Cohesion-in-Translation分析
第八章 纽马克的翻译理论及翻译批评案例
▪ 文本的重要因素并不仅仅局限于单词或其他语言单 位，还可能是文本的语气、文体、形式、隐喻或音 韵的效果。
▪ 紧贴翻译：最贴近字字对译的翻译。它要保持词的 外延和内涵意义，不但要保存原词、词语等的意义， 还要保留其用法。贴切是和准确、对等联系在一起， 紧贴的程度因上下文而异。
▪ 从词汇上说，最常见的紧贴翻译是字对字翻译，可 采用转化、归化、直译和释义的方法达到对等。
翻译的语言学派
▪ 代表人物： ▪ 卡特福德(John Cunnison Catford) ▪ 彼得•纽马克(Peter Newmark) ▪ 奈达(Eugene Albert Nida)
Peter Newmark（1916—）
▪ 交际翻译、语义翻译、关联翻译法 ▪ Approaches to Translation, 1973 ▪ A Textbook of Translation, 1988 ▪ About Translation, 1991 ▪ Paragraphs on Translation, 1993
▪ 5、语义翻译是一门艺术，只能由一个人单独承担， 所以翻译比较准确，但由于造成了认知意义和语用意 义的走失，语义翻译一般不及原文。交际翻译是一门 技巧，有时可由多人承担。由于交际翻译具有重效果、 简洁明了的特点，弥补了语义翻译中意义的走失，又 经过了适当的润色，交际翻译译文一般优于原文。
翻译方法与文本功能的关系
▪ 关联翻译法：原作或译语文本的语言越重要，就 越要紧贴原文翻译。
▪ 他对重要的界定是指语言标示出“特别有价值、 特别有意义、特别必须、或永恒”的事物。如莎 士比亚的名言“to be or not to be”，而“water consists of hydrogen and oxygen”一句中， “consists of”就不那么重要，完全可以用”is composed of ” ，“constitutes”， “comprises”， 甚至“is the equivalent of ”来替换。
英译汉语篇翻译的衔接手段
英译汉语篇翻译的衔接手段一、引言关于语篇的定义，目前有两种不同的观点：一是结构派的看法，认为“语篇”是大于句子的单位，语篇由句子组成；一是功能派的看法，认为“语篇”是一个语义单位，由句子来体现，其长度可以从一个词到一个长篇大论的文章或谈话。
胡壮麟（1994：1）解释说，语篇指任何不完全受句子语法约束的在一定语境下表示完整语义的自然语言。
从他的定义中可以看出，句子可以用相关的语法来判断它是否正确，而语篇不能简单地用语法来检验。
在Halliday和Hason（1976，1985）看来，任何一段能成为语篇的话语必须具有语篇性（texture）。
他们说的语篇性包含两个方面的特征：结构性特征和非结构性特征。
简单地说，结构性特征研究侧重的是句内不同成分之间的语义联系，非结构特征研究侧重的是句间不同成分之间的语义关系。
本文拟从衔接的两种手段（结构衔接和非结构衔接）出发，结合具体的翻译实例，考察衔接手段转换在英汉语篇翻译中的作用。
二、英汉语篇翻译中的衔接性衔接（cohesion）这个概念是Halliday在1962年首次提出来的，在后来与Hason合著的《英语中的衔接》（1985）一书中，他们又把衔接界定为“存在于篇章内部，使之成为语篇的内在关系”，认为衔接是产生语篇的必要条件，于是系统地将衔接分为五大类：照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）和词汇衔接（lexical cohesion）。
其中前四类属于语法衔接手段（grammatical cohesion），后一类属于词汇衔接手段，具体包括原词复现（reiteration）、同义（synonymy）、下义（hyponymy）和搭配（collocation）等。
除此之外，张德禄和刘汝山（2003：10）还认为，在词汇语法层次上，衔接有非结构衔接特征、结构衔接特征，如主位结构，及物性结构，语气结构；而在音系层次上，衔接具有语音和语调衔接机制等。
cohesion
Types of Cohesion
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Lexical cohesion
Lexical cohesion
Synonymy: buy-purchase; Hyponymy: fruit-apple Collocation: semantic field Lexical repetition
2.
Eager to trust but determined to verify, many single women in an age of risky romance are hiring private detectives to check the background of their suitors. 父母们给孩子讲的故事都是好人与坏人对 立，好人最后必定成功，坏人必定受到惩 罚。 Parents tell their children stories in which the morally good is opposed against the bad, and in the end the good inevitably is successful and the bad inevitably punished.
now, at present, recently, after, afterwards, after that, after a while, in a few days, at first, in the beginning, to begin with, later, next, finally, immediately, soon, suddenly, all of a sudden, at that moment, as soon as, the moment form now on, from then on, at the same time, meanwhile, till, not…until, before, after, when, while, as during,
汉英语篇衔接对比与翻译
❖ 了解汉英两种语言人称代词系统和人称代 词前指照应的不同特点和倾向，对汉英翻 译有一定的指导作用。翻译是一个涉及语 言、文化、文本、译者等多种因素的复杂 过程影响翻译过程的因素很多。但是，根 据本节对汉英第三人称代词语篇照应的对 比研究，在汉英翻译中采取相应的策略和 方法，对提高翻译质量是有所帮助的。
❖ A man clad entirely in black stood before him, his eyes like daggers, making Old Shuan shrink to half his normal size.（杨宪益、戴乃迭译）
❖ （7）且说宝玉来至梨香院中，先入薛姨妈室中来，正见 薛姨妈打点针线与丫鬟们呢。宝玉忙请了安，薛姨妈一把 拉了他，抱入怀内。（曹雪芹，《红楼梦》）
❖ 汉语中存在着很多深层前指现象，这对译 者正确理解原文造成了一定的困难。在汉 英翻译过程中，当前指词在语篇中指代对 象不明确，或有两个或多个可能的先行项 时，往往涉及到前指词的释义问题。这时 译者需要通过对语境的推理和分析确认第 三人称代词或零式前指的指代对象，正确 把握原文含义。恰当地运用逻辑分析法往 往可以有效地避免模糊和歧义的产生，这 也是解决深层前指释义问题的主要方法。 例如：
❖ （8）我何尝不也这样说。他说这个碟子配上鲜荔 枝才好看。（曹雪芹，《红楼梦》）
❖ Just what I said. But Baoyu insisted that plate looked best with the fresh leeches.
❖ 在同一语境有很多参与者的情况下，就可能出现 歧义前指的现象。而汉语中频繁出现的零式前指 又会使指代对象的确认更加复杂。这时，对语篇 进行适当的逻辑分析就显得十分重要。例如：
Lexical Cohesion in the Translation between English and Chinese 英汉翻译中的词汇衔接
英汉翻译中的词汇衔接摘要: 近年来，语篇语言学有很大发展。
借鉴其研究成果和理论，人们普遍认为应把语篇作为翻译单位，即在翻译研究中，应强调原文的整体意义在译文中的再现。
作为语篇构成要素之一的衔接是把在结构上互不相关的成分联系起来的手段。
在语篇翻译中，译者必须正确运用衔接来理解原文，兼顾原语和目的语在衔接方面的差异，运用恰当的翻译策略来传达原文的整体意义，创造出一个符合目的语使用规则的译文。
根据韩礼德、哈桑的理论，衔接方式或通过语法或通过词汇来体现。
本文主要从词汇的角度来讨论英汉翻译中的衔接，旨在探寻词汇衔接手段在英汉翻译中的作用及其重要性。
全文可分为三章：第一章从对语篇的学习入手，继而引入衔接概念以及它在英汉翻译中的作用；第二章主要介绍什么是词汇衔接；第三章则通过具体翻译实例，分析词汇衔接在英汉翻译中的作用。
关键词：衔接词汇衔接语篇翻译Lexical Cohesion in the Translation between English andChineseAbstract: In recent years, text linguistics has got great improvement. Inspired by text linguistics, people believe that translation studies should be carried out with the text as the unit, which implies that in translating, what is transferred should be the meaning of the whole text. As one of the important ties in composing a text, cohesion is relations, in which two or several elements, which are structurally irrelevant to each other, are joined together semantically. Hence, cohesion is an indispensable element for translator to handle in the process of translation. Taking into consideration the cohesive differences, he should make appropriate adjustments according to the normof the target language and produce a text that is cohesive and coherent.According to Halliday and Hasan, cohesion is expressed partly through grammar and partly through vocabulary. This thesis discusses cohesion in English-Chinese translation mainly in lexical perspective, in order to find out the importance and function of lexical cohesion in English-Chinese translation. The thesis is composed of three chapters: Chapter One begins with the study of text, and then the notion of cohesion and its respective functions in translation are brought in. The second chapter mainly talks about what lexical cohesion is. In Chapter Three, the functions of lexical cohesion in translation between English and Chinese are introduced, by showing some specific examples.Key Words: cohesion lexical cohesion text translationLiterature ReviewRecently, text linguistics has got great improvement. With the development of the translation studies, text is regarded by more and more people, as the starting point of translation and it inevitably becomes an integral concept for the interdiscipline of translation. Cohesion, an element of textuality, plays an important role in keeping a text and its function in a text consistent. The study of textual cohesion is a complicated program, for it includes phonology, vocabulary, phrase, sentence, text and so on.The concept of cohesion was first presented by M.A.K; Halliday in 1962, and afterwards it has been fully formulated by Halliday and Hasan in their book Cohesion in English. According to Halliday and Hasan, the concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text.Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse in it. When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text.Professor Zhu Yongsheng, with Zheng Lixin and Miao Xingwei, discussed textual cohesion in their book A Contrastive Study of Cohesion in English and Chinese, by collecting and analyzing a lot of specific text samples. The differences of cohesion between English and Chinese can be seen clearly.To write this thesis, I collected a lot of materials about lexical cohesion, and some linguistic books in particular. Based on Halliday’s theory of cohesion, my thesis mainly discusses cohesion in English-Chinese translation mainly in lexical perspective, in order to find out the importance and function of lexical coIntroductionIt is known to all that English and Chinese belong to different language systems and great differences exist in their way of expression, which can, in one way, be presented by different use of cohesive devices. So, in the process of translating, it’s essential for a translator to have a good knowledge of the similarities between the two languages, but more importantly, he should bear in mind their differences, including that in the appropriate adjustments in accordance with the presupposed purpose.Cohesion, as one element of textuality, plays an important role in keeping a text and its function in a text consistent. Many people have carried out studies on this topic and in this thesis, the famous linguist M.A.K; Halliday’s theory of cohesion will be adopted as the foundation of the discussion.In a text, lexical cohesion is the result of chains of related words that contribute to the continuity of lexical meanings. These lexical chains are a direct result of units of text being “about the same thing”, and finding text structure involves finding units of text that are about the same thing. Hence, computing the chains is useful, since they will have a correspondence to the structure of the text. Determining the structure of text is an essential step in determining the deep meaning of the text.While translating, significant attention should be paid to the lexical cohesion ofthe original text, so that the target text can better reflect the original text and be more readable.1.Cohesion and Translation1.1 Text and Translation1.1.1 Text and TextureUnder the influence of the traditional linguistics, it was universally regarded that the sentence is among the highest rank of grammatical unit and translating is to achieve equivalence at the level of sentence or clause. But as a way to realize communication, language is influenced by many factors, such as culture, history and thinking method. Therefore, it’s not enough to study only the formal structures of language in translation studies. Beaugrande points out, “The analysis of formal structures might well fail to uncover the nature and function of an entity in its wider context.”More and more scholars regard text as the primary object of study in translation.A text “can be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-day discussion on a committee.” (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:1) In linguistics, text refers to “any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length that does form a united whole” (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:1) “It is an instance of language in use rather than languages as an abstract system of meanings and relations.”(Baker, 2000:111) A text, Halliday and Hasan believe, is not a grammatical unit larger than sentence, but a semantic one. It’s “a unit not of form but of meaning” (1976:2). But this does not imply that the meaning of a text is simply the combination of the meanings of the individual sentences, which compose this text. As Guy Cook said in his Discourse, “not all sentences are interesting, relevant, or suitable. One cannot just put any sentence after another, and hope that it will mean something.” (1989:3). What distinguishes a text from a shapeless string of words or structures is actually the features it displays. If a passage containing more than one sentence is perceived as a text, “there will be certain linguistic features present in that passage, which can beidentified as contributing to its total unity and giving it texture.” (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:2). Here the property, which makes a text recognized as a text is named as texture. For example, in the following two sentences: ①Wash and core six cooking apples.②Put them into a fire proof dish. (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:2) it’s very clear that in the second sentence, “them”refers back to the “six cooking apples”in the previous sentences, uniting them as a whole. Thus, the cohesive relation that exists between “them” and “six cooking apples” provides the texture of this text. Such kind of cohesive relation, in Halliday’s words, is a tie. A tie “makes it possible to analyze a text in terms of its cohesive properties, and gives a systematic account of its patterns of texture” (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:4).Halliday, in the book Cohesion in English, motioned that a text is a unit of meaning, distinguished from a non-text by its texture.1.1.2 Text and TranslationAccording to modern trends in linguistics, as a “communicative occurrence”(Beaugrande, 1981:3), a text rather than a sentence should be the unit of communication. What is transferred during the human communication is not only the information presented by the abstract linguistic system in the text, but also the communicative values contained. As for the unit of translation, Bassett (1981: 8) thinks that in literary translation, “the text is the prime unit”, because “every text is made up of a series of interlocking systems, each of which has a determinable function in relation to the whole”. Thus, when translating works, no matter whether it is a novel, a short poem or even a slogan for an advertisement, it should base on the text instead of on its linguistic features. (Zhang Meifang, 2001:1). Halliday states, without a theory of wordings, there is no way of making explicit interpretation of the meaning of a text. The understanding of a text is based on the understanding of the meaning of individual words and sentences that compose the text. To put it into a nutshell, these scholars try to emphasize the two sides of the same coin concerning the text.A French translator once pointed out that translation is to understand and let andmake it understood. So, translating process may be put into two steps: understanding and conveying. Neither of these two steps can be fulfilled without taking into consideration the whole text.Usually, the source text employs a different rhetorical pattern as the target text, so, a good rendering on doubt starts with a correct understanding of the source text. But this kind of understanding should not be limited to the analysis at the word level or clause level because “a formalism is only a representation, not an explanation, and a means, not an end”. (Beaugrande, 1981:miv) Besides the grammatical structure, such items as the intention of the source text, the notions it embodies, or even its textual function may not be out of place. In this sense, “the translator’s first task is to understand the text, often to analyze, or at least make some generalizations about his text before he selects an appropriate translation method” (Newmark, 2001:2) As for the second step of translation, the translator is confronted with the task not only of transferring the meaning of individual words, but also of trying to “keep the communication channels open” by creating a text with the use of the cohesive devices to establish cohesion. (Baker, 2000:9)1.2Cohesion and Translation1.2.1 The Notion of Cohesion and Its Function in a TextThe concept of cohesion was first presented by M.A.K; Halliday in 1962, and afterwards it has been fully formulated by Halliday and Hasan in their book Cohesion in English.According to Halliday and Hasan, the concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse in it. When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text. (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:4) This statement shows clearly that cohesion is not only a constituting component ina text, more importantly, it is a catalyst in the sense that, “without cohesion, the remainder of the semantic system cannot be effectively activated at all.” (Halliday＆Hasan, 1976:28) So, its catalytic function is emphasized as a necessary element in the interpretation of a text.1.2.2 Cohesion in TranslationSince cohesion is an indispensable element in composing a text, its importance lies not only in helping us understand a text, but also in helping us construct a new one. The knowledge of cohesive patterns is especially useful for a translator in the process of translation when the scope of the study is extended from a monolingual text to a contrastive study concerning bilingual texts. In fact, the topic of cohesion, as pronounced by Newmark (1987:295), has always been “the most useful constituent of text linguistics applicable to translation”.During the process of translation, a translator is required to get a more accurate understanding of applying appropriate target language, the source text by tracing the cohesion embedded in the text, and techniques based on his understanding of the cohesive pattern of them to produce a text, cohesive and coherent, acceptable to the target readers (Li Yunxing, 2000:132-133). Take the personal pronoun as an example: in an English text, personal pronoun is often used when an item appears for the second time, as in(a)The patient shook her head and stretched out her hands towards the baby. Thedoctor put it in her arms. She kissed it on the forehead. (Li Yunxing, 2000:148) In a Chinese text, lexical repetition is most commonly used in this case. Thus, some adjustments need to be made to ensure a cohesive target text, which conforms to the tradition of Chinese language, as exemplified by the following translated text:(b)病人摇了摇头，把手伸向孩子。
cohesionandcoherence语篇分析衔接手段
外照应指独立于上下文之
外的词项。内照应指意义 依赖于上下文的词项。下 照应（后照应）指意义依 赖于前述词项的词项、上 照应（前照应）指意义依 赖于后述词项的词项。
Reference
The
snail is considered a great delicacy. As the child grows, he learns to be independent. It never should have happened. She went out and left the door open.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of the field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
他们系统地将衔接分为五大 类：照应（reference）、替 代（substitution）、省略 （ellipsis）、连接 （conjunction）及词汇衔接 （lexical cohesion）。 其中前三类属于语法手段， 第四类属于逻辑手段，最后 一类属于词汇衔接手段。
第一节 语篇意识
二、系统功能语言学的“语篇”概念：
1、文化语境； 2、情景语境； 3、上下文语境。
1. 上下文语境
在翻译过程中，必须把每个词、每句话 放在语篇语境中去认识，从中领会作者 的意图和语篇的逻辑连贯意义，进而作 出确切的翻译。
It's a gloomy thing, to talk about one's own past, with the daybreaking. Turn me in some other direction before I go. 在天亮时谈个人的往事，真扫兴。在我 离开前，把我转到别的方向吧。 在天亮时谈个人的往事，真扫兴。在我 离开前，谈点别的吧。
2. "He is seventy-six years of age," said Mr. Smallweed. Mrs Smallweed piped up: "Seventy-six pounds! Seventy-six thousand bags of money! Seventy-six hundred thousand million fo parcels of bank notes!" A: “他今年76岁，”斯莫尔韦德先生说。 斯莫尔韦德太太尖叫起来：“76镑！七万 六千袋钱！七兆六千亿包钞票！” B: “他今年76岁，”斯莫尔韦德先生说。 斯莫尔韦德太太尖叫起来：“76镑！76万 袋钱！76万万包钞票！” 原词复现
“But I do love you.” "Please let's not lie when we don't have to. I had a very fine little show and I'm all right now. You see I'm not mad and I'm not gone off. It's only a little sometimes. (Farewell to Arms)" “我可是真心爱你啊。” “在不必要的时候你我还是少撒谎吧。今天晚上 我演了一出小小的好戏，我现在行了。你知道， 我并没有神经病，并不发疯。只是有些时候稍 微有一点。” “可我真的爱你呀。” “不必要的时候我们还是少撒谎吧。我刚才有点 失态，现在好了。你看我没有发疯，没有昏头。 只是有时候略有点失常。”
cohesion词根词缀
cohesion词根词缀
Cohesion词根词缀是指一组词根和词缀，它们共同构成了许多英语单词，这些单词都具有“凝聚力”或“连贯性”的含义。
其中，Cohesion一词的词根是cohes-，表示“黏合、凝聚”。
而常用的词缀包括-ive、-ion、-ity等，它们分别表示“具有……的性质”、“状态或行为”、“状态或性质”。
举例来说，有以下几个单词：
1. Cohesive：意为“紧密连结的、有凝聚力的”，由词根cohes-和词缀-ive构成。
2. Cohesion：意为“凝聚力、内聚力”，由词根cohes-和词缀-ion构成。
3. Coherence：意为“连贯性、一致性”，由词根coher-和词缀-ence构成。
4. Adhesion：意为“粘附、黏着”，由词根adhes-和词缀-ion 构成。
5. Incoherent：意为“不连贯的、不一致的”，由词根in-、coher-和词缀-ent构成。
通过学习Cohesion词根词缀，我们可以更好地理解和记忆英语单词，提高自己的词汇水平。
- 1 -。
cohesion in english 读书笔记
cohesion in english 读书笔记Cohesion, as an important aspect of language, plays a crucial role in making English texts coherent and understandable. It refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships that hold sentences and paragraphs together. In this article, we will explore different types of cohesion and their applications in English writing.1. Referential CohesionReferential cohesion involves the use of pronouns, demonstratives, and nouns to refer back to previously mentioned elements. It helps readers understand the relationships between different parts of a text. For example, in the sentence "John bought a new car. He loves driving it," the pronoun "he" and the demonstrative "it" refer back to "John" and "car" respectively, creating cohesive ties.2. SubstitutionSubstitution is another way to achieve cohesion. It involves replacing a word or phrase with another element, often a pronoun or a nominal group. This technique allows writers to avoid repetition and make the text more concise. For instance, instead of saying "I went to the park. The park was beautiful," we can use substitution: "I went to the park. It was beautiful."3. EllipsisEllipsis refers to the omission of a word or phrase that can be inferred from the context. It is commonly used in conversation and informal writing. For example, instead of saying "I enjoy watching movies, and my sisterenjoys watching movies too," we can use ellipsis: "I enjoy watching movies, and my sister does too."4. ConjunctionConjunctions are essential for creating cohesion in both spoken and written English. They are used to link words, phrases, and clauses together, indicating logical relationships. Common conjunctions include "and," "but," "or," "however," and "although." They help clarify the connections between different ideas and maintain coherence within a text.5. Lexical CohesionLexical cohesion relies on the use of words that are related in meaning. Techniques such as repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, and collocation contribute to lexical cohesion. By using these devices, writers can create a strong connection between different parts of a text. For example, in the sentence "She wore a beautiful dress. The dress was made of silk," the repetition of the word "dress" establishes lexical cohesion.6. ParallelismParallelism, also known as parallel structure, involves using similar grammatical structures to express related ideas. It adds rhythm and clarity to the text, making it more cohesive. For instance, in the sentence "I like swimming, running, and hiking," the parallel structure of verb + -ing form enhances cohesion.7. Semantic CohesionSemantic cohesion focuses on the relationship between the meanings of words and phrases in a text. This can be achieved through the use of synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms, and hyponyms. By using words with related meanings, writers can ensure that their text flows smoothly. For example, instead of repeating the word "clean," one might use the synonym "tidy" or the antonym "dirty" to maintain semantic cohesion.In conclusion, cohesion is crucial for effective English writing. By employing techniques such as referential cohesion, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, lexical cohesion, parallelism, and semantic cohesion, writers can create texts that are cohesive, coherent, and easy to understand. Understanding these principles of cohesion will greatly enhance one's ability to produce well-structured and engaging English writing.。
篇章翻译
Definition of Text
From the aspect of structure: text is a unit of language above the unit ranging from morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence to paragraph. E.g., “Exit”, “Help!”, etc. A text may be anything from a simple greeting to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-day discussion on a committee.
翻译类型
当时，比较有名的有 Otto Kade（1964），他研究的 是实用性文本的翻译，Rudolf W. Jumpelt（1961） 研究的是科技翻译，Eugene A. Nida（1964）研究 的是《圣经》翻译，Rolf Kloepfer（1967）研究的是 文学——散文和诗歌的翻译，Ralph Wuthenow（ 1969）研究的是古代文献的翻译。莱斯经过对他们的 作品和翻译理论进行认真研究后发现，他们的共同缺点 是：把自己在某一方面研究所得出的结论推广到其它的 文本翻译当中去了，把它说成是唯一的、通用的翻译标 准。这是以偏代全，很不科学的。
Passage Translation
翻译单位
翻译单位的概念最早是Vinay & Darbelnet(1958)提 出的,他们认为翻译单位与思维单位、词汇单位同义,是 在翻译过程中关系紧密、不可分割开进行翻译的最小言 语片段。
影响较大的是巴尔胡达罗夫对翻译单位作出的定义。 1985年，蔡毅等编译出版了巴尔胡达罗夫的《语言与 翻译》。
语篇的衔接与翻译
（3）分句性省略，常见于对话中 A: Will it target only existing customers? B: At first, yes. But if the TV ads go well, then we are going to do a larger follow-up mailshot. We’ll see what happens. A: 这只是面向现有的顾客吗？ B: 是的，起初是这样的。不过如果电视广告进展 良好，我们将把更多的广告信函邮寄给潜在顾客。 我们要看一看事情的发展状况。
1 语法衔接：照应（reference）
照应是一些起信号作用的词项。它们本身 不能作语义理解，而只能通过照应别的词 项来说明信息。Halliday和Hasan将英语中 的照应分为人称照应(personal reference) 如we, I, he, she, they etc.; 指示照应 (demonstrative reference)如 this, that, these, the…, 也包括here, tomorrow, now 等地点，时间指示词；比较照应 (comparative reference)如 more, less, same, similar等。
3 语法衔接：替代（substitution）
替代是指用一个词项去代替另一个或几个词项，是指词项 之间的一种代替关系 (1) 名词性替代：ones, some, the other, others, the same, the kind… （汉语更注重重复，英语更注重替代） This is the year, they predict, that Web-enabled phones will take off, both here and in Europe. If you don’t already have one, you’ll probably find one under the Christmas tree. 他们预言：今年将是可上网手机在欧洲和这里开始流行的 一年。如果你到现在还没有，今年的圣诞节就会在圣诞树 下发现一部作为礼物的可上网的手机。
5. 语篇翻译
衔接与连贯 (cohesion and coherence )
▪ 衔接是语篇的有形网络。（语言） ▪ 连贯是语篇的无形网络。（思想）
▪ 衔接手段(cohesive ties):
▪ Halliday 在Cohesion in English 中将英语的 衔接手段分成五大类：
▪ 照应 (reference) ▪ 替代 (substitution) ▪ 省略 (ellipsis) ▪ 连接 (conjunction) ▪ 词汇衔接 (lexical cohesion)
▪ 但是，在英语这种主语突出的语言中，只要是
句子就须有主语；如果主语是相同，那么同一
主语在第二次出现时往往用代词指代照应。
▪ Ke Ling was born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province in 1909. He is a modern Chinese writer. He was one of the editors of Children Times from 1930 onwards. Before 1949 he was all along engaged in editorial work in newspaper offices and took an active part in activities of film and modem drama in Shanghai. After liberation he filled the post of deputy editor-in-chief of Wenhuibao for a period. He is at present adviser of Shanghai Film Bureau.
以及句子的构建问题；
cohesion的用法例子
cohesion的用法例子一、概述在英语写作中，有效的衔接词是构建文章内部逻辑关系的重要工具。
其中一个被广泛运用的衔接词即为"cohesion"（凝聚力）。
本文将通过讨论具体例子来展示"cohesion"的应用方法和效果。
二、引言段落使用合适的衔接词可以提升文章的可读性和连贯性。
下面将给出几个例子，以展示如何正确使用"cohesion"来连接句子和段落。
三、添加信息有时候我们需要在句子中添加额外信息，以使意思更加清晰或详尽。
使用适当的衔接词能够使这一过程变得流畅自然。
例如，在描述某人特征时，我们可以说："Sarah is an intelligent student. In addition, she excels in mathematics."（萨拉是一个聪明的学生。
另外，她在数学方面表现出色。
）四、列举事实或例证列举事实或例证是支撑论点和增强观点说服力的有效手段之一。
为了让这些事实和例证之间保持一定的关联性，我们可以使用诸如“firstly”（首先）、“secondly”（其次）、“finally”（最后）等衔接词进行排序或标注。
例如："There are several reasons why people choose to travel. Firstly, it broadens their horizons. Secondly, it allows them to experience different cultures. Finally, it helps them relax and rejuvenate."（人们选择旅行的原因有几个。
首先，它拓宽了他们的眼界。
其次，它使他们能够体验不同的文化。
最后，它能帮助他们放松和恢复能量。
）五、转折关系在英语写作中，我们常常需要表达转折关系，即前后两个句子或段落之间存在相互对立或不同的观点或情况。
cohesion in english 读书笔记
cohesion in english 读书笔记在英语学习中，我们常常会遇到一些复杂的概念和理论，其中之一就是cohesion in english。
这个词组涉及到英语语言中的一些特殊现象，对于我们理解和使用英语有着重要的意义。
今天，我将分享一些我对cohesion in english的理解和思考，并附上一些例句和练习，帮助大家更好地掌握这一概念。
首先，我们需要了解什么是cohesion。
简单来说，cohesion是一种语言现象，指的是在句子或段落中，词语或句子的相互关系和连接方式。
在英语中，cohesion可以通过指称、说明、重述、列举、感叹、转折等方式来实现。
一、指称与说明：指称是cohesion的重要手段之一，通过代词、名词等词性的词语直接点名某人、某物或某事。
而说明则是通过其他词语对某人、某物或某事的性质、特征、状态等进行描述。
例如：（1） The person I met yesterday is my sister. （指称）（2） My sister is a kind and generous person. （说明）二、重述与列举：重述是对前面已经说过的话进行重复，而列举则是列出多个同类项。
这两种方式在英语中也经常出现。
例如：（3） I met my friend Tom again yesterday and we had a chat. （重述）（4） My family includes my mother, father, and two younger sisters. （列举）三、感叹与转折：感叹是表达强烈的情感，而转折则是表达句子之间的对比或对比关系。
这两种方式在英语中也很常见。
例如：（5） How beautiful the flowers are！（感叹）（6） However, I still prefer tea over coffee. （转折）当然，以上只是一些基本的cohesion方式，实际上还有更多复杂的概念和用法需要我们进一步学习和掌握。
翻译概论简答题
1.形合：指从属的语言单位用关联词语与主要的语言单位相结合。
意合：指从属的语言单位不用从属连接词语而用话语意义的配合与主要语言单位相结合。
例如:“他病了, 没来” 中的“他病了”本是一个原因从句, 但这里不用表原因的从属连词“因为” ,而是由前后分句的意合而产生偏正关系简言之,“形合”是指借助语言形式手段实现词语或句子的连接;“意合”是指不借助语言形式手段而借助词语或句子所含意义的逻辑联系来实现它们之间的连接。
前者注重语言形式上的衔接(cohesion), 后者注重行文意义上的连贯(coherence)。
英语和汉语在发音、构词、句法、修辞以及布局谋篇等方面都有各自的规律和特点, 两者之间虽不乏相通之处, 但也存在明显的差异。
英语作为音形合一的拼音文字, 在选词造句、组织篇章等方面都表现出注重语言形式上的衔接, 即重形合。
汉语作为音形分离的表义文字, 在造句、谋篇时较少使用或者根本不用形式词, 而是依据语义或语句间的逻辑关系来实现连贯, 即重意合。
英语是一种非常强调外在逻辑形式的文字, 从句法到篇章都强调演绎和推理。
而逻辑性也是西方传统思维模式的一大特征。
西方思维模式注重分析和实证, 在论证和推演中认识事物的本质和规律, 以逻辑和理性探索自然规律, 认为只有认识自然才能把握自然,因而强调天人对立、物我分离。
汉语结构灵活、形式多样、组合自由, 无主句也占了相当大的比重, 分句与分句之间、句与句之间少见逻辑关系词。
总而言之, 西方形式逻辑的思维模式客观上要求在表述逻辑关系时必须倚赖各种连接手段, 承上启下, 脉络清晰, 因而印欧语言具有形合的特征。
而汉民族重内省体悟,不重逻辑, 因而语言简约、意义模糊, 因而汉语表现出意合的特征东西方思维模式的差异揭示了英语和汉语中形合、意合的语言背景及文化根源, 了解这些有益于英汉互译操作,能够使译文既忠实于原文又优美顺畅, 符合目的语读者的思维习惯。
由于形合和意合的概念是英汉两种语言对比研究中找到的一组“最本质”、“最重要”的对应关系, 因此形合与意合成为“英汉句子互译之准绳” , 乃至在翻译中, 有人简单地认为英译汉就是省略一些连接词, 汉译英就是增添一些连接词, 这样必然造成翻译及理解上的失误。
翻译共性研究
翻译共性(Translation Universals）1.定义：翻译文本的普遍特征,即在译文而非原文中产生的典型的语言特征,这种特征被认为与翻译过程所涉及的特定语言对无关。
Baker《语料库语言学与翻译研究:暗示与应用》（1993）2.理论源流A.将翻译视为一种独立存在的语言形式。
(有很大争议)B.探寻翻译行为的普遍法则和规律。
3.第一代翻译共性假设A内容：Baker和Laviosa提出了第一代翻译共性假设:显化、简化和传统化(或规范化)。
即与原创文本相比,翻译文本更简单、可读性更强;歧义更少、表达更清楚;更符合译入语传统,独创性更低。
B缺陷：假设概念界定模糊不清,相互重叠。
相比较而言缺乏对另一个重要的翻译共性—隐性的研究基本没有提及。
4.第一代翻译共性理论后新的共性假设翻译共性既可指翻译过程中特定的方法,也可指翻译产品相对于非翻译文本的语言特征。
对此,Chesterman(2004)提出了“S共性”和“Ｔ共性”的区分,前者指从原语到译入语的翻译过程中的共性;后者指翻译文本与译入语非翻译文本相比的共性。
根据后来黄立波对黄立波(2008)对语际显化和语内显化的划分,这对翻译共性也不妨译为“语际共性”(S-universals)和“语内共性”(T-universals)。
综合来说，目前的翻译共性研究仍然处于发展阶段。
前语料库时期的翻译共性研究（pre-corpus）普遍认为，前语料库时期的翻译共性研究与基于语料库的翻译共性研究是以Baker的《语料库语言学与翻译研究:暗示与应用》（1993）为标志划分的。
定义：是指大规模机读翻译文本用于翻译研究之前,通过人工采集原文与译文文本,并对与翻译有关的语言现象进行人工对比、分析和统计的时期。
这一时期的翻译共性研究主要表现为从词汇、句法和文体等角度关注简化、显化和范化三方面问题。
1.简化A定义:指译者在目标语文本中对原语文本中的“语言/信息下意识地简单化”处理的倾向。
翻译研究中的多重视角
意义 分析
原文lashing和stung在此的意义 类型是联想意义，但译文对应 的意义类型则是概念意义。 结论：语义不等值 相关翻译理论介入：纽马克的 语义翻译
语义 学之 功能 观
五种功能 信息功能（informational function） 表情功能（expressive function） 指示功能（directive function） 审美功能（aesthetic function） 寒暄功能（phatic function）
（出处同上）
功能 分析
原文的表达方式具有审美功能， 译文表达只具有信息功能。 结论：功能不等值 相关翻译理论介入：德国功能 主义之文本类型理论（信息文 本、表情文本、呼唤文本）
文体 学之 变异 观
书写变异 语音变异 语法变异 语义变异 ……
（Geoffrey Leech, A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry)
谢谢
语言学理论
（微观）
多元 理论 介入
文学批评理论
翻译理论
（宏观）
语法学用以解析结构
语义学用以解析词义 语用学用以解析理据 文体学用以解析变异
语言 学理 论
传统 语法 介入 案例
Devon released the steel hook from the big eyelet behind the sail, dropped through the single hatch,…
本土文学与翻译文学之关系
纽马克翻译理论发展
引言彼得·纽马克是英国着名的翻译理论家和翻译教育家。
纽马克在分析和总结各家各派的翻译思想的基础上，将文体论、话语分析、符号学、格语法的理论、功能语法和跨文化交际理论应用于翻译理论和研究，对于翻译理论、翻译教学、翻译语言学以及翻译技巧都进行了精辟的论述。
纽马克翻译理论的核心是语义翻译和交际翻译，这也是其翻译理论中最主要、最有特色的组成部分。
他的代表作包括《翻译问题探索》(Approaches to Translation, 1981) 、《翻译教程》(A Textbook of Translation, 1988)、《翻译论》(About Translation, 1991)和《翻译短评》(Paragraphs on Translation, 1993)。
在《翻译问题探索》一书中，纽马克提出，针对不同的文本类型应当采用不同的翻译方法——语义翻译(semantic translation) 或交际翻译(communicative translation)。
根据不同的内容和文体，他将文本分为抒发功能(expressive function)、信息功能(informative function)、呼唤功能(vocative function)、审美功能(aesthetic function)、应酬功能(phatic function)和元语言功能(metalingual function)。
20世纪90年代他又提出“关联翻译法”，这标志着他的翻译理论渐趋系统。
下面本文将就纽马克的主要译论观点进行初步解读,以求对纽马克的翻译理论做更深层次的理解,并将相关翻译标准应用到英汉、汉英翻译中去。
一．语言功能与文本类型纽马克认为,翻译活动即是对文本的翻译,研究翻译不能离开文本。
在修正布勒(Buhler)、雅各布森(Jakobson)功能模式的语言理论基础上,根据不同的内容和文体,纽马克提出了一套自己的文本功能及其分类。
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Text
is not a mere aggregation of sentences; rather, it is a semantic unity. Cohesion 衔接、粘连 Coherence 连贯
M.A.K.
Halliday (2000:4) : cohesion is a semantic concept, referring to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and it occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another.
您应该记住，我的好妈妈，我从来没有把 事情看得一定如此。我承认我有疑虑，但 是不像以前那么重了，也许很快就会彻底 打消……
Substitution
Substitution is usually identified by the grammatical function of the substitute item. In English, the substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a clause. To these correspond the three types of substitution:
COHESION
Cohesive Devices Commonly
Used in English and Chinese
Halliday
& Hasan (1976，1985/1994)五大 类:照应(reference),替代(substitution),省略 (ellipsis),连接(conjunction)及词汇衔接 (lexical cohesion)。其中前四类属于语法 衔接手段,后一类属于词汇衔接手段。语 法衔接是语篇具有的典型特征之一。
nominal, verbal, and clausal.
Nominal substitution:
one/ones; same, e.g. A: If only I could remember where it was that I saw someone putting away the box with those candles in， I could finish the decorations now. B: You mean the little colotution:
the entire clause is presupposed, and the contrasting element is outside the clause, e.g. A: Is there going to be an earthquake? B: It says so.
Reference
identified in terms of function, location, and identity or similarity: Personal reference, e.g. he, she, it, they, him, etc. Demonstrative reference, e.g. here, there, this that, those, etc. Comparative reference, e.g. better, more/ other, different, else/ same, identical, equal, similar, additional, etc.
Peter,
Peter, pumpkin eater, had a wife and couldn’t keep her. He put her in a pumpkin shell, and there he kept her very well. (personal)
You
must remember, my dear mother, that I have never considered this matter as certain. I have had my doubts, I confess; but they are fainter than they were, and they may soon be entirely done away…
Lecture8 Cohesion in Translation
Translation of the Text: Textual Consciousness
Textual
consciousness in translation 语篇意识 It’s common to use text as a unit for the analysis of translation as it enables the translator to appreciate the linguistic form, meaning and spirit of the original. 翻译中应当大处着眼(top-down)，小处着 手(bottom-up)，小单位、低层次服从于 大单位、高层次。
A:
I will have two eggs on toast, please. B: I will have the same.
Verbal
He
substitution: do
never really succeeded in his ambitions. He might have done, one felt, had it not been for the restlessness of his nature.