Conversational_Implicature__会话含义

Conclusion: There is a gap between what is literally said and what is implied. This gap is so substantial(本质的) that we cannot expect a semantic theory to explain how we communicate using language. The notion of implicature, however, bridges the gap by explaining how meanings are effectively conveyed.
关于“自然意义”，他举了这样一个例子：
Those spots meant measles (那些斑点意味着麻疹)。
他指出，如果不存在施事者（因而也不涉及施事者的意图），话
语的意义只是“自然地”被理解，那么，这类话语就只表达“自 然意义”。
关于“非自然意义”，Grice 认为它具有如下特点：
S发出U，具有非自然意义，当且仅当： (i) S发出U，试图在H那儿引起某种效果Z； (ii) 通过H认可S的意图而使S的愿望不折不扣地实现。 S→说话人 H →听话人
Grice 于1957年在《哲学评论》（Philosophical Review) 上发表了《意义》(Meaning)一文。在文中， Grice 把“意义”分 为两类：“自然意义”(natural meaning)和“非自然意义”(nonnatural meaning)，并正式提出了“非自然意义理论”。
Semantic and literal meaning: his answer unrelated to the question.
Intended meaning: the football match will be canceled as the ground is wet and slippery after the rain.
Because language is basically culture-specific, conventional implicature of the same expression may vary under different cultural background.
For example, ‘white’ gives the implicature of purity and
U →由语言符号构成的话语
Z →粗略地代表在听话人那儿产生的信仰或意志力， 或作出的反应。 Grice 的“非自然意义理论”实际上是一种交际理论 （ a theory of communication）。
2.2 Conversational Implicature Unlike conventional implicatures, conversational implicatures are produced by relating to the conversational context. To know what people mean, we have to interpret what they say. But interpretation is a tricky affair, and misunderstandings are always possible. As Leech remarks, ‘interpreting an utterance is ultimately a matter of guesswork’. e.g. A: When is Tom’s birthday? B: It’s sometime in October. B’s implicature: the only thing he remembered about Tom’s birthday was the month in which it occurs, and that he honestly didn’t know whether it was at the beginning, the middle or the end of that month.
1) I want you to close the door. 2) Please close the door. 3) Can you close the door? 4) How about a bit less breeze? 5) Now, Johnny, what do big people do when they come in? 6) Okay, Johnny, what am I going to say next?
B’s implicature:
Sorry, I don’t know the exact time of the present moment, but I can provide some information from which you may be able to deduce the appropriate time, namely ‘the milkman has come’.
1 Significance of the Notion of Implicature 1.1 The notion of implicature provides some explicit account of how it is possible to mean more than what is actually ‘said’, or more than what is literally expressed. Consider the following exchange: A: Shall we hold the football match tomorrow? B: It is raining.
the sunset.
The capital of France is Paris and the capital of England is London.
So from semantic point of view, it may hold that ‘and’ has two meanings in the two sentences. But from pragmatic point of view, it holds that the word ‘and’ is a conjunction. It is language users who use it to convey various meanings under specific context. Conclusion: So in this sense, pragmatic study of the notion of implicature simplifies both the structure and the content of semantic description. It holds that a word meaning is generally simple, straightforward and steady. Only context makes a word take on different shades of meanings. e.g. The cloth is white. The cloth is white, red and green.
Another example:
A: Can you tell me the time?
B: Well, the milkman has come. B’ semantic and literal meaning: Well, the milkman came at some time prior to the time of speaking .
Conclusion:
So in this case, implicature helps to explain how some
seemingly unrelated sentences come to mean the same. With the help of context, the use of implicature makes our language use more colorful. We may express the same meaning in different ways to suit appropriate contexts. (何自然PP67-69)
1.2 The notion of implicature simplifies both the structure and
the content of semantic description. In this sense, implicature
does not explain how a word or expression has several literal meanings but explains how a word or expression could imply different meanings by different language users. e.g. The lone ranger jumped on his horse and rode into
Conversational Implicature
An Overview
1 Significance of the Notion of Implicature 2 Conventional Implicature & Conversational Implicature 3 Grice’s Distinction between Generalized Conversational Implicature and Particularized Conversational Implicature
chastity(贞操、贞洁) in western cultures and is associated with a bride; but it indicates ill-luck and misfortune in China and is associated with mourning. Often the conventional implicatures are formed by the
conventional use of language within specific cultural
background. They may or may not be shared by all cultures.
2 cBiblioteka Baidunventional implicature & conversational implicature
2.1Conventional Implicature There is the kind of meaning that is always associated with an expression so that on every occasion when the expression occurs, the meaning occurs. This meaning which is naturally associated with an expression is known as conventional implicature, or ‘entilment’(规约含义), or ‘natural meaning’.
1.3 The notion of implicature has a very generative explanatory power. With the help of the context, implicature may explain how a large number of apparently unrelated sentences may convey the same meaning. In this way implicature helps to make our language use colorful. Take the following sentences as examples