湖北联考博士研究生英语入学考试-模拟题2-笔记

湖北联考博士研究生英语入学考试-模拟题2-笔记
Practice Examination 2
Part I Reading Comprehension (40 %)
Questions 1 to 4 are based on the following passage:
The National Trust in Britain，together with similar voluntary organization，plays an increasingly important part in the preservation for public enjoyment of the best that is left unspoiled of British countryside. Although the Trust has received practical and moral support from the government，it is not a rich government，supported by public taxes. It is a voluntary association of people who care for the unspoild countryside and the ancient sites to preserve them for the permanent enjoyment of the public. It is a charity which depends for its existence on voluntary support from members of the public. It has 160,000 members in England，Wales and Northern Ireland who pay a small subscription each year，and its primary duties are to protect for the nation places of great natural beauty and places of historical interest and preserve them from the dangers of modern development and extinction.
英国的国民托管组织，和类似志愿者组织一起，在保护公众最喜爱的未被破坏的英国乡村中起着越来越重要的作用。

尽管这个组织受到政府的实际的和精神上的支持，但不是一个资金充裕的政府，没有公众纳税支撑。

这是一个志愿者协会，是一些关心未被破坏的乡村和古物遗址的人们联合在一起，为大众保护这些东西。

这是一个慈善团体，由公众成员自愿支撑其运转。

这个组织在英国有160,000位成员，威尔士和白爱尔兰每年捐款很少，他们的主要责任是保护国家自然景观和名胜古迹，保护他们不被现代开发破坏，保护他们使他们免于消逝。

Wales [weilz] n. 威尔士（英国大不列颠岛西南部地区）
Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰自治区（在爱尔兰东北部）
place of historical interest 名胜古迹
The attention of the public was first drawn to the dangers threatening the great old houses and castles of Britain by the late Lord Lothian，who in 1935 said that，as a result of taxation and estate duty，most of these ancient houses were under sentence of death. When he died he left his great seventh century house and all its contents to the Trust together with 4,500-acre park and estate surrounding it. This gift attracted wide publicity，and it started the Trust's“Country House Scheme”. Under the scheme，with the cooperation of the government and thanks to the generosity of the general public，the Trust has been able to save and make accessible to the public about one hundred and fifty of these old houses，together with often very valuable contents. Whenever possible，the Trust seeks to maintain continuity and to preserve these as living realities rather than as dead museums. It is the view of the Trust that the families who give them to the nation and whose ancestors created them make the best possible curators.
公众头一次开始注意到大使洛锡安勋爵Lord Lothian1935年所说的话，他说课税和遗产税威胁到英国的古房屋建筑，这些古建筑濒临灭绝。

他去世的时候，把他的宏伟的7世纪的房子及里头所有的陈设，还有周围4500英亩的院子都留给了国民托管管组织。

这一馈赠，吸引了大量的公共宣传，促使该组织发起了“乡村住宅计划”。

按这个计划，与政府合作，得益于大众的慷慨解囊，该组织能保护而且可以允许公众参观这些150年前的房子了，这些房子里大都还有珍贵的陈设。

只要可能，该组织尽量保存这些建筑的连续性，把它们作为真实生活场所来保存，而不是死气沉沉的博物馆。

国民托管组织认为，那些把古建筑赠送给国家的人，以及这些房子建造者的后人们，是管理这些古建筑的最好人选。

taxation [tæk'seiʃən] n. 课税，征税；税款
estate duty 遗产税
Lord Lothian 大使洛锡安勋爵
publicity [pʌb'lisiti] n. 宣传，宣扬；公开；广告；注意
Questions 5 to 8 are based on the following passage:
Ours has become a society of employees. A hundred years or so ago only one out of every five Americans at work was employed，i. e.，worked for somebody else. Today only one out of five is not employed but working for himself. And when fifty years ago “being employeed”meant working as a factory laborer or as a farmhand, the employee of today is increasingly a middle-class person with a substantial formal education，holding a professional or management job requiring intellectual and technical skills. Indeed，two things have characterized American society during these last fifty years: middle-class and upper-class employees have been the fastest-growing groups in our working population-growing so fast that the industrial worker，that oldest child of the Industrial Revolution，has been losing in numerical importance despite the expansion of industrial production.
我们的社会已成一个雇员社会。

约100年前，在美国，五个有工作的人中只有一个是受雇的，为他人打工。

而今，每五个有工作的人中只有一个是不受雇的，为自己干活。

50年前，“受雇”意味着做工厂工人或者农场帮手，而现在受雇的人，已经越来越多的是中产阶级人士，他们接受了良好的教育，从事的是需要知识和技术的专业性或管理性工作。

实际上，美国最近50年有两个显著的特征：在我们劳动人口的增长中，中产阶级和上层阶级雇员增长是最快的，他们增长如此之快，即使工业生产也在扩张，但仍旧使产业工人——工业革命最大的孩子，在数量上已经不占多大比例了。

farmhand ['fɑ:mhænd] n. [农经] 农场工人industrial worker 产业工人industrial production [工经] 工业生产
Yet you will find little of anything written on what it is to be an employee. You can find a great deal of very dubious advice on how to get a job or how to get a promotion. You can find a great deal of work in a chosen field，whether it is the mechanist's trade or bookkeeping. Everyone of these trades requires different skills，set different standards，and requires a different preparation. Yet they all have employeeship in common. And increasingly，especially in the large business or in government，employeeship is more important to success than the special professional knowledge or skill. Certainly people fail more because they do not know the requirements of being an employee than because they do not adequately possess the skills of their trade; the higher you climb the ladder，the more you get into administrative or executive work，the greater the emphasis is on ability to work within the organization rather than on technical ability or professional knowledge.
你可能找不到任何写什么是雇员的文字资料。

但你可以找到很多教人们如何找工作、如何升迁的叫人半信半疑的资料。

在求职市场，你可以找到大量的工作，从事机械贸易或者当账房先生。

各个行业需要不同的技能，有不同的标准，需要不同的准备。

不过他们所需要的雇员素质相同。

特别是在大型企业或者政府部门，对个人成功而言，雇员素质越来越比专业知识和技能更重要。

当然，失败的人，更多的是因为他们不知道作为雇员的必要条件，而不是因为他们从业所需的知识和技能不够。

你爬得越高，你就越多的从事行政或管理工作，与组织协同工作的能力就越发显得比专业知识技能更重要。

bookkeeping ['buk,ki:piŋ] n. 记帐，簿记in common 共同的；共有的employeeship 员工素质
administrative [əd'ministrətiv] adj. 管理的，行政的
dubious ['dju:bjəs] adj. 可疑的；暧昧的；无把握的；半信半疑的
hip [hip] n. 臀部；蔷薇果；忧郁adj. 熟悉内情的；非常时尚的
executive [iɡ'zekjutiv] adj. 行政的；经营的；执行的，经营管理的n. 经理；执行委员会；执行者；经理主管人员
5. It is implied that fifty years ago D .
A. eighty percent of American working people were employed in factories [F]
B. twenty percent of American intellectuals were employees [F]
C. the percentage of intellectuals in the total work force was almost the same as that of industrial workers [F]
D. the percentage of intellectuals working as employee was not so large as that of industrial workers [F]
50年前受雇的主要是当工人，没多少知识分子。

50年前知识分子最为雇员的比例没有产业工人作为雇员的比例大。

6. According to the passage，with the development of modern industry， D .
A. factory laborers will overtake intellectlectual employees in number [F] 劳工变少了，白领变多了
B. there are as many middle-class employees as factory laborers [F] 中产阶级雇员增多了，没说和过去劳工相等了
C. employers have attached great importance to factory laborers [F] 没提这事，但劳工处于下滑地位，不可能得到更重视
D. the proportion of factory laborers in the total employee population has decreased [T] 劳工人数比例下降了
7. According to the writer，professional knowledge or skill is A .
A. less important than awareness of being a good employee [T] 作者确实这么说的，说的很明确
B. as important as the ability to deal with public relations [F]
C. more important than employer-employee relations [F] 没提这个关系
D. as important as the ability to cooperate with others in the organization [F]
8. From the passage it can be seen that employeeship helps one A .
A. to be more successful in his career [T]
B. to solve technical problems [F]
C. to be more specialized in his field [F]
D. to develop his professional skill [F]
specialize in专门研究；专攻；专门经营
Questions 9 to 12 are based on the following passage:
During the second half of the nineteenth century，in the United States both the stimulus to produce landscape art and the subject of landscape altered appreciably as the pressure of events surrounding the Civil War witnessed the emergence of a new national consciousness. It was a time when certain fundamental religious beliefs were assaulted by new scientific theory and when new critical writing，particularly those of John Ruskin，exercised an important influence on art. The landscape painting from the Ganz collection provides an opportunity to examine the shifts in taste and the pluralities of style that characterized American landscape painting，especially in the latter part of the century.
19世纪下半页，在美国，与美国内战南北战争相关的种种事件，产生了逼人的形势，使人们亲眼目睹了新的民族意识的出现，风景画的创作和风景画的主题都有显著改变。

这个时期，新的科学理论抨击人们的基本宗教信仰，批判性的著作，特别是像作家约翰·罗金斯的作品，对艺术创作有重大影响。

从甘茨Ganz收集的风景画藏品，人们可以鉴别出美国风景画风格和情趣的转变，以及成为美国风景画特色的流行风格，特别是对19世界下半页的。

The Civil War 南北战争（美国内战）
national consciousness 民族意识；国族意识appreciably [ə'pri:ʃəbli] adv. 明显地；相当地；可察觉地produce landscape art 创作风景画fundamental religious beliefs 基本的宗教信仰critical writing 批判性写作
John Ruskin (英国作家)约翰·罗斯金landscape painting 风景画，山水画
pressure of events 逼人的形势(指局势骤变，要求人从速抉择) landscape art 风景画
assault [ə'sɔ:lt] n. 攻击；袭击vt. 攻击；袭击；抨击vi. 袭击；动武
In the early years of the nineteenth century American landscape painting was closely associated with the republican ideals of the new nation and took on significance in the popular imagination as a form of national propaganda. Landscape painting was conceived of as a vehicle for the presentation of the new republic's unique historical and moral position in world history. This position was supported by Thomas Cole，the dean of the Hudson River School，and was based on a religious interpretation of wilderness themes. While the American concern for the founding of a school of historical landscape was most assertive in the first half of the century and was confirmed in such grandly ambitious paintings as Cafe's famous instructive moral one portraying the COURSE OF EMPIRE，the interest in creating a national art based on American nature continued to influence the formal evolution of landscape painting.
19世纪初，美国风景画艺术与崭新的国家的共和理想紧密相关，对把风景画作为国家的宣传资料来说具有重大意义。

风景画被看作一种载体，表现了崭新的共和国在世界历史上独特的历史地位与道德地位。

哈德逊河学院院长托马斯Thomas Cole支持这种地位，建立在对荒野主题的宗教解释之上。

19世纪上半页，美国对创办一所历史风景学院是很期待的，像卡菲Café的著名的画，具有道德教育意义，对“帝国之路“的恢弘描绘，是很受美国关注的。

人们对创建基于美国特征的民族艺术的兴趣继续影响着风景画形式上的变革。

republican ideals 共和党的理想，共和理想
national propaganda 国家宣传
presentation [,prezən'teiʃən] n. 描述，陈述；介绍；赠送conceive of 设想；想象national art民族艺术Thomas Cole 托马斯American nature美国特征Hudson river哈德逊河（位于纽约州东部）
wilderness ['wildənis] n.大量，茫茫一片；荒野；荒原assertive [ə'sə:tiv] adj. 肯定的；独断的；坚定而自信的found [faund] v. 找到（find过去分词）vt. 创立，建立；创办
the founding of a school 一所学校的创办
concern for 关心
portray [pɔ:'trei] vt. 描绘；扮演
formal adj. 正式的；形式上的
republican [ri'pʌblikən] adj. 共和国的；共和政体的；共和主义的；拥护共和政体的n. 共和主义者；共和党
9. With what topic is the passage primarily concrned? D
A. The moral position of the Unite States in world history [F] 不是
B. John Ruskin's influence on the nineteenth-century art. [F] 只不过是一个例子而已，不是主旨
C. A religious interpretation of wilderness themes. [F]
D. The evolution of landscape painting in the United States. [T]
10. What phenomenon does the author mention as occurring at the time of the Civil War? D
A. The revival of fundamental religious beliefs.
B. An increased interest in nation geography(地理). [F]
C. A period of depression on the arts and sciences. [F]
D. The emergence of a new national consciousness. [T]
11. According to the author, why is the Ganz collection significant? A
A. It reflects changes in American landscape painting. [T]
B. It includes many critical writings of the era. [F]
C. It appeals to the popular imagination of republicans. [F]
D. It documents the painting of the Hudson River School. [F]
12. According to the author，landscape painting early in the nineteenth century was used to C .
A. finance a school of historical landscape painting [F]
B. further the ambitions of young politicians [F]
C. represent and reaffirm a new nation [T]
D. realistically portray the physical beauty(人体美) [F]
Questions 13 to 16 are based on the following passage:
The earliest controversies about the relationship between photography and art centered on whether photography's fidelity to appearances and dependence on a machine allowed it to be a fine art as distinct from merely a practical art. Throughout the nineteenth century，the defense of photography was identical with the struggle to establish it as a fine art.Against the charge that photography was a soulless，mechanical copying of reality，photographers asserted that it was instead a privileged way of seeing，a revolt against commonplace vision，and no less worthy an art than painting.
摄影与艺术之间关系的争论最早是围绕以下问题展开的：摄影是否真实再现事物外观，摄影是一个精细艺术还是一个实用艺术取决于所使用的相机。

整个19世纪，为摄影辩护的人强调：摄影是可以与艺术相媲美的。

反对者认为，摄影没有灵魂，只是机械地复制现实场景。

摄影家认为：摄影是一种看的方式特权，是对毫无创建的想象的一种反叛，称得上是与绘画不相上下的艺术形式。

controversy ['kɔntrə,və:si] n. 争论；论战；辩论photography [fə'tɔɡrəfi] n. 摄影；摄影术
center on 集中在；以为中心
fidelity [fi'deliti] n. 保真度；忠诚；精确；尽责be identical with…与…相同，与…一致struggle to 竞争
revolt against 反感…；厌恶…；对…的反叛no less仍然；不相上下；依旧
soulless ['səullis] adj. 没有灵魂的；没有精神的；卑鄙的；无情的
commonplace ['kɔmənpleis] adj. 平凡的；陈腐的n. 老生常谈；司空见惯的事；普通的东西；毫无创见的
vision ['viʒən] vt. 想象；显现；梦见n. 视力；美景；眼力；幻象；想象力
Ironically，now that photography is securely established as a fine art，many photographers find it pretentious or irrelevant to label it as such. Serious photographers variously claim to be finding，recording，impartially observing, witnessing events，exploring themselves——anything but making works of art. In the nineteenth century，photography's association with the real world placed it in an ambivalent relation to art; late in the twentieth century，an ambivalent relation exists because of the Modernist heritage in art. That important photographers are no longer willing to debate whether photography is or is not a free art，except to proclaim that their own work is not involved with art，shows the extent to which they simply take for granted the concept of art imposed by the triumph of Modernism: the better the art，the more subversive it is of the traditional aims of art.
具有讽刺意味的是，现在摄影已经牢固地树立了自己作为精细艺术的地位，很多摄影家却认为如此标榜摄影很做作或者无关紧要。

严肃的摄影家认为，摄影就是发现、记录、公正地观察、见证一些事件、亲自探究——绝不是什么艺术创作。

在19世纪，摄影与现实世界的联系使摄影与艺术之间关系矛盾。

20世纪晚些时候，矛盾是因为艺术中的现代主义遗风。

一些重要的摄影家申明自己的工作与艺术无关，不再愿意去争论摄影是否是一种自由艺术。

他们仅仅想当然地认为是现代主义的胜利把艺术概念强加给人们，艺术越好，就越是传统艺术颠覆的目标。

securely [si'kjuəli] adv. 安全地；牢固地；安心地；有把握地
pretentious [pri'tenʃəs] adj. 自命不凡的；炫耀的；做作的impar ['impɑ:] adj. 不成对的，奇数的impartially [im'pa:ʃəli] adv. 公平地；无私地
works of art 艺术品irrelevant to 与...不相关ambivalent [,æmbi'veilənt] adj. 矛盾的；好恶相克的the Modernist heritage 现代主义遗产label it as 标记为
proclaim [prəu'kleim] vt. 宣告，公布；声明；表明；赞扬
take for granted 认为理所当然；对不予以重视
modernism ['mɔdənizəm] n. 现代主义；现代思想；现代作风
subversive [sʌb'və:siv] n. 危险分子；颠覆分子adj. 破坏性的；从事颠覆的anything but 根本不，决不
Photographers' disclaimers of any interest in making art tell us more about the harried status of the contemporary notion of art than about whether photography is or is not art. For example，those photographers who suppose to that，by taking pictures，they are getting away from the pretensions of art as exemplified by painting remind us of those Abstract Expressionist painters who imagined they were getting away from the intellectual austerity of classical Modernist painting by concentrating on the physical art of painting. Much of photography's prestige today derives from the convergence of its aims with those of recent art，particularly with the dismissal of abstract art implicit in the phenomenon of Pop painting during the 1960’s. Appreciating photographs is a relief to sensibilities tired of the mental exertions demanded by abstract art. Classical Modernist painting——that is，abstract art as developed in different ways by Picasso，Kandinsky，and Matisse——presupposes highly developed skills of looking and a familiarity with other paintings and the history of art. Photography，like Pop painting，reassures viewers that art is not hard; photography seems to be more about its subjects than about art.
摄影家放弃这个争论更多的是告诉我们当代艺术概念的纷乱，而不是摄影到底是不是艺术。

比如，有的摄影家，通过拍照，他们摆脱了艺术的做作，被绘画举为例证，提示我们那些抽象表现主义画家，以为他们集中注意关注人体绘画艺术，就脱离了经典现代绘画的知识性朴素。

很多摄影家的威望来自把目标集中在最近的艺术，特别不考虑在1960年代流行绘画艺术中暗藏的抽象艺术。

欣赏照片可以缓解欣赏抽象艺术带来的心理劳顿。

经典的现代绘画——抽象艺术朝几个不同的方向发展了，毕加索Picasso，康定斯基Kandinsky，马蒂斯Matisse——假定他们有高超的观察能力，并且对其他绘画流派和绘画历史都很了如子掌。

摄影，就像流行绘画艺术，是人们确信艺术不难，摄影比艺术让读者看到更多东西。

disclaimer [dis'kleimə] n. 不承诺，免责声明；放弃，拒绝，弃权，弃权者convergence with 汇聚于…
harried ['hærid] adj. 被掠夺的；受折磨的
the contemporary notion of art 艺术的当代概念pretension [pri'tenʃən] n. 自负；要求；主张；借口；骄傲get away from 避免，摆脱；逃离
exemplify [iɡ'zemplifai] vt. 例证；例示
take pictures 拍照；照相
Abstract Expressionist 【绘画】；抽象表现主义画家austerity [ɔ'sterəti] n. 紧缩；朴素；苦行；严厉prestige ['prestidʒ] n. 威望，声望；声誉derive from 源出，来自，得自；衍生于
convergence [kən'və:dʒəns] n. [数] 收敛；会聚，集合dismissal [dis'misəl] n. 解雇；免职；不予考虑
sensibility [,sensi'biliti] n. 情感；敏感性；感觉；识别力exertion [iɡ'zə:ʃən] n. 发挥；运用；努力
presuppose [,pri:sə'pəuz] vt. 假定；预料；以为先决条件familiarity [fə,mili'æriti] n. 熟悉，精通；亲密；随便highly developed skills 精湛的技术手法
reassure [,ri:ə'ʃuə] vt. 使安心，使消除疑虑
Photography，however，has develop ed all the anxieties and self-consciousness of a classic Modernist art. Many professionals privately have begun to worry that the promotion of photography as an activity subversive of the traditional pretensions of art has gone so far that the public will forget that photography is a distinctive and exalted activity——in short，an art.
然而，摄影已经让经典的现代主义艺术全面形成焦虑和自觉意识。

很多专业人员私下开始担心：摄影艺术的发展，颠覆传统艺术的骄傲，公众会忘了摄影是独具特色的、高尚的活动——简言之，艺术。

anxiety [æŋ'zaiəti] n. 焦虑；渴望；挂念；令人焦虑的事privately ['praivitli] adv. 私下地；秘密地
self-consciousness [,self'kɔnʃəsnis] n. 自觉意识distinctive [dis'tiŋktiv] adj. 有特色的，与众不同的develop [di'veləp] vt. 开发；进步；使成长；使显影vi. 发育；生长；进化；显露
exalted [eɡ'zɔ:ltid] v. 高举；赞扬；使激动（exalt的过去分词）adj. 高尚的；尊贵的；兴奋的
subversive [səb'və:siv] n. 危险分子；颠覆分子adj. 破坏性的；从事颠覆的
pretension [pri'tenʃən, pri:-] n. 自负；要求；主张；借口；骄傲
13. According to the author，the nineteenth-century defenders(辩护人) of photography mentioned in the passage stressed that photography was D .
A. a means of making people familiar with remote locales and unfamiliar things [F]
B. a technologically advanced activity [F]
C. a device for observing the world impartially [F]
D. an art comparable to painting [T]
14. According to the passage，which of the following best explains the reaction of serious contemporary photographers to the question of whether photography is an art? A
A. The photographers' belief that their-reliance on an impersonal machine to produce their art requires the surrender of the authority of their personal vision. [T]他们相信依赖非人格化的机械（相机）拍摄的艺术作品要求投降者放弃个人想象的权力这一题选项A表达很绕，对答案的选择也很绕。

B. The photographers' fear that serious photography may not be accepted as an art by the contemporary art public.
[F]
C. The influence of Abstract Expressionist painting and Pop art on the subject matter of the modern photography.
[F]
D. The photographers' belief that the best art is subversive of art as it has previously been defined. [F] surrender [sə'rendə] n. 投降；放弃；交出；屈服vt. 使投降；放弃；交出；听任vi. 投降；屈服；自首
15. According to the passage，certain serious contemporary photographers expressly make which of the following claims about their photographs? A
A. Their photographs could be created by almost anyone who had a camera and the time to devote to the activity.
[F]
B. Their photographs are not examples of art but are examples of the photographers' impartial observatior of the
world. [T]
C. Their photographs are important because of their subjects but not because of the responses they evoke in
viewers.[T]
D. Their photographs exhibit the same ageless principles of form and shading that have been used in painting.
e voke[i'vəuk] vt. 引起，唤起；博得pro voke [prəu'vəuk] vt. 驱使；激怒；煽动；惹起
ageless ['eidʒlis] adj. 永恒的；不老的
16. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably considers serious contemporary photography to be a C .
A. contemporary art that is struggling to be accepted as fine art [F]
B. craft requiring sensitivity but by no means an art [F]
C. mechanical copying of reality [T]
D. modern art that displays the Modernist tendency to try to subvert the prevailing aims of art
contemporary art当代艺术by no means 决不subvert [səb'və:t] vt. 颠覆；推翻；破坏
prevailing [pri'veiliŋ] adj. 流行的；一般的，最普通的；占优势的；占主导地位的；盛行很广的
v. 盛行，流行（prevail的现在分词形式）；获胜
这篇文章的问题总的来说搞不懂。

考试可千万别碰到这样的昏题。

Questions 17 to 20 are based on the following passage:
The age at which young children begin to make moral discriminations about harmful actions committed against themselves or others has been the focus of recent research into the moral development of children. Until recently，child psychologists supported pioneer developmentalist Jean. Piaget in his hypothesis that because of their immaturity，children under age seven do not take into account the intentions of a person committing accidental or deliberate harm，but rather simply assign punishment for transgressions on the basis of the magnitude of the negative consequences caused. According to Piaget，children under age seven occupy the first stage of moral development，which is characterized by moral absolutism (rules made by authorities must be obeyed) and imminent justice(if rules are broken，punishment will be meted out).
孩子在多大时，开始具有道德辨别能力，能辨别出对自己或他人有害的事情，这是最近儿童道德发展研究的焦点。

直到最近，儿童心理学家支持发展心理学家先锋简Jean。

皮亚杰假设，因为儿童还不成熟，对7岁以下的儿童，不考虑他们偶然地或故意地伤害他人，只是根据错误行为造成的不良后果的大小给予惩罚。

按照皮亚杰的观点，7岁以下是儿童道德发展的第一阶段，这一阶段的基本特点是道德绝对主义（权威人士制定的道德准则必须遵守）和立即制裁（一旦没守规矩，惩罚随即到来）。

discrimination [dis,krimi'neiʃən] n. 歧视；辨别；识别力make moral discriminations 做出道德辨别committed against…对…干坏事
immaturity [imə'tjuəriti] n. 未成熟；未臻完美；不完全transgression [træns'ɡreʃən] n.犯罪；违反；逸出deliberate harm 故意伤害
on the basis of 根据；基于
magnitude ['mæɡnitju:d] n. 大小；量级；[地震] 震级；光度negative consequences 不良后果
absolutism ['æbsəlu:tizəm] n. 专制主义；绝对论
developmentalist [di,veləp'mentəlist] n. 发展心理学倡导者；发展心理学专家
Until young children mature，their moral judgments are based entirely on the effect rather than the cause of a transgression. However，in recent research，Keasey found that six-years-old children not only distinguish between accidental and intentional harm，but also judge intentional harm as naughtier，regardless of the amount of damage produced. Both of hese findings seem to indicate that children，at all earlier age than Piaget claimed, advance into the second stage of moral development，moral autonomy，in which they accept social rules but view them as more arbitrary than do children in the first stage.
直到孩子长大成人，他们的道德判断都是建立在违规的后果之上而不是原因之上的。

然而，在最近的研究中，凯尔西Keasey发现，6岁的孩子还不会区分意外伤害和有意伤害，他们把故意伤害也理解为顽皮，不计较伤害性后果的大小。

这些表明：比皮亚杰说的7岁还小的孩子，已经进入了道德发展的第二阶段：道德自律，在这一阶段，他们接受社会规则，和第一阶段的孩子比，他们更多的把社会规则看做仲裁。

moral judgments 道德判断to indicate 指示；指出intentional [in'tenʃənəl] adj. 故意的；蓄意的；策划的moral autonomy 道德自律naughty ['nɔ:ti] adj. 顽皮的，淘气的；不听话的；没规矩的；不适当的；下流的regardless of 不顾，不管
Keasey' s research raises two key questions for development psychologists about children under age seven: do they recognize justifications for harmful actions，and do they make distinctions between harmful acts that are preventable and those acts that have unforeseen harmful consequence? Studies indicate that justifications excusing harmful actions might include public duty, self-defense，and provocation. For example，Nesdale and Rule concluded that children were capable of considering whether or not an aggressor's action was justified by public duty: five-year-olds reacted very differently to “Bonnie wrecks Ann's pretend house.”depending on whether Bonnie did it“so somebody won't fall over it”or because Bonnie wanted “to make Ann feel bad. ”Thus，a child of five
begins to understand that certain harmful actions，though intentional，can be justified; the constraints of moral absolutism no longer solely guide their judgments.
凯尔西Keasey的研究提出了发展心理学关于7岁以下孩子的两个关键性的问题：他们知道有害行为的理由吗？他们能区分出可以预防的有害行为和无法预见有害后果的行为吗？研究表明为有害行为进行辩护的理由包括公共责任、正当防卫和挑衅。

比如，Nesdale and Rule发现，孩子以公共责任来区分什么是挑衅的行为：5岁的孩子对“Bonnie毁了Ann过家家的房子”的反应各不相同，他们会考虑是否Bonnie搭了房子所以“某人不会摔跤”，或者是否Bonnie希望“使某Ann感觉不好”。

因此，一个5岁的孩子开始理解某个有害的行为，尽管是故意的，也是可以辩解的。

道德绝对主义的约束不再唯一的左右他们的判断。

justification [,dʒʌstifi'keiʃən] n. 理由；辩护；认为有理，认为正当；释罪fall over 跌倒，摔倒；绊了一跤preventable [pri'ventəbl] adj. 可预防的；可阻止的；可防止的aggressor [ə'ɡresə] n. 侵略者；侵略国；挑衅者self-defense [,selfdi'fens] n. 自卫；正当防卫；自卫权
Psychologists have determined that during kindergarten children learn to make subtle distinctions involving harm. Darley observed that among acts involving unintentional harm，six-year-old children just entering kindergarten could not differentiate between foreseeable，and thus preventable，harm and unforeseeable harm for which the perpetrator cannot be blamed. Seven months later，however，Darley found that these same children could make both distinctions，thus demonstrating that they had become morally autonomous.
心理学家已经确定：在幼儿园时期，小孩就开始学会辨别有害行为的微妙差别了。

Darley观察到，在众多涉及到非故意的伤害的行为中，6岁刚刚上幼儿园的孩子不能辨别出可预见的可预防的有害行为和不可预见有害行为，不可遇见的有害行为怪不了干坏事的孩子。

7个月之后，Darley发现这些孩子不仅能区分出这些行为，而且能描述出来，这些说明他们已经道德自律了。

perpetrator [,pə:pi'treitə] n. 犯罪者；作恶者；行凶者
17. Which of the following best describes the passage as a whole? D
A. An outline for future research. [F]
B. An expanded definition of commonly misunderstood terms. [T]
C. An analysis of a dispute between two theorists. [F]
D. A discussion of research findings in an ongoing inquiry.
18. According to the passage，Darley found that after seven months of kindergarten six year olds acquired which of the following abilities? A 我觉得A比较好，原文就是这么说的，清楚无误。

参考答案说D。

转了个转，引申了一下。

不妥。

A. Differentiating between foreseeable and unforeseeable harm. F
B. Identifying with the perpetrator of a harmful action. F
C. Justifying harmful actions that result from provocation. F
D. Evaluating the magnitude of negative consequences resulting from the breakign of rules. T
19. According to the passage，Keasey's findings support which of the following conclusions about six-year-old children? A 我觉得A答案最好。

参考答案说是B。

B说，对6岁的孩子而言，道德绝对主义威胁到道德了自律。

A. They have the ability to make autonomous moral judgments. T
B. They regard moral absolutism as a threat to their mortal autonomy. F
C. They do not understand the the concept of public duty. F
D. They accept moral judgment made by their peers more easily than do older children. F
20. According to the passage，the reseach of Nesdale and Rule suggests which of the following about five-year-old children? C 我觉得C最好。

他们判断他人行为的时候已经开始考虑他们的动机。

文中确实列举了5岁的孩子在作出判断时考虑他人动机。

参考答案是D。

文中确实有提到5岁的孩子为意外但不是故意的行为辩解，但并没有指明是用public duty作为理由。