NA has not been established,but they should be continued for at least12months after reaching undetectable HBV DNA levels and HBeAg seroconversion(B1) [8,169].As an important proportion of adult patients was shown not to maintain their serological and virological response,treat-ment up to HBsAg clearance could be a safer choice for patients with histological evidence of severefibrosis(C2)[170].Patients should be monitored after discontinuation because of the possi-bility of post-treatmentflares(B1).Patients who do not undergo HBeAg seroconversion on treat-ment,the rare children with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis and cirrhotic patients need long-term treatment with NA(B1). Tenofovir or entecavir,if allowed by the age,are thefirst choice (A1).Long-term efficacy and safety data in adults support such a strategy,but no data are available for adolescents as yet [173–176].During long-term treatment with NA,HBV DNA levels should be monitored every3months,as HBV DNA reduction to undetectable level is of paramount importance to avoid resis-tance(B1).Although guidelines in adults do not recommend the use of lamivudine monotherapy[6,8],the risk of the emergence of resis-tant strains has to be balanced against the fact that lamivudine is the only NA currently approved for younger children.Its use should be limited to the rare young children unresponsive to IFN-a and requiring immediate treatment and to special popula-tions(see below)(C1).The recommended treatment dose for lamivudine is3mg/kg/day(maximum100mg/day),adminis-tered orally once daily(A1)[114].Optimal treatment duration is more difficult to determine.Treatment should be continued until VR is achieved,and possibly for12months after seroconver-sion(B1)[75,169].As longer treatment duration leads to higher resistance rates,it is recommended to discontinue lamivudine after6months if a complete suppression of viral replication is not achieved or if resistant mutations emerge(B1).As post-treat-ment ALTflares are possible,children should be carefully moni-tored and a reinstitution of lamivudine treatment(in patients who have not developed resistance)or an alternative therapy (tenofovir if possible for the age)should be started in the rare cases with severe and protracted ALT elevation(A1)[115].For children with cirrhosis,who need antiviral treatment to be con-tinued,switch to tenofovir(if P12years of age),alone or in com-bination with entecavir(if P16years of age)or maintenance of lamivudine(if<12years of age)despite an incomplete VR is rec-ommended(C2)[171,172].Combination therapy with IFN-a and lamivudine is promising,but further data are needed in children (C2).Combination therapy with adefovir and lamivudine has been tried only in children not responding to adefovir mono-therapy,and its efficacy has not been compared to monotherapy [81].Clinical Practice Guidelines822Journal of Hepatology2013vol.59j814–829。
欧洲肝病学会慢性乙型肝炎临床管理指南
EASL慢性乙型肝炎临床管指南欧洲肝病学会张学武译李旭校1、前言对乙肝病毒感染的自然史的认识和对其有效可能的治疗已经取得了一些进展,自2002年关于慢性乙型肝炎的欧洲国际共识研讨会之后,已有数种新型的有效地抗病毒制剂被评估和批准用于慢性乙型肝炎的治疗。
本欧洲肝病学会临床实践指南的目的是对优化慢性乙型肝炎管理的推荐意见进行更新。
本指南不涉及预防和疫苗接种。
对治疗的明确论述尚存在一些困难,因而仍存在一些不确定的地方。
在目前,临床医师、患者以及公共卫生当局还必须继续在不太成熟的证据的基础上作出选择。
2. 背景2.1 流行病学和公共卫生负担大约占世界人口的1/3的人们存在既往或现在感染HBV的血清学证据,3.5亿人为慢性感染者。
慢性HBV感染的疾病谱和自然史是不同的和可变的,从低水平病毒血症的非活动状态到进展性肝炎,后者可以进展到肝硬化和肝癌。
乙肝病毒相关的末期肝病或肝癌每年死亡人数超过100万,而且目前有5-10%的患者接受肝移植。
宿主和病毒因素以及与其它病毒尤其是HCV、HDV及HIV共同感染、以及其他病理状态如酒精滥用、超重等都能影响HBV感染的自然史以及抗病毒治疗的有效性。
慢性乙型肝炎可以表现为e+慢乙肝或e-慢乙肝,e+慢乙肝系所谓的野株型HBV感染所致,典型表现在HBV慢性感染的早期。
e-慢乙肝主要系由于自然发生的HBV前C/C基因启动子的核苷酸变异的病毒复制所致,多表现为HBV慢性感染的后期。
在过去十年内,随着HBV感染的人口老化,e-慢乙肝的流行率明显增高,而且在许多地区包括欧洲,已成为慢乙肝的主要类型。
慢性乙型肝炎的发病率和死亡率与持续的病毒复制和向肝硬化和肝癌的进展有关。
慢性乙型肝炎患者的纵向研究表明,诊断慢乙肝后肝硬化5年累计发生率在8-20%不等。
肝功能失代偿5年累计发生率大约是20%,而代偿期肝硬化患者5年生存的可能性是80-86%,失代偿期肝硬化患者预后较差,5年生存的可能性仅有14-35%。
2017年ESPGHAN立场声明:儿童自身免疫性肝病的诊断和管理
2017年ESPGHAN立场声明:儿童自身免疫性肝病的诊断和管理2017年,欧洲小儿胃肠营养学会(ESPGHAN)中核心小组成员制定了儿童自身免疫肝病患者的诊断、治疗和长期随访等意见建议。
由指定的小组成员在Medline、ResearchGate和Mendeley数据库上以“自身免疫性肝炎”、“儿童/青少年自身免疫性肝病”、“原发性硬化性胆管炎”,“自身免疫性硬化性胆管炎”、“肝移植”和“复发性疾病”为检索词进行了系统的文献搜索,撰写了一篇近30年关于儿童前瞻性和回顾性研究的文献。
ESPGHAN核心小组及其肝病委员会成员使用正式投票的方式,对每项建议进行投票,形成本立场声明。
立场声明1. 自身免疫性肝病的诊断是基于血清自身抗体的存在、IgG升高、相应的肝脏组织学特点、阳性自身免疫病家族史、除外其他原因的儿童慢性肝病。
(9人强烈同意,3人同意)2. 经皮肝穿刺活检是最重要的检查,应该在开始治疗前实施,除非有凝血障碍、腹水或严重的血小板减少等禁忌证,活检应该被推迟到经治疗后上述症状得到改善。
(11人强烈同意,1人同意)3. 典型的组织学特征包括慢性门静脉炎,单核细胞、浆细胞浸润,界面炎活动,肝纤维化或肝硬化。
有时存在不同程度的胆汁排泌改变和肝细胞丢失。
(10人强烈同意,2人同意)4. 一线治疗是泼尼松龙/泼尼松(2 mg/kg /d,最高60mg/d),监测生化反应(AST / ALT),在6~ 8周内减量至维持剂量5 -7.5 mg /天。
(7人强烈同意,5人同意)5. 布地奈德作为第一线治疗的经验是有限的,并且没有显示比标准治疗有临床优势。
(8人强烈同意,4人同意)6. 在类固醇治疗4 ~6周后,如果没有充分的生化学应答,应该加用硫唑嘌呤(0.5 mg/kg/ d逐渐增加到2~2.5 mg/kg/ d)。
不推荐常规检测TPMT活性和6 -TGN水平。
(1人强烈同意,11人同意)7. 如果硫唑嘌呤治疗不能使肝功复常或是不能被耐受,另外的二线治疗药物选择是吗替麦考酚酯、环孢霉素和他克莫司。
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儿童慢性乙型肝炎的诊治:ESPGHAN 临床实践指南欧洲儿科胃肠病、肝病、营养学会专家组共识Management of chronic hepatitis B in childhood: ESPGHAN clinical practice guidelines Consensus of an expert panel on behalf of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology andNutrition作者:Etienne M. Sokal, Massimiliano Paganelli, Stefan Wirth, Piotr Socha, Pietro Vajro, Florence Lacaille, Deirdre Kelly, Giorgina Mieli-Vergani摘要:引言在世界范围内大约有3.6 亿(占世界总人口的6%)乙型肝炎(乙肝)病毒(hepatitis B virus,HBV)慢性感染者。
尽管随着乙肝疫苗免疫接种计划在许多国家得到普及和实施以及对献血员的筛查,HBV 的感染率已经大幅度下降,但每年仍有大量的儿童感染HBV,且常常发展为慢性感染,需要得到相应的随访观察[1]。
虽然慢性乙型肝炎(chronic hepatitis B,CHB)在儿童或青少年时期是一个相对良性的过程,但在成人之前仍然分别有3%~5% 和0.01%~0.03% 的慢性携带者发展为肝硬化和肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)[2,3]。
考虑到终生感染的情况,HCC 发生的危险性上升至9%~24%,肝硬化的年发生率为2%~3%[4,5]。
在世界范围内广泛的疫苗接种的目的仍然是消灭HBV 感染及其相关的并发症。
儿童CHB 的治疗受到儿科新药许可延迟的制约。
成人患者已经有了安全有效的抗病毒治疗,但几乎没有药物注明可应用于儿童,也没有告诉人们哪些患儿需要治疗,或什么时候进行治疗,从而优化治疗应答,减少耐药的风险。
尽管国际上几个主要的专业学会发布了多部成人CHB 诊疗指南,但儿童乙肝的诊疗仍需进一步完善,而且目前大部分内容都基于专家共识[6-9]。
背景流行病学和预防自从1991 年世界卫生组织推荐全球乙肝疫苗免疫接种计划以来,HBV感染的流行率在世界范围内已明显下降[5,10-12]。
虽然在西欧和北美出生的儿童中HBsAg阳性者非常罕见,但高流行区国家的儿科医生却面临着数量逐年增多的儿童,其中2%~5% 仍然被HBV 感染,而且感染的HBV 的基因型往往使他们出现临床并发症的风险更高[1,13-15]。
在已经实施献血员筛查和血液检测的国家,输血后感染HBV 的发生率估计为1/500 000血单位[16,17]。
然而HBV的医院内传播仍然是一个严重的问题,应该定期检查儿童的乙肝免疫接种状态,并严格检查所有的预防措施[18]。
在高流行区,母婴传播占据HBV 慢性感染的50%以上。
暴露于HBV后的慢性化率,新生儿(90%)和婴儿及5岁以下儿童(25%~30%)高于青少年和成人(<5%)[19,20]。
乙肝疫苗接种是预防乙肝传播的最有效措施。
在高流行区,它也是最具成本效益比的医学干预措施,有更高的成本效益比。
但在低流行区,该成本效益比并不那么显著[21-24]。
接种3剂重组的乙肝疫苗,约95% 的受种人群会产生血清保护性免疫应答(抗HBs ≥ 10 mIU/ml)[25,26]。
首剂单价乙肝疫苗应在出生后24小时内肌肉注射,然后再接种第2 剂和第3 剂(单价或联合疫苗),期间至少间隔4 周(A1)[26]。
出生体重<2000 g 的早产儿在接受出生后的首剂疫苗后,应该再接种3剂(B1)[26,147]。
只在高危人群(婴儿的母亲为HBsAg 阳性、HIV 感染者或其他免疫功能低下者)推荐进行接种后的抗HBs保护滴度检测(A1),而且应当在完成全部免疫接种程序后的1~2个月时重复检测[26]。
再次接种3 剂的乙肝疫苗可使多数无应答者产生保护性抗HBs[27,28]。
免疫功能低下者应每年检测一次,在抗HBs <10 mIU/ml 时进行复种(C1)[148]。
虽然随着时间的延长抗HBs的滴度下降,但在接种过乙肝疫苗的人群中观察到,虽然抗HBs的水平已不能测出,仍具有持久的保护作用。
目前没有明确的证据推荐对免疫功能正常者进行加强接种[149,150]。
对无应答患者进行腹腔疾病、HIV或其他免疫缺陷方面的检查是合理的(C2)[29,30,151]。
HBeAg 阳性母亲的婴儿17% 会出现免疫接种失败和乙肝的母婴传播[25]。
与HBeAg 阳性相关的高病毒载量似乎是导致突破感染的最主要因素[25,31]。
此外,如果母亲感染了HBV基因C型,除了对疫苗接种低应答外,还可能在接种疫苗前就已经发生了HBV 的宫内感染[31,32]。
如果母亲是慢性携带者,那么出生时的乙肝疫苗接种不足以阻断垂直传播,推荐同时给予新生儿肌肉注射0.5 ml乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白(hepatitisB immunoglobulin,HBIG)进行快速的被动免疫[26,33]。
HBeAg阳性母亲的新生儿出生后12~24小时同时注射乙肝疫苗和HBIG,可使新生儿获得90%的保护率(对于HBeAg阴性母亲,保护率达98%),显著高于只接种乙肝疫苗者[25,26,34]。
因此推荐HBeAg阳性母亲的新生儿同时注射乙肝疫苗和HBIG(A1)。
虽然对于HBeAg阴性母亲的新生儿是否获益还不确定,但暴发性肝炎的发生率下降已经证明,不管母亲的HBeAg状态如何,给所有HBsAg阳性母亲的新生儿注射HBIG 是合理的(C2)[25]。
有报道称对于HBeAg阳性母亲的新生儿,尽管在出生时同时进行主动和被动免疫,仍有17% 的新生儿发生突破感染,且慢性化率高达54%[25]。
因为突破感染率与母亲的高病毒载量直接相关(也与HBV的C基因型、高HBsAg滴度、经阴道分娩、对疫苗的低应答以及与疫苗的逃逸突变有关)[25,31,152],所以目前建议在妊娠的后三个月应用核苷类药物[nucleos(t)ide analogues,NA] 治疗高病毒血症妊娠妇女,以防止乙肝的垂直传播(B1,见下文)[8]。
对于已经接受过主动和被动免疫预防的婴儿,哺乳对于HBV 的母婴传播并无明显影响[153,154]。
在母亲乳头没有破损或出血的情况下,鼓励母亲对已接受恰当免疫的婴儿进行母乳喂养(B2)。
干扰素(interferon,IFN)不能被分泌到乳汁中,而拉米夫定和替诺福韦可被分泌到乳汁中(但目前还没有替诺福韦在人类的数据),不过婴幼儿通过乳汁吸收的量与标准口服药物的剂量相比可以忽略不计[155,156]。
尽管如此,目前还没有系统性的研究来评价通过母乳吸收的NA 对婴幼儿的影响。
目前有资料提示母亲在应用拉米夫定或替诺福韦抗病毒治疗时母乳喂养是安全的[156],但仍不推荐这种情况下的母乳喂养。
通过母乳吸收的NA 对婴幼儿潜在长期影响的风险与母亲中断抗病毒治疗的风险仍需进一步权衡。
到目前为止,没有恩替卡韦在妊娠妇女中的研究,但有数据表明恩替卡韦可被分泌到大鼠的乳汁中,且在小鼠和大鼠体内均被证实通过胎盘后具有潜在的致癌毒性。
替比夫定目前还没有数据。
自然史慢性乙型肝炎,定义为HBsAg阳性6个月或更长,在儿童时期是一个相对较轻的疾病[1]。
大多数儿童患者无症状,发育正常,体格检查无异常[35]。
绝大多数围产期感染的患儿HBeAg为阳性,血清中HBV DNA 高水平,血清氨基转移酶正常(免疫耐受期)。
母亲体内的HBeAg可通过胎盘进入胎儿体内,在子宫内诱导胎儿HBe/HBcAg特异性Th细胞免疫耐受[157-160]。
这种机制可用来解释新生儿和成人感染乙肝病毒后慢性化率的不同,以及HBeAg阳性母亲的婴儿有更高的慢性化率,因为婴儿体内高水平的病毒复制可产生大量的HBeAg,可以维持对HBV 的免疫耐受[56]。
免疫耐受期可持续10~30年,往往以高病毒复制和几乎没有肝损伤为特征。
但有1.7%~4.5% 出生时感染HBV 的儿童和青少年在肝活检时发现已发展至肝硬化[35,36]。
随着时间推移,HBV DNA水平出现波动,ALT 水平升高,反映了组织学上肝实质的炎症坏死。
活动性肝炎期在长期的随访过程中,可导致60%~95% 的患者出现HBeAg 到抗HBe 的血清学转换[36,37]。
在HBeAg清除前出现ALT水平升高,并在出现HBeAg 血清学转换后仍持续升高6~12个月(20% 的患者出现大幅波动)[11,35,38,39]。
大多数HBsAg 阳性、HBeAg 阴性、抗HBe 阳性的患者(即已经过HBeAg 血清学转换的患者)通常被称作非活动性携带者,病毒无复制或低复制(HBV DNA<2000 IU/ml),肝组织通常无活动性炎症,ALT 水平正常。
长期随访(24~29 年)发现,血清学转换时无肝硬化体征的非活动性携带者未出现肝病进展,而HBeAg 阳性儿童有1%~5%发展为肝硬化[2,35,36]。
虽然在全球开展乙肝疫苗免疫接种计划以来,HBV 高流行区的HCC 发生率已显著下降,但仍然有0.01%~0.03% 的CHB 患儿在儿童时期发生HCC(发生率为32/100 000 人年)[14,36,40,41]。
发生HCC 的患儿多为男性(70%),合并肝硬化(80%),已经发生了早期HBeAg血清学转换(提示在HBeAg 血清学转换过程中出现的肝细胞炎症坏死的程度足以导致肝硬化和HCC)[14,36,40]。
在成人患者,HCC 和肝硬化发生的长期风险与血清HBVDNA 的水平及HBeAg 的阳性直接相关[42-44]。
但在儿童患者还没有结论,这是由于儿童时期HCC 非常罕见[36,40]。
HBV 基因型对患儿HCC 发生的影响还不清楚(80% 的HCC 发生在基因B 型肝硬化患儿,但是在成人中,基因C 型和F 型发生HCC 的风险增高)[14,45-48]。
此外,有HCC 家族史的患者风险更高[4]。
HBeAg 血清学转换降低了发生HCC 的风险,但仍有0.2% 的HBeAg 阴性的成人患者及1.6% 的无症状HBsAg 携带者发生了HCC[49]。
有一部分抗HBe 阳性的患者病毒活跃复制、ALT水平异常,组织学表现为活动性肝炎(即HBeAg 阴性慢性乙肝)。
HBeAg 阴性CHB 在儿童患者中大约有10%。
与HBeAg 阴性但病情持续缓解的患者相比,HBeAg 阴性CHB 疾病进展更严重,HCC 发生率更高[49]。