project quality management(项目品质管理)
pqm前景
pqm前景PQM（Project Quality Management）是指项目质量管理，是项目管理中的一个重要环节。
在项目执行过程中，通过制定合理的质量方针、目标和规范，对项目的质量进行有效地控制和管理，以确保项目能够按照既定的质量标准和客户要求完成。
PQM包括质量规划、质量保证和质量控制三个方面。
首先，PQM的前景在于提高项目的成功率和客户满意度。
通过建立合理的质量规划，明确项目的质量目标、指标和要求，能够有效地对项目进行控制和管理，提高项目执行的质量。
同时，通过质量保证和质量控制的手段，能够及时发现和解决项目中存在的质量问题，确保项目能够按时、按质量要求交付，从而提高客户的满意度，为企业赢得更多的业务机会。
其次，PQM的前景在于降低项目成本和风险。
通过对项目质量进行有效的管理，能够避免或减少因质量问题导致的返工、修补和重做，从而减少项目成本。
同时，质量管理的过程中能够及时发现和解决潜在的质量风险，降低项目出现质量问题的概率，减少项目变更和延迟，提高项目的成功率。
再次，PQM的前景在于提升企业的竞争力和品牌影响力。
良好的质量管理能够建立企业良好的品牌形象，树立企业的专业形象和信誉，提高客户对企业的认可和信任度。
项目质量的提升也能够为企业赢得更多的市场份额，提高企业的竞争力。
最后，PQM的前景在于推动企业不断改进和创新。
通过对项目质量的管理，能够及时对项目过程进行评估和反馈，发现问题所在并提出改进措施，推动企业的持续改进。
同时，质量管理还能够为企业提供有效的数据支持和决策依据，为企业的创新提供支持。
综上所述，PQM的前景广阔，可以提高项目的成功率和客户满意度，降低项目成本和风险，提升企业的竞争力和品牌影响力，推动企业不断改进和创新。
因此，PQM在项目管理中具有重要的作用，对企业的发展具有重要的意义。
项目管理涉及的英文词汇
第24章项目管理英语知识24.1 项目管理英语词汇24.1.1 考点梳理⏹常用的项目管理英语词汇➢Projects——项目。
➢PMBOK—— Project Management Body Of Knowledge，项目管理知识体系。
➢Operations——运作。
➢Process——过程。
➢Activity——活动。
➢Activity Description——活动描述。
➢Activity Definition——活动定义。
➢Activity Description——活动描述/说明。
➢Activity List——活动清单。
➢Phases——-阶段。
➢Approve——批准。
➢Product Life Cycle——产品生命周期。
➢PMO——Project Management Office，项目管理办公室。
➢Project Charter——项目章程。
➢Project Manager——项目经理。
➢Project Sponsor——项目发起人。
➢Project Stakeholder——项目干系人。
➢Project Management Plan——项目管理计划。
➢Project Team——项目团队。
➢Functional Organization——职能组织。
➢Matrix Organization——矩阵型组织。
➢Project Organization——项目型组织。
➢PMIS——-Project Management Information System，项目管理信息系统。
➢Project Management Process Group——项目管理过程组。
➢Initiating Process——-启动过程组。
➢Planning Process——-计划过程组。
➢Executing Process——执行过程组。
➢Controlling Process——控制过程组。
➢Closing Process——收尾过程组。
第八章-Project-quality-management项目管理知识体系(PMBOK)英文第六版
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
18
Design for X (DfX)
• Design for X (DfX) is a set of technical guidelines that may be applied during the design of a product for the optimization of a specific aspect of the design.
• Project Quality Management also supports continuous process improvement activities as undertaken on behalf of the performing organization.
• The Project Quality Management processes are:
– Confirm that the quality processes are used and that their use meets the quality objectives of the project, and
– Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of processes and activities to achieve better results and performance and enhance stakeholders’ satisfaction.
– Quality standards that will be used by the project; – Quality objectives of the project; – Quality roles and responsibilities; – Project deliverables and processes subject to quality review; – Quality control and quality management activities planned for the
apqp项目管理流程
apqp项目管理流程
Agile Project Quality Management（灵活项目质量管理）流程是指针对Agile开发
项目应采取的全面质量管理流程，该流程通过有效实施来提高整体质量，确保标准的质量
要求得到满足，消除错误的代码，实现品质改进，缩短交付周期，实现质量规范一致性，
改善交付水平，提升客户满意度，以及有效的管控项目的质量效率。
Agile Project Quality Management（灵活项目质量管理）流程包括以下几个阶段：
1. 质量策划：
在质量策划阶段，团队将按照Agile原则进行风险分析，制定出有效的质量管理计划，并规定具体的质量控制和审查程序。
团队还要为质量策划定义质量指标，并通过统计评估
筛选出有效的质量指标，以此为依据实施有效的质量管理流程。
2. 质量监控：
在质量监控阶段，团队将制定出实施质量管理的具体步骤，对发现的问题开展诊断，
指出可能出现的风险，并根据风险因素，对产品进行实时质量监控，帮助团队发现和消除
异常情况，确保项目进展正常。
3. 质量审查：
质量审查是指在质量监控活动中，团队基于统计数据和质量策划的结果，对代码或文
档进行审查，确保正确性、有效性，以及质量要求的满足，从而保证质量规范一致性、实
现预期的质量改进效果。
4. 质量测试和诊断：
在质量测试和诊断阶段，团队将采用系统化的测试和自动化诊断方法，进行严格的质
量测试，有效控制质量的变化，检测出隐含的问题，并及时采取纠正行动，有效消灭不良
的代码，改进品质，缩短项目完成周期，满足最终的质量要求。
项目质量管理规划
质量管理————论质量管理规划摘要：进行项目质量管理（Quality Management），首先必须明确编制质量管理规划(Quality Plan)。
而质量管理规划从不同的角度来分析其实际意义：质量管理规划的内容包括质量策略,范围描述，产品或服务说明，标准和规则，其他过程的结果；项目质量规划的依据包括事业环境因素，组织过程资产，项目范围说明书；项目质量规划的成果包括质量管理计划，质量测量指标，质量核对表，过程改进计划，质量基准及项目管理计划；项目质量规划的方法包括成本效益分析，基准对照，实验设计法和质量成本。
从这些方面要求来验证质量规划的重要性。
【Abstract】:Project Quality Management (Quality Management), the first must be clear about the establishment Quality Management Plan (Quality Plan). And the quality management planning from different point of view to analyze the actual meaning: quality management planning includes quality strategy, range describes, the product or service note, standards and rules, and other process results; Project quality planning based on factors including business environment, the organizational process assets, project scope statement; The results of the project quality planning include quality management plan, quality measurement index, quality check list, process improvement plan, quality standards and project management plan; Project quality planning methods including cost benefit analysis, benchmark control, design of experiment method and the quality cost. From these requirements to verify the importance of quality planning.关键词：质量，计划，内容，依据，方法,成果【Key words】:Quality, plan, content, the basis, methods, results众所周知，工程项目质量的好坏，在一定程度上体现了工程项目管理质量的水平，一个工程质量的好坏直接影响到投资者的综合效益，甚至也关系到社会的稳定，人民生活的安定。
工程管理质量管理概述(ppt 70页)
h=R/N
工程项目质量控制统计方法 ----控制图法
控制图是反映工序随时间变化而发生的质量变动的 状态，即反映项目实施过程中各阶段质量波动状态 的图形。
1. 控制图模式
控制图法
目前采用较多的是“三倍标准差法” 确定控制界限。 设质量特性值均值为u，标准差为σ，则：
UCL=u+3σ； CL＝u； LCL=u-3σ
特性
适用性 寿命性 可靠性 经济性 安全性
工程项目质量管理
工程项目质量管理（Project Quality Management）
是指在工程项目质量方面指导和控制组织的协调活动。
制定质量方针和质量目标， 以及质量策划、质量控制、 质量保证和质量改进 。
质量管理发展过程
• 检验质量管理阶段 • 统计质量管理阶段 • 全面质量管理阶段
凡出现不合格的分项工程或单位工程必须进行处理。
分区
A类因素对应于频率0～ 80％，是影响项目质量 的主要因素；
B类因素对应于频率80％ ～90％，是次要因素；
C类因素对应于频率90 ％～100％，是影响项目 质量的一般因素。
绘图原理
①按影响程度的大小将影响质量的各个因素或项目从左 至右排列，以直方柱的高度表示各因素出现的频数。
——一种动态分析方法，比直方图更为有效。 因果分析图（Cause-and-effect Diagram）
——一种讲究实效的逻辑推断和推理过程。 排列图（主次因素排列图）(Pareto Diagrams)
——用于找出影响工程或产品质量的主要问题，确定 需要改进的关键项目。
工程项目质量控制统计方法 ----直方图法
工程项目质量的影响因素
人（Man）提高工作质量的关键在于控制 人的素质和工作水平。 材料（Material）加强材料的质量的控制是工程质量控制的
项目质量管理名词解释
项目质量管理名词解释项目质量管理是指在项目实施过程中，对项目的质量进行全面管理和控制的过程。
在项目质量管理过程中，常常会出现一些专业术语和名词，以下将对其中的几个常见名词进行解释。
1. 项目质量管理计划(Project Quality Management Plan)：项目质量管理计划是项目质量管理的指导性文件，用于规划项目质量管理活动的目标、方法和技术等。
其包括质量政策、质量目标、质量管理组织和职责、质量管理相关的过程和流程等内容。
2. 质量保证(Quality Assurance)：质量保证是指通过采取预防措施和系统性管理活动，确保项目实施过程中所产生的工作、产品或服务符合质量要求的一系列活动。
质量保证的核心是预防性控制，旨在防止问题的发生。
3. 质量控制(Quality Control)：质量控制是指通过对项目产品、过程和服务进行监测和测试，识别和纠正质量问题，以确保项目符合质量要求的一系列活动。
质量控制的核心是检测性控制，旨在发现问题并及时进行纠正。
4. 质量计划(Quality Plan)：质量计划是项目计划的一部分，用于确定项目质量目标、标准和相应的质量控制活动，以确保项目交付的产品或服务能够满足相关方的质量要求。
5. 质量评估(Quality Assessment)：质量评估是对项目实施过程中的产品、过程和服务进行评估，以确定其是否符合质量要求的活动。
常见的质量评估方法包括检查、审查、测试和验证等。
6. 质量指标(Quality Metrics)：质量指标是用来衡量和评估项目质量的定量或定性的度量标准或参数。
通过收集和分析质量指标，可以评估项目的质量状况，并作出相应的决策和改进措施。
7. 不合格品(Nonconforming Product)：不合格品是指在质量控制过程中，经过检测或测试后被发现未能满足预设的质量要求的产品或服务。
不合格品需要进行记录、处理和纠正措施，以保证项目的质量。
PMBOK项目管理九大知识领域和五大流程
PMBOK项⽬管理九⼤知识领域和五⼤流程PMIProject Management Institute。
PMI 是世界上最⼤的⾮盈利机构，是项⽬管理领域的领导者。
PMI制定项⽬管理⾏业标准，带领项⽬管理的研究并提供项⽬管理的培训，证书，还有⼀些加强提搞项⽬管理专业技能的机会。
PMBOKProject Management Body of Knowledge。
PMBOK描述了项⽬管理专业技能总体知识，包括证实了被⼴泛应⽤的传统的，⾰新的，⾼级的实践的不⾜之处。
另外，它也包括了被普遍接受的最佳实践。
PMBOK被⼴泛⽤于各种⾏业。
PMBOK可以分为两⼤部分：1. 项⽬管理五⼤流程2. 项⽬管理九⼤知识领域项⽬五⼤流程1. 初始化项⽬Initiating2. 计划项⽬Planning3. 执⾏项⽬Executing4. 控制项⽬Controlling5. 关闭项⽬Closing项⽬九⼤知识领域1. 项⽬集成管理Project Integration Management项⽬集成管理需要⼀些有效的管理来确保项⽬各种各样的组成部分（元素）是相互协调的。
同时，它需要项⽬经理去权衡富有竞争性的项⽬⽬标并能够创建替代⽅案⽤以达到甚⾄超过公司的要求和预期。
项⽬集成管理的⼀些流程有：1. 开发项⽬计划2. 执⾏项⽬计划3. 集成项⽬变化控制2. 项⽬范围管理Project Scope Management项⽬范围管理是⽤来确保项⽬涵盖了所有必要和必须的⼯作，并仅包含能够成功完成的⼯作。
项⽬范围管理主要涉及定义和控制什么被包含在项⽬中，什么不被包含在项⽬中。
项⽬范围管理流程：1. Initiation初始化2. Scope Planning计划范围3. Scope Definition定义范围4. Scope Verification确认范围5. Scope Change Control范围变化控制3. 项⽬时间管理Project Time Management项⽬时间管理是⽤来确保项⽬按时完成。
质量管理名词术语英文缩写
1 SPC 统计制程管制Statistical Process Control2USL 规格上限Upper Specification Limit3 LSL 规格下限Lower Specification Limit4 UCL 管制上限Upper control limit5 LCL 管制下限Lower control limit6 PCL 前置管制中心限Per-control Central Limit7 UPCL 前置管制上限Upper Per-control Limit8 LPCL 前置管制下限Lower Per-control Limit9 Ca10 Cp 潜在过程能力指数Capability11 Pp12 Ppk13 CIP 持续改进过程模式Continuous Improvement Process Model14 ANOVA 变异数分析Analysis of Variance15 BSC 平衡计分卡Balanced Scoredoard16 信赖区间Confidence interval17 管制图Control chart18 CTQ 品质关键Critical to quality19 DPMO 每百万个机会的缺点数Defects per million opportunities20 DPM 每百万单位的缺点数Defects per million21 DPU 单位缺点数Defects per unit22 DFSS 六个希格玛设计Design for six sigma23 DOE 实验设计Design of experiment24 DOM制造设计Design of manufactring25 FMEA 故障型态与效应分析Failure mode and effect analysis26 故障率Failure rate27 Gage R&R 量规重复能力与重制能力Gage repeatability & reproducibility28 直方图Histogram29 假设检定Hypothesis testing30 KM 知识管理Knowledge Management31 MRP 物料需求规划Material require planning32 常态分配Normal distribution33 QFD 品质机能展开Quality function deployment34 6σ六个希格玛Six Sigma35 σ, s 标准差Standard deviation36 σ2, S2 变异数Variance37 ABC 作业制成本制度Activity-Based Costing38 BTF 计划生产Build To Forecast39 BTO 订单生产Build To Order40 CPM 要径法Critical Path Method41 CPM 每一百万个使用者会有几次抱怨Complaint per Million42 CRM 客户关系管理Customer Relationship Management43 CRP 产能需求规划Capacity Requirements Planning44 CS 顾客满意度Customer Satisfaction45 CTO 客制化生产Configuration To Order46 DVT 设计验证Design Verification Testing47 DSS 决策支持系统Decision Support System48 EC 设计变更／工程变更Engineer Change49 EC 电子商务Electronic Commerce50 EMC 电磁相容Electric Magnetic Capability51 EOQ 基本经济订购量Economic Order Quantity52 ERP 企业资源规划Enterprise Resource Planning53 FMS 弹性制造系统Flexible Manufacture System54 FQC 成品质量管理Finish or Final Quality Control55 IPQC 制程质量管理In-Process Quality Control56 IQC 进料质量管理Incoming Quality Control57 ISO 国际标准组织International Organization for Standardization58 ISAR 首批样品认可Initial Sample Approval Request59 JIT 实时管理Just In Time60 MES 制造执行系统Manufacturing Execution System61 MO 制令Manufacture Order62 MPS 主生产排程Master Production Schedule63 MRO 请修(购)单Maintenance Repair Operation64 MRP 物料需求规划Material Requirement Planning65 MRPII 制造资源计划Manufacturing Resource Planning66 NFCF 更改预估量的通知Notice for Changing Forecast67 OEM 委托代工Original Equipment Manufacture68 ODM 委托设计与制造Original Design & Manufacture69 OPT 最佳生产技术Optimized Production Technology70 OQC 出货质量管理Out-going Quality Control71 PDCA PDCA管理循环Plan-Do-Check-Action72 PO 订单Purchase Order73 QA 品质保证Quality Assurance74 QC 质量管理Quality Control75 QCC 品管圈Quality Control Circle76 QE 品质工程Quality Engineering77 RMA 退货验收Returned Material Approval78 ROP 再订购点Re-Order Point79 SCM 供应链管理Supply Chain Management80 SFC 现场控制Shop Floor Control81 SO 订单Sales Order82 SOR 特殊订单需求Special Order Request83 TOC 限制理论Theory of Constraints84 TPM 全面生产管理Total Production Management85 TQC 全面质量管理Total Quality Control86 TQM 全面品质管理Total Quality Management87 WIP 在制品Work In Process质量项目管理Project Quality management质量规划Quality Planning实施质量保证Perform Quality Assurance实施质量控制Perform Quality Control帕累托图Pareto Diagram镀金Gold Plating全面质量管理Total Quality Management，TQM质量审核Quality Audit持续改进Continuous Improving一致性成本和非一致性成本Cost of Conformance and Non-Conformance 鱼骨图Fishbone Diagram收益/成本分析Benefit/Cost Analysis基准对照Bench marking零库存Just in time试验设计Design of Experiment质量成本Quality Cost统计抽样Statistical Sampling质量哲学Quality Philosophy精密度Precision准确度Accuracy预防胜于检验Prevention Over Inspection质量和等级Quality & Grade质量管理Quality Management质量方针Quality Policy过程分析Process Analysis因果图Cause & Effect Diagram检验Inspection流程图Flow chart控制图Control Chart控制图Control Chart直方图Histogram趋势图Run Diagram散点图Scatter Diagram缺陷修理审查Defect Repair Review规划Planning培训Training过程控制Process Control设计确认Quality Validation过程确认Processing Validation测量与评估Test & Evaluation维护与校准Maintenance & Calibration废品Scrap返工Rework额外材料与库存Additional Material or Inventory 现场服务Field Service保修成本Warranty Repair投诉处理Complaint Handling责任判定Liability Judgment产品召回Product Recall产品修正措施Product Corrective Action预防成本Preventive Cost鉴定成本Appraisal Cost缺陷成本Failure Cost随机因素Random Cause均值Means控制界限Control Limit规格界限Specification Limit受控In Control失控Out of Control七点原则Rule of Seven趋势分析Trend Analysis属性抽样Attribute Sampling变量抽样Variable Sampling质量职责Responsibility of Quality边际分析Marginal Analysis故障模式和影响分析Failure Mode & Effect Analysis，FMEA总体Population概率Probability统计独立性Statistical Independence互斥Mutually Exclusive戴明环即PDCA——Plan计划；Do执行；Check检查；Action行动零缺陷Zero Defect质量免费Quality Is Freenon confirming report的简写，中文名称是不一致报告其实就是图纸和现场制造不一致等质量管理体系quality management system质量目标quality objective质量改进quality improvement有效性effectiveness设计和开发design and development质量特性quality characteristic合格（符合）conformity预防措施preventive action纠正措施corrective action降级regrade质量手册quality manual鉴定过程qualification process审核方案audit programme审核准则audit criteria审核证据audit evidence审核结论audit conclusion审核委托方audit client审核组audit team测量控制体系measurement control system测量设备measuring equipment计量特性metrological characteristic技术专家technical expert质量改进quality improvement供方supplier偏离许可deviation permitCAR:纠正行动要求。
6个你不知道的项目管理评估模型
6个你不知道的项⽬管理评估模型项⽬管理能⼒评估模型知多少引⾔今天，对于项⽬商务负责⼈和项⽬管理⼯程师⽽⾔，如何使项⽬获得成功，如何沉淀优秀的项⽬管理经验，已成为势在必⾏的需求。
为了更进⼀步提升项⽬管理资质⽔平，国际项⽬管理研究机构和组织，定义了不同的项⽬管理能⼒评估标准，以便不同国家、不同⾏业、不同组织的项⽬能够互相交流学习，同时激励项⽬团队不断提⾼，提升组织项⽬管理⽔平。
今天，笔者来带⼤家看⼀看有哪些主流的项⽬管理能⼒评估模型。
⼀、基础管理标准（1）TQM（Total Quality Management）全⾯质量管理模型，是对⼀个组织以产品质量为核⼼，以全员参与为基础，⽬的在于通过让顾客满意和本组织所有者及社会等相关⽅受益⽽建⽴起⼀套科学严密⾼效的质量体系，从⽽提供满⾜⽤户需要的产品的全部活动，达到长期成功的管理途径。
是改善企业运营效率的⼀种重要⽅法。
TQM的核⼼理念包括：顾客满意：顾客即所提供产品的接受者，可以是组织内部的，也可以是组织外部的。
附加价值：⽤最⼩的投⼊获取最⼤的功能价值，追求组织最⼤的经营绩效和个⼈最⼤的⼯作绩效。
持续改善：建⽴以PDCA循环为基础的持续改善的管理体系IPMA在研究TQM的基础上，在卓越项⽬成功的定义上，引⼊了TQM的基本理念，即：卓越项⽬应是⼀个“让利益相关⽅均满意”的项⽬；卓越项⽬应是⼀个能给企业或社会带来附加价值的项⽬；卓越项⽬应是⼀个能够通过PDCA持续改进的进程。
这三⼤理念奠定了PE模型的基础评估思路，⽆论是指标的设定还是评估⽅式的设计都将围绕这三⼤理念进⾏。
下图为标准选择的详细列表说明。
（2）EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management)愈来愈多的管理者关注业务卓越化管理，⽽欧洲品质管理基⾦会建⽴的EFQM业务卓越模型(European Foundation for Quality Management)简称EFQM模型，则给组织提供了⼀个⽤于⾃我业务评价和改进的⼯具。
project-quality-management工程质量管理
Project Quality Management includes the processes required to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. It includes “all activities of the overall management function that determine the quality policy，objectives，and responsibilities and implements them by means such as quality planning，quality control，quality assurance, and quality improvement, within the quality system”. Figure 8-l provides an overview of the following major project quality management processes:项目质量管理包括项目满足其需求所需的过程。
它包括“确定质量方针、目标和职责并在质量体系中通过诸如质量计划、质量保证和质量改进等方法实施的整个管理职能的全部活动”.图8-1为项目质量管理过程提供了一个概述:8。
l Quality Planning—identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and determining how to satisfy them。
质量计划－确定项目相关的质量标准并决定如何满足它们。
8.2 Quality Assurance-evaluating overall project performance on a regular basis to provide confidence that the project will satisfy the relevant quality standards.质量保证－定期评价整个项目的执行情况，提供项目满足相关质量标准的信心。
项目质量管理体系
项目质量管理体系项目质量管理体系(Project Quality Management System)是指在项目管理过程中，通过制定一系列的管理方法和标准，以确保项目交付的成果符合预期要求的一套质量管理体系。
这个体系包括了项目质量方针、质量目标、质量组织、质量计划、质量保证、质量控制等各种要素。
项目质量管理体系的建立对于一个项目的成功至关重要。
一个完善的项目质量管理体系可以确保项目在规定的时间、成本、质量、范围等方面得以交付，有效降低项目风险，提高项目成功的可能性，增强项目和组织的声誉。
首先，项目质量管理体系的核心是质量方针和质量目标的制定。
质量方针是项目组织对质量的基本要求和期望的陈述，质量目标则是具体的可衡量的目标，以指导项目的质量管理活动。
制定质量方针和目标需要考虑到项目的特点、利益相关方的期望、法律法规的要求等多方面因素，要确保其具有可行性和适用性。
其次，项目质量管理体系需要建立一套适用的质量组织。
质量组织是指负责项目质量管理的各职能部门、岗位以及其相互关系。
在项目质量管理体系中，应当明确各个职能部门的职责和权限，确保质量管理的顺畅运行。
对于大型复杂的项目，可以考虑成立专门的质量管理部门，统一管理和协调项目的质量活动。
再次，项目质量管理体系需要制定详细的质量计划。
质量计划是指在项目启动阶段，通过制定计划书、流程图、工作指导书等形式，明确项目质量管理的要求和流程。
质量计划应包括项目质量的目标、策划和控制活动、质量文件的编制与控制、关键工作环节的质量控制等内容。
通过制定质量计划，可以有效组织和指导项目的质量管理活动。
另外，项目质量管理体系需要建立质量保证机制。
质量保证是通过组织和技术手段来保证项目质量达到预期要求的过程。
质量保证的核心是建立一套质量管理体系，包括质量文件的编写与审核、质量指标的制定和监控、质量培训和人员评价等环节。
通过质量保证机制，可以不断改进项目的质量水平，提高项目的交付能力和创新能力。
PMP备考资料五大过程组十大知识域49个过程组
PMP备考资料五大过程组十大知识域49个过程组PMP（项目管理专业）认证考试是国际上最受认可的项目管理资格之一、根据PMBOK（项目管理知识体系指南）第六版，PMP考试涵盖了五大过程组和十大知识域，共有49个过程组。
下面将为您介绍PMP考试的这些重要内容。
五大过程组：1. 启动过程组（Initiating Process Group）：主要是为了确保项目合约得到签署，并为项目制定项目章程，确定项目经理，并建立项目管理团队的基础。
2. 规划过程组（Planning Process Group）：主要是为项目制定详细的工作计划，明确项目目标、范围、进度、成本、质量、风险等方面的要求，并制定相应的管理计划。
3. 执行过程组（Executing Process Group）：主要是按照项目管理计划执行项目活动，协调团队成员，监控工程过程等，确保项目可交付成果的顺利实施。
4. 监控过程组（Monitoring and Controlling Process Group）：主要是对项目进行监控和控制，及时发现问题并进行调整，以确保项目目标的实现。
5. 收尾过程组（Closing Process Group）：主要是对项目进行总结，评估项目成果是否满足客户需求和项目目标，并制定项目收尾计划。
十大知识域：1. 项目整合管理（Project Integration Management）：主要是确保项目各方面的计划、执行和控制能够协调一致，以达到项目目标。
2. 项目范围管理（Project Scope Management）：主要是定义项目的范围、控制项目的范围变更。
3. 项目进度管理（Project Schedule Management）：主要是确定项目的工作内容和时间，制定项目进度计划，并控制项目进度。
4. 项目成本管理（Project Cost Management）：主要是确定项目的成本预算、控制项目的成本，并进行成本效益分析。
项目管理专用中英文术语词汇
项目管理专用中英文术语词汇1、活动，Activity2、活动定义，Activity Definition3、活动描述/说明，AD=Activity Description4、活动历时估算，Activity Duration Estimating5、箭线网络图（双代号网络图），AOA=Activity-On-Arrow6、节点式网络图（单代号网络图），AON=Activity-on-Node7、已执行工作实际成本，ACWP=Actual Cost of Work Performed8、实际完成日期，AF=Actual Finish Date9、实际开始日期，AS=Actual Start Date10、行政收尾，Administrative Closure11、箭线，Arrow12、箭线图示法，ADM=Arrow Diagramming Method13、逆推计算法，Backward Pass14、横道图，Bar Chart15、基准计划，Baseline16、完工预算，BAC=Budget At Completion17、概算，Budget Estimate18、已执行预算成本，BCWP=Budgeted Cost of Work Performed19、计划执行预算成本，BCWS= Budgeted Cost of Scheduled20、日历单位，Calendar Unit21、变更控制委员会，CCB=Chang Control Board 22、沟通规划，Communications Planning23、并行工程， Concurrent Engineering24、意外费用，Contingencies25、意外准备金，contingency Allowance26、意外规划，Contingency Planning27、意外储备，Contingency Reserve28、合同，Contract29、合同管理，Contract Administration30、合同收尾，Contract Close-out31、控制，Control32、控制图，Control Chart33、纠正措施，Corrective Action34、费用预算，Cost Budgeting35、费用控制，Cost Control36、费用做算，Cost Estimating37、质量成本，Cost of Quality38、费用绩效指数，CPI=Cost Performance Index39、费用偏差，CV=Cost Variance40、赶工，Crashing41、关键工序，Critical Activity42、关键路线，Critical Path43、关键路线法，CPM=Critical Path Method44、当前完成日期，Current Finish Date45、当前开始日期，Current Start Date46、数据日期，DD=Data Date47、交付物，Deliverable48、依赖关系，Dependency49、虚活动，Dummy Activity50、延续时间，DU=Duration51、延续时间压缩，Duration Compression52、最早完工日期，EF=Early Finish Date53、最早开始日期，ES=Early Start Date54、挣值法，EV=Earned Value55、挣值分析，Earned Value Analysis56、人工量，Effort57、估算，概算，Estimate58、在完成时的费用估算，EAC=Estimate At Completion59、到完成时的估算，ETC=Estimate To Complete60、单节点事件图，Event-on-Node61、例外报告，Exception Report62、完成日期，Finish Date63、完成到完成关系，FF=Finish-to-Finish64、完成到开始关系，FS=Finish-to-Start65、时差，机动时间，浮动时间，Float66、顺推计算法，Forward Pass67、自由时差，FF=Free Float68、职能经理，Functional Manager69、职能组织，Functional Organization 70、甘特图，Gantt Chart71、图解评审技术，GERT=Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique72、集合工作，Hammock73、悬摆，Hanger74、信息分发，Information Distribution75、立项，Initiation76、成本/进度综合报告，Integrated Cost/Schedule Reporting77、邀标，IFB= Invitation for Bid78、关键事件进度计划，Key Event Schedule79、滞后量，Lag80、最晚完成日期，LF=Late Finish Date81、最晚开始日期，LS=Late Start Date82、提前量，Lead83、全生命期成本估算，Life-cycle Costing84、产品经理，Line Manager85、逻辑图，Logic Diagram86、逻辑关系，Logical Relationship87、回路，Loop88、管理储备量，Management Reserve89、主进度计划，Master Schedule90、矩阵型组织，Matrix Organization91、里程碑，Milestone92、里程碑进度计划，Milestone Schedule93、现代项目管理，MPM=Modern Project Management94、监控，Monitoring95、蒙托卡罗分析，Monte Carlo Analysis96、次关键工作，Near-Critical Activity97、网络，Network98、网络分析，Network Analysis99、网络逻辑，Network Logic100、网络路线，Network Path101、节点，Node102、组织分解结构，OBS=Organizational Breakdown Structure103、组织规划，Organizational Planning104、整体变更控制，Overall Change Control105、重叠，Overlap106、参数估算法，Parametric Estimating107、线路，Path108、线路时差，Path Float109、完成百分比，PC=Percent Complete110、执行报告，Performance Reporting111、执行机构，Performing organization112、计划评审技术图，PERT Chart113、计划的完成日期，PF=Planned Finish Date114、计划的开始日期，PS=Planned Start Date115、优先图示法，PDM=Precedence Diagramming Method 117、紧前工作，Predecessor Activity118、采购规划，Procurement Planning119、工程，Program120、计划评审技术，PERT=Program Evaluation and Review Technique121、项目，Project122、项目许可证，Project Charter123、项目沟通管理，Project Communication Management124、项目费用管理，Project Cost Management125、项目人力资源管理，Project Human Resource Management126、项目综合管理，Project Integration Management127、项目生命周期，Project Life Cycle128、项目管理，PM=Project Management129、项目管理知识体系，PMBOK=Project Management Body of Knowledge130、项目管理软件，Project Management Software131、项目管理团队，Project Management Team132、项目经理，PM=Project Manager133、项目网络图，Project Network Diagram134、项目阶段，Project Phase135、项目计划，Project Plan136、项目计划开发，Project Plan Development137、项目计划实施，Project Plan Execution139、项目采购管理，Project Procurement Management140、项目质量管理，Project Quality Management141、项目风险管理，Project Risk Management142、项目进度计划，Project Schedule143、项目范围管理，Project Scope Management144、项目团队成员，Project Team Member145、项目时间管理，Project Time Management146、项目型组织，Project Organization147、质量保证，QA=Quality Assurance148、质量控制，QC=Quality Control149、质量规划，Quality Planning150、剩余持续时间，RDU=Remaining Duration151、请求建议书，RFP=Request for Proposal152、请求报价单，RFQ=Request for Quotation153、储备量，Reserve154、资源平衡，Resource Leveling155、资源约束进度计划，Resource-Limited Schedule156、资源规划，Resource Planning157、责任分配矩阵，RAM=Responsibility Assignment Matrix158、责任图，Responsibility Chart159、责任矩阵，Responsibility Matrix160、保留金，Retain age161、突发事件，Risk Event 162、风险识别，Risk Identification163、风险应对控制，Risk Response Control164、风险应对开发，Risk Response Development 165、 S曲线，S-Curve166、进度计划，Schedule167、进度计划分析，Schedule Analysis168、进度计划压缩，Schedule Compression169、进度计划控制，Schedule Control170、进度执行指数，SPI=Schedule Performance Index 171、进度偏差，SV=Schedule Variance172、计划完成日期，SF=Scheduled Finish Date 173、计划开始日期，SS=Scheduled Start Date174、范围，Scope175、范围基准计划，Scope Baseline176、范围变更，Scope Change177、范围变更控制，Scope Change Control178、范围定义，Scope Definition179、范围规划，Scope Planning180、范围验证，Scope Verification181、时差，Slack182、询价，Solicitation183、询价规划，Solicitation184、工作人员招募，Staff Acquisition185、项目相关者，Stakeholder186、开始日期，Start Date187、开始到完成关系，Start-to-Finish188、开始到开始关系，Start-to-Start189、工作说明，SOW=Statement of Work190、子网，Subnet191、子网络，Subnet Work192、后续工作，Successor Activity193、目标完成日期，TC=Target Completion Date 194、目标时度计划，Target Schedule195、任务，Task196、团队建设，Team Development197、团队成员，Team members198、时标网络图，Time-Scaled Network Diagram 199、目标完成日期，TF=Target Finish Date200、目标开始日期，Ts=Target Start Date201、总时差，TF=Total Float202、全面质量管理，TQM=Total Quality Management 203、权变措施，Workaround204、工作分解结构，WBS=Work Breakdown Structure205、工作包，Work Package项目管理专业术语中英文对照表验收 - (Acceptance)指客户检查接受项目交付物的过程。
项目质量检查管理。
项目质量检查管理。
英文回答：Project Quality Inspection Management.Project quality inspection management is the process of ensuring that a project meets or exceeds quality standards. It involves establishing quality criteria, developing inspection plans, conducting inspections, and taking corrective action as necessary.Key Principles of Project Quality Inspection Management.Quality is defined and measurable: Quality criteria should be clearly defined and measurable to ensure that inspections are objective and consistent.Inspections are planned and executed systematically: Inspection plans should specify the frequency, scope, and methods of inspections to ensure that all critical aspectsof the project are covered.Inspections are conducted by qualified personnel: Inspectors should be properly trained and experienced to ensure that inspections are accurate and reliable.Corrective action is taken promptly and effectively: When defects or nonconformities are identified, corrective action should be taken immediately to prevent them from becoming major problems.Benefits of Project Quality Inspection Management.Improved project quality: Inspections help to identify and correct defects early on, preventing them from causing problems later in the project.Reduced project risk: Inspections help to mitigate risks by ensuring that the project is on track to meet quality standards.Increased customer satisfaction: Customers are morelikely to be satisfied with a product or service that meets their quality expectations.Improved project efficiency: Inspections can help to identify and eliminate bottlenecks and inefficiencies in the project process.Compliance with regulations: Inspections can help to ensure that the project meets regulatory requirements and standards.Steps in Project Quality Inspection Management.1. Establish quality criteria: Define the quality standards that the project must meet.2. Develop inspection plans: Determine the frequency, scope, and methods of inspections.3. Conduct inspections: Carry out inspections according to the plan.4. Document inspection results: Record all inspection results and identify any defects or nonconformities.5. Take corrective action: Implement corrective actions to address any defects or nonconformities.6. Monitor quality improvement: Track key quality metrics and identify areas for improvement.Tools and Techniques for Project Quality Inspection Management.Checklists: Help to ensure that all critical aspects of the project are inspected.Sampling: Can be used to inspect a representative portion of the project to assess overall quality.Statistical process control: Can be used to monitor quality trends and identify areas for improvement.Quality audits: Can be used to assess theeffectiveness of the quality inspection system.Conclusion.Project quality inspection management is essential for ensuring that projects meet or exceed quality standards. By following the key principles, steps, and tools outlined in this article, project teams can improve quality, reduce risk, increase customer satisfaction, and improve project efficiency.中文回答：项目质量检查管理。
系统开发项目质量管理流程规范
系统开发项目质量管理流程规范1.项目启动时，需明确定义质量管理目标和方针。
At the start of the project, quality managementobjectives and policies should be clearly defined.2.需要建立项目质量管理计划，明确各项工作任务的质量标准和指标。
A project quality management plan needs to be established, outlining the quality standards and metrics for each task.3.项目初期需进行质量管理培训，确保团队对质量管理流程有清晰的理解。
Quality management training should be conducted at the beginning of the project to ensure the team has a clear understanding of the quality management process.4.在项目执行过程中，需要进行质量控制，及时发现并处理质量问题。
Quality control should be conducted during the project execution to promptly identify and address quality issues.5.需要建立和维护项目过程和交付物的质量记录和档案。
It is necessary to establish and maintain quality records and documents for project processes and deliverables.6.需要进行定期的质量审计，确保项目质量目标的达成。
Regular quality audits should be conducted to ensure the achievement of project quality objectives.7.需要进行质量改进活动，持续提升项目的质量水平。
项目管理英文术语
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Project Quality ManagementThe project Quality Management knowledge area assures that the project meets the requirements that the project was undertaken to produce. These processes measure overall performance, and monitor projects results and compare them to the quality standards set out in the project planning process to assure that the customer will receive the product or service they thought they purchased. Project Quality Management is composed of the following three processes: Quality Planning, Quality Assurance, and Quality Control. The PMBOK defines quality as the totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. Stated and implied needs are the inputs to developing project requirements. A critical aspect of quality management in the project context is turning implied needs into requirements through Project Scope Management. It is important to recognize the difference between quality and grade. Grade is defined by the PMBOK as a category or rank given to entities having the same functional use but different technical characteristics. Low quality is always a problem, but low grade may not be. The project manager and team must determine and deliver the required levels of quality and grade. One important area that the PMBOK emphasizes is the growing attention to customer requirements as the basis for managing quality. Much of this discussion is similar to what is covered in contemporary course offerings. Another concept that may appear on the test, which is not specifically mentioned in the PMBOK, is "gold-plating." Simply defined, gold-plating is giving the customer more than what was required. Exceeding the specified requirements is a waste of time and money, with no value added to the project. The customer should expect and receive exactly what was specified. This is the underlying philosophy of project quality management espoused by PMI; it is the process required to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. Quality Management The PMBOK definition is similar to Crosby's definition in Quality is Free. According to the PMBOK, quality management includes all activities of the overall management function that determine the quality policy, objectives, and responsibilities, and implements them by means such as quality planning, quality assurance, quality control, and quality improvement within the quality system. Quality management involves carrying out a project through itsPMPTOOLS e-book – All rights reserved 2002PMP EXAMCRAMphases (for example, concept, development, implementation, and finish) with zero deviations from the project specifications. Policies, plans, procedures, specifications, and requirements are attained through the sub functions of quality assurance and quality control.Quality PlanningThe PMBOKdefines quality planning as "identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and determining how to satisfy them". Also remember a fundamental tenet of modern thinking about project quality management-quality should be planned in, not inspected in! Therefore, although inspection is certainly part of project quality management, increased inspection is not generally considered the best path to improved quality. So hiring more inspectors would not be the correct answer to the question, "What is the best way to improve quality?"Quality PolicyPMI stresses the importance of having a quality policy for the project. Quality policy is defined as the overall intentions and direction of an organization with regard to quality as formally expressed by top management. If the performing organization lacks a formal quality policy or if the project has multiple organizations involved, the project team must develop a quality policy for the project.Quality Planning Tools and TechniquesPMI discusses five quality planning tools and techniques. Benefit/cost analysis: Benefit/cost analysis must be considered in the quality planning process. The primary benefit of meeting quality requirements is less rework; the primary cost is the expense associated with project quality management activities. Benchmarking. Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project activities to those of other projects to generate ideas for improvement and to provide a standard by which to measure performance. Some people have described this process as a search for "best practices." Flowcharting: Flowcharts are diagrams that show how various elements of a system relate. (See the description of the types of flowcharts in the quality control tools section). Here, PMI also includese-book – All rights reserved 2002-2-PMP EXAMCRAMoCause-and-effect diagrams (also called Ishikawa diagrams or fishbone diagrams), which illustrate how various causes and subcauses relate to create potential problems or effects(Cause and Effect Diagram) System or process flowcharts, which show the interrelated elements Design of experiments: This is an analytical technique that helps identify which variables have the most influence on the overall outcome. For example, designers might want to determine which combination of suspension and tires will produce the most desirable ride characteristics at a reasonable cost. Or, project planners could design experiments to determine the optimal combination of senior and junior level staff given cost and time constraints. Cost of quality: One major area of emphasis is the concept of cost of quality, which refers to the total cost of all efforts to achieve product/service quality. It is defined as the cost of conformance-the cost of proactive quality processes-and the cost of nonconformance the cost of a quality failure. In either form, cost of quality is a results oriented approach to measuring and assessing the effectiveness and/or benefit of an organization's project quality management process. It is a useful means of bringing management's attention to the need for quality, but it provides little meaningful capability to manage quality proactively. oTypes of CostsThere are three types of costs incurred. Be able to recognize examples of each: prevention costs and appraisal costs, which are the cost of conformance, and failure costs, which are the cost of nonconformance.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-3-PMP EXAMCRAMCost of Conformance Prevention costs: Up-front costs oriented toward the satisfaction of customer requirements: o Design reviews o Training and indoctrination o Planning o Vendor, supplier, and subcontractor surveys o Process studies Appraisal costs: Costs associated with the evaluation of the product or the process to see whether customer requirements were met: o Product inspections o Lab tests o Vendor controls o In-process testing o Internal/external design reviewsCost of Nonconformance (Failure Costs) Internal failure costs: Costs associated with the failure of the processes to make the products acceptable to the customer before the products leave the control of the organization: o Scrap o Rework o Repair o Downtime o Defect evaluation o Corrective actions External failure costs: Costs associated with the determination by the customer that requirements have not been satisfied: o Customer returns o Customer complaints o Customer inspections o Customer visits to resolve quality complaints o Corrective actionsKey Quality Planning Outputs The quality management plan describes the quality management system: the organizational structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes, and resources needed to implement quality management. Operational definitions describe what something is and how the quality control process measures it. They may also be called metrics.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-4-PMP EXAMCRAMChecklists are outputs of quality planning that are used to verify that a set of required steps has been performed. Completed checklists (an output of quality control) should be part of the project's records.Quality AssuranceQuality assurance is a managerial function that addresses all the planned and systematic activities implemented within the quality system to provide confidence that the project will satisfy the relevant quality standards. As defined by the PMBOK, quality assurance is fundamentally a reactive process. The following issues and concepts fall under quality assurance: Formative Quality Evaluation (Quality Audit): This is a process of reviewing specific data at key points of the project's life cycle. The quality audit is a quality assurance tool and technique that serves as a structured review of quality management activities. Its objective is to identify lessons learned that can be used to improve performance on this project or on other projects in the organization. Quality Improvement: Quality improvement is the output of quality assurance and includes taking actions to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the project to provide added benefit to the project stakeholders. This may require the use of change requests or corrective action. Ownership of Quality Responsibility: The individual employee performing the task has ultimate responsibility. Self-Inspection: The individual performing a given task also performs measurements to ensure that conformance is continually achieved. Quality ControlQuality control is a technical function that involves establishing the technical baseline for the project and then collecting specific data by which to measure conformance to that baseline. Specifically, the PMBOK defines quality control as "monitoring specific project results to determine if they comply with relevant quality standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory performance". Included below are some important terms and concepts associated with quality control. Variable: A quality characteristic that is measurable in increments. Examples are diameter measured in inches, cooking time measured in minutes, and weight measured in pounds. Attribute: A quality characteristic that is classified as either conforming or nonconforming to specifications or requirements. It results in a go or no-go decision. Probability. An important concept in quality control is that of probability. In its simplest form, probability refers to the chance that something will happen.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-5-PMP EXAMCRAMFor attributes, this is easily segregated into a "yes-no" outcome. As an example, in flipping a coin there is a 50 percent probability of getting "heads" on any single flip. For variables, probability is a more complicated concept. We measure the occurrences of an event or characteristic, and distribute them over the entire range of the characteristic. Such a distribution is formally called a probability distribution. The most common probability distribution has a bell shape and is symmetric about its mean; it is known as a normal distribution or a bell curve. A population is the entire group of items or occurrences that we might wish to measure. Because populations can be very large, however, we often sample the population, using a smaller group to get a picture of the larger group. Standard Deviation: In measuring samples and comparing them to their overall population, one important concept is that of standard deviation. Simply defined, the standard deviation is the amount on either side of the mean of a normal distribution that will contain approximately 68.3 percent of the total population. The amount within two standard deviations will include 95.5 percent, and within three standard deviations will include 99.7 percent of the population. We use the character sigma, a, to denote the standard deviation of an entire population. Calculating standard deviation is complex. Most automated quality control packages include the provision to calculate standard deviation and other statistically important values. In fact, most pocket calculators available today can also provide this value for a series of discrete observations of a variable characteristic. Process Control: Building on the statistical concepts we have just discussed, the PMBOK emphasizes process control as an important means of managing quality. Key to this concept is the idea of statistical process control (SPC) and its main tool, control charts, commonly called SPC charts. A SPC chart will show you the current capability of the process-what is called voice of the process in some courses and recent publications. The important point to remember about SPC charts is that there are many different types you may use, depending on the characteristic you are measuring and its variability. Sampling: Sampling is a useful means of assessing the value of a characteristic when examining an entire population is not feasible. There are two main types of sampling.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-6-PMP EXAMCRAMooAttribute sampling is the examination of one or more attributes in a lot. A limit of acceptability is established for the entire lot. For example, we may consider a "lot" of 10,000 parts. A random sample of 150 is selected for examination. For that sample, the acceptance number is 3, meaning that if more than 3 parts are found to be defective; the entire lot of 10,000 will be rejected. You can conduct single-attribute sampling, double-attribute sampling, multipleattribute sampling, or sequential attribute sampling (singleattribute sampling performed sequentially on the same lot for different attributes). Variable sampling provides a more dynamic approach to sampling. This is the basis for creating control charts, where a process variable is measured and charted to determine process capability. Variable sampling may also be used to estimate the fraction of a lot that is nonconforming, and thus to make decisions about further inspection or use of the lot.Quality Control ToolsThere are seven main quality control tools (often called the basic seven tools). Flowcharts and Diagrams (Tools 1 and 2) Flowcharts permit you to examine and understand relationships in a process or project. They show how various elements of a system interrelate. They provide a step-by-step schematic or picture that serves to create a common language, ensure common understanding about sequence, and focus collective attention on shared concerns. Flowcharts are used in all three of the quality management processes. Several different types of flowcharts are particularly useful in the continuous improvement process. Three frequently used charts are the top-down flowchart, the detailed flowchart, and the work-flow diagram. The top-down flowchart presents only the major or most fundamental steps in a process or project. It helps you or your team to easily visualize the process in a single, simple flow diagram. Key value-added actions associated with each major activity are listed below their respective flow diagram steps. You can construct a top-down flowchart fairly quickly and easily. You generally do so before attempting to produce detailed flowcharts for a process. By limiting the top-down flowchart to significant value-added activity, you reduce the likelihood of becoming bogged down in the detail.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-7-PMP EXAMCRAM(Top-Down Flowchart) The detailed flowchart provides very specific information about process flow. At its most detailed level, every decision point, feedback loop, and process step is represented. Detailed flowcharts should be used only when the level of detail provided by the top-down or other simpler flowcharts is insufficient to support understanding, analysis, and improvement activity. The detailed flowchart may also be useful and appropriate for critical processes where precisely following a specific procedure is essential.(Detailed Flowchart) The work-flow diagram is a graphic representation of how work actually flows through a physical space or facility. It is very useful for analyzing flow processes, illustrating flow inefficiency, and planning process flow improvement.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-8-PMP EXAMCRAM(Work Flow Diagram) Scatter diagrams organize data using an independent variable and a dependent variable. Scatter diagrams are used to determine the relationship between two or more pieces of corresponding data. Data are plotted on an XY chart to determine correlation. Scatter diagrams are used to show the effect or no effect on one variable when the other variable is changed.e-book – All rights reserved 2002-9-PMP EXAMCRAMPareto Charts (Tool 3) In the late 1800s, Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist, found that typically 80 percent of the wealth in a region was concentrated in less than 20 percent of the population. Later, Dr. Joseph Juran formulated what he called the Pareto Principle of problems: only a "vital few" elements (20 percent) account for the majority (80 percent) of the problems. For example, in a manufacturing facility, 20 percent of the equipment problems account for 80 percent of the downtime. Because the Pareto principle has proven to be valid in numerous situations, it is useful to examine data carefully to identify the vital few items that most deserve attention.A Pareto Chart is a bar chart in which the data are arranged in descending order of their importance, generally by magnitude of frequency, cost, time, or a similar parameter. The chart presents the information being examined in its order of priority and focuses attention on the most critical issues. The chart aids the decision-making process because it puts issues into an easily understood framework in which relationships and relative contributions are clearly evident. The cause-and-effect diagram is a graphic representation of the relationships among a list of items or factors. It is a useful tool in brainstorming, examining processes, and planning activities. The process of constructing a cause-andeffect diagram helps stimulate thinking about an issue, helps organize thoughts into a rational whole, and generates discussion and the airing of viewpoints. The diagram documents the level of understanding about an issue and provides a framework from which to begin expanding that understanding. Cause-and-effect diagrams can be used to explore a wide variety of topics including the relationships between an existing problem and the factors that might bear on it; a desired future outcome and the factors that relate to it; or any event past, present, or future, and its causal factors.e-book – All rights reserved 2002- 10 -NOTE. The cause-and-effect diagram was developed by Kaoru Ishikawa. It may also be referred to on the exam as the Ishikawa diagram and/or "fishbone" diagram because of its shape.(Cause and effect Diagram)Graphs (Tool 5)Many different types of graphs are available and useful to the improvement process. Some of the most common include a simple line graph (time plots or trend chart), pie chart, and bar chart, or histogram. Graphs are useful for presenting data in a simple pictorial form that is quickly and easily understood. Graphs serve as powerful communication tools and should be employed liberally in the workplace to describe performance, support analyses, and document the improvement process.Control Charts (Tool 6)A control chart is a graph that displays data taken over time and computed variations of those data. Control charts are used to show the variation on a variety of variables including average (X) and range (R) and also the number of defects (PN), percent defective (P), defects per variable unit (U), and defects per fixed unit (C). The control chart allows you to distinguish between measurements that are predictably within the inherent capability of the process (normal causes of variation that are to be expected) and measurements that are unpredictable and produced by special causes.(Control Chart Diagram)The upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL) must not be confused withspecification limits. Control limits describe the natural variation of the processsuch that points within the limits are generally indicative of normal andexpected variation. Points outside the limits signal that something has occurred that requires special attention because it is outside of the built-insystemic causes of variation in the process. Note that the circled point onthe X-bar chart means that the process is out of control and should beinvestigated. These points outside the control limits are referred to as specialevents having either assignable causes or random causes. The occurrence ofassignable causes may be the result of unwanted, external effects such as thefollowing:•An equipment problem•An employee problem (poor training, understaffed, and so on)•Defective materialsThere is another important guideline, known as the Rule of Seven, which should be observed whenever interpreting control charts. This rule of thumb (heuristic) states that if seven or more observations in a row occur on the same side of the mean (or if they trend in the same direction), even though they may be within the control limit, they should be investigated as if they had an assignable cause. (The lower part of Figure 5-10 illustrates such an occurrence.) It is extremely unlikely that seven observations in a row would be on the same side of the mean if the process is operating normally.Why is this so? If a process is operating normally, the observations will follow a random pattern with some of the points falling above the line and some below the line. In fact, the probability that any single point will fall above or below the line is 50-50 (like a coin toss). Further, the probability that seven points in a row would be on the same side of the line would be calculated as .5 to the 7th power, which is equal to 0.0078 (or less than 1 percent). Again, this rule provides a guideline that alerts you that something unlikely is happening and you should check it out.These charts will help you understand the following:•Understand the inherent capability of your processes•Bring your processes under control by eliminating the special causes of variation•Reduce tampering with processes that are under statistical control•Monitor the effects of process changes aimed at improvementTwo additional concepts are important in the use of control charts. Both concepts involve the idea of standard deviation, often referred to as "sigma." For the exam, you need to understand only the concepts (no formulas or complex calculations are required).The first concept involves the use by some companies of what is known as the Six Sigma Rule for setting control limits. You are already aware that three standard deviations (sigma) either side of the mean accounts for approximately 99.7 percent of the possible outcomes. Historically, many companies have used plus or minus three sigma’s as their standard for setting control limits. In recent years, some companies have chosen to use plus or minus six sigmas as a guide for setting control limits. The use of this more stringent rule means that even fewer actual outcomes might fall outside the control limits.The second concept involves the effect of sample size on the control limits. Again, you do not need to memorize any formulas, but it helps to know the following information about how the formula for setting control limits works. First, the standard deviation is part of the formula for establishing control limits. The larger the standard deviation, the wider the control limits will be. That much is fairly intuitive. In other words, the greater the natural variations in the process, the wider the control limits need to be. Now, how does sample size affect the control limits? Sample size affects control limits by its effect on the standard deviation. Sample size is in the denominator of the formula for variance from which standard deviation is computed; so whenever sample size is increased, the standard deviation will be smaller. Conversely, if the sample size is decreased, the standard deviation will be larger. Therefore, larger sample sizes will result in more narrow control limits, and smaller sample sizes will result in wider control limits.Checksheets (Tool 7)A checksheet is a list of check-off items that permit data to be collected quickly and easily in a simple standardized format that lends itself to quantitative analysis. A check sheet frequently contains a graphic representation of an object and is used to record such information as where specific damage was located. Check sheets are intended to make data collection fast and easy. They should be carefully designed so that the data are useful and have a clear purpose. Check sheets are frequently used to collect data on numbers of defective items, defect locations, and defect causes.Continuous Improvement and KaizenThe Japanese word for continuous improvement is kaizen. The key idea here isthat improving quality is not a discrete, one-time event. Managers andworkers alike join in the responsibility to constantly watch for opportunities toimprove processes as well as products.Just-in-time (JIT)JIT is an inventory control approach that attempts to reduce work-in-processinventory to zero stock. Thus, there is no extra or "buffer" stock kept in reserve in such a process. Numerous companies have adopted JIT, which waspopularized in Japan at Toyota, because the company believed JIT and highquality go together naturally. The philosophy is that with no safety stock inthe system, defective parts or processes will grind the system to a halt. Zeroworking-process inventory, therefore, forces a company to find and fix qualityproblems, or it will constantly miss its schedule commitments.Impact of Motivation on QualityIt is generally believed that increased quality is likely to be associated withprojects whose team members display pride, commitment, and an interest inworkmanship. It is also believed that one way to harm this culture is byallowing frequent turnover of the people assigned to the project.Priority of Quality versus Cost and ScheduleQuality used to receive lip service in many companies, but it was in reality lessimportant than meeting schedules or containing costs. Such a situation was often tipped off by such signals as the quality manager reporting to the production manager (who often cared more about schedule pressures than quality). Although lip service has probably not been eliminated entirely, modern thinking emphasizes that quality should share equal priority with cost and schedule. In works such as Crosby's Quality Is Free, many people maintain that improvements in quality are likely to lead to better cost and schedule performance in the long run.Impact of Poor QualityThe following effects on a project are possible results of poor quality: •Increased project costs as a result of costs of nonconformance (for example, rework, scrap, product recalls, and so on)•Decreased productivity•Increased risk and uncertainty (less predictability in cost, schedule, and technical outcomes)•Increased costs of monitoring (if conformance to specifications is low, increased monitoring will probably become necessary)InspectionsInspections are a quality control tool. As stated in the scope verification section, inspection includes activities such as measuring, examining, and testing undertaken to determine whether results conform to requirements.They may be conducted at any level.Trend AnalysisAnother quality control tool is trend analysis, which uses mathematical techniques to forecast future outcomes based on historical results. It is used to monitor•Technical performance: How many errors or defects have been identified; how many remain uncorrected•Cost and schedule performance: How many activities per period were completed with significant variancesDesign and Quality•Quality should be designed in, not inspected in (worth repeating).•More specifically, careful design of a product or service is believed to increase reliability and maintainability (two important measures ofquality).•The primary responsibility for developing design and test specifications rests with the project engineers (they have the expertise needed to performthis vital task).•Rework is any action taken to bring a defective or nonconforming item into compliance with requirements or specifications. The project team shouldmake every effort to minimize rework.。