会计经济金融外文翻译外文文献英文文献发达国家和发展中国家的ERP实施问题

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ERP系统中英文对照外文翻译文献

ERP系统中英文对照外文翻译文献

ERP系统中英文对照外文翻译文献ERP系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)ERP系统在财务报告内部控制的作用【摘要】:萨班斯-奥克斯利法案法例中强调,ERP系统的重要作用是运用内部控制反映公司的基本建设,为此ERP系统软件开发供应商也增加了对内部控制的应用。

他们认为,这些内置的控制和其他功能将帮助企业改善其财务报告内部控制就如萨班斯法案要求的那样。

这项研究测试,通过检查萨班斯法案第404条在1994年和2003年之间实施ERP 系统的公司合规内控数据。

其结果表明,应用ERP 的公司相对于未应用ERP的样本公司较少报告内部控制弱点。

它还发现,这种差异存在一般控制和特别控制中。

关键词:企业资源规划;ERP;萨班斯-奥克斯利法案;萨班斯法案第404条;内部控制1简介2002年的萨班斯法案要求企业将其内部控制的有效性的报告与财务报告作为一个整体努力,以减少欺诈和恢复完整的财务报告过程的一部分。

ERP系统软件开发供应商已强调,ERP系统的重要作用是运用“内置”控制反映公司基本建设。

他们在营销理念强调了产品的功能,声称这些系统将帮助企业按萨班斯法案所要求提高内部控制的有效性。

这些供应商的声明激发了关于ERP系统对内部控制的影响一项有趣的实证问题研究。

具体来说,是不是实现ERP系统的企业或多或少可能比未实现ERP系统的公司较少在其年度报告报告内部控制弱点?已经进行过这特定区域研究的经验/档案相对较少的,因为之前萨班斯法案内部控制的数据并没有被公开报道。

这项研究的方法通过在文献资料检查一个已经宣布实施ERP系统和一个还没有类似的公司控制样本公司的抽样调查的内部控制数据来发现差距。

内部控制是在公司使用的以解决代理问题的许多机制之一。

其他的机制还包括财务报告,编制预算,审计委员会和外部审计(Jensen和佩恩2003)。

研究表明,内部控制降低了代理成本(Abdel-khalik 1993;Barefield 等,1993),有些甚至争辩说,即使没有萨班斯法案的要求,企业也有经济诱因报告内部控制(Deumes和Knechel,2008年)。

会计学 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题及其对策

会计学 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题及其对策

目录1. 外文译文 (1)2. 外文原文 (5)中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题及其对策中小型企业在中国经济发展中发挥着重要的作用。

统计数据表明,在工商行政管理局登记在册的企业中,中小型企业占了99%,产值和利润分别占总额的60%和40%。

此外,中小型企业所提供了75%的城镇就业机会。

可见其为中国的稳定和经济繁荣作出了重要贡献。

虽然中小型企业在国民经济中占有重要地位,对中国经济发展与社会稳定具有很重大的意义。

但是,中小型企业发展的主要障碍是缺乏有效的财务管理。

本文分析了当前中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题,并就改善中小型企业财务管理提出了相应对策。

1.1 中小型企业的财务管理现状自从21世纪以来,中国的中小型企业的蓬勃发展,在经济增长和社会发展中发挥着非常重要的作用。

据财政部统计数据,直到2005年底,中小型企业总数已超过1000万,占中国企业总数的99%。

中小型企业提供了75%的城镇就业机会,工业企业的总产值、销售收入、实现的利得税和出口额分别占总数的60%、57%、40%和60%,上缴的税收已经接近了国家税收总额的一半。

中小型企业承载着超过75%的技术革新和超过65%的专利发明,他们以其灵活的经营机制和积极创新活动,为经济发展提供了增长的最根本动力。

近年来,中国中小企业的消亡率将近70%,大约有30%的中小型企业存在赤字。

中小型企业应该如何建立现代企业制度,加强财务管理,并科学地进行资本运作以谋求自身的健康发展,是我们密切关注的一个问题。

1.2 中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题⑴财务管理理念滞后,而且方法保守中小型企业由于管理者自身知识水平的限制,使得企业的管理能力和管理质量较低。

他们的管理思想已经不适合现代企业,并且大多数企业领导人缺乏财务管理的理论和方法,忽视了企业资本运作的作用。

管理者既不重视财务事,也不参与企业政策的制定和相关管理活动。

因此,财务管理无法发挥其应有职能,从而导致企业缺乏现代财务管理的理念,也无从去培训合格的财务人员。

外文文献翻译发达国家和发展中国家的ERP实施问题

外文文献翻译发达国家和发展中国家的ERP实施问题

ERP implementation issues in advanced anddeveloping countriesAbstractThere is an increasing need to implement a total business solution which supports major functionalities of a business. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software is designed to meet this need, and has been widely adopted by organizations in developed countries. Meanwhile, ERP is beginning to appear in many organizations of developing countries. Little research has been conducted to compare the implementation practices of ERP in developed vs developing countries. Our research shows that ERP technology faces additional challenges in developing countries related to economic, cultural, and basic infrastructure issues. This article identifies a range of issues concerning ERP implementation by making a comparison of advanced and developing countries.Key words:Enterprise Resource management; Implementation; Developing countries.Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an industry term for the broad set of activities supported by multi-module application software that helps a manufacturer or a service business manage the important parts of its business. Evolving from MRP systems, ERP has played a significant role in IT for several decades. Since the first symbiotic ERP product SAP created in 1972, ERP market revenues are expected to be as high as $52 billion by the year 2002. While there is wide acceptance of ERP in developed countries such as the USA, Canada, the UK, and Australia, developing countries lag far behind. At present, North America occupies 66 percent of the ERP market, Europe takes 22 percent, while the whole of Asia is only at 9 percent. However, due to economic growth, developing countries in Asia and Latin America are becoming major targets of big ERP vendors.ERP in developed countriesERP systems have been widely used by companies in developed countries. Organizations in manufacturing, service, and energy industries adopt ERP to:automate the deployment and management of material, finance and human resources;∙streamline processes and achieve process improvement;∙achieve global competitiveness.In this section, North America, Europe are selected as representative developed countries.North America (USA, Canada)Europeans designed the first integrated ERP system –SAP in Germany, 1972, whereas, organizations in North America seem to have richer experience in this kind of software and have used integrated software solutions for decades. As commercial systems evolved from material planning (MRP) to enterprise planning (ERP), companies continued investment to bring in newer systems. Currently, two out of three ERP deals in North America are replacement deals.The USA is the primary target of ERP and represents 66 percent of revenues for the major vendors. Before 2000, one major concern of North American corporations was Y2K problems. After Y2K, management turned its eyes to extending its enterprises. Several trends have appeared. E-commerce is a major force. Organizations want their ERP systems to connect more tightly with suppliers and customers via e-commerce. Supply chain management (SCM) products, regarded as post-ERP, are now entering into North American organizations. SCM functions include demand forecasting, sourcing and procurement, inventory and warehouse management, and distribution logistics.Europe (UK, Germany, France)Europe is the second largest target ERP sales market (at 22 percent). Many big ERP vendors started their business from Europe; e.g. SAP AG, Baan, JBA International and Intentia. Historically, strong manufacturing industry is an underlying reason for so many ERP vendors in Europe. There are several reasons for Europe’s ERP market. First, economically advanced countries have a solid industrial and manufacturing base. Second, there is a strong national information infrastructure. Third, the multiple-language and multi-currency requirements make the ERP software attractive. Fourth, quality employees are available to implement advanced technologies.Characteristics of ERP implementation in developed countriesIt is easy to understand why North America and Europe occupy the largest ERP market. From national and environmental perspectives, these countries have excellent infrastructures which effectively facilitate IT diffusion. Strong economic base and growth further drive the need for new technology. Governmental IT policy, deregulation and organizational enthusiasm for IT fuel technology development. New technologies such as ERP, SCM and others are quickly absorbed by organizations in almost all industries.From an organizational perspective, companies in developed countries are more likely to succeed. Higher IT maturity and favorable computer culture make organizations ready to handle complex technology. Also organizations are developing a strong process management orientation (Davenport, 1994). BPR is practiced frequently in North American and European countries.Some trends are observable. First, small and middle sized enterprises (SMEs) are becoming targets of ERP vendors. Second, ERP coupled with e-commerce functionality will dominate the market. E-commerce is becoming a new way of doing business between business and business (B2B) and between business and customer (B2C). CIOs are planning to build electronic commerce and decision-support extensions to ERP implementations. Meanwhile, e-commerce based ERP systems are commercially available。

金融危机下的公允价值会计——会计类毕业论文中英文翻译、外文翻译

金融危机下的公允价值会计——会计类毕业论文中英文翻译、外文翻译

附件9:XXX科技学院学生毕业设计(论文)外文译文院(系)专业班级学生姓名XXX学号XXX文章来源:玛利亚卡门惠安库扎大学,亚历山大雅西,罗马尼亚金融危机下的公允价值会计摘要:2008年9月的金融风暴直击美国经济核心,并且迅速蔓延到世界各地,引发了对使用外来衍生金融工具和公允价值会计的激烈辩论。

或多或少受此次危机影响的银行﹑保险管理人员,审计师和政界人士就这一主题多次在新闻头版发表不同意见,本文的目的是审查金融市场的现状,使我们了解到公允价值会计及衍生品在预防这些巨大的丑闻时的重要性,制定准则。

同时阐述支持或反对使用公允价值和信用衍生产品的意见并提出应对未来金融危机的解决办法。

关键词:次贷危机金融衍生产品公允价值一、引言安然危机震撼了美国经济的核心。

监管机构在2000年初发行规则,以方便投资者了解公司资产的价值,并减少(至少部分减少)结构性融资的复杂性。

当时,一个最佳的解决方案似乎是合理价值会计,它旨在披露更具相关性和有价值的报告。

监管机构认为,鼓励公平价值的透明度和可比性,将有助于恢复投资者对金融市场及其机构的信任。

安然事件之后,美国的标准制定者-财务会计标准委员会( FASB )已行使任务,发出的公允价值测量标准(联邦反垄断局第157条)。

根据这一标准,资产必须属于这三类之一,如何分类取决于其相对流动性:1级,包括最流动资产,其价值源于在活跃市场的价格;2级,包括使用可观察市场的市场数据;3级,包括最难计量的资产的公允价值计量不可观察,只有通过以内部模式和估算为基础的价格。

正是这个第三级别提高了在没有市场参考价时有关强制使用市场价值为交易或金融资产/负债的计价模式。

关于公允价值会计的争论再度引发了新闻界把责任归咎于彻底崩溃的住房抵押贷款证券的市场和住房信贷市场1由于缺乏市场流动性产生了上述银行家,责任再次放在公允价值会计,但奇怪的1因为没有流动性的市场,这里第三级最具争议,它有关强制使用以市场价值为交易、金融资产或负债。

财会类-外文翻译

财会类-外文翻译

外文文献原稿和译文原稿Major changes of corporate treasury management policies have been in the past few decades. Treasury management has gradually taken up more and more responsibilities. In the 1960s treasury-related tasks entailed purely routine work in what was no more than an ancillary function as a centralising cash management unit linked to administrative tasks. In the 1970s the first significant changes began to take place as the economic environment was hit by recession, which favoured the emergence of new shortterm monetary policy instruments and the first hints of deregulation of financial markets, but treasury management was still restricted to the obtaining of funding, the management of payments and collections and the maintenance of bank balance positions. It was not until the 1980s that it became integrated into general corporate management and finally outgrew its purely administrative function linked to the accounting department. Treasury functions began to be based essentially on a financial cash management or liquidity management perspective. More recent advances have favoured the development of new treasury management functions, and increased the importance of treasury departments within companies. In this way, now the techniques and instruments required for optimum development are available.The functions now linked to treasury management extend beyond the mere control of monetary flows and positions. Exchange-rate and interest-rate volatility in the wake of the internationalisation and deregulation of currency markets, the need to increase control of credit risk in increasingly competitive markets and the appearance of new financial instruments have forced treasury management to become more forecast-based in its actions, with more emphasis on the management of investments, treasury deficits and different financial risks. Basic responsibilities of treasury departments will be those tasks that enable companies to use the techniques and information needed to minimise the financial costs of resources and maximise returnson cash surpluses, thus providing them with the necessary treasury funding in the desired currency at the appropriate time, as argued by Lopez and others.In the terminology of cash management literature this term brings together various functions associated with short-term financial flow management: liquidity management, banking management,management of treasury surpluses and deficits and financial risk management; it is a broader concept than the mere management of payments and collections. In this context, our objective is to provide empirical evidence for the definition of cash management by drawing up an explanatory model. The following pages present a cash management model obtained using the technique of structural equations, which has never been used before in research analysing the factors linked to treasury management.A salient result of our model is that the management of payments and collections and treasury forecasts are the functions to which the companies surveyed attach most importance. These are the functions that have traditionally been most closely linked with treasury management, though others which have been incorporated more recently, such as management of bank balances at value date,management of relationships with banks, management of treasury deficit funding and management of treasury surpluses, are all also highly rated by companies.Cash management can be seen from two different perspectives depending on how many responsibilities it includes: treasury management (or basic cash management) and advanced cash management. Specifically, treasury management handles actual cash management at companies, and one of its main functions is to establish the optimum cash level so that payments can be made and received as necessary for the proper operation of the company. The second concept includes not only treasury management but also other tasks such as treasury forecasting, negotiation and establishment of relationships with financial institutions and financial risk management.Pindado argues that basic cash management refers to that part of the working capital that makes up the optimal level needed by a company treasury. However, if the profit opportunities available in the process of cash flow creation are to be maximised, this scope must be broadened to take in more operational decisions, since optimum cash levels are influenced by other factors outside the restrictive concept of "treasury".Linking these concepts with the concepts of monetary theory reveals that the initial reasons for cash management were transaction and precaution, and those reasons were then joined by speculation, taking it closer to the overall concept of treasury management in the broad sense of the term.MethodologyFactor analysis was used to develop a model that can explain cash management. First of all,exploratory factor analysis was used to define constructs by the inductive approach, and thus to deduce theoretical models. Secondly, confirmatory factor analysis was used to show the validity of the constructs arising from those deductions. To validate the model and make it more robust, the sample was also subdivided randomly into two, with exploratory factor analysis then being applied to one of the subsamples and confirmatory analysis to the other. This method was applied to various splits of the original sample, with the argument that if it fitted in all of them, the scales of the model obtained would be validated. Confirming the model both inductively and deductively for different selections from the same population ensures that the measuring process is free from any systematic error.Structural equations have not previously been used in research to analyse factors linked to cash management. The structural equations method can be used to construct unobserved variables that define and statistically validate the theoretical concepts studied, reasoned and explained by researchers: in this case the responsibilities of cash management.Descriptive AnalysisTreasurers or treasury managers undertake various tasks in all areas of cash management, such as management of payments made and received, monitoring of liquidity of banking operations, short-term treasury forecasts, management of account balances at value dates, negotiation with banks,management of treasury deficit funding, management of treasury peaks and management of interest and exchange rate risks.Monitoring and optimisation of the circuit of payments received is the variable that scores highest among the firms surveyed, possibly because it brings together management functions concerned with the main payments received by firms, onwhich their survival depends. The preparation of treasury forecasts obtains the second highest score on average, mainly because proper treasury management must be based on knowledge of future positions. The responsibilities which obtained the lowest score are coverage of interest rate risk and exchange-rate risk, but some firms are unaware of these functions and others find them of little relevance due to the low degree of influence of such risks on their financial activities.In general, the remaining responsibilities obtain high scores.None of them stands out from the rest. The responsibilities in question are day-to-day control of banking position, monitoring of banking positions at value date, establishment of an optimum cash level, optimisation of liquidity, and monitoring and optimisation of the purchase-payment circuit.Other responsibilities include minimisation of costs of short-term borrowing required to cover treasury deficits and maximisation of returns on treasury surpluses.In short, all treasury management responsibilities obtain high scores except coverage of financial risks. Particularly high scores are obtained by management of payments for payments received, due to its importance for the survival of firms, and by management of treasury forecasts as a way of obtaining advanced information on movements of available liquid assets.Explanatory ModelFactor analysis was used to develop a model capable of explaining cash management and showing the results arising from its use. To define the construct used in the explanatory model, which cannot be observed directly in actual businesses, exploratory factor analysis was used first on a subsample,followed by confirmatory analysis on another, different subsample, to make the model more robust. Exploratory Factorial AnalysisExploratory factorial analysis is applied to a randomly selected subsample. An examination of this table reveals that the correlations between the variables used are still sufficiently high to justify the application of a factorial analysis of principal components.The results of the exploratory analysis show that the eleven variables concerned with treasury management responsibilities can be grouped into two components withonly minimal information loss.Basic cash management, which includes three levels: liquidity management (short-term treasury forecasts, at least monthly, establishment of an optimum cash level, optimisation of liquidity), operational management (monitoring and optimisation of the purchase-payment circuit, monitoring and optimisation of the sales-cash circuit), and banking management (monitoring of banking positions at the value date, day-to-day control of banking positions).Advanced cash management, which also includes three levels: investment management (maximisation of returns on treasury surpluses), financial management (minimisation of costs of short-term borrowing), and risk management (coverage of interest-rate risk, coverage of exchange-rate risk).Confirmatory Factorial AnalysisConfirmatory factor analysis is then applied to different subsamples to produce a valid, reliable scale for measuring this factor.Using statistical techniques from a convergent perspective, the present study aims to provide evidence of the existence of a single underlying concept that can explain cash management sufficiently well to bring together the variables in the scale considered overall. To obtain a valid, reliable scale capable of expressing the concept of treasury management, the internal consistency of the model is checked using reliability techniques (Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability and extracted variance), convergent validity and discriminant validity of factors.The model reflects the idea that treasury management comprises basic cash management and advanced cash management. Basic cash management includes the constructs for liquidity management, operational management and banking management. Advanced cash management includes those for investment management, financial management and management of financial risk coverage. The theoretical concept underlying this model is supported by the opinions of the treasury managers surveyed, who understand cash management as including not just liquidity management tasks but also others such as management of payments made and received, forecast management, banking management, investment management, financial management and financial risk management.译文企业资金管理政策在过去的几十年发生了主要变化。

金融危机对全球经济的影响中英文对照外文翻译文献

金融危机对全球经济的影响中英文对照外文翻译文献

金融危机对全球经济的影响中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)金融危机对全球商业的影响目前,新的经济只是在部分工业化经济高度发达的国家初露端倪,在全球范围还属于萌芽状态。

不过这种经济的发展肯定对于世界政治和经济将产生越来越大的影响。

日本经济审议会1999年向日本政府提出对未来十年日本新经济计划的建议时说:“当前,世界文明正在发生变化,这一变化不是一般的‘进步’与“高度化”,而是要创造新的历史发展阶段的变化。

一直支撑战后增长的现代工业社会的规范已跟不上人类文明的巨大潮流。

在今后存在多种智慧的社会中,必须通过不断创造出新的智慧来搞活经济与文化。

为此,就必须能够更加容易地吸收世界的信息和知识,还要有更加容易向世界传递信息的环境。

同时,还必须拥有能够培养富于个性和创造性的组织和人才的计划和社会气氛”。

如果把上面所说的世界经济的变化加以概括,似乎可以说,未来经济有两大趋势:一个是经济知识化,表现为知识和信息成为经济发展最活跃、最重要的因素;另一个是经济全球化,表现为商品、劳务、资本、技术和人才在全球流动的加速。

这两大趋势相互联系、互相影响。

也可以说,新的经济将是以知识与技术创新为基础,以全球为市场的时代。

它将促使各国的增长模式、产业构成、经济体制、社会结构、教育制度、文化取向等产生深刻的变化,也将对各国的对内、对外政策提出新课题。

三、经济全球化的大趋势及其两重性经济全球化的发端似可溯源到二次世界大战后期布雷顿森林体制的创建。

世界银行、国际货币基金组织和关贸总协定三大机构的建立与发展,给全球金融、贸易与投资活动以极大的推动。

美元与黄金挂钩使美元成为国际流通与储备的手段,首先便利了美国企业向全球的拓展。

不过,冷战时期两个世界市场的划分又使经济全球化受到一定限制。

冷战结束后,经济全球化得到进一步发展。

主要有两股力量推动:一股力量是信息技术革命和高新技术成长的大大促进了商品、劳务、资本、人才、技术的全球交流。

国际会计准则中英文对照外文翻译文献

国际会计准则中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文:译文(一)世界贸易的飞速发展和国际资本的快速流动将世界经济带入了全球化时代。

在这个时代, 任何一个国家要脱离世界贸易市场和资本市场谋求自身发展是非常困难的。

会计作为国际通用的商业语言, 在经济全球化过程中扮演着越来越重要的角色, 市场参与者也对其提出越来越高的要求。

随着市场经济体制的逐步建立和完善,有些国家加入世贸组织后国际化进程的加快,市场开放程度的进一步增强,市场经济发育过程中不可避免的各种财务问题的出现,迫切需要完善的会计准则加以规范。

然而,在会计准则制定过程中,有必要认真思考理清会计准则的概念,使制定的会计准则规范准确、方便操作、经济实用。

由于各国家的历史、环境、经济发展等方面的不同,导致目前世界所使用的会计准则在很多方面都存在着差异,这使得各国家之间的会计信息缺乏可比性,本国信息为外国家信息使用者所理解的成本较高,在很大程度上阻碍了世界国家间资本的自由流动。

近年来,许多国家的会计管理部门和国家性的会计、经济组织都致力于会计准则的思考和研究,力求制定出一套适于各个不同国家和经济环境下的规范一致的会计准则,以增强会计信息的可比性,减少国家各之间经济交往中信息转换的成本。

译文(二)会计准则就是会计管理活动所依据的原则, 会计准则总是以一定的社会经济背景为其存在基础, 也总是反映不同社会经济制度、法律制度以及人们习惯的某些特征, 因而不同国家的会计准则各有不同特点。

但是会计准则毕竟是经济发展对会计规范提出的客观要求。

它与社会经济发展水平和会计管理的基本要求是相适应的,因而,每个国家的会计准则必然具有某些共性:1. 规范性每个企业有着变化多端的经济业务,而不同行业的企业又有各自的特殊性。

而有了会计准则,会计人员在进行会计核算时就有了一个共同遵循的标准,各行各业的会计工作可在同一标准的基础上进行,从而使会计行为达到规范化,使得会计人员提供的会计信息具有广泛的一致性和可比性,大大提高了会计信息的质量。

论文:ERP的应用与实施

论文:ERP的应用与实施

《企业资源计划ERP》课程论文题目ERP的应用与实施学生姓名学生学号专业班级任课教师摘要随着中国企业信息化的飞速进展,ERP在中国也进入广泛普及阶段,ERP 不再只是巨型企业的专利,也不再只是一个奢华不可高攀的理论,应用更加务实、业务范围更加广泛、涉及的业务深度逐渐加强的ERP正为广大的中国企业所期盼。

目前我国国内的ERP应用并不尽如人意,ERP的应用在中国的道路是曲折的,但却是必经的。

关键词: ERP 应用实施发展一、ERP应用的现状ERP软件是信息文明的典型代表之一,是企业管理的重要的软件之一。

在发达国家应用率相当高。

我国对ERP的应用已走过了二三十年的艰难历程,自引进第一套ERP软件以来,投入了百亿元的资金,经历了启动期、成长期和成熟期等阶段。

时至今日,无论从企业发展对ERP的迫切需求,还是人们对ERP认识的逐步深入,都发生了质和量的变化。

虽然许多大中型企业的ERP都已进入深度应用阶段,但从应用水平提升和效果看,仍存在诸多难题和障碍。

在国内随着会计电算化的应用、发展、延伸,以用友、金蝶为代表的ERP软件公司正在逐渐发展壮大起来。

二、中小型企业应用ERP存在的问题1、对ERP的认识不到位,目标不明确由于ERP应用的短期效应不明显,加上中小型企业对ERP的认识和经验都不足,在短期内很难看到ERP的作用和效果,这些因素都会在一定程度上影响中小企业应用ERP的进程。

2、缺乏一定的资金和人才ERP项目的实施需要几十万甚至上百万的资金投入,这对于运作资金相对缺乏的中小型企业来说,是一笔不小的开支,加上企业对信息化缺乏经验,很难确定需要多少资金来投资企业信息化是合理的,因此企业一般不愿意进行ERP投资,出现了小马拉大车及头痛医头等不愿合理投资的现象;人才是一个企业的核心所在,ERP的应用需要专业的人才来操作。

3、中小型企业的软件产品单一,不能满足多样化需求我国企业数目众多,量大面广。

迄今为止,在我国工商行政部门注册的中小企业已超1000万家,信息化需求千差万别,掌握其全面资料难度相当之大,大多数IT企业不愿意投入太多的精力去准确获取中小型企业的个性化需求。

会计电算化外文翻译文献.docx

会计电算化外文翻译文献.docx

会计电算化外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Manual Accounting Versus Computerized AccourrtingAs many professional accountants and auditors state - accounting is a 1anguage of business which is accepted in al 1 developed and developing countries・Every company applies accounting because it is generally accepted that companies have to reveal certain financial and management information to the government and public users and of course because accounting is indispensable tool in business decision-making process・With the development of information technologies there were developed many computer products (software) that make accounting as easy as ABC for those who uses them・ F TOITI this point accounting can be divided into two basic categories:those which apply manual accounting and those which prefer computerized accounting systems・ This paper is targets the main features of manual and computerized accounting, their benefits and shortcomings, and their comparison.From the accounting theory it is known that accounting cycle ineludes the following steps: journali zing the transactions, posting them to ledgeraccounts, preparing trial balance, making adjustment entries, preparing adjusted to end-of-period trial balance , preparing financial statements and appropriate disclosures, journalizing and posting the closing entries, and preparing after-closing trial balance at last・ From the first look it is not very clifficult and it is so indeed, but when there are thousands or millions of transactions the situation dramatically changes・ Lots of transactions that must be processed in the acco un ting cycle make this process routine and even a 1 i ttl e mi stake or inaccuracy can cause all the cycle from the very beginning in order to find and correct the mistake ・ So as to shed some light on the matter lets examine accounting cycle more thorough1y. Every transaction (event that change the financial resources or obligations of the company) must be recognized, classified and documented; in addition there must be corresponding accounts identified and changed. The transactions are recorded in appropriate journals (general journal, sales journal etc) with transaction data, affected accounts? titles, debit and credit of each affected account and explanation specified in the journal record・ The above procedure is used for each transaction. All the journal records must be posted to the ledger on a periodic basis (daily or weekly), which is a group of accounts put together and classified (assets, liabilities, revenue, expenses and equity) ? in other words general ledger summarizes all the transactions within a period of time. In addition there is a subsidiary ledger can be used, which is a more detailed source, where individual items comprised (inventory, accounts payable and accounts receivable)・General ledger contains controlling accounts which summarize the content of subsidiary ledger. At the end of accounting period with the help of general ledger there is a trial balanee calculated to make sure that debit and credit are in balance (if they are not equal it means that there is an error somewhere). Then there must be appropriate adjustments made like depreciation and income tax expenses, adjusted records posted to the ledger and adjustedtrial balance calculated・After this there are financial statements should be prepared, which include balance sheet, income statement, statement of retained earnings and statement of cash flows・ Then journal entries of temporary accounts are closed to permanent accounts and posted to the ledger, and at last after-closing trial balanee can prepared・In order to stay on top companies have to analyze the performance of all organizational cells (starting from unskilled workers and operating personnel, and finishing with top managers and other key personnel) and discover all the deviations from the plan, their causes, and finally companies? management has to take corresponding measures to avoid such deviations in the future・ These procedures are called internal controls and inelude the following five elements: control environment, risk assessment, monitoring, information and commimication, which are assessed separately and put together a single rate of organization's performance・Control environment means the way of organization,s internal control? which manager controls the employees, how and whom does that manager reports next about the plan performance etc・Risk assessment implies measures to determine all the potential risks in advance, their causes, probabilities and counter-measures to avoid and manage them; how can those risks influenee company's performance and financial state; how to minimize the costs of facing financial risks etc・Monitoring implies quality control of company,s operations and personne1. Information and communication element means the control over communication f1ow and the quality of information flow within the organization in order to minimize the time of communication and information losses. Internal control procedures allow to keep companies? assets from dissipation and control productivity and usefulness of all departments.Let's return to the main issue of the paper・Manual accounting implies that employees perform the whole accounting cycle manually on a periodic basis: they calculate trial balances, journalize transactions,prepare financial statement reports and other routines・Of course it takes much time, resources and effort in large organizations. Computerized accounting implies that the only thing that employees do is recording transactions into the computer which processes the other steps of accounting cycle automatically or by a request・But this is a very simplified view on the computerized accounting because trans&ction is a complex category which includes not only sales or acquisitions, but depreciation, premiums and wages calculation, dividends etc. So computers provide accurate calculations and smart reports but it takes much time, resources and effort too and it ' s difficult to assess which accounting type is more fast and economic・ If manual accounting requires qualified accountants to keep a record of business transactions, computerized requires accountants which can use specific software and thus they cost more・ Computer software calculates faster but it does not know what you need until you can clearly explain what exactly you need. In addition good computerized accounting system can cost thousands and even millions dollars, depending on the complexity and the size of organization. Computerized accounting provides better internal control report system for any given period of time (computer can control thousands indicators simultaneously and create notifications to the appropriate departments or workers if some indicators do not correspond to the normal state), while manual control takes more time・Among the advantages of manual accounting there are: comparatively cheap workforce and resources, reliability, independence from machines, skilled workers availability; the disadvantages include: reduced speed, increased effort of accountants, relatively slower internal control reporting, routine work and some others .Among the ma i n advantages of computerized accounting there are: high speed and mobility of reporting,reliability, no routine work, increased accuracy, internal control system of increased productivity, easy back up and restoration of records: the di sadvantages include: extremely hi gh costs on developing, introducing and using the system, special trainings for personnel, increased personnel costs, dependenee on machines etc .0bviously both computerized and manual accounting have advantages and disadvantages but they perform the same task, and the final result is the same・ The main differences between them are the costs , speed and mobility. Thus small and medium businesses usually prefer manual accounting without detriment to quality while large corporations apply complex accounting systems which cost millions dollars but the effect from their application exceeds all the expectations.手工会计与电算化会计会计教育改革与发展一第四届会计与财务问题国际研讨会论文集2004年詹姆斯就像很多专业的会计师和审计师的国家一在所有发达国家和发展中国家,会计是被接受的一种商业语言。

经济金融企业管理外文翻译外文文献英文文献

经济金融企业管理外文翻译外文文献英文文献

经济金融企业管理外文翻译外文文献英文文献Prepared on 22 November 2020附录【原文】Upgrading in Global Value ChainsThe aim of this paper is to explore how small- andmedium-sized Latin American enterprises ( SMEs) mayparticipate in global markets in a way that provides forsustainable growth. This may be defined as the‘‘highroad’’ to competitiveness, contrasting with the ‘‘lowroad,’’ typical of firms from developing countries, whichoften compete by squeezing wages and profit marginsrather than by improving productivity, wages, and profits.The key difference between the high and the low road to competitiveness is often explained by the differentcapabilities of firms to ‘‘upgrade.’ In this paper,upgrading refers to the capacity of a firm to innovate toincrease the value added of its products and processes(Humphrey & Schmitz, 2002a; Kaplinsky&Readman, 2001;Porter, 1990).Capitalizing on one of the most productive areas of therecent literature on SMEs, we restrict our field of research tosmall enterprises located in clusters. There is now a wealthofempirical evidence (Humphrey, 1995; Nadvi &Schmitz,1999; Rabellotti, 1997) showing that small firms inclusters, both in developed and developing countries, areable to over come some of the major constraints they usuallyface: lack of specialized skills, difficult access to technology,inputs, market, information, credit, and external services.Nevertheless, the literature on clusters, mainly focused on the local sources ofcompetitiveness coming from intracluster vertical and horizontal relationshipsgenerating ‘‘collective efficiency’’ (Schmitz, 1995), has often neglected theincreasing importance of external link ages. Due to recent changes in productionsystems, distribution channels, and financial markets, and to the spread of informationtechnologies, enterprises and clusters are increasingly integrated in value chains thatoften operate across many different countries. The literature on global value chains(GVCs) (Gereffi, 1999; Gereffi& Kaplinsky, 2001) calls attention to the opportunitiesfor local producers to learn from the global leaders of the chains that may be buyers or1producers. The internal governance of the value chain has an important effect on the scope of local firms’ upgrading (Humphrey& Schmitz, 2000).Indeed, extensive evidence on Latin America reveals that both the local and the global dimensions matter, and firms often participate in clusters as well as in value chains (Pietrobelli& Rabellotti, 2004). Both forms of organization offer opportunities to foster competitiveness via learning and upgrading. However, they also have remarkable drawbacks, as, for instance, upgrading may be limited in some forms of value chains, and clusters with little developed external economies and joint actions may have no influence on competitiveness.Moreover, both strands of literature were conceived and developed to overcome the sectoral dimension in the analysis of industrial organization and dynamism. On the one hand, studies on clusters, focusing on agglomerations of firms specializing in different stages of the filie′re, moved beyond the traditional units of analysis of industrial economics: the firm and the sector. On the other hand, according to the value chain literature, firms from different sectors may all participate in the same value chain (Gereffi, 1994). Nevertheless, SMEs located in clusters and involved in value chains, may undertake a process of upgrading in order to increase and improve their participation in the global economy, especially as the industrial sector plays a role and affects the upgrading prospects of SMEs.The contribution this paper makes is by taking into account all of these dimensions together. Thus, within this general theoretical background, this study aims to investigate the hypothesis that enterprise upgrading is simultaneously affected by firm-specific efforts and actions, and by the environment in which firms operate. The latter is crucially shaped by three characteristics: (i) the collective efficiency of the cluster in which SMEs operate, (ii) the pattern of governance of the value chain in which SMEs participate, and (iii) the peculiar features that characterize learning and innovation patterns in specific sectors.The structure of the paper is the following: in Section 2, we briefly review the concepts of clustering and value chains, and focus on their overlaps and complementarities. Section 3 first di scusses the notion of SMEs’ upgrading and thenintroduces a categorization of groups of sectors, based on the notions underlying the Pavitt taxonomy, and applied to the present economic reality of Latin America. Section 4reports the original empirical evidence on a large sample of Latin American clusters, and shows that the sectoral dimension matters to explain why clustering and participating in global value chains offer different opportunities for upgrading in different groups of sectors. Section5 summarizes and concludes.2. CLUSTERS AND VALUE CHAINSDuring the last two decades, the successful performance of industrial districts in the developed world, particularly in Italy, has stimulated new attention to the potential offered by this form of industrial organization for firms of developing countries. The capability of clustered firms to be economically viable and grow has attracted a great deal of interest in development studies. 1In developing countries, the sectoral and geographical concentration of SMEs is rather common, and a wide range of cases has since been reported. 2 Obviously, the existence of acritical mass of specialized and agglomerated activities, in a number of cases with historically strong roots, does not necessarily imply that these clusters share all the stylized facts which identify the Marshall type of district, as firstly defined by Becattini (1987). 3 Nonetheless, clustering may be considered as a major facilitating factor for a number of subsequent developments (which may or may not occur): division and specialization of labor, the emergence of a wide network of suppliers, the appearance of agents who sell to distant national and international markets, the emergence of specialized producer services, the materialization of a pool of specialized and skilled workers, and the formation of business associations.To capture the positive impacts of these factors on the competitiveness of firms located in clusters, Schmitz (1995)introduced the concept of ‘‘collective efficiency’’ (CE) defined as the competitive advantage derived from local external economies and joint action. The concept of external economies 4 was first introduced by Marshall in his Principles of Economics(1920). According to Schmitz (1999a), incidental external economies (EE) are of importance in explaining the competitiveness of industrial clusters, but there is also a deliberate force at work: consciously pursued joint action(JA).Such joint action can be within vertical or horizontal linkages. 5The combination of both incidental external economies and the effects of active cooperation defines the degree of collective efficiency of a cluster and, dynamically, its potential for fostering SMEs’ upgrading. Both dimensions are crucial: Only incidental, passive external economies may not suffice without joint actions, and the latter hardly develop in the absence of external economies. Thus, our focus is on the role of intracluster vertical and horizontal relationships generating collective efficiency.However, recent changes in production systems, distribution channels and financial markets, accelerated by the globalization of product markets and the spread of information technologies, suggest that more attention needs to be paid to external linkages. 6 Gereffi’s global value chain approach (Gereffi, 1999) helps us to take into account activities taking place outside the cluster and, in particular, to understand the strategic role of the relationships with key external actors.From an analytical point of view, the value chain perspective is useful because (Kaplinsky,2001; Wood, 2001) the focus moves from manufacturing only to the other activities involved in the supply of goods and services, including distribution and marketing. All these activities contribute to add value. Moreover, the ability to identify the activities providing higher returns along the value chain is key to understanding the global appropriation of the returns to production.Value chain research focuses on the nature of the relationships among the various actors involved in the chain, and on their implications for development (Humphrey & Schmitz, 2002b). To study these relationships, the concept of ‘‘governance’’ is central to the analysis.At any point in the chain, some degree of governance or coordination is required in order to take decisions not only on ‘‘what’’ should be, or ‘‘how’’ something should be, produced but sometimes also ‘‘when,’’ ‘‘how much,’’ and even ‘‘at what price.’’ Coordination may occur through arm’s-length market relations or non market relationships. In the latter case, following Humphrey and Schmitz (2000), we distinguish three possible types of governance:(a) network implying cooperationbetween firms of more or less equal power which share their competencies within the chain; (b) quasi-hierarchy involving relationships between legally independent firms in which one is subordinated to the other, with a leader in the chain defining the rules to which the rest of the actors have to comply; and (c) hierarchy when a firm is owned by an external firm.Also stressed is the role played by GVC leaders, particularly by the buyers, in transferring knowledge along the chains. For small firms in less developed countries (LDCs), participation in value chains is a way to obtain information on the need and mode to gain access to global markets. Yet, although this information has high value for local SMEs, the role played by the leaders of GVCs in fostering and supporting the SMEs’ upgrading process is less clear. Gereffi (1999), mainly focusing on East Asia, assumes a rather optimistic view, emphasizing the role of the leaders that almost automatically promote process, product, and functional upgrading among small local producers. Pietrobelli and Rabellotti (2004) present a more differentiated picture for Latin America.In line with the present approach, Humphrey and Schmitz (2000) discuss the prospects of upgrading with respect to the pattern of value chain governance. They conclude that insertion in a quasi-hierarchical chain offers very favorable conditions for process and product upgrading, but hinders functional upgrading. Networks offer ideal upgrading conditions, but they are the least likely to occur for developing country producers. In addition, a more dynamic approach suggests that chain governance is not given forever and may change because(Humphrey & Schmitz, 2002b): (a) power relationships may evolve when existing producers, or their spin offs, acquire new capabilities;(b) establishing and maintaining quasi-hierarchical governance is costly for the lead firm and leads to inflexibility because of transaction specific investments; and (c) firms and cluster soften do not operate only in one chain but simultaneously in several types of chains, and they may apply competencies learned in one chain to supply other chains.In sum, both modes of organizing production, that is, the cluster and the value chain, offer interesting opportunities for the upgrading and modernization of localfirms, and are not mutually exclusive alternatives. However, in order to assess their potential contribution to local SMEs’ innovation and upgrading, we need to understand their organization of inter firm linkages and their internal governance. Furthermore, as we explain in the following section, the nature of their dominant specialization also plays a role and affects SMEs’ upgrading prospects.3. THE SECTORAL DIMENSION OFSMEs’ UPGRADING(a) The concept of upgradingThe concept of upgrading—making better products, making them more efficiently, or moving in to more skilled activities—has often been used in studies on competitiveness (Kaplinsky,2001; Porter, 1990), and is relevant here.Following this approach, upgrading is decisively related to innovation. Here we define upgrading as innovating to increase value added. 7 Enterprises achieve this in various ways, such as, for example, by entering higher unit value market niches or new sectors, or by undertaking new productive (or service) functions. The concept of upgrading may be effectively described for enterprises working within a value chain, where four types of upgrading are singled out (Humphrey & Schmitz, 2000): —Process upgrading is transforming inputs into outputs more efficiently by reorganizing the production system or introducing superior technology ., footwear producers in the Sinos Valley; Schmitz, 1999b).—Product upgrading is moving into more sophisticated product lines in terms of increased unit values ., the apparel commodity chain in Asia upgrading from discount chains to department stores; Gereffi,1999).—Functional upgrading is acquiring new, superior functions in the chain, such as design or marketing or abandoning existing low-value added functions to focus on higher value added activities ., Torreon’s blue jeans industry upgrading from maquila to ‘‘full-package’’ manufacturing; Bair&Gereffi, 2001).—Inter sectoral upgrading is applying the competence acquired in a particular function to move into a new sector. For instance, in Taiwan, competence in producing TVs was used to make monitors and then to move into the computer sector (Guerrieri & Pietrobelli,2004; Humphrey & Schmitz,2002b). In sum, upgrading within a valuechain implies going up on the value ladder, moving away from activities in which competitionis of the ‘‘low road’’ type and entry barriers are low.Our focus on upgrading requires moving a step forward and away from Ricardo’s static con cept of ‘‘Comparative Advantage’’ (CA). While CA registers ex-post gaps in relative productivity which determine international trade flows, success in firmlevel upgrading enables the dynamic acquisition of competitiveness in new market niches, sectors or phases of the productive chain (Lall, 2001; Pietrobelli, 1997). In sum, the logic goes from innovation, to upgrading, to the acquisition of firm-level competitiveness., competitive advantage). 8In this paper, we argue that the concept of competitive advantage increasingly matters. In the theory of comparative advantage, what matters is relative productivity, determining different patterns of inter industry specialization. Within such a theoretical approach, with perfectly competitive markets, firms need to target only production efficiency. In fact, this is not enough, and competitive advantage is the relevant concept to analyze SMEs’ performance because of (i) the existence of forms of imperfect competition in domestic and international markets and (ii) the presence of different degrees of (dynamic) externalities in different subsect or sand stages of the value chain.More specifically, in non perfectly competitive market rents and niches of ‘‘extra- normal’’ profits often emerge, and this explains the efforts to enter selectively specific segments rather than simply focusing on efficiency improvements, regardless of the prevailing productive specialization (as advocated by the theory of CA). Moreover, different stages in the value chain offer different scope for dynamic externalities. Thus, for example, in traditional manufacturing, the stages of design, product innovation, marketing, and distribution may all foster competitiveness increases in related activities and sectors. The advantage of functional upgrading is in reducing the fragility and vulnerability of an enterprise’s productive specialization. Competition from new entrants—., firms from developing countries with lower production costs, crowding out incumbents—is stronger in the manufacturing phases of the value chain than in other more knowledge and organization-intensive phases ., product designand innovation, chain management, distribution and retail, etc.).Therefore, functional upgrading may bring about more enduring and solid competitiveness.For all these reasons, the concept of production efficiency is encompassed withinthe broader concept of competitiveness, and the efforts to upgrade functionally and inter sectorally (and the policies to support these processes) are justified to reap larger rents and externalities emerging in specific stages of the value chain, market niches,or sectors.An additional element that crucially affects the upgrading prospects of firms and clusters is the sectoral dimension. Insofar as we have defined upgrading as innovating to increase value added, then all the factors influencing innovation acquire a new relevance. This dimension is often overlooked in studies on clusters, perhaps due to the fact that most of these studies are not comparative but rather detailed intra industry case studies.In order to take into account such a sectoral dimension, and the effect this may have on the firms’ pattern of innovation and learning, we need to introduce the concept of ‘‘tacit knowledge.’’ This notion was first introduced by Polanyi(1967) and then discussed in the context of evolutionary economics by Nelson and Winter(1982). It refers to the evidence that some aspects of technological knowledge are well articulated, written down in manuals and papers, and taught. Others are largely tacit, mainly learned through practice and practical examples. In essence, this is knowledge which can be freely used by its owners, but that can not be easily expressed and communicated to anyone else. The tacit component of technological knowledge makes its transfer and application costly and difficult. As a result, the mastery of a technology may require an organization to be active in the earlier stages of its development, and a close and continuous interaction between the user and the producer—or transfer—of such knowledge. Inter firm relationships are especially needed in this context. Tacit knowledge is an essential dimension to define a useful grouping of economic(b) Sectoral specificities in upgrading and innovation: a classification for Latin8American countriesThe impact of collective efficiency and patterns of governance on the capacity of SMEs to upgrade may differ across sectors. This claim is based upon the consideration that sectoral groups differ in terms of technological complexity and in the modes and sources of innovation and upgrading. 9 As shown by innovation studies, in some sectors, vertical relations with suppliers of inputs may be particularly important sources of product and process upgrading (as in the case of textiles and the most traditional manufacturing), while in other sectors, technology users, organizations such as universities or the firms themselves (as, for example, with software or agro industrial products) may provide major stimuli for technical change (Pavitt,1984; Von Hippel, 1987).Consistently with this approach, the properties of firm knowledge bases across different sectors (Malerba & Orsenigo, 1993) 10 mayaffect the strategic relevance of collective efficiencyfor the processes of upgrading in clusters. Thus, for example, in traditional manufacturing sectors, technology has important tacit and idiosyncratic elements, and therefore, upgrading strongly depends on the intensity of technological externalities and cooperation among local actors ., firms, research centers, and technology and quality diffusion centers), in other words, upgrading depends on the degree of collective efficiency. While in other groups ., complex products or large natural resource-based firms) technology is more codified and the access to external sources of knowledge such as transnational corporations(TNCs, or research laboratories located in developed countries become more critical for upgrading. Furthermore, the differences across sectoral groups raise questions on the role of global buyers in fostering (or hindering) the upgrading in different clusters. Thus, for example, global buyers may be more i nvolved and interested in their providers’ upgrading if the technology required is mainly tacit and requires intense interaction. Moreover, in traditional manufacturing industries, characterized by a low degree of technological complexity, firms are likely to be included in GVCs even if they have very low technological capabilities. Therefore, tight supervision and direct support become necessary conditions for global buyers who rely on the competencies of their9local suppliers and want to reduce the risk of non compliance(Humphrey & Schmitz, 2002b). The situation is at the opposite extreme in the case of complex products, where technology is often thoroughly codified and the technological complexity requires that firms have already internal technological capabilities to be subcontracted, otherwise large buyers would not contract them at all.In order to take into account the above-mentioned hypotheses, we develop a sectoral classification, adapting existing taxonomies to the Latin American case. 11 On the basis of Pavitt’s seminal work (1984), we consider that in Latin America, in- house R&D activities are very low both in domestic and foreign firms (Archibugi& Pietrobelli, 2003), domestic inter sectoral linkages have been displaced by trade liberalization(Cimoli & Katz, 2002), and university-industry linkages appear to be still relatively weak (Arocena & Sutz, 2001). 12 Furthermore, in the past 10 years, Latin America has deepened its productive specialization in resource based sectors and has weakened its position in more engineering intensive industries (Katz,2001), reflecting its rich endowment of natural resources, relatively more than human and technical resources (Wood & Berge, 1997).Hence, we retain Pavitt’s key notions and identify four main sectoral groups for Latin America on the basis of the way learning and upgrading occur, and on the related industrial organization that most frequently prevails. 13The categories are as follows:1. Traditional manufacturing, mainly labor intensive and ‘‘traditional’’ technology industries such as textiles, footwear, tiles, and furniture;2. Natural resource-based sectors (NRbased),implying the direct exploitation of natural resources, for example, copper, marble, fruit, etc.;3. Complex products industries (COPs), including, among others, automobiles, autocomponents and aircraft industries, ICT and consumer electronics;4. Specialized suppliers, in our LA cases, essentially of these categories tends to havea predominant learning and innovating behavior, in terms of main sources of technical change, dependence on basic or applied research, modes of in-house innovation .,‘‘routinized’’ versus large R&D laboratories), tacitness or codified nature ofknowledge, scale and relevance of R&D activity, and appropriability of10innovation(Table 1).Traditional manufacturing and resource-based sectors are by far the most present in LatinAmerica, and therefore especially relevant toour present aims of assessing SMEs’ potential for upgrading within clusters and value chains. Traditional manufacturing is defined as supplier dominated, because major process innovations are introduced by producers of inputs ., machinery, materials, etc.). Indeed, firm shave room to upgrade their products (and processes)by developing or imitating new produ cts’ designs, often interacting with large buyers that increasingly play a role in shaping the design of final products and hence the specificities of the process of production (times, quality standards, and costs).Natural resource-based sectors crucially rely on the advancement of basic and applied science, which, due to low appropriability conditions, is most often undertaken by public research institutes, possibly in connection with producers (farmers, breeders, etc.). 14 In these sectors, applied research is mainly carried out by input suppliers ., chemicals, machinery, etc.) which achieve economies of scale and appropriate the results of their research through patents.Complex products are defined as ‘‘high cost, eng ineering-intensive products, subsystems, or constructs supplied by a unit of production’’ (Hobday, 1998), 15 where the local network is normally anchored to one ‘‘assembler,’’ which operates asa leading firm characterized by high design and technological capabilities. To our aims, the relationships of local suppliers with these ‘‘anchors’’ may be crucial to foster (or hinder) firms’ upgrading through technology and skill transfers (or the lackof them).Scale-intensive firms typically lead complex product sectors (Bell & Pavitt, 1993), where the process of technical change is realized within an architectural set (Henderson & Clark, 1990), and it is often incremental and modular.Among the Specialized Suppliers, we only consider software, which is typically client driven. This is an especially promising sector for developing countries’ SMEs, due to the low transport and physical capital costs and the high information intensityof the sector, which moderates the importance of proximity to final markets andextends the scope for a deeper international division of labor. Moreover, the11disintegration of some productive cycles, such as for example of telecommunications, opens up new market niches with low entry barriers(Torrisi, 2003). However, at the same time, the proximity of the market and of clients may crucially improve the development of design capabilities and thereby foster product/process up grading. Thus, powerful pressures for cluste ring and globalization coexist in this sector.The different learning patterns across these four groups of activities are expected to affect the process of upgrading of clusters in value chains. This paper also aims at analyzing with original empirical evidence whether—and how—the sectoral dimension influences this process in Latin America.4. METHODOLOGY: COLLECTIONAND ANALYSIS OF DATAThis study is based on the collection of original data from 12 clusters in Latin America that have not hitherto been investigated, and on an extensive review of cluster studies available. The empirical analysis was carried out from September 2002 to June 2003 with the support of the Inter American Development Bank. An international team of 12 experts in Italy and in four LA countries collected and reviewed the empirical data.Desk and field studies were undertaken following the same methodology, which involved field interviews with local firms, institutions, and observers, interviews with foreign buyers and TNCs involved in the local cluster, and secondary sources such as publications and Case studies were selected which fulfilled the following conditions: (1) agglomeration: all cases show some degree of geographical SME clustering; 17 (2) upgrading: the clusters selected have experienced some degree of upgrading, of whatever nature ., product, process, functional, inter sectoral); and (3) policy lessons: all cases offer relevant policy lessons for future experiences either in terms of successesor failures.A total of 40 case studies were selected forth is analysis. 18 The list of cases,albeit incomplete, is—to our knowledge—the largest available on which comparative exercises have been carried out, and provides a good approximation to the reality of clusters and value chains in LA. Thus, although it cannot claim to correspond to the universe of clusters in the region, it represents a database that allows reasonable。

会计学中英文对照外文翻译文献

会计学中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文资料外文翻译文献Title:Future of SME finance(Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks arevery active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance forthe SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial marketauthorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission andthe new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level:termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments inSMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译题目:未来的中小企业融资背景:中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品,贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。

财务管理外文文献及翻译2

财务管理外文文献及翻译2

财务管理外文文献及翻译2附录A:外文文献(译文)跨国公司财务有重大国外经营业务的公司经常被称作跨国公司或多国企业。

跨国公司必须考虑许多并不会对纯粹的国内企业产生直接影响的财务因素,其中包括外币汇率、各国不同的利率、国外经营所用的复杂会计方法、外国税率和外国政府的干涉等。

公司财务的基本原理仍然适用于跨国企业。

与国内企业一样,它们进行的投资项目也必须为股东提供比成本更多的收益,也必须进行财务安排,用尽可能低的成本进行融资。

净现值法则同时适用于国内经营和国外经营,但是,国外经营应用净现值法则时通常更加复杂。

也许跨国财务中最复杂的是外汇问题。

当跨国公司进行资本预算决策或融资决策时,外汇市场能为其提供信息和机会。

外汇、利率和通货膨胀三者的相互关系构成了汇率基本理论。

即:购买力平价理论、利率平价理论和预测理论。

跨国公司融资决策通常要在以下三种基本方法中加以选择,我们将讨论每种方法的优缺点。

(1) 把现金由国内输出用于国外经营业务;(2) 向投资所在国借贷;(3) 向第三国借贷。

1专业术语学习财务的学生通常会听到一个单词总在耳边嗡嗡作响:全球化( g l o b a l i z a t i on )。

学习资金市场的全球化必须首先掌握一些新的术语,以下便是在跨国财务中,还有本章中最常用到的一些术语:(1) 美国存托证(American Depository Receipt,ADR)。

它是在美国发行的一种代表外国股权的证券,它使得外国股票可在美国上市交易。

外国公司运用以美元发行的ADR,来扩大潜在美国投资者群体。

ADR以两种形式代表大约690家外国公司:一是在某个交易所挂牌交易的 ADR,称为公司保荐形式;另一种是非保荐形式,这些ADR通常由投资银行持有并为其做市。

这两种形式的ADR均可由个人投资和买卖,但报纸每天只报告保荐形式的存托证的交易情况。

(2) 交叉汇率(cross rate)。

它是指两种外国货币(通常都不是美元)之间的汇率。

外文文献及翻译---ERP项目实施成功因素和风险管理

外文文献及翻译---ERP项目实施成功因素和风险管理

ERP项目实施成功因素和风险管理参考国外的一些文献资料,一个成功的ERP项目,往往要花费数年时间,数千万美元得以完成。

再回头看国内,随着ERP怀疑论的抬头,价格战的兴起,ERP作为一种软件供应商的产品,却有走下神坛趋势。

就连ERP界的首领SAP也推出了Business One产品,价格低于十万。

不过,即便ERP软件能做到免费,或如IBM推崇的按需收费的境界,从整个企业实施的角度,考虑到人员、培训、维护、业务重组、二次开发、三次、n次开发,其费用应该也在数百万乃至千万人民币的规模。

这对于国内企业而言,已是不小的数目了。

但是,还是有不少企业怀着美丽的梦想,踏上ERP实施的艰辛之旅。

其中又有不少项目以失败告终。

而对于那些最后的幸存者,是否就可以还戟入仓,饮酒高歌呢?事实上,企业在成功实施ERP项目后,将面对较实施前更大的风险。

在未来的五到十年中,是否有一个扎实的ERP风险管理机制将决定了企业是否能在最初的ERP投资中真正获益。

1998年Thomas H. Davenport在哈佛商务评论发表了名为《将企业放入企业系统》的文章(Putting the ent ERP rise into the ent ERP rise system)。

该文系统地提出了企业系统,或称ERP系统给企业运作带来积极及消极的引响。

同时也直接提出了未来企业必须面对的一个风险:将整个企业放入企业系统中的风险。

按照美国项目管理协会对风险的定义,“风险”是指对项目有利或不利的不确定因素。

项目是“为完成某一独特的产品或服务所做的一次性努力”,项目的“独特性”决定了项目不可能是以与以前完全相同的方式、由与以前完全相同的人来完成的,同时,项目所要创造的产品或服务,以及项目可能涉及的范围、时间及成本都不可能在项目开始时完全确定,因此,在项目进行过程中也相应会出现大量的不确定性,即项目风险。

本文以下所提到的“风险”是指对项目“不利”的不确定因素。

会计 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 新会计准则

会计 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 新会计准则

附录外文资料:On February 15, 2006, the Ministry of Finance issued 1 item of basic accounting standards and 38 specific guidelines, the new set of accounting standards system. Standards issued, the community gave wide attention, the securities industry, business circles, academic circles gave height the opinion, think this is the second in 1993 accounting reform after another is of great significance to the accounting reform, marking China's convergence with international financial reporting standards of enterprise accounting standards system formally established, to improve the China's socialist market economic system, improve the level of opening up and accelerate China's integration into the global economy has important significance.Also expressed their concerns and worries, mainly reflected in the following aspects: a fair value is difficult to "fair", and is very likely to become the profit manipulation tools; two is the enterprise may to adjust earnings manipulation debt restructuring, debt restructuring will once again become the darling of the securities market; three is the new standard published may induce "fair" phenomenon, which may lead to the end of 2006 enterprises will impairment assault back, at the same time accounts receivable impairment will still give listing Corporation profit adjustment leaves lots of space. These concerns whether it can become a reality? The new standards will become the corporate profits manipulation of the tool? Here we have to this a few worry about one to launch the analysis:A moderate, fair value applicationThe history of our country is a listing Corporation with the fair value of profit manipulation. Fair value appeared in 1998 in "debt recombines", "non monetary transactions" specific accounting standards, after the actual operation in many companies the abuse of fair value and profit manipulation in 2001 revised guidelines by the restriction of the use of. The new criterion system in financial tool, real estate investment, not the combination under common control, debt restructuring andnon-monetary transactions etc. are carefully adopted the fair value accounting standards, thus becoming the one large window. Past episodes of "story" will repeat itself? To this one problem we analyzed from the following aspects:First of all, the fair value of the assets can be achieved by using fair value valuation is the international accounting standards, the United States and most market economic countries accounting standards in general practice. International already crossed the "want" present value and fair value debate stage, and mainly in "how to use" stage; International did not because of "Enron event" appear and delay the study and adopt present value and the fair value of the process. From the beginning of 1975, 30 years, FASB on the fair value measurement system research has not stopped, the fair value in the accounting standards in the United States are used more and more widely. As of 2004, at the end of 12, FASB has released a total of 153 financial accounting standards, fair value accounting standards and related 60 (forever, 2005).Fair value has a profound theoretical basis for the ten, it accords with the economic income concept, the comprehensive income concept, cash flow and market price of accounting assumption, accounting goal, modern relevance and reliability of quality characteristics of accounting elements, essential characteristics, future basic accounting, value and value concept, measurement values and net surplus theory and financial statements of the primitive logic (Xie Sifone, 2005).The use of fair value can effectively enhance the relevance of accounting information for investors, creditors, and other stakeholders to provide more help to the information for decision making. Take the investment real estate, book 20000000 yuan, if the city price rises to $200000000 accounting should reflect 200000000 yuan, such information is really true and useful. If still persist in the statements that the 20000000 yuan, accounting treatment is simple, but this information does not help the decision-making of investors, even misleading. Any reform will not give up eating for fear of choking, accounting reform is no exception. In line with international standards is the direction, is to represent the general trend, this point is in the affirmative.Secondly, suitable for the application of the fair value of the "soil" preliminary already form. Fair value is the product of the market economy. In 2003 the Central Committee made on perfecting the socialist market economic system a number of issues, symbolizes that our country market economy already from start-up to improve, the market economy status of China has been established. The securities market of our country after ten years of development and perfection, to strengthen corporategovernance, improve operational transparency, clear violations, establishing listing Corporation integrated supervision system has made great progress. China Securities Regulatory Commission promoting the share-trading reform pilot, listing and financing program, has issued a number of regulations, strengthen the listing Corporation information disclosure and fraud and strength; the Ministry of finance to increase the quality of accounting information and the CPA audit quality inspection; listing Corporation governance level rises further, CPA, assets assessment division, independent directors such as rational economic choice for listing Corporation irregularities built several "firewall"; the majority of investors in the analysis of accounting information to judge, effective screening capacity is enhanced, the effectiveness of the securities market gradually improve. In addition, after joining the WTO, large amount of foreign capital into China, financial derivatives trading activity, produce a number, different features of derivative financial instruments, such as futures (Futures), option (Options), forward contract (Forwards Contract), swap (Swaps) etc.. As the derivative financial instruments no initial net investment is required, or very few requirements of net investment, the historical cost of its incapable of action, only the fair value to carry on the accurate recognition and measurement..FASl33 stated: fair value measurement of financial instruments is the best measurement attribute, the derivative financial instruments, fair value measurement attribute is the only. Potential of time shift, which contributes to the application of the fair value of the environment is preliminary already implementation. We must adopt the development strategy view ", not" once bitten, twice shy of ten years".In third, the fair value of the criteria in the new application is more cautious, does not lead to abuse. Compared with international financial reporting standards: China accounting standards system in determining the scope of the application of fair value, the more fully consider China's national conditions, the improvement was prudent. The use of fair value must satisfy certain conditions, in the basic guidelines in section forty-third clearly pointed out that the replacement cost, net realizable value of, present value, fair value, should be to ensure that the identified elements of accounting amounts can be obtained and the reliable measurement. In relation to specific standards, the use of fair value measurement, has clearly defined constraints. For example, in real estate investment criteria specified by the fair value measurement model, the following conditions shall be met simultaneously: one is the investmentproperty real estate located in active trading market of real estate; two is the enterprise can from the real estate trading market on the same or similar real estate market prices and other information, thus the investment real estate to make a reasonable estimate of fair value.Visible in the investing real estate standards, ban contains more hypothetical valuation techniques used, only in a certain reliability on the basis that the use of fair value, and not all of the investment real estate can be applied the fair value. So as long as the strictly in accordance with the standards, fair value will really be fair.For instance in non monetary transactions for the use of fair value, the new standards in exchange of non-monetary assets, fair value and change the carrying value of the assets included in the current profits and losses of the difference between the two conditions, namely the exchange must be commercial in nature, and a change of assets or the fair value of the assets surrendered can be measured reliably. Commercial essence refers to, must be changed in the future cash flow of the assets at risk, time and amount of assets surrendered and were significantly different, or substitution of assets and the assets surrendered the present value of estimated future cash flows are different, and the difference between the assets and the change of the fair value of the assets is more significant than the. The new guidelines are also provided to determine whether is commercial in nature, an enterprise shall pay attention to whether or not the transacting parties are related party relationship. Related party relationship may lead to the occurrence of non monetary assets exchange is not commercial in nature. These preconditions, will effectively restricted to non monetary assets exchange way of earnings manipulation behavior. From these rules, we can see that, the application of fair value is strictly restricted conditions, the fair value is not allowed to abuse.The new standards require that the fair value to "reliable" and not "just, fair value estimate" is no longer the eraser ruler. The author thinks, fair value to be profit manipulation tools need to also have three elements: the listing Corporation management deliberate fraud, accounting audit staff lose occupation moral and securities market regulatory failure. In fact with the three elements, any system can effectively play a protective role, therefore, establishing and perfecting accounting standards supporting management system is urgent.Two, the debt restructuring reform from the bottomThe new debt restructuring guidelines stipulated in debt restructuring gains can be included in the current profits and losses. As a debtor's listing Corporation, the new debt restructuring guidelines means that, once the creditor concessions, listing Corporation acquired interests will be directly included in the current income, into a profit report. Debt restructuring is likely to increase profits, improve earnings per share. But this approach achieved with the international convergence of financial reporting standards, reflects the essence of transaction debt restructuring, debt restructuring gains is after all the creditors rather than owners concessions, the past will not pass the profit and loss statement directly included in the capital reserve, it is under the special background of a matter of expediency, now be included in the profit and loss, is not "white" the "black", but the reform from the bottom. The new guidelines on the definition of debt restructuring, made clear only in "the debtor's financial difficulties." the premise condition, can get debt concession confirmed as debt restructuring gains. This condition will be restricted to a certain extent, the new guidelines on abuse, prevent inappropriate acknowledgement of debt reorganization gains.Some people think that some affiliates can also through a remit a debt, a high performance to price manipulation, insider trading, is still small shareholders suffered losses. In fact, this fear is a bit much. This is because, first, for *ST and ST company, fantasy on debt restructuring benefit, reaching for the stars is futile. Because the 2004 amendment of the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchange rules, one is freed, after deducting non-recurring profits and losses, net profit is positive. Debt restructuring to listing Corporation profits, in actual accountant operation, will be included in operating income, which belongs to the non-recurring profit and loss, thus can in St, the stars are deducted from; second, has experienced more than 10 years of stock market investors' groundless talk, analysis and judgment ability and self protection consciousness had very big rise, debt restructuring guidelines requiring companies to disclose the fair value of the methods and basis for the ascertainment, investors can easily recognize the debt restructuring packaging profits, in order to make a rational choice .Investors blindly follow Zhuang, slaughter age has gone for ever.In three, the impairment of Chinese characteristicsNew guidelines for asset impairment provisions, asset impairment loss is confirmed, in the later period may not be back. It is based on the real situation of our country, last ditch of major change, it is with international accounting standards, with substantial differences in the. New guidelines for asset impairment will effectively curb the use impairment as a "secret reserve" adjusting profit situation. Guidelines for the implementation, use impairment adjusting profit space will become more and more small, the provision of manual adjustment of profits will be more and more difficult. Some people write civil point out new guidelines for asset impairment induced by releasing will "go" phenomenon, cause some "hidden profits" of the industry and Related Companies, possible impairment in 2006 will be ready to strike back, "crow change Phoenix" may reproduce. We analyze, first of all, if the listing Corporation snatches in the new guidelines before the implementation of the 2006 year rushs impairment, we must first examine whether such actions are the reasonable basis, namely the original has provision for the impairment of an asset value now is really picks up, and if so, to adjust the asset value will make the accounting information more real, related; secondly, in 2006 large red back impairment must make appropriate evidence of the original provision for the impairment of appropriateness, otherwise the previous provision is the abuse of accounting estimation results, should be in accordance with the accounting error handling, a reversal of impairment cannot be used as the 2006 annual profit. Moreover, the financial sector has been aware of this problem, and takes positive and effective measures, prevent the assault to adjust profit listing Corporation. In addition, some time ago the market that new guidelines will make A shares listing Corporation in 2006 to increase net profit 20000000000 Yuan hearsay, the survey is author's subjective, concerned media specially clarification.Others receivables and other four impairment expressed worry, think accounts receivable (especially the "shareholders of account") will become the "eight project" of the main means of profit manipulation. In fact, in the new guidelines, receivables is as financial assets, and the depreciation detailed provisions, requires that there must be "objective evidence" of impairment to provision for impairment, such evidence includes the debtor serious financial difficulties, is likely to fail or other financial restructuring. Can be said that the criterion is more and more perfect, then the "this year that cannot take back full provision, next year 'efforts' and back", this "to practice deception" approach, which itself has violated rules, to pass the CPA audit and hidfrom investors eye, I'm afraid some difficulty.Through the above analysis, we can see some people on the new criterion a few concerns, many in reality does not exist, or is in the process of the reform of the price to be paid for, and far from their imagination so serious. But these concerns also remind standards departments in the formulation of standards to the full attention of guidelines for the technical and economic consequences, in the setting of the new guidelines in the process, give full consideration to guideline implementation may arise in the course of the various problems, and further make a specific interpretation and explanation, improving guidelines operation, improve accounting information quality.Also need to point out in particular, accounting standards is a production of accounting information of the specification, it is to solve the problem of "how to do". On the accounting standards of the malicious misuse of guidelines for the implementation of the "people", from the perspective of the listing Corporation is the ecological problems, to strengthen supervision, occupation moral construction, improve the ability of investors screening accounting information system engineering to solve, cannot be attributed to the guidelines themselves. And the new accounting and auditing standards system come on stage; it is to promote the improvement of listing Corporation governance ecology effective measure. Say from this meaning, we are not going to worry about me, but "criteria for the beat and breathe out".Note: ① according to the "Shanghai Stock Exchange Listing Rules (2004 Revision)" provisions, *ST indicated the presence of terminating the listing of special processing and ST risk for other special treatment.Main referencesMinistry of finance. In 2006 accounting standards for business enterprises. Economic Science PressYu Monishing. The 2005 fair value in the United States of America's application research. Financial theory, 9Xie Stiffen, wearing Zili.2005 present value and fair value accounting: financial reform is the important premise of twenty-first Century. Theory and practice of Finance and economics, 9中文资料:2006年2月15日,财政部发布了包括1项基本准则和38项具体准则在内的新的一整套企业会计准则体系。

关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)

关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)

The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be replaced by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTATIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法,以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。

BXXX公司的ERP应用及对策研究外文参考文献译文及原文DOC

BXXX公司的ERP应用及对策研究外文参考文献译文及原文DOC

BXXX公司的ERP应用及对策研究外文参考文献译文及原文DOC本科毕业设计(论文)外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济管理学院专业工商管理年级班别学号学生姓名指导教师年月日目录外文文献译文 (1)1 ERP的定义及国内应用现状 (1)2 ERP应用成功率低的原因 (2)2.1 ERP系统太复杂烦琐 (2)2.2 ERP系统投资巨大 (2)2.3 ERP系统实施周期长变化多 (3)2.4 ERP系统技术含量高 (3)2.5 企业无法确保实施ERP所需数据的准确性和时效性 (3) 2.6 企业尚未对应用ERP的前期准备有充分认识 (3)2.7 对于ERP软件的选择问题没有足够的调研与论证 (4)3 对策研究 (4)3.1 全面提高企业人力资源素质 (4)3.2 明确的ERP应用目标是提高应用水平和应用效益的关键 (5) 3.3 业务流程重组是成功应用ERP的基础 (5)3.4 充分发挥咨询监理的作用实现ERP目标 (6)3.5 建立ERP应用绩效评价体系 (6)3.6 结合国情厂情进行ERP正确选型 (7)4 案例分析 (7)5 结论 (10)外文文献原文 (11)1. ERP definition and application of domestic (11)2. ERP application of the low success rate of the reasons (12)2.1 ERP system is too complex and complicated (12)2.2 ERP System huge investment (12)2.3 ERP system is implemented over a long life cycle changes (13)2.4 ERP systems with high technological content (13)2.5 Inabilities to ensure the implementation of ERP for data accuracy andtimeliness (13)2.6 Enterprise ERP application has yet to the preparations ofa fullunderstanding (14)2.7 ERP software for the selection without sufficient research anddemonstration (12)3. Countermeasure research (15)3.1 Comprehensively improve the quality of human resources in enterprises (15)3.2 ERP application of a clear objective is to increase the level of applicationand application efficiency of the key (16)3.3 Business Process Reengineering is the successful application of ERP (17)3.4 Into full play the role of the Commissioner of the Advisory ERP goal (18)3.5 The establishment of ERP Application Performance Evaluation System (18)3.6 Combined national factory conditions for the correct ERP Selection (19)4. Case Studies (20)5. Conclusion (22)外文文献译文1ERP的定义及国内应用现状走国际化、规范化、规模化的道路,是企业发展的必然,而要做到这一点,ERP的引入是必不可少的。

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ERP implementation issues in advancedand developing countriesAbstractThere is an increasing need to implement a total business solution which supports major functionalities of a business. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software is designed to meet this need, and has been widely adopted by organizations in developed countries. Meanwhile, ERP is beginning to appear in many organizations of developing countries. Little research has been conducted to compare the implementation practices of ERP in developed vs developing countries. Our research shows that ERP technology faces additional challenges in developing countries related to economic, cultural, and basic infrastructure issues. This article identifies a range of issues concerning ERP implementation by making a comparison of advanced and developing countries.Key words: Enterprise Resource management; Implementation; Developing countries.Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an industry term for the broad set of activities supported by multi-module application software that helps a manufacturer or a service business manage the important parts of its business. Evolving from MRP systems, ERP has played a significant role in IT for several decades. Since the first symbiotic ERP product SAP created in 1972, ERP market revenues are expected to be as high as $52 billion by the year 2002. While there is wide acceptance of ERP in developed countries such as the USA, Canada, the UK, and Australia, developing countries lag far behind. At present, North America occupies 66 percent of the ERP market, Europe takes 22 percent, while the whole of Asia is only at 9 percent. However, due to economic growth, developing countries in Asia and Latin America are becoming major targets of big ERP vendors.ERP in developed countriesERP systems have been widely used by companies in developed countries. Organizations in manufacturing, service, and energy industries adopt ERP to:•automate the deployment and management of material, finance and human resources;•streamline processes and achieve process improvement;•achieve global competitiveness.In this section, North America, Europe are selected as representative developed countries.North America (USA, Canada)Europeans designed the first integrated ERP system –SAP in Germany, 1972, whereas, organizations in North America seem to have richer experience in this kind of software and have used integrated software solutions for decades. As commercial systems evolved from material planning (MRP) to enterprise planning (ERP), companies continued investment to bring in newer systems. Currently, two out of three ERP deals in North America are replacement deals.The USA is the primary target of ERP and represents 66 percent of revenues for the major vendors. Before 2000, one major concern of North American corporations was Y2K problems. After Y2K, management turned its eyes to extending its enterprises. Several trends have appeared. E-commerce is a major force. Organizations want their ERP systems to connect more tightly with suppliers and customers via e-commerce. Supply chain management (SCM) products, regarded as post-ERP, are now entering into North American organizations. SCM functions include demand forecasting, sourcing and procurement, inventory and warehouse management, and distribution logistics.Europe (UK, Germany, France)Europe is the second largest target ERP sales market (at 22 percent). Many big ERP vendors started their business from Europe; e.g. SAP AG, Baan, JBA International and Intentia. Historically, strong manufacturing industry is an underlying reason for so many ERP vendors in Europe. There are several reasons for Europe’s ERP market. First, economically advanced countries have a solid industrial and manufacturing base. Second, there is a strong national information infrastructure. Third, the multiple-language and multi-currency requirements make the ERP software attractive. Fourth, quality employees are available to implement advanced technologies. Characteristics of ERP implementation in developed countriesIt is easy to understand why North America and Europe occupy the largest ERP market. From national and environmental perspectives, these countries have excellent infrastructures which effectively facilitate IT diffusion. Strong economic base and growth further drive the need for new technology. Governmental IT policy, deregulation and organizational enthusiasm for IT fuel technology development. New technologies such as ERP, SCM and others are quickly absorbed by organizations in almost all industries.From an organizational perspective, companies in developed countries are more likely to succeed. Higher IT maturity and favorable computer culture make organizations ready to handle complex technology. Also organizations are developing a strong process management orientation (Davenport, 1994). BPR is practiced frequently in North American and European countries.Some trends are observable. First, small and middle sized enterprises (SMEs) are becoming targets of ERP vendors. Second, ERP coupled with e-commerce functionality will dominate the market. E-commerce is becoming a new way of doing business between business and business (B2B) and between business and customer (B2C). CIOs are planning to build electronic commerce and decision-support extensions to ERP implementations. Meanwhile, e-commerce based ERP systems are commercially available。

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