Factors in the Change of English Word Meaning
词汇学作业changes of word meaning
词汇学论文外国语学院题目：causes and types of changes in word meaningCauses and types of changes inword meaning[ Abstract ] We have learned that vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the sign-shapes and sign contents. Comparatively, the latter is even more unstable than the former.[1]Almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a centuryago. The meaning of word is changing since the beginning of the language and will continue in the future because all sorts of reasons and from these changes we can summarize some of their characters and forms.The reason of changing about meaning can be very complicated, but generally speaking, we can divide them into two main causes, that are extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors. And transformation of word-meaning follow a number of patterns, the major patterns are: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, transference, and euphemism. Of these major tendencies, extension and narrowing are by far the most common. It’s not only very fun to find the accounts and their relationship between old and new meaning of wordbut also have vital significance in the process of our study.In this thesis I will discuss in some details of the reasons of change and the major patterns of change.[摘要]由于词汇的形式和词义都在连续地发生变化，因而词汇是语言中最不稳定的元素。
2013年考研英语二真题及答案(完整版)
2013年研究生入学考试英语一真题与解析英语二完型Section I Use of EnglishDirections: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)Given the advantages of electronic money, you might think that we would move quickly to the cashless society in which all payments are made electronically.___1___, a true cashless society is probably not around the corner. Indeed, predictions of such a society have been ___2___ for two decades but have not yet come to fruition. For example, Business Week predicted in 1975 that electronic means of payment “would soon revolutionize the very ___3___ of money itself,” only to ___4___ itself several years later. Why has the movement to a cashless society been so ___5___ in coming?Although e-money might be more convenient and may be more efficient than a payments system based on paper, several factors work __6___ the disappearance of the paper system. First, it is very ___7___ to set up the computer, card reader, and telecommunications networks necessary to make electronic money the___8___ form of payment. Second, paper checks have the advantage that they___9___ receipts, something that many consumers are unwilling to ___10___. Third, the use of paper checks gives consumers several days of "float"-it takes several days ___11___ a check is cashed and funds are ___12___ from the issuer's account, which means that the writer of the check can earn interest on the funds in the meantime. ___13___ electronic payments are immediate, they eliminate the float for the consumer. Fourth, electronic means of payment ___14___ security and privacy concerns. We often hear media reports that an unauthorized hacker has been able to access a computer database and to alter information ___15___ there.Because this is not an ___16___ occurrence, unscrupulous persons might be able to access bank accounts in electronic payments systems and ___17___ funds by moving them from someone else’s accounts into their own. The ___18___ of thistype of fraud is no easy task, and a whole new field of computer science has developed to ___19___ security issues. A further concern is that the use of electronic means of payment leaves an electronic ___20___ that contains a large amount of personal data on buying habits. There are worries that government, employers, and marketers might be able to access these data, thereby encroaching on our privacy.1. [A] However [B] Moreover [C] Therefore [D] Otherwise2. [A] off [B] back [C] over [D] around3. [A] power [B] concept [C] history [D] role4. [A] reward [B] resist [C] resume [D] reverse5. [A] silent [B] sudden [C] slow [D] steady6. [A] for [B] against [C]with [D] on7. [A] imaginative [B] expensive [C] sensitive [D] productive8. [A] similar [B] original [C] temporary [D] dominant9. [A] collect [B] provide [C] copy [D] print10. [A] give up [B] take over [C] bring back [D] pass down11. [A] before [B] after [C] since [D] when12. [A] kept [B] borrowed [C] released [D] withdrawn13. [A] Unless [B] Until [C] Because [D] Though14. [A] hide [B] express [C] raise [D]ease15. [A] analyzed [B] shared [C] stored [D] displayed16. [A] unsafe [B] unnatural [C] uncommon [D] unclear17. [A] steal [B] choose [C] benefit [D] return18. [A] consideration [B] prevention [C] manipulation [D] justification19. [A] cope with [B] fight against [C] adapt to [D] call for20. [A] chunk [B] chip [C] path [D] trail答案：1-5: ADBDC6-10: BBDBA11-15: ADCCC16-20: CABAD英语二阅读原文及出处：Text 1In an essay, entitled “Making It in America,”in the latest issue of The Atlantic, the author Adam Davidson relates a joke from cotton country about just how much a modern textile mill has been automated: The average mill has only two employees today, “a man and a dog. The man is there to feed the dog, and the dog is there to keep the man away from the machines。
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。
The Change of the English Language
XXXXXXXXXEnglish and American Literature11 November, 2011The Change of the English LanguageAs the year goes by, English has changed a lot from ancient times to modern times. I supposed that English language has changed into an easier and more international one. We can see that more and more people throughout the world begin to learn and use English. The English language has changed in many ways, pronunciation, spelling, grammar etc.After reading Beowulf, a poem written in Old English, the only thing I have in my mind is that Old English is just a mystery, I can’t understand it, even just read one word. After searching for some information, I have known something about Old English (450-1100AD), Middle English (1100-1500), and Modern English (1500-present).The brief introduction of Old English teaches me the history of the English language. “The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English, Old English did not sound or look like English today. About half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. ”(1) Then, in 1066, the Duke of Normandy, William has conquered England, because of this, Old English has developed into Middle English. He brought his own language to England——French. “French became the language of Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but withmany French words added. This language is called Middle English.”(2)Here comes the Modern English, it is easier for us to understand nowadays. In early Modern English, the pronunciation has changed a lot. “The vowels were pronounced shorter, many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing meant that there was now a common language in print. It also brought standardization to English.”(3) In order to see what changes have come about, I will list a simple phrase that expresses in the three different periods. The phase is “I love you.”Old English: “ic lufie þe.”(4)Middle English: “I love thee.”(5)Present Day English: I love you.The words in Old English are more complicated, ic is pronounced /it∫/, lufie is pronounced /luvie/, and þe is /θe:/. According to the history, this language came from the Angles and the Saxon. In Middle English, the words are more like the words today, though some differences still exist. At that time, the language has been influenced by the Latin, the English have absorbed in culture of other countries, as well as the language. With the development of the country, many old things have been replaced by the new one. Present Day English, as we have learned for many years, are very familiar with it, the phrase is pronounced /ai lʌv ju:/.From this example, I think that we can all have a direct view about the changes of English language. It has changed not only in pronunciation and spelling, but also in grammar and vocabulary.Why these changes have occurred? I may ask myself this question after that. In my pointof view, there may be three reasons.First, as the time passed by, the language itself will change along with historical development.Second, as many other countries like Anglo-Saxons, French conquered England, they brought their own culture to England, influenced the English language. Latin, German have been used in the English language in Old English and Middle English. I’ve found an example from the textbook, how the Anglo-Saxons influenced Britain, they brought their religious belief to the country. “The Anglo-Saxons were Christianized in the seventh century. Then monasteries were built all over the country.” (6)The third, with the development of the modern society, the language changes because of the needs of its speakers. “New technologies, new products, and new experien ces require new words to refer to them clearly and efficiently.” (7)The changes are creatures of the age.All in all, maybe the English language has lost its own characteristic through the changes, but it has become a worldwide language now, almost all the people around the world are learning English. Changes sometimes are bad, sometimes are good. The changes of the English language must be a good one.Bibliography1、“What is English.”. phylovsw, n.d. 18 Nov.2010.< /view/887e574e852458fb770b56ae.html>2、“What is English.”. phylovsw, n.d. 18 Nov.2010.< /view/887e574e852458fb770b56ae.html>3、“What is English.”. phylovsw, n.d. 18 Nov.2010.< /view/887e574e852458fb770b56ae.html>4、“How to say I love you in Old English.”. n.p. n.d. 18 Dec.2007</question/41675259.html>5、“How do I love thee” in Hypertext.Kitten. n.d./article/reading/1/200611/1389.html6、Liu Bingshan. A Short history of English Literature. Henan: Henan people's press, 2007 Page 3, line 67、“About language changes.”.camillayoung. n.d. 13 Jun. 2010</view/c07bf784b9d528ea81c77935.html>。
小学上册P卷英语第四单元暑期作业
小学上册英语第四单元暑期作业英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The girl sings very ________.2.__________ are used in the rubber industry for manufacturing.3.My friends and I like to organize _________ (玩具展览) at school.4.The Earth's surface features are influenced by geological and ______ factors.5.I like to ________ with my family.6.What is the capital of Turkey?A. IstanbulB. AnkaraC. IzmirD. BursaB7.What is the main ingredient in pizza?A. RiceB. DoughC. MeatD. SaladB8.The ______ helps with the immune system.9.My best friend and I created a ________ (俱乐部) for kids who love to read and share ________ (书籍).10.What is the term for a young horse?A. CalfB. FoalC. CubD. KidB11.What is the name of the famous American author known for writing "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn"?A. Mark TwainB. Ernest HemingwayC. F. Scott FitzgeraldD. John SteinbeckA12.We should protect _____ (nature) and plants.13. A __________ (酸碱指示剂) changes color to indicate pH levels.14.The atmosphere is made up of different ______.15.The boiling point of water is ______ degrees Celsius.16.Which word means "to go quickly on foot"?A. WalkB. JumpC. RunD. CrawlC Run17.What is the process of water turning into vapor called?A. EvaporationB. CondensationC. PrecipitationD. SublimationA18.Which fruit is orange and round?A. BananaB. AppleC. OrangeD. GrapeC19.My sister is ________ her friends.20. A solution with a pH of is considered _____.21.We will have a picnic in the _______ (park/school).22.The chemical symbol for zirconium is ______.23.The stars are ___ (bright) at night.24.The ______ is very fast.25. A caribou migrates during the ________________ (季节).26.The chemical formula for sodium citrate is __________.27.What do you call the person who fixes cars?A. TeacherB. DoctorC. MechanicD. ChefC28.What is the primary color that mixes with red to create purple?A. BlueB. YellowC. GreenD. OrangeA29.My sister loves her toy _______ (我妹妹喜欢她的玩具_______).30.My cat enjoys chasing ______ (光点).31.The study of matter and its changes is called ______.32.I often _______ (参加) community events on weekends.33.My brother is a great __________ (运动员) in baseball.34.sh Armada was defeated by the English navy in ______ (1588年). The Span35.My cousin loves to _______ (动词) during summer. 她的活动很 _______ (形容词).36.The _____ (蜜蜂) is crucial for pollinating flowers.37.What do you call a person who studies history?A. HistorianB. GeographerC. ScientistD. PhilosopherA38.What is the main function of a computer?A. To cook foodB. To process informationC. To cleanD. To provide entertainmentB39. A ________ (航空港) is where planes take off and land.40.His favorite book is a ________.41.What do we call the person who studies geography?A. GeologistB. GeographerC. BiologistD. Chemist42.The bat uses its _______ (回声定位) to navigate.43.The bird is singing ________.44.They are _____ (having) a picnic.45. A chemical bond involves the attraction between positively and negatively charged _____.46.What is the opposite of weak?A. StrongB. PowerfulC. MightyD. All of the aboveD47.The ant is strong for its _________ (大小).48.My cousin is a ______. She loves to volunteer.49.The cat is very ___ (lazy/energetic).50.The ________ is a small animal with a big heart.51.What is the main source of energy for the Earth?A. OilB. CoalC. SunD. WindC52.The study of rocks and Earth processes is called ______.53.What is the name of the famous island in Greece?A. SantoriniB. MykonosC. CreteD. All of the aboveD All of the above54.What is the term for a person who studies insects?A. EntomologistB. BiologistC. ZoologistD. EcologistA55.What is the name of the famous waterfall located on the border between the U.S. and Canada?A. Angel FallsB. Victoria FallsC. Niagara FallsD. Iguazu FallsC56.What is the name of the famous mountain in Africa?A. KilimanjaroB. Mount KenyaC. Atlas MountainsD. Rwenzori Mountains57.What do you call the hard outer covering of an egg?A. ShellB. MembraneC. YolkD. AlbumenA58.What do we call the part of a plant that develops into fruit?A. FlowerB. LeafC. StemD. OvaryD59.Which planet is known as the Red Planet?A. EarthB. MarsC. JupiterD. Venus60. A sound can travel through solids, liquids, and ______.61.My sister loves to _______ (动词) in the summer. 她喜欢 _______ (地方).62.I found a ________ in my pocket.63. A chemical change results in the formation of ______ substances.64.I like to _______ (jump) rope.65.What is the capital of Jamaica?A. KingstonB. Montego BayC. NegrilD. Ocho Rios66.The cat is ________ on the mat.67.My dad drives a ______. (truck)68.I want to _______ (学会)如何骑马.69.I like to explore ______ in my free time.70.What is the capital of Guinea?A. ConakryB. KankanC. NzérékoréD. KindiaA71.What is the shape of a football?A. SquareB. RoundC. OvalD. Triangular72. Wall is a symbol of ________ (中国的历史). The Grea73.The ________ (家庭活动) strengthen bonds.74.The rabbit is quick to _______ (逃跑).75.Did you see a _______ (小变色龙) on the branch?76.What is the opposite of "big"?A. SmallB. TallC. HeavyD. LightA77.________ (植物保护倡导者) raise awareness.78. A _____ is a phenomenon where a star explodes.79.The _____ (小鸡) pecks at the ground looking for food. 小鸡啄着地面寻找食物。
What are the causes of the lexical change in English 词汇变化的原因
What are the causes of the lexical change in English Language is the tool of carrying historical information and reflecting the social life of humans, in which case it developed in a relevant stability with the step of the society. Taking English as an example, during the renaissances, the vocabulary recorded were reported to be about 140 000. However, it spiraled up to more than 500 000. There are several causes that lead to the lexical change.At the beginning, the sharp development of science technology in nearing 300 years takes place a vital position. The rapid updating of it demands large quantities of words to express, thus, on one hand, new words came into being constantly. Some of them were created by compounding, such as software, referring to the stuff in computers, and multimedia, a technique of making audio and video. While on the other hand, some old words were given proper meanings to match with the change. For instance, some new words came up owing to the realizing of space technology. Lander, means the module of spaceflight; phrase like space station is also an old word with new meaning.In addition, the difference between different cultures also gives rise to the changing of lexis. It is almost impossible to find the apt target words to match with the source words, for those words orphrases are often related with historical background or religious factors. Such as “土地庙”, “旗袍” and so on. The former one is a word from the Chinese myth, and the latter one is a kind of Chinese costume called cheongsam in English.Last point, both the politics and the economic have made influence on it. Under some circumstances, political affairs can be regarded as a signature, and it will be widely used gradually. Taking the Dove as an example, it stands for a group of politicians in American asserting the view of peace.We can make a bold prediction that with a change of society and the progress of the science, the English vocabulary will further expand; moreover, the internationalism and colloquialism will contributes a lot to the change of English。
FactorsintheChangeofEnglishWordMeaning
Factors in the Change of English Word MeaningAbstract： In the learning of English Lexicology, wefind that there are some changes in the meaning of English words. Word meaning is significant in English learning, and this paper is going to explore the factors in the change of English word meaning.Key Words ：changefactormeaningWhen a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer tosomething different, the result is a change in word meaning. For instance, the word villain is originally neutral referring to a farmer working on the farm or in the suburbs. However, villain in current English means a scoundrel. Change of meaning refers to the alternation of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to a particular word. The change is formed in the way of extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation of meaning.There are several factors that can cause possible changesofmeaning. Mostly, they are extra-linguistic factors andlinguistic factors.I .Extra-linguistic factorsExtra-linguistic factors make up of historical reason,socialreason psychological reason, and cultural blending.i.Historical reasonIn the old English the word pen was written as penn fromthe Latin word penna, which means the writing tool made by feather. However, with the development of technology, pen now means golden pen, iridium fountain pen and fountain pen, which have nothing to do with feather.ii.S ocial reason or class reasonLanguage records the speech and attitude of differentsocialclasses, so different social varieties of language have comeinto being. The attitude of classes has penetrated into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation and degradation.Quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their occupations have taken on a pejorative sense.Churl and hussy which were originally neutral have been down- graded as “-milal nned or bad people ”iii.Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use ofwords is often due to psychological factors. People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, contempt, hatred, avoidance of embarrassment, etc. Let's see the expression of death. It is too straightforward to say directly that someone has died. Instead, we can use some euphemisms such as to go west, to be deceased in the formal English and to be no more in the spoken English. The euphemism "culturally deprived environment" is often used in place of "slum".iiii.Cultural blendingWith the development of economy and policy, the earth isbecoming smaller and smaller and here comes the cultural blending. Education has been applying itself to teach us to respect the differences between cultures and expand thesimilarities we share. Different cultures are blending in the process of communication. The words like Kong fu, mahjong, tofu and typhoon from Chinese have been an important part ofEnglish. Besides, Latin, Scandinavian language, French andGreek also have influences on English.n .Linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be caused by the internalfactors within the language system, i.e. linguistic factors.i.EllipsisThe meaning of a word may change when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.This is called ellipsis. The meaning of the wordchanged from material to refer to the whole phrase "A general" comes from "a general officer". This kind of change often occurs in habitual collocations.ii.AnalogyIf an adjective develops a new meaning, the derived nounfrom the adjective will have a corresponding new meaning by analogy. The process can be applied to a word of any word class.The word diplomatic originally means relating to or involving the work of diplomats and its noun diplomacy means the job or activity of managing the relationships between countries. At present, diplomatic has its new meaning "dealing with people politely and skillfully without upsetting them" while diplomacy means "skill in dealing with people without upsetting them".iii.Figurative use of wordsChange in word meaning may result from the figurative useof the language. Metaphor and metonymy are two important figures of speech. "The foot of the mountain" metaphorically means the bottom of the mountain. "White House" metonymically refers to the U.S. Government.In conclusion, change of word meaning is related to theenvironment in many ways. It is developing with the pace of times. To learn the factors of the change of English word meaning is an important part to learn English. In the process, we learn to analyze the root causes of change. After the learning of regularity of word meaning change, we can memorize English words more easily. Above all, we can learn gradually to use words appropriately and speak in a tasteful manner avoiding embarrassment. gold ” h gold meReference：[1] 张维友,华先发. 论英语词义的演变[J]. 华中师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 1988,(06).[2] 肖志兰. 英语中的词义变化及其理解[J]. 同济大学学报(社会科学版), 2001,(06).。
英语语言学概论第七章笔记.
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
又长又好记的英文单词
又长又好记的英文单词The Versatility of "Serendipity": A Lengthy and Memorable English Word.In the vast lexicon of the English language, there are words that stand out not just for their meaning but alsofor their uniqueness and ease of recall. One such word is "serendipity," a term that encapsulates the essence of accidental discovery and the joy of stumbling upon something unexpected. Derived from the ancient name of the island of Serendip (now Sri Lanka), the word "serendipity" embodies the spirit of curiosity and exploration.The allure of "serendipity" lies in its ability to evoke a sense of wonder and amazement. It speaks to the idea of stumbling upon something remarkable or valuable while searching for something else entirely. This conceptis not dissimilar to the idea of serendipity itself, which originated as a tale from ancient times about three princes of Serendip who, while on a quest for a treasure,discovered the power of logic and deductive reasoning.The beauty of "serendipity" is further enhanced by its length, which makes it both memorable and distinctive. Its syllabic structure and vowel sounds contribute to its easeof pronunciation, while its uncommonness ensures that it stands out in conversation. This unique combination of factors makes "serendipity" a word that is not easily forgotten.In today's fast-paced world, where information is constantly flooding in from every corner, the concept of serendipity offers a breath of fresh air. It reminds usthat sometimes, the most valuable discoveries are thosethat come unexpectedly, when we are least expecting them. Whether it's a new book that catches our eye in a bookstore, an unexpected conversation with a stranger, or a serendipitous encounter with a piece of art or music, these moments have the potential to transform our lives.The power of "serendipity" lies in its ability toinspire us to be more open to new experiences and ideas. Itencourages us to explore beyond our comfort zones, to take risks, and to embrace the unknown. By doing so, we open ourselves up to the possibility of stumbling upon something remarkable that could potentially change our lives for the better.Moreover, "serendipity" reminds us of the importance of curiosity and the joy of discovery. It encourages us to maintain a sense of wonder and amazement about the world, to ask questions, and to seek answers. This curiosity-driven approach to life not only enhances our understanding of the world but also adds depth and meaning to our existence.In conclusion, "serendipity" is a lengthy and memorable English word that encapsulates the essence of accidental discovery and the joy of stumbling upon something unexpected. Its unique origin and meaning make it a standout in the lexicon, while its length and ease of pronunciation contribute to its memorability. The concept of serendipity offers a valuable reminder of the power of curiosity and exploration, encouraging us to be more opento new experiences and ideas. By embracing serendipity, we open ourselves up to the possibility of stumbling upon something remarkable that could potentially transform our lives.。
你是如何对英语感兴趣的英语作文
你是如何对英语感兴趣的英语作文English Answer:My fascination with the English language is a tale of serendipitous encounters, where a myriad of factors coalesced to ignite a passion that has shaped my life's trajectory. Its genesis can be traced back to my earliest childhood memories, when my parents would regale me with bedtime stories spun in the lyrical prose of English literature. The whimsical adventures of Alice in Wonderland, the poignant tales of Winnie-the-Pooh, and the epic sagasof The Lord of the Rings filled my imagination with wonder and sparked an unquenchable thirst for the written word.As I progressed through my academic journey, my passion for English only intensified. In the classroom, I reveledin the intricacies of grammar, the subtle nuances of vocabulary, and the power of language to convey complex ideas and evoke profound emotions. I spent countless hours poring over novels, delving into the minds of literarygiants, and crafting essays that attempted to capture the ineffable beauty and complexity of the human experience. It was during this time that I discovered the transformative power of language as a tool for both self-expression and social change.My fascination with English extended beyond the classroom walls. I eagerly participated in speech competitions, where I honed my oratorical skills and learned the art of persuasive communication. I immersed myself in theater productions, where I reveled in the opportunity to bring the written word to life on stage. Through these experiences, I developed a deep appreciation for the performative aspects of language and its ability to connect people from all walks of life.One particular experience that profoundly shaped my understanding of English was a year-long exchange program I undertook in the United Kingdom. Living and studying in a country where English was the native tongue allowed me to fully immerse myself in the language and culture. I spent countless hours conversing with locals, participating inlively debates, and attending literary events. It was during this time that I realized the true power of language to bridge cultural divides, foster understanding, and create meaningful connections.Chinese Answer:我是如何对英语产生兴趣的？这是一个关于偶然相遇的故事，其中无数因素交织在一起，点燃了一份影响了我人生轨迹的热情。
the+change+of+english
g) Borrowing English has borrowed a very large number of words from many different languages throughout its history e.g. Latin: bonus education exit Greek：tragedy cycle physics French; prince question German： beer waltz quartz Chinese: tea sampan
古英语时期（Old English）—— 公元449年至1100年 中古英语时期（Middle English）—— from 1066 until the 15th Century
现代英语时期(Modern English ) ， from the 17th Century to Modern Times
example, from Early English to Modern English, lyf became life, deel became deal, hoom became home
三.Changes(英语变化的表现): 1.sound changes 2.morphological and syntactic changes 3.vocabulary changes
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
Old English
Modern English
[ā] stān hām wrāt rād
[əu] stone home wrote rode
2.morphological and syntactic change
1)change in "agreement" rule
TED英文演讲：为什么要学习一门新的语言
TED英文演讲：为什么要学习一门新的语言学习一门新的语言固然很辛苦，但为什么还有那么多人愿意花费时间和精力去钻研呢?这可不仅仅是社会发展的需求，更重要的也是一种自我价值的提升。
听听语言学家John McWhorter博士怎么说吧，真的对你有很大帮助!演讲者:John McWhorter中英文对照The language I'm speaking right now is on its way to becoming the world's universal language, for better or for worse.Let's face it, it's the language of the internet, it's the language of finance,it's the language of air traffic control, of popular music, diplomacy --English is everywhere.我正在讲的这种语言，快要变成全世界的通用语言，无论好坏，我们都要面对它，它是因特网的语言，是金融界的语言，是空中交通管制的语言，是流行音乐的语言，是外交的语言，英语无处不在。
Now, Mandarin Chinese is spoken by more people, but more Chinese people are learning English than English speakers are learning Chinese. Last I heard, there are two dozen universities in China right now teaching all in English. English is taking over.讲中文的人更多，但是中国人学英语的也很多，比讲英语的人学中文还多。
英语作文
Due Attention Should Be Given to Spelling 范文1. 如今不少学生在英语学习中不重视拼写2. 出现这种情况的原因3. 这种现象导致的结果Due Attention Should Be Given to SpellingWhat is hot for 2010 in our colleges? It is the spelling mistakes. Countless students lack due attention to spelling. Taking a look around, we can find examples too numerous to list, the one may be “challenge”. Freshman and sophomore almost write this word as “chanllege”. How careless they are!Why such a phenomenon sweeps every university? Some experts attribute it to students’ inattention, because students always pay no attention to spelling. However, other experts argue, the teachers should be blamed for this situation. In my opinion, it is far beyond any reasonable doubt that both of them should exert themselves to change the spelling mistakes.The spreading of the spelling mistakes has extremely negative effects on the education. For one thing, the special age that none of students can spell correctly will come soon. For another, while communicating with foreigners, we will be laughed at the spelling mistakes made by ourselves. As a result, due attention should be given to spelling immediately.文都名师：四级写作范文（三）来源：文都教育It is becoming increasingly common that lots of students do not think spelling is the major point of mastering good English.Through talking with them, I aware of the fact that common thinking leaded to this phenomenon is that, the students only want to get good scores from their tests, which Grammar skills are required more than spelling. Do not mention that some of the students only want to improve their spoken English to communicate, for a simple reason that this can make them sound cool.Different words stands for different meanings. As we are going to use English in our daily life, to understand different signs and ads, even when we are reading news papers, good spelling skills ensure us to get the correct information’s and prevents misunderstandings from happening. The most important point that students might not see is that spelling skill can make them pronounce well, because differentpronunciation comes from different spellings.Therefore, I suggest all students to pay attention to all the parts of English; this is the only way to make our English perfect.Due Attention Should Be Given to Spelling来源：文都教育Now we are entering a brand new era full of opportunities and innovations, and great changes have taken place in people's attitude towards some traditional practice, especially in the area of English learning , one of which is less attention has been given to spelling by college students . This issue has been brought into public focus and called for further concern.A number of factors could account for the problem, but the following are the mostcritical ones. First, information is expanding at such an increasing rate that our society is called the one of information. The information is so immense that students haven' t ample energy and time to deal deeply with spelling, and some computer programs, such as word ,have done the spelling checking work for us . Second, the standardized-test oriented way of English learning, in which the high score can be achieved without spelling, put students to the position on which they have the quite reason to ignore spelling.This issue may lead to a number of unfavorable consequences, with the following two the most serious. For one thing, the information would be incorrect when conveyed by hand- writing way and cause some bad effects. For another, we may indulge ourselves in this way of inaccuracy which may influence our attitude of learning or research.The awareness of the importance of this issue should be enhanced and some proper measures should be taken. It is reasonable for us to believe that the situation will be improved in the near future.1 近年来在学生中出现了忽视中文学习的现象；2 出现这种现象的原因和后果；3针对这种现象，我认为……4Do you remember these famous litterateurs: Lu xun, Zhu zi qing, Laoshe or Bing xin? How familiar these names are! Unfortunately, countlessstudents pay no attention to the study of Chinese. Nowadays, Internet,E nglishand game occupy students’ time and attention. For the majority of students, thestudy of Chinese hasbecome a remote memory。
Chapter4TheChangingEnglishVocabulary
Chapter4TheChangingEnglishVocabularyChapter 4 The Changing English VocabularyAll living language in the world, including the English language are constantly changing. The change that is constantly going on in a living language can be seen in the vocabulary, that is, inneologisms[n?'?l?d??z(?)m]新词；新义. Now neologisms are commonly called new words.Allan Metcalf p.103Three types of words according to their appearance and disappearance: old words die out, new word are born, and existing words add new senses.(p.104)?Completely new coinages are few, existing words adding new meanings are many. ?The vocabulary not only changes but also changes quickly. Changes in pronuciation and grammar are much slower than changes in vocabulary.4-1-2Definition of neologism or new words(p.104)The Oxford Dictionary of NewWords:(1998) A new word is any word, phrase, or sense that came into popular uase or enjoyed a vogue [v?uɡ] 时尚；流⾏，时髦in the given period.The Oxford Essential Dictionary of New Words(2003):A new word is novel arrangement of letters with a meaning not quite duplicated by any other arrangement of letters. This is the ideal form of a new word.(p.104)According to an Editor of Merriam-Webster's Collegiate [k'li:diit] Dictionary 韦⽒⼤学词典(2003): A new word shouldhave been in consistent use for at least ten years before being entered in our dictionary, though the rapid adoption of some words(especially in tachnology and medicine) has led us to speed up the process in some cases. When we look at 'new' words to include in our dictionary, one of the criteria by which we select them is 'longevity [l?n'd?ev?ti]寿命', or less formally, 'staying power'."(p.105)Comprehensive definition ofNeologismNeologism are newly coined words or words that are given new meanings to fit new situations and new needs because of the social, economic, political, cutural, especially scientific and techinical changes in the given period in humansociety.(p.105, para. 5)NOTE: Within the given period of time the newly coined words and words adding new meanings are called new words. Beyond the period they will become existing words, not new words.(p.105)para. 3Comprehensive Definition ?Neologism are newly coined words or words that are given new meanings to fit new situations and new needs because of the social, economic, political, cultural, especially scientific and technical changes in the given period in human society.4-1-3 The rate(速度，价格，类别) of changes of the English vocbulary(p.106)?Fundamental Linguistic Law: The English vocabulary changes with the development of society.1. 14th Century: Vast number of French words were introduced into the English language.2. 16th Century: Large numbers of new words were borrowed from Latin.3. 19th Century: a great expansion in the vocabulary of science and technology.4. Today: once again in a period of vocabulary expansion.4-1-4The Sources of New Words ?Classification of new words by longevity[l?n'd?ev?ti]:1.New word is produced by a single person only, in some special situation. (nonce [nns] 临时的；特定场合的words临时造的词used only once or coined for one particular occasion, and never occur again.)2. Sometimes a new word coined by a single speaker is used by a small group, such as the staff of the institution, and existsfor a time without gaining any wider circulation.3. Sometimes a new word is coined by a number of people, such a word becomes an accepted part of language, and is fixed in a dictionary.Two main sources of new words in the English vocabulary.1. The rapid development of modern science and technology.(p.107-114) a. computingb. biologyc. the deep space深空outer space ?d. medicine2. Political, economic and social changes(p.114-126)a. International struggleb. INternal political strugglec. Women's liberationd. Educatione. Sports and entertainmentf. Communicationg. CHanges in social and domestic habits h. pollutionbiomimetics[,bai?u'mimitiks] n. ⽣体模仿学?biomineralization ['bai?u,min?r?lai'zei??n, -li'z-] n. [地质] ⽣物矿化bionic [ba'nk] adj. 仿⽣学的black studies⿊⼈研究?⿊⼈学?ecophysiology['i?k??,f?z?'?l?d??] n. ⽣态⽣理学?euphenics[ju?'fen?ks] n. ⼈种改良学；⼈种改良运动?high energy physics ⾼能物理学?informationscience[计][图情] 信息科学；[图情] 情报科学?media study媒介分析substance 英['s?bst(?)ns] n. 物质；实质；资产；主旨?substantial[s?b'st?n??l] adj. ⼤量的；实质的；内容充实的enzyme ['enzaim] n. 酶?photosynthesis[,f?ut?'sinθ?sis] n. [化]光合作⽤?synthesize ['sinθisaiz] vt. 合成；综合vi. 合成；综合?tissue ['ti?ju:; -sju:] ?n.1. 薄纸，棉纸；餐⼱纸；卫⽣纸【⽣物学】组织；体素toxicology[,t?ks?'k?l?d??] n. [毒物] 毒物学?therapeutic[,θer?'pju:tik] adj. 治疗的；治疗学的；有益于健康的n. 治疗剂；治疗学家amelioration[?,mi:lj?'rei??n] n. 改进，改善?ameliorate [?'mi:lj?reit] vt. 改善；减轻（痛苦等）；改良vi. 变得更好?deleterious[,deli'ti?ri?s] adj. 有毒的，有害的?phenotypic[,fino't?p?k] adj. 表型的?表型：⼜称性状，是基因型和环境共同作⽤的结果。
描述事态的英文单词
描述事态的英文单词Describe the Situation: An English Vocabulary of States and Affairs.In the realm of English vocabulary, there exists a rich tapestry of words that can aptly describe varioussituations and affairs. These words range from the simple and straightforward to the complex and nuanced, each carrying its own unique meaning and context. Let us delve into this vast lexicon and explore some of the key terms that can be used to describe situations and affairs.1. Situation: This word refers to a particular state of affairs or a set of circumstances that exist at a given time. It can describe anything from a personal predicament to a global crisis. For instance, "The current situation in the Middle East is tense and volatile."2. Affair: This term is often used to refer to a matter or event, especially one that is important or noteworthy.It can also refer to a personal matter, such as a romantic relationship. For example, "The recent political affair in the capital has garnered much attention from the media."3. Circumstance: This word refers to the conditions or events that surround a particular event or situation. Itcan refer to external factors that influence or shape a situation. For instance, "The circumstances of the crimeare still being investigated."4. Event: This term refers to a happening or occurrence, whether it is significant or minor. Events can be plannedor spontaneous and can range from birthday parties tonatural disasters. For example, "The concert was a memorable event for music lovers."5. Condition: This word is often used to refer to the state of something, whether it is physical, mental, or environmental. It can describe the state of a person's health, the state of the economy, or the weather conditions. For instance, "The patient's condition has improved significantly since the operation."6. Scenario: This term is often used in planning or preparation to refer to a possible set of events or situations. It can be used to envision different outcomes and plan accordingly. For example, "We have prepared several scenarios to cover all possible outcomes of the meeting."7. Situational: This adjective is used to describe something that is specific to a particular situation or context. It emphasizes the need for considering the specific circumstances when making decisions or taking actions. For instance, "Our response to the situational crisis needed to be swift and well-planned."8. Prevailing: This adjective is used to describe a situation that is widespread or dominant at a given time. It can refer to a trend, belief, or condition that is prevalent in society or a particular group. For example, "The prevailing economic uncertainty has led to a decrease in consumer spending."9. Context: This word refers to the background or setting of a particular situation or event. It includes the relevant information and circumstances that help to understand or interpret a situation. For instance, "Tofully understand the context of the quote, one must know the speaker's background and the era in which it was spoken."10. Development: This noun is often used to refer to a change or progress in a situation or affair. It can describe the evolution of an idea, technology, or event over time. For example, "The recent developments in renewable energy technology have been promising."In conclusion, the English language is rich in vocabulary that can describe various situations and affairs with precision and clarity. From simple words like "situation" and "affair" to more nuanced terms like "circumstance" and "context," we have the tools to communicate the complexity and nuances of our world. Mastering this vocabulary not only enhances our ability tocommunicate effectively but also broadens our understanding of the world around us.。
英语毕业论文选题(完整版)
英语论文选题英语语言学1. A Study of Adverbs in Legal English2.Linguistic Features of Legal English3.On Cultural Context in Legal English Articles4.Sources of Chinese and English Legal Terms5.Characteristics of Legal Terms6.Functions of Languages in Legislation7.Killing and its Hyponyms in Legal English8.Punctuation in Legal English: for instance, comma, period, colon, etc.9.Abbreviations in Legal English10.Transitional Words in Legal English11.The Application of the Fuzzy Words in Legal English法律语言模糊性词语的运用12.The Differences of the Legal Discourse in Chinese and English英汉法律语篇的结构差异13.On Abbreviations in Business English谈经贸英语中的缩略语现象14.On the Multi-discipline of the Economic English V ocabulary论经济英语语汇的多学科性15.On the Features of Business English Letters浅谈外经贸英语信函的写作特点16.Adjusting the Tone in International Business English经贸英语缓和口吻表达方法探究17.The Stylistic Features of the Contract English协议、合同英语的文体特点18.On Modifiers of Nouns in English for Foreign Economy & Trade略谈外经贸英语中的名词修饰语19.The Negative and Active Function of Fuzzy Language in Business Writing论模糊语言在经贸英语写作中的作用20.The Application of PP (Polite Principle) in Business English Communication21.CP（Cooperative Principle）and Business English Interpretation22.Sexism as Reflected in the Chinese and English Languages23.Lexical Items as Means of Cohesion in English Texts24.Remarks on Modern American Slang25.Stylistic Comparison Between Broadcast News and Newspaper News26.News Headlines: Their Features and Style27.A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Prepositions28.Death Metaphors in English29.The Pragmatic Functions of Intonation for Language Acquisition30.The Change of English Word Meaning: Factors and Types31.A Study of Transitional Words and Expressions 过渡词及表达法的研究32.Euphemistic Expressions in Foreign Affairs 外事用语中的委婉表达33.Features of Network English 网络英语的特点34.Influence of Science and Technology on English V ocabulary 科学技术对英语词汇的影响35. Linguistic Features of Abraham Lincol n’s Addresses 论林肯演说词的语言特征36.Linguistic Features of Business Contracts 商务合同的语言特征37.Linguistic Taboos in Chinese and English Languages 谈汉英语言中的禁忌现象55. On the Functions of Ambiguity in English 论英语歧义的功能64. On the Similarities and Differences of the Speeches by Elder and Younger Bush 论老布什、小布什语言风格的异同38.Parallelism in English英语中的排比现象39.Pragmatic Failures in the Cross-cultural Communication 跨文化交际中的语用失误40.Relationship of Age to SLA (Second Language Acquisition) 论年龄与第二语言习得的关系41.Semantic Analysis of Nominalization in EST 科技英语名词化语义分析42.Analysis of the Speech Acts of Characters I Pride and Prejudice《傲慢与偏见》中人物言语行为的分析43.Lexical Relation and Their Cognitive Motivation词汇关系及其认知理据44.An Interpretation of Speech Acts in Death of a Salesman,《推销员之死》言语行为分析45.Effects of Nonverbal Communication on Daily Life 非言语交际对日常生活的影响46.浅析英汉人体隐喻的异同47.论“心”的隐喻认知系统48.从《老友记》的对话看礼貌策略使用的性别差异49.英语中法语借词的历史演变50.英语中“笑”类动词的语义成分分析51.从礼貌的视角比较英汉称赞语52.浅谈英汉中的借词差异及英语借词对汉语的影响53.死亡委婉语的应用及其文化内涵54.探索《傲慢与偏见》中的委婉语55.政治委婉语在伊拉克战争中的使用56.“死亡”委婉语变异的语境分析tin’s Influence on the English V ocabulary in the History P erspective58.The Recognition of Componential Analysis and Its Application59.模糊语的交际/语用功能分析60.The Ways of Expressing Emphatic Ideas in English 英语中强调语气的表达方式61.A study of the Code-Switching in Internet Communication 网络交际中的语码转换研究62.On Metaphors in Advertising English英语广告中的暗喻e of English abbreviations in Chinese news reports汉语新闻报道中的英语缩略语运用e of English abbreviations in Chinese advertisements汉语广告中的英语缩略语运用65.Chinese-English Code-switching in daily communication日常交际中的英汉语码转换66.Chinese-English Code-switching in net communication网络交际中的英汉语码转换67.Gender Differences in English Communication英语交际中的性别差异68.Sexism in English Proverbs英语习语中的性别歧视69.Economy Principle and Noun-Verb Shift 论语言经济原则与名词动词化70.English Abstract Nouns and Their Translation into Chinese 论英语抽象名词及其汉译71.Rules-Breaking in the Language of Advertising 论广告中的反语法规则现象72.A Comparative Study of Ambiguous Sentences in English and Chinese 英汉歧义句对比研究73.A Comparative Study of Spouse-seeking Notice in English and Chinese英汉征婚启事对比研究74.A Comparative Study of Humor in English and Chinese英汉幽默语用研究75.The Formation and Metabolism of English Euphemisms英语委婉语的构造法及其变化规律76.A Brief Research into the Deviation of Punctuation Marks& Aesthetic Value 浅议标点符号的变异使用及其审美功能77.Presupposition and its Application in Advertising 论预设及其在广告语中的运用78.Polite Principles in Business English and Their Use商务英语中的礼貌原则及运用79.An Analysis of the Characteristics of Abbreviations and Their Original Words in OnlineChatroom网络聊天室缩略语及其原词语的特点分析80.A Survey on the Non-Chinese Expressions on BBS of Chinese Universities高校网络媒体BBS 上非汉语词汇用语的调查研究81.Politeness and Business English Letters礼貌与商务英语信函82.A Historical Analysis on Constitution Particularity of American English 从历史角度简析美国英语形成的历史特殊性83.A Contrast Between Chinese and English Compliments中英称赞语对比84.Interpretation of Advertising Language from the Relevance Theory 广告语的关联理论分析85.Pragmatic Strategies in Business Negotiations商务谈判中的语用策略86.An Analysis on Ideational Function of English News 英语新闻的概念功能分析教学法87.Relationship of Age to Legal English Learning88.Legal English V ocabulary Teaching89.The Application of Schema Theory in Reading Comprehension90.Collaborative Learning: Group Work91.Cognitive Approach in Oral English Teaching92.English Songs—An Effective and Supplementary Medium of English Teaching25. Effects of Learner’s Motivation in Foreign Language Learning 外语学习中学习动机的影响27. Error Analysis in English Learning as a Foreign Language 英语学习中的错误分析研究43. Logical Fallacies in English Writing 英文写作中的逻辑谬误46. Needs Analysis of Language Learners 语言学习者的需求分析47. On Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning 论第二语言学习的态度及动机93. Personality Factors to the Success of Foreign Language Learning 个性因素在外语学习中的作用94.The Cognitive and Affective Factors in Task-based English Teaching英语任务型教学中的认知和情感因素95.On the Differences between Children and Adults in the Effects of Mother Tongue on SecondLanguage Acquisition儿童和成年人在母语对二语习得影响方面的差异96.Analysis and Exploration of Oral English Teaching and Learning Method in UniversityClassroom大学课堂中对英语口语教学学习方法的分析和研究97.图式理论在英语听力教学中的应用98.图式理论及其对高中英语阅读教学的启示99.对高中英语课堂阅读现状的调查和分析100.多媒体技术在中学英语教学中运用现状的分析101.浅谈私立高中英语课堂中的师爱教学102.背诵在英语学习中的作用103.言语行为语用能力培养在英语课本中的实现——以《新概念英语》为个案104.关于英语课堂中教师反馈情况的调查分析研究105.用英语电影辅助高中英语教学106.同伴纠错在英语写作课堂中的应用107.大学英语教师课堂话语策略个案研究108.关于高中生英语学习中焦虑问题的调查研究109.论任务式英语口语教学中的合作学习110.合作学习在高中英语写作教学中的应用111.中国大学生英语写作中汉语词法的负迁移112.英语专业学生听力学习中元认知策略使用状况的调查113.语篇衔接以及写作中的衔接错误114.英汉亲属称谓语的差异及其互译115.A Study on the Elements in Improving English Listening Ability under Computer-and-Internet-Assisted Circumstance计算机网络下的英语听力能力提高的元素116.Obstacles in Understanding American English Idiomatic Statements for Chinese Students中国学生对含成语的美国英语表述理解的障碍117.On the Training of English Listening-Awareness英语听力意识的训练118.Effects of Discourse Structure on Listening Comprehension of Aural English 语篇结构对英语听力理解的影响119.Effects of Stereotypes on Intercultural Communication文化成见在跨文化交际中的影响120.The Influence of Web Technology on University English Teaching Modes / English Listening / Oral English / English Lexical Teaching 网络环境对英语教学模式/听力/口语/词汇教学的影响121.Backwash of Tests on English Teaching and Learning测试对英语教学的反拨作用122.The Differences in English Study between Boy Students and Girl Students in Senior Schools 高中男女生英语学习差异的研究文化123.Relationship between Culture and Law124.Cultural Distinctiveness in Legal English Translationparison of Chinese and English Forms of Addresses126.Hierarchies in American and Chinese Address Forms127.The Role Played by the American Blacks in the History of America128.The Cults in Modern American Society129.Chinese and Western Culture Values in Advertising Language130.Deep-structure Transfer in Cross-cultural Communication131.Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication132.Religious Cultural Factors Affecting the Differences of Meanings of Words133.A Comparison of Intercultural Usages between Chinese and Western Courtesy Languages 134.19. Cross-culture Failures by Chinese learners of English135.中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的误区136.The Comparison Between Taoism and Transcendentalism道家文化与超验主义的比较研究137.The comparative studies between Buddhism and Christianity on cultural level 佛教与基督教在文化层面上的对比研究138.The Sino-US Cultural Differences Reflected in Movies 看中美电影中的文化差异139.英汉数字习语文化比较140.Linguistic and Cultural Comparison between Chinese“狗”and English “dog”中西“狗”的语言文化比较研究141.中国牡丹和英国玫瑰折射出的文化差异文学142.Hamlet: His Characters as a Humanist143.Parallelism and Contrast of Shakespeare’s Dramatic Language144.On the Structure of Dickens’s Hard Times145.Jane Austen’s Art of Irony and Its Rhetoric Effects146.The High Class as Seen in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair147.From Pastoral Stories to Great Tragic Novels: An Analysis of Hardy’s Novels148.Remarks on wrence’s Psychological Analyses149.Social Reality as Reflected in the Poetry of William Blake150.Edgar Allan Poe and the World Literature151.The Tragic Color of Earnest Hemingway’s Novels152.A Critical Study of William F aulkner’s A Rose for Emily:Its Narrative Techniques and Structure153.Some Features of Steinbeck’s Literary Style154.Emily Dickinson and Her Unique Poetry155.Symbolism in O’Neill’s Major Plays156.The Modern American Society and The Death of the Salesman157.A Comparative Study of Empathy in English and Chinese Poetry158.A Comparative Analysis of Sentence Structures in English and Chinese Poetry159.The Realism of the Adventure of Huckleberry Finn160.Heroism in Hemingway’s Works161.The Light of the Dark：The Greatest Works of Conan and Agatha162.On Wordsworth’s View of Nature163.On the Symbolism of D.H. Lawrence’s The Rainbow164.Analysis of Characters of Don Quxiote165.On the Author and the Major Characters of The Pearl166.Social Reality Reflected in Ode To the West Wind167.Hamlet and His Delay168.The Cuban Culture Contest of The Old Man and the Sea169.Gothic Features in Wuthering Heights170.The Comparison of the Character of Carrie Meeber and Jennie Gerhardt171.The Philosophy of Life in Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea172.Mark Twain---The Pessimist Who Brought Laughter to The World173.Humor and Realism of Mark Twain’s The Celebrated Jumping Frog of California County 174.Robinson Crusoe and the Colonial Empire175.A Probe into the Ambiguity and Symbolization of Eliot’s Poetry176.The Realism of Adventure of Huckleberry Finn177.A Farewell to Arms—A Clear Mirror178.Gone with the Wind and the Awakening of Women179.Hemingway and Hemingway Heroes180.The Sound of Heart-Reverie and Melancholy in Emily Dickinson’s Poemsment on the Biblical Images in Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, Samson Agonistes parison of Gone with the Wind and The Collector—An Analysis of Women’s Problem 183.Satire in Catch—22184.Love, Equality and Tolerance—On the Nature of Love of Jane and Tess185.On the Endings and Features of O ·Henry's Short Stories186.Paradise Lost—The War in the Heaven187.The Attractions of The Waste Land188.On the Religious Color of Characterization in Uncle Tom's Cabin189.Thoreau's Walden: A Book of Inward Exploration190.Beautiful Women—Analysis of Female Characters in The Merchant of Venice191.The Great Gatsby and the Collapse of the American Dream192.The Influence of Edgar Allan Poe's Life on his Writing193.The Biblical Allusions and Symbols in The Grapes of Wrath194.A Journey of Outward and Inward Exploration—A Brief Analysis of Walden195.The Duality in Robinson Crusoe's Character196.On the Characterization and Writing Techniques in Rebecca197.Wordsworth: Nature's Favorite Son198.Two Aspects Reflected from Robinson Crusoe: Society and Nature199.The Superman Complex in Love of Life200.3. A Comm ent on Hardy’s Fatalism 评哈代的宿命论201.4. A Comparison between the Themes of Pilgrimage to the West and Pilgrim’s Progress 202.《西游记》与《天路历程》主题的比较203.49. On T.S. Eliot’s Mythological Consciousness 论艾略特的神话意识204.On the Tragedy of Loman’s Family in Death of A Salesman 《推销员之死》中罗曼一家的悲剧205.Points of View and the Mode of Discourse in Vanity Fair 论《名利场》的观点及言语方式206.Rhetorical and Narrative Devices in A Farewell to Arms 《永别了，武器》的修辞与描写手法207.Scarlet and Black in The Scarlet Letter 《红字》中的红与黑208.Robinson Crusoe--Representative of the New Capitalist鲁滨逊—新兴资产阶级的代表209.The Women World in The Thorn Birds---Same World，Different Destiny《荆棘鸟》中的女性世界---同一世界, 不同命运210.The Transformation of Buck in The Call of the Wild小说《野性的呼唤》中巴克的转变211.Rebecca Sharp---The Real Heroine in Vanity Fair丽蓓卡·夏泼---《名利场》的真正主人公212.The Conflict between Greed and Human nature ---- on An American Tragedy从《美国悲剧》看贪婪与人性的冲突213.What is Small and What is Big in Great Expectations《远大前程》中的“大”与“小214.A Contrastive Study between "White" and "Black" in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 《哈克贝利·费恩历险记》中“白”与“黑”的对比研究215.Black Humor in Catch-22《第二十二条军规》中的黑色幽默216.A Contrastive Study of the Influence of Religion upon Tess and Prynne宗教对苔丝和白兰命运的影响的对比分析217.On Symbolism in Lord of the Flies 象征手法在《蝇王》中的运用218.Analysis of Christianity Theme on The Name of the Rose《玫瑰之名》的宗教主题分析219.Christianity in Uncle Tom's Cabin小说《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中的基督教220.On the Intercultural Conflicts in The Portrait of a Lady《贵妇画像》中跨文化冲突的分析221.On the Theme of Struggle for Survival in Sister Carrie Base on the Character Analysis从人物分析研究《嘉莉妹妹》中人们为生存挣扎的主题222.An Analysis of Scarlett's Intelligence and Capability in Gone with the Wind论小说《飘》中斯佳丽的智慧和能力223.An Analysis of the Image of "Hunter" in Moby-Dick and The Old Man and the Sea《白鲸》和《老人与海》中的“猎者”形象分析224.Naturalism in Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser德莱塞《嘉莉妹妹》的自然主义解析225.On the Meaning of Symbols in Beloved析《宠儿》中的象征意义226.Individuality, the Limitation of Ideology and Symbolism in Invisible Man浅析《看不见的人》中的自我个性，意识形态局限性和象征主义227.Female Image Comparison between Scarlett and Meggie斯佳丽与梅吉的女性形象比较228.A Study of Invisible Man from An Existential Perspective从存在主义视角看《隐形人》229.A Feminist Study of the Effect of American Civil War upon the Female World in American Society Seen from Gone with the Wind 从女权主义视角看<<飘>>所反映的美国内战对美国女性世界的影响230.A Social Cultural Contrastive Stuy of Scarlett O'Hara and Wang Xifeng郝思佳和王熙凤的社会文化对比研究231.The Marriage of Mr. Collins and Charlotte Lucas in Pride and Prejudice《傲慢与偏见》中柯林斯与夏洛蒂•卢卡斯的婚姻232.Miserable World in the Humor---A Comparison of the Works of Mark Twain and O. Henry幽默中的悲惨世界---马克吐温和欧亨利作品的比较233.A Comparison of Conflicts in Desire Under the Elms and Thunderstorm《榆树下的欲望》和《雷雨》戏剧冲突的比较234.The Art of Satire in Gulliver's Travels论《格列佛游记》中的讽刺艺术235.Ａcomparative Study of Abbie and Fanyi in Desire Under the Elm and Thunderstorm＜榆树下的欲望＞和＜雷雨＞中爱碧和繁漪的对比研究236.Exotic Flowers in East and West —Comparison between Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai（中西方的艺术奇葩——比较《罗密欧与朱丽叶》与《梁山伯与祝英台》）237.An Elegy of Humanism—An Analysis of the Causes of The Tragedy of Othello（人文主义的悲歌——《奥赛罗》悲剧成因之探析）238.A Comparison between the Themes of Pilgrimage to the West and Pilgrim’s Progress 《西游记》与《天路历程》主题的比较239.A Comparative Study of Tao Yuan-Min and William Wordsworth240.The Images of the West Wind in Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind 雪莱《西风颂》中西风的意象241.Ode to a Nightingale: An Integration of Aesthetics and politics<夜莺颂》诗歌美学与政治意识的结合242.A Contrastive Study of Images in English and Classical Chinese Poems英诗和中国古典诗歌中的意象比较243.Five Natural Elements in Wordsworth’s Poems华兹华斯诗中的五种自然元素翻译理论与实践244.Translation of Complex Sentence in the Legal Language245.The Influence of Cultural Elements on the Translation of the idioms in Commercial English 试论文化因素对经贸领域中习语翻译的影响mercial English: its characteristics and translation经贸英语的特点与翻译247.The Characteristics of Business Contract Wording in English & its Translation英语经贸契约的用词特点与翻译248.On the Usage and Translation of Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases in Business Contracts in English英语经贸契约介词和介词短语的用法及翻译249.Understanding and Translation of the Divisional Phenomena in English Economic Contracts 英语经贸契约分隔现象的理解与翻译250.Lexical Features of Business Contract English and Its Translation经贸合同英语词法特征及其翻译251.Characteristics and Distinctive English Translation of Words in Business Contracts商务合同英语用词特点及翻译的特色标记252.The Characteristics and the Present Situation of Foreign trade English Translation对外经贸翻译的特点与现状253.On the Translation of Commercial Advertisement谈商业广告的翻译254.On the Role of Social Context in Business English Translation浅议经贸英语翻译中语境因素的作用255.On the Criteria of Translating English in to Foreign- oriented Economy and Trade Affairs试论经贸英语翻译的标准256.Translation Characteristics of Economy and Trade English经贸英语的翻译特点257.Understanding and Translation of the Divisional Phenomena in English Economic Contracts 英语经贸契约分隔现象的理解与翻译258.On the Strategies of the Mistranslation in Business English论经贸英语误译的对策259.Multi-angle Views On Business English Translation经贸翻译的多视角260.A Classification & Translation of Words Denoting Major Positions in Business English经贸英语中主要职务用词的分类与翻译261.The Classification and Translation of the Business English Terms with the Reference of "Money"经贸英语中含有"钱款"意义词汇的分类及翻译262.Word Diction in Economy and Trade Translation经贸翻译的词义选择263.On Translation of English Advertisement广告英语的翻译264.Advertisement English Translation in Cross-cultural Background跨文化背景中的广告英语翻译265.On Translation of the Dates, Amount and Numbers (Figures) in the Economic & Trade Contracts经贸契约中日期、金额和数字的翻译266.Translating Strategy of Modern Business English现代商务英语翻译策略267.Methods and Principles of Trade Mark Translation商标翻译的方法及应遵循的基本原则268.The Language Characteristics and Translation Stragegy of English Advertisements广告英语语言特点及其翻译策略269.How to Correctly Understand & Translate the Compound Words Formed from Here-, There- and Where- in Economic & Trade Contracts 如何正确理解和翻译经贸契约中Here,There-和Where构成的复合词270.On the Rhetoric Character and Translating Method of Advertising English浅析广告英语的修辞特点和翻译方法271.On Metaphors in Business English and Translation商务英语中的隐喻及其翻译272.On "Faithfulness" and "Innovation" in Foreign Trade English Translation外贸英语翻译的"忠实"与"变通"273.The Stralegies of Domestication and Dissimilation on Advertising English Translation广告英语翻译的"归化"和""异化"策略274.Cross-cultural and Cross-linguistic Factors in English Advertisement Translation英语广告翻译中的跨文化、跨语言因素275.Nominalization application in business English letter writing and its translation名词化结构在商务英语信函中的应用和翻译276.On the Art of Rhetoric and Translation Approaches in Advertising English论广告英语的修辞艺术和翻译方法277.Principles of Translating Economic Literature of Enterprises from Chinese to English企业外宣资料汉英翻译原则278.English-Chinese Translation of Trademarks: Its Principles and Strategies英语商标的汉译原则及策略279.The Puns in English and Chinese Advertisements and the Translation of Them英汉广告中的双关语及其英汉互译280.The Pragmatic Analysis and Translation Strategies of Long Sentences in English Business Contracts英语商务合同长句的语用分析及翻译策略281.Influence of Cultural differences on the Chinese-English Translation of Business Writing文化差异对商务汉英翻译的影响282.On Equivalence of Cultural Message in the International Business English Translation国际商务英语翻译中的文化信息等值研究283.On the Principles of Equivalence in Literary Translation284.Cultural Gaps and Untranslatability285.The Chinese V ersion of Jude the Obscure: An Outstanding Example of Artistic Recreation 286.Translating the Style of Literary Works—A Preliminary Study of Wu Ningkun’s Version of The Great Gatsby287.A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Merchant of Venice288.A Reading of Fang Zhong’s Translation of The Canterbury Tales289.On the English Versions of Some of Du Fu’s Poems290.Translating the Titles of Chinese Classic Poetry291.How to Deal with Ellipsis in Translating292.The Translation of Trade Marks and Culture293.Onomatopoeia and its Translation294.On the Cross-Culture Pragmatic Failure in English Translation295.On Translating the Passive Voice in Scientific and Technology English into Chinese296.A Comparative Study of Two English Version of the Chang Ganxing297.Review on the Translation of Movie Titles298. A Study of the Translation of Sports Terms 体育专有名词的翻译299. About Transform of Parts of Speech in Translation 论翻译中词性的转换300.On Translation of Computer Terms 论计算机的术语翻译301.On Translation of Tourist Guide 论旅游指南的翻译302. On Translation of Trade Names and Names of Export Commodities 论商标、出口商品名称的翻译303.The Understanding and Translation of Attributive Clause 定语从句的理解与翻译304.On the Translation of Long Sentences and Attributive Clauses in A Tale of Two Cities浅析《双城记》中长句与定语从句的翻译技巧305.The Understanding and Translation of Attributive Clause 定语从句的理解与翻译306.Differences Between Chinese Headline and English Headline as well as Their Translation 论中英文新闻标题的差异与翻译307.On Brand Name Translation Strategies from the View of Consumer Psychology从消费心理学角度浅谈商标翻译策略308."Fu Donghua’s Gone With the Wind and Functional Translation Theory 傅东华的《飘》和功能翻译理论309.The Subjectivity of the Translator in Literary Translation 文学翻译中的译者主体性310.Cultural Differences and Transplantation in Translation文化差异和翻译中的文化移植311.Idioms’Practice and Translation in Advertising 习语在广告中的应用与翻译312.On the Impact of Translation on Chinese Culture--- To Cherish Chinese Culture 翻译对中国文化的影响--- 保护中国文化313.A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of One of Tao Yuanming’s Set Poems Drinking Wine 对陶渊明《饮酒》组诗之一的两个英译本的比较研究314.论儿童文学的翻译315.例析俚语的英译汉。
The Teaching and Learning of Vocabulary ( English
1. The importance of teaching and learning of vocabulary
• Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. As Steven Stahl (2005) puts it, "Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world." Vocabulary knowledge is not something that can ever be fully mastered; it is something that expands and deepens over the course of a lifetime.
2. The obstacles of teaching and learning of vocabulary
• (1) The large size of vocabulary
• As a second language leaner of English, how much vocabulary do we need? The size of vocabulary we need is related to the purposes of language study. For different purposes people need to grasp different sizes of vocabulary. English has a large amount of vocabulary because its composition is very complex. As a very open language, English absorbs or borrows quite a lot of words from Anglo-Saxon, Norman or French, Latin, Greek, etc.
英语专业毕业论文选题
英语专业非常非常棒的论题（经典收藏）2010-04-19 10:28关于各个方面的英语专业所需要的经典论题，仅供参考！Ⅰ. 英语教学Ⅱ. 英语语言及文化Ⅲ. 英汉翻译Ⅳ. 英美文学及其它Ⅰ. 英语教学1. A Study of the Development of English Language Teaching Methodologies2. The Application of Cooperative Learning Theory in Senior High School English Reading Teaching3. Interaction in Oral English Teaching4. On Developing English Reading Skills5. The Strategies of Topic Controlling in Spoken English6. Communicative Competence and Focused Task-based Teaching Approach7. Error Analysis and English Teaching8. On Developing English Reading Skills9. Interaction in Oral English Teaching10. Role-play in English Teaching11. Cultural Teaching in English in Middle School12. The Improvement of Middle School Students’ Communicative Competence13. On Bilingual Teaching in Primary School14. Question-Design and its Influence in the Classroom Teaching15. Non-intelligence Factors in Promoting Students’ Potentialities in Lear ning English16. Autonomous Language Learning in CALL Environments17. On Attitude and Motivation in Second Language Learning18. Making Use of Resources on the Internet to Assist English Learning19. Task-based Approach in Reading Instruction20. The Study of Learner’s Motivation and its Influence upon Learners and their Learning Process21. On Communicative Competence22. Interaction and English Language Teaching23. Teacher’s Roles and their Impact upon Learner’s Learning Process24. Teaching Different Skills Based on the Interactive Approaches25. The Relationship between Affective State and Language Learning26. Errors and Language Learning27. Teacher-Talk in English Language Teaching Context28. Cognitivism and Teaching of Listening and Speaking29. A Survey of Students’ Motivation of Learning English30. Extracurricular Activities and English Teaching31. Cooperative Learning in Classroom Teaching32. Communicative Approach Employed in Grammar Teaching33. Multimedia and Its Effect on Language Learning/Teaching34. Reflections on CALL/CAI35. Network-based English Teaching of Reading/Writing/Listening36. Applying Task-based Teaching Principles to Organize Oral Activities37. Interactive Theory and the Teaching of Listening Comprehension38. Effective Ways to Improve Efficiency of Vocabulary Learning39. Improve Students' Oral Proficiency by Using Communicative Language Teaching Method40. Student-centered Approach in English Language Teaching41. Importance and Feasibility of Improving Students' Communicative Competence42. Learning Strategies in the Improvement of English Learning Efficiency43. How to Improve Students' Learning Style in Classroom Teaching44. The Role of Cultural Background Knowledge in English Study45. On English Vocabulary Acquisition46. Differences between American and British English47. English Ambiguity and Its Function48. Influence of Science and Technology on English Vocabulary49. A Study of Student-Centered English Vocabulary Teaching50. Factors Influencing English Learning and Possible Solutions51. Application of Non-verbal Communication in English Teaching52. Strategies on Intercultural Communication Training in English Teaching53. Reading Efficiently: An English Classroom Model Focusing on Students’ Reading Ability54. Factors Affecting English Listening55. Intensifying Cultural Awareness in Middle School English Teaching56. The Strategic Difference between Effective Listeners and Ineffective Listeners57. On Error-Correction Strategy in Oral English Classroom58. On the Use of Interactive Approach in Writing Instruction59. Collaborative Learning in Writing Instruction60. Motivation in English Learning61. Task-based Teaching in Writing62. The Brain-storming in English Writing63. Increasing Cultural Awareness in English Writing64. How to Improve the Students' Listening Ability Effectively in English Teaching65. Task-based Method of English Teaching in Middle Schools66. 英语单词科学记忆67. 如何提高英语阅读速度与质量68. 如何在阅读教学中培养学生的跨文化意识69. 如何在英语阅读教学中体现师生的互动70. 略论课外阅读与英语写作的关系71. 如何培养中学生的四项基本技能72. 如何提高中学生的英语写作水平73. 中学英语专业学生词汇量与阅读能力相关性研究74. 课堂里的艺术--口语教学研究75. 增强课堂活力-英语听力课的教学探索和实践76. 提高中学英语课堂教学质量的途径77. 快乐活动性原则及其在儿童英语教学中的应用78. 口语教学中的模拟训练方法79. 教师行动研究在中学英语教学中的应用80. 论多媒体辅助中学英语课堂教学的利与弊81. 浅谈新课标背景下中学英语课堂活动教学82. 论“互动”教学法提高英语学习兴趣的有效途径83. 中学英语阅读教学模式初探84. 中学生英语自主学习模式研究85. 课堂交互性调查－－中方和外方教师课堂比较86. 如何利用多媒体辅助教学手段促进中学外语教学？87. 英语教学中语言与文化的关系88. 几种外语教学方法的比较89. 英语教学中的文化意识90. 英语教学中如何实施被动学习向主动学习的转化91. 英语阅读教学的发展趋势与探索92. 英语课堂教学中的双向交流93. 英语教学几种课型的安排94. 英语教学中的“互动”教学模式95. 多媒体英语教学与学生自主学习能力的培养96. 英语教学活动中作业布置法的实践与研究97. 论多媒体教学条件下的师生互动98. 论外语教学模式与中学生学习动机的相融性99. 双语教学实践与研究100.英语口语学习策略101.英语听力学习中的干扰因素分析102.任务型教学方法在中学外语教学中的应用研究103.非言语交际与外语教学104.焦虑对听力理解的影响105.论学习风格和英语成绩的关系106.互联网在外语教学中的作用107.课堂提问的方式和技巧108.高中生英语阅读教学中合作学习理论的运用109.中西文化差异与中国中学生中式英语结构Ⅱ. 英语语言及文化1. The Change of English Word Meaning: Factors and Types2. The Linguistic Characteristics of Advertising English3. On the Formation and Use of Parody in English and Chinese4. The Analysis on the Differences of Interpersonal Relationship between Eastern and Weste rn People5. Research on Sino-Western Differences of Cooperative Principles6. The Comparison of Euphemism in Wording of Sino-Western Letters7. How to avoid ambiguity in different cultures8. On the Influence of Network Vocabulary on Chinese Language9. The Cultural Connotation of English Etymology and the Teaching of English Vocabulary10. An Analysis of the Political Prejudice in VOA11. American culture Reflected in the Use of Words of American English12. Translation of Brand Names and their Cultural Associations13. On Cultural Differences of Body Language between English and Chinese14. A Comparative Study on Sexism in both English and Chinese15. Euphemism—Construction and Application16. Cultural Comparison in Idioms17. The Effect of Context on the Meaning of Words18. Differences between Chinese and English Cultures with Regard to Taboos19. Differences between Chinese and English Cultures with Regard to Etiquette20. Similarities and Differences between Chinese and English Cultures in Terms of Proverbs21. The Influence of Exotic Cultures on English Vocabulary22. The Differences Between Chinese and Western Cultures and English Education23. 东西方人际关系要素差异探析24. 中西书信用语的委婉语比较25. 合作原则的中西方差异初探26. 如何避免由文化差异造成的歧义27. 英语网络词汇对汉语的影响28. 英语词源的文化内涵与词汇教学29. 从现代汉语中的英语外来词看中国文化对西方文化的吸收30. 中国学生英语习得中的母语迁移现象31. 论影响跨文化沟通的主要因素32. 英语教学中汉文化的参与和渗透33. 母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系34. 英语写作中汉语干扰因素分析35. 类比在现代中英词汇中的应用36. 广告语篇翻译中的跨文化交际37. 英汉词汇的社会文化内涵漫谈38. 美语口语中的俚语现象透析39. 汉英颜色词背后的文化40. 英汉习语文化差异探源41. 浅析英语委婉语42. 被动意义表达的英汉对比研究43. 英汉复合名词对比研究44. 英汉否定表达比较研究45. 英汉语序比较与翻译问题研究46. 功能语言学与阅读教学47. 词汇教学方法与技巧48. 认知语法与句法教学49. 交际修辞的语用分析探究50. 语篇信息度的认知分Ⅲ. 英汉翻译1. On Foreignization and Domestication of Cultural Factors in Translation2. On Treatment of Cultural Factors in Translation3. On English Translation of Public Signs in Chinese4. On Translation of English Names of Commendation5. The relationship between Cultural Difference and Translation Skill6. An Approach to the Translation of Poetic Image7. A Study of the Chinese Version of Titles of English Films8. A Study of the Chinese Version of Titles of English Novels9. Foreignization and Translation of Idioms10. On Culture Translation under Foreignization11. On Literal Translation and Free Translation12. The Comparison and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms13. Equivalence and its Application in Translation14. Cultural Equivalence in Translation15. On Translating the Passive Voice16. On the Translation of English Long Sentences17. The Social and Cultural Factors in Translation Practice18. The Application of Functional Equivalence in English and Chinese Cross-cultural Translation19. On Chinese Translation of Journalistic English20. On the Criteria of Interpretation21. On the Unit of Translation22. The Cultural Differences and Arts of Translation in Advertising Language23. On Transformation between Parts of Speech in E-C Translation24. Exploring Substitution and Ellipsis in Translation25. The Analysis of Translation Style26. Cultural Differences and Translation Strategies27. A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Allusions and their Translation28. English Neologisms in Newspaper and their Translation29. On Features of Journalistic English and its Translation30. Cultural Discrepancies and their Influences on Translation31. Translation of Address Term between English and Chinese32. On the Translation of English Pun into Chinese33. Features of Foreign Trade English and its Translation Model34. On Euphemism Translation35. Features of Tourism English and its Translation36. 论英汉翻译中外来词译法37. 影响长句翻译的因素38. 例析英译汉中形象语言的处理39. 生活中广告英语的翻译特色40. 翻译中的中国英语与中国式英语Ⅳ. 英美文学1. A Study of The Gift of Magi2. A Brief Comment on An American Tragedy4. Love Tragedy and War—An Analysis of A Farewell to Arms5. A Study of Sister Carrie6. The Evil of Mankind Portrayed in Moby Dick7. On Henry Heming in The Red Badge of Courage8. Emily Dickinson and her Poems9. Analysis of A Rose of Emily10. Analysis of the theme of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn11. On the symbolism of The Old Men and the Sea13. Deep Love And Deep Hatred—A Brief Analysis of Wuthering Heights14. Psychological Descriptions In Hemingway’s The Snows Of Kilimajaro15. On Ernest Hemingway And His Novel The Sun Also Rises16. The Literature Characteristics in A Tale of Two Cities17. On the Symbolism of D.H. Lawrence’s The Rainbow18. 《呼啸山庄》的悲剧分析19. 海明威英汉形象和冰山风格20. 《名利场》的现实意义21. 苔丝的形象分析22. 哈姆雷特的犹豫再探讨23. 爱伦坡小说的艺术创作成就24. 爱伦坡小说人物塑造25. 华兹华斯的语言风格26. 华兹华斯的自然观27. 简述哈代的悲剧性叙事艺术28. 浅析《失乐园》中撒旦的形象塑造29. 《还乡》的悲剧艺术特色30. 从《老人与海》看海明威的创作特点31. 论《白鲸》的象征含义32. 论简.奥斯汀对《爱玛》主人公的塑造33. 《红字》中的象征34. 哈姆雷特的人物特征及悲剧根源35. 杰克·伦敦的个人奋斗36. 《名利场》人物与艺术特色之分析37. 简论十九世纪英国女性生活38. 德莱塞的自然主义39. 论《天路历程》的象征和社会意义40. 《永别了武器》中主人公亨利形象分析How to Arouse Students’ Potentialities in Learning English by Using Non-intelligence Factors How to Make Use of Mother Tongue in English TeachingOn the Role of Affective Factors in English Teaching素质教育在英语学习中的体现大一新生英语学习策略使用状况调查研究新技术在大学英语教学中的运用对比分析在英语词汇教学中的运用如何提高英语阅读速度英语学习过程中文化自觉意识的培养motivation for english reading teaching英语词汇教学的交际化传统语法-翻译法与现代语法-翻译法的对比分析英语测验的设计(口语交际能力课堂培养模式探索)英语歌曲与英语语言的学习浅谈如何激发中学生英语学习的兴趣4.Grammar Teaching in Communicative Language Teaching6.The Role of Learner Differences in Foreign Language Learning英语教学中情感的重要意义小议影视作品名称的翻译英语中的缩略词经典英美电影赏析与英语学习绵阳市内主要景点英译现状的分析广告翻译中的文化因素。
The-Extra-linguistic-Factors-of-Change-in-Word-Meaning
The Extra-linguistic Factors of Change in Word Meaning Abstract:There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning: Extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors. This paper tries to explore the extra-linguistic factors of change in word meaning from the following three aspects: historical, social and psychological reason, esp. from the historical perspective. Therefore, the extra-linguistic factors play the key role of change in word meaning.Keywords:Extra-linguistic factors; historical; social; psychological; change of word meaning1. IntroductionWhen we describe someone is good, we often use the word “nice”or “smart”. But many years ago, the words “nice”and “smart”, their original meanings are “foolish”and “causing illness”. Wh y did its origin meaning transferred to its present meaning? How did this process take place? This is what this paper wants to discuss—the cause of changes in word meaning.When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning. Almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it hah a century ago. The change of meaning can be very complicated, but generally speaking, we can divided them into two main causes of semantic change—the extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors. Usually there are historical, social and psychological reasons in the extra-linguistic factors. To analyze these three reasons, this paper tries to embody the importance of the extra-linguistic factors of change in word meaning.2. The extra-linguistic factors of changeAs time elapses, changes keep taking place in society and our daily life and new concepts, ideas and new things emerge continuously. Man has come to know about the world around him all the more. All this will certainly be reflected in language. This accounts partly for the semantic change.2.1 Historical reasonLanguage is a social phenomenon that is influenced by the changes of society. Observed from the development of language system itself, an important notion, matter, relation or system could be changed into terms that can carry certain unique semantic meaning, which is a tendency. So, society influences on the variation of English vocabulary. Only language is put into the developing society, the dynamic nature of language can be revealed.It often happens that though a word retains its original form, its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed. Take a word “pencil”, for instance, is fr om a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”. Later, when it was made of wood and graphite, it was still called a “pencil”.In fact, science and technology also brings about changes of meaning. Take the word “engine” for example. Its origin is a Latin word “natural ability”. But when stream power was developed in the first quarter of the 19th century, the term “engine” comes to mean “a railroad locomotive”,and in contemporary English it means “any machine that uses energy to develop mechanical power, esp., a machine for starting motion in some other machine”.2.2 Social reasonLanguage is greatly influenced by social culture, which enables language to possess national and historical characteristics. Word is the smallest, independent, meaningful linguistic unit of language. It can well reflect the national and historical characteristics. From synchronic aspect, the social and historical influence on word meaning is mainly embodied in conceptual and associative meanings of word. From diachronic aspect, the development of social and historical causes some changes of word meaning to some extent.Language is also like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social classes. As a result, different social varieties of language have come into being. The so-called “King’s English” serves as good illustration. The attitudes of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation or degradation. For instance, quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their occupations have deteriorated and now have taken on a pejorative sense, for in the eyes of thenobility, working people were badly brought up and were “ignorant and foolish”, and “rude” and “coarse” in behavior. Many words have certainly different meanings in different societies and to different people.Furthermore, change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. The word “feedback” it original meaning is “the transfer of part of the output of an active circuit or device back to the input”. But now it can mean “response” as in “the company welcomes feedback from customers”.2.3 Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc., is often due to psychological factors. People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, irony, hatred, etc. The meanings of slang are in general far from their standard meanings because on the spur of the moment, a word suddenly occurred to the speaker’s mind to serve the purpose of expression.Take one example, we have such euphemistic expression in referring to death as “to pass away”, “to be no more”, “can’t breathe any more” and so on.3. ConclusionAs the world change greatly and the changed meanings of words flourish nowadays, it is reasonable to assume that whenever new meanings are added to old words, or new words are created, it is response to some need.From the discussion above, this paper focuses on the role of the extra-linguistic factors of change in word meaning and reveals the important role of it.It assumes that whenever new meanings are added to old words, or new words are created, it is response to some need. Then this paper has learned the extra-linguistic cause of changes in word meaning and how did they take effect on. However, the linguistic factors of change in word meaning are also indispensable. Therefore, it’s necessary to have a further research in this aspect.Bibliography[1] Chen Meixi. Social and Cultural Influence on Word Meaning[J]. 山东教育学院学报, 2008(2): 103-107.[2] 朱玥, 朱玉堂. Religious and Cultural Factors Affecting Word Meanin g[J]. 高等教育与学术研究, 2008, (7): 119-124.[3] 戴伟栋. 现代英语语言学概论[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1998.[4] 冯海荣. 从英语词汇的变化看社会对语言的影响[J]. 张家口师专学报, 2000, (1): 48-51.[5] 郭家铨. 试谈英语语义演变[J]. 黑龙江大学学报, 1984, (1): 25-33.[6] 胡壮麟. 语言学教程[M]. 北京: 北京大学出版社, 2001.[7] 平洪, 张国洋. 英语习语与英美文化[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2000.[8] 汪榕培. 英语词汇学研究[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.[9] 徐宗毅, 罗杨. 浅析英语新词出现的原因[J]. 西昌学院学报, 2007, (1): 27-30.[10] 朱星. 汉语词义简析[M]. 湖北: 湖北人民出版社, 1981.。
TheSignificanceofEnglishWordFormation
TheSignificanceofEnglishWordFormationThe Significance of English Word FormationAbstract:Nowadays, English plays an increasingly important role in the international communication. For many countries, English is regarded as their second language, even though it is inferior to their mother one. As for English learners, especially Chinese students, learning English is an extremely important task with the economic globalization and the rapid communication with the world. However, learning English is difficult for us in some aspects, such as history, culture, grammar, especially lexicon. The study of word building is clearly in the area of vocabulary development. Although the enlargement of vocabulary depends on many aspects such as historical, cultural, and social factors, one of the best ways to enlarge our vocabulary is to analyze and understand how words are formed. That is to say, the more effective way to facilitate the development of English vocabulary is word formation.Key Words: word formation; language; significanceIntroduction:As for English learners, especially Chinese students, learning English is an extremely important task wish the economic globalization and the rapid communication with the world. The first big change was in vocabulary. However, V ocabulary is one of the main holdbacks of English study. In order to master English word correctly and efficiently in the short time, learners should use the best way to learn English. Among them, word formation is the strongest one to form a great rang of vocabulary. This paper discusses the advantages of word formation from the development of English word formation, word formation rules and styles and the significance.Chapter 1The development of English word formatio n:English language has developed with the process of the human society all the time. The out- date of some old words means that we need to create some new words tocatch up with our demands, while the coinage of new words, to a large extent has conformed with some grammatical principles and has some rules in it .So, the continuous consummation and development of language " replacing the old with the new " has behaved a kind of principle named "word formation".Nowadays, the terms …word formation? does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages .The English language has increased its resources not only through the adoption of words from other languages, but also through the formation of new words with the material available in the language. Before we discuss the word-formation, we need to have a basic knowledge of morphological structure of words and gain something about the different word forming elements which are to be used to create new words.Chapter 2Word formation rules and styles:Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new word rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes. Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used separately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morpheme is a simple word. A free root is a free morpheme.Bound root: bound root is a root which cannot occur as a separate word apart from any other morpheme.Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes Base: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It may also be defined as ''a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. This means that any root or stem can be termed a base. Such as, desirable is a base in undesirable. The differences among root and stem and base:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, no further analysis. Such as nation is a root in international.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes, can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. E.g. desire is a stem in desired.A base is a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied; it could be a root or a stem. Such as integration is a base in international.Compounding Composition or Compoundin g:Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expresses a single idea and functions as a separate lexical unit. Compounding is the most productive word-formation process in contemporary English.The lexical meaning of compounds is determined by the lexical meanings of its bases and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern. The distributional pattern shows the order and arrangement of the bases. Two compounds that have the same bases but different distributional patterns will have different meanings (a finger-ring, a ring-finger). As a rule a second base determines the part of speech meaning of the compound. The lexical meaning of a compound doesn't coincide with the combined meanings of its bases. There is always some additional semantic element that reflects among objects and phenomena in the outer world.If the meaning of the compound and the semantic relations between the bases are clear then the compound is motivated If the meaning of the compound and the semantic relations between the bases are not clear then the compound is non-motivated.Affixation or Derivation.Affixation, also called derivation, is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, or a suffix. It is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. There are two types of derivative. One bases on free root with affix or bound root, the other bases on boundwith affix or other bound root.Types of affixes- Prefixes- Suffixes- InfixesTwo types of derivative?s structure- Free + affix/bound rootPrefix + free rootFree + suffixPrefix + free root + suffixCombining form + free root-Bound root + affix/bound rootPrefix + bound root (with formation)Bound root (with formation) + suffixPrefix + bound root (without formation)Combining form + combining formChapter 3The significance:1. By understanding the structure of the word we can consolidate what we have learned.When we read some articles such as technical or professional passages, or some complicated novels, we may meet some new words. If we know some information of word formation, we can not only analyze the word structure and the denotation of the word, but guess the meaning of the word as well. For examples:If we know the meaning of the root of anthrop-[man] is human being ,we will guess some word related to it according to our knowledge. Such as: anthropology（⼈类学）、anthropoid（类⼈的）、anthropologist（⼈类学家）、anthropological（⼈类学的）、philanthropist（慈善家）、misanthropist（厌世者）etc.2. Getting a deeper understanding of a word by analyzing each part of the word. Getting a deeper understanding of a word by analyzing each part of the wordso that we can not only learn about the surface meaning but also the deeper connotation of the word. Word formation is a simple and efficient way to help students grasp a lot of English and build up their vocabulary in a short time so as to greatly improve their ability to read English literature.3. Increasing our vocabulary:Enlarging English vocabulary is of great significance in English acquisition. Learning the rules of word-formation helps to enlarge our vocabulary If we consciously increase our vocabulary we will unconsciously raise yourself to a more important station in life, and the new and higher position we have won will, in turn, give our a better opportunity for further enriching our vocabulary. The significance of studying English word formation mainly lies in these aspects. First of all, neologism is a mirror of society, which reflects its development and needs, it meets the developing situation. We can learn some new words by word formation easier. Second, the study of English word formation can be used in translation effectively. So, learning English word formation helps one do the translation works correctly. Finally, it is also very important for English learners to study English neologisms. through the study of word formation, we are able to recognize a complex word as a unit made up of organic parts and know how different parts are put together to form new words. Besides, English vocabularies changes along with society's development, and we must study English word formation to catch up with the times in order to improve our English abilities.The extension of meaning refers to enlarge the range of the lexical meaning.ConclusionAs a famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Nada said, “One of the most important characters in English is which could be easily changed.” With the development of society and the technical advancement, there are a great many neologisms emerging in the English vocabulary Word formation is that branch of lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language. Compounding is the most productive word forming process in contemporary English. The process of derivation or affixation forms new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining from, to an already existing word.Conversion means the transferof a word from one word to another. The converted words are new not in form but in function. By functional shift, an old noun may come to be a new verb. Today the commonest conversions are from nouns into verbs, and from verbs into nouns. In this way old words are rejuvenated. The English language is thus endowed with a fresh vitality, variety, and power. We work hard at English so as to have a good command of word formation. .Enlarging English vocabulary is of great significance in English acquisition. Based on meaningful learning English word formation, attempting to some details about word formation in English language and learning English vocabulary: on the one hand, by analyzing the morphological structure of words, students can recognize the connections of the words with the same morphemes, and in this way students can: 1. draw inferences about other words from one instance; 2. have a better grasp of the form and its meaning; 3. reduce the spelling mistakes and distinguish the similar words efficiently; On the other hand, by analyzing its cognitive motivation, students can get a deeper understanding of the meaning.Works CitedBauer, L. English Word Formation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1983 Holley, Shawn. The New Word Revolution. Beijing: Qinghia University Press, 2000. Pyles, How to Increase Y ou Word Power, Reader’s digest, New Y ork, 2000.陈林华, An Introduction To Linguistics,吉林⼤学出版, 1999.卢春媚, 浅谈英语构词法, ⼴州⼤学学报, 2002.汪榕培,王之江:《英语词汇学》,上海外语教育出版社, 2008.汪榕培,《英语词汇调查》, 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Factors in the Change of English Word MeaningAbstract：In the learning of English Lexicology, we find that there are some changes in the meaning of English words. Word meaning is significant in English learning, and this paper is going to explore the factors in the change of English word meaning.Key Words：changefactormeaningWhen a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something different, the result is a change in word meaning. For instance, the word villain is originally neutral referring to a farmer working on the farm or in the suburbs. However, villain in current English means a scoundrel. Change of meaning refers to the alternation of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to a particular word. The change is formed in the way of extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation of meaning.There are several factors that can cause possible changes of meaning. Mostly, they are extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors.Ⅰ.Extra-linguistic factorsExtra-linguistic factors make up of historical reason, social reason psychological reason, and cultural blending.i.Historical reasonIn the old English the word pen was written as penn from the Latin word penna, which means the writing tool made by feather. However, with the development of technology, pen now means golden pen, iridium fountain pen and fountain pen, which have nothing to do with feather.ii.Social reason or class reasonLanguage records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so different social varieties of language have come into being. The attitude of classes has penetrated into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation and degradation. Quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their occupations have taken on a pejorative sense. Churl and hussy which were originally neutral have beendown-graded as “ill-manned or bad people”.iii.Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words is often due to psychological factors. People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, contempt, hatred,avoidance of embarrassment, etc. Let's see the expression of death. It is too straightforward to say directly that someone has died. Instead, we can use some euphemisms such as to go west, to be deceased in the formal English and to be no more in the spoken English. The euphemism "culturally deprived environment" is often used in place of "slum".iiii.Cultural blendingWith the development of economy and policy, the earth is becoming smaller and smaller and here comes the cultural blending. Education has been applying itself to teach us to respect the differences between cultures and expand the similarities we share. Different cultures are blending in the process of communication. The words like Kong fu, mahjong, tofu and typhoon from Chinese have been an important part of English. Besides, Latin, Scandinavian language, French and Greek also have influences on English.Ⅱ.Linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be caused by the internal factors within the language system, i.e. linguistic factors.i.EllipsisThe meaning of a word may change when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.This is called ellipsis. The meaning of the word “gold” has changed from material to refer to the whole phrase “gold medal”. "A general" comes from "a general officer". This kind of change often occurs in habitual collocations.ii.AnalogyIf an adjective develops a new meaning, the derived noun from the adjective will have a corresponding new meaning by analogy. The process can be applied to a word of any word class. The word diplomatic originally means relating to or involving the work of diplomats and its noun diplomacy means the job or activity of managing the relationships between countries. At present, diplomatic has its new meaning "dealing with people politely and skillfully without upsetting them" while diplomacy means "skill in dealing with people without upsetting them".iii.Figurative use of wordsChange in word meaning may result from the figurative use of the language. Metaphor and metonymy are two important figures of speech. "The foot of the mountain" metaphorically means the bottom of the mountain. "White House" metonymically refers to the U.S. Government.In conclusion, change of word meaning is related to the environment in many ways. It is developing with the pace oftimes. To learn the factors of the change of English word meaning is an important part to learn English. In the process, we learn to analyze the root causes of change. After the learning of regularity of word meaning change, we can memorize English words more easily. Above all, we can learn gradually to use words appropriately and speak in a tasteful manner avoiding embarrassment.Reference：[1] 张维友,华先发. 论英语词义的演变[J]. 华中师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 1988,(06).[2] 肖志兰. 英语中的词义变化及其理解[J]. 同济大学学报(社会科学版), 2001,(06).。