英美文学概况---十八世纪英国文学：理性的时代
英美文学主要内容
英美文学作品选读Selected Readings of British LiteratureThis subject is about the historical development of British literature, it describes the lives and careers of the great and major writers, especially their representative works.英国1. 中古英国文学（8世纪-14世纪）2. 文艺复兴时期（14世纪-17世纪中）3. 新古典主义时期（17世纪中-18世纪）4. 浪漫主义时期（18世纪中-19世纪中）5. 维多利亚时期（1836- 1901）6. 现代主义时期（19世纪末-20世纪）Mediaeval times (the 8th ~ 14th century)1)The Anglo-saxon period:About Teutons: before the invasion of Britain, the Teutons inhabited the central part of Europe as far as the Rhine, a tract which in a large measured coincides with the modern Germany. The Jutes, Angles and Saxons were different tribes of Teutons. These ancestors of the English dwelt in Danmark and in the lands extending southward along the North Sea.The literature form of this period falls into two divisions –pagan and Christian. The former represents the poetry which the Anglo-Saxons probably brought with them in the form of oral saga. The latter represents the writings developed under the teaching of the monks. Two important poets in this period are Caedmon and Cynewulf.The Song of Beowulf: the poem can be justly termed England’s national epic, its hero Beowulf is one of the national heroes of the English people. Thematically, the poem presents a vivid picture of how the primitive people wage heroic struggles again the hostile forces of the natural world under a wise and mighty leader.2)The Anglo-Norman period: the literature of this period is remarkable for its bright, romantic tales oflove and adventure, in contrast with the strength and somberness of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the representative. Its theme is a series of the tests on faith, courage, purity and human weakness for self-preservation. The story presents a profoundly Christian view of man’s character and his destiny. By placing self-protection before honour, and deceit before his trust in the love of God, Gawain has sinned and fallen and become an image of Adam. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is undoubtedly a romance told with the purpose of portraying ideal character in action.3)Geoffrey Chaucer,the ‘father of English poetry”and one of the greatest narrative poets of England.Chaucer greatly contributed to the founding of the English literary language, the basis of which was formed by the London dialect, so profusely used by the poet. Chaucer’s masterpiece is the Canterbury Tales, one of the most famous works in all literature, which has given us a picture of contemporary English life, its work and play, its deeds and dreams, its fun and sympathy and hearty joy of living such as no other single work of literature has ever equaled. These people include young squire, yeoman, forester, Prioress, miller, ploughman, etc.文艺复兴时期文学The Renaissancethe 16th century in England was a period of breaking up of feudal relations and the establishing of the foundations of capitalism. New social and economic conditions brought about great changes in the development of science and art, this period is marked by a flourishing of national culture known as the Renaissance, which originally indicated a revival of classical (Greek and Roman) arts and sciences after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism (vagueness).In Elizabethan period, English literature developed with a great speed. The most distinctive achievement of Elizabethan literature is drama. Next to drama is the lyrical poetry, remarkable for its variety and freshness and romantic feeling. In the renaissance period, scholars began to emphasize the capacities of human mind and the achievement of human culture. So humanism became the keynote of English renaissance.1. William Shakespeare is one of the most remarkable playwrights and poets in the world. He has also been given the highest praises by various scholars and critics the world over. His greatest tragedies are: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. His greatest comedies are: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the Merchant of Venice, as you like it and Twelfth Night. In them, he portrayed young people just freed from feudal fetters. He sang of their youth, love and ideal of happiness. They trust in themselves and their efforts are crowned with success. The general spirit is optimism.The Merchant of Venice: A moneyless young man Bassanio loves a rich beauty Portia. He wants to marry to her, so he appeals to his friend Antonio for help. To aid Bassanio in his courtship, he borrows money from Shylock the Jewish usurer. Shylock agrees to lend the money on the condition that if the loan is not paid in three months, he may cut a pound of flesh from Antonia’s body. Unfortunately, Antonio can’t pay the money because his ship doesn’t return on time. Shylock demands his pound of flesh and Antonio is in danger now. At the critical moment, a young doctor of law comes to help him. He asks Shylock to take no more or no less than one pound of flesh and spilling no drop of blood. Shylock can’t do this, so Antonia is saved. The man who saves the life of Antonio is no other than Portia in disguise! Portia: she is one of S hakespeare’s ideal women--- beautiful, cultured, courteous（谦恭）and capable of rising to an emergency. Shylock: he is an avaricious money-lender and a Jew of pride and deep religious instincts. He has suffered much in the hands of the Christians. His revolting bond is counterbalanced by Antonio’s arrogant treatmen t of him. We can see his loud protest against racial discrimination.Hamlet is considered the summit of Shakespeare’s art. The whole story shows how hamlet, who represents good and justice, fights against his uncle in whom all the evil things can be seen. The famous line in the play “to be or not to be” by hamlet is often quoted by people. He is a hero of the renaissance. He loves good and hates evil. He is a scholar, soldier and statesman. His learning, wisdom, noble nature, limitation and tragedy are all representative of the humanists at the turn of the 16th and the 17th century.Othello is a splendid Moorish general in Venice. He marries to a beautiful girl and they live happily together. Iago is a very bad man and he envies his happiness. He tells Othello that his wife betrayed him. He believes him and kills his wife. But at last he knows the truth and regrets very much, so he killed himself. It is a tragedy of humanism and a tragedy of the colored people in a society of racial prejudice. Othello is a great warrior and too noble-minded to suspect those whom he loves. Though his kin is dark, he has great moral beauty. He loves Desdemona dearly because he finds her to be the embodiment of integrity, sincerity and loftiness of mind. Their tragedy shows that noble-minded people maybe led astray by evil forces in an evil society and commit mistakes if they can not distinguish falsehood from truth, and evil from good.King Lear: Lear is the king of Britain and he is a self-wild old man, intends to divide his realm among his three daughters by asking them how much they love him. The two elder daughters win his trust by fine words. But his little daughter Cordelia says she loves him according to her duty, not more or less. Her father is angry and decides to give her nothing.Sonnet: the sonnet is a poem in 14 lines with one or the other rhyme scheme.Francis Bacon:an outstanding prose writer in time. His works may be divided into three classes, the philosophical (the Advancement of Learning), the literary (Essays - Of Truth, Of Death, Of Friendship), and the professional (Reading on the Status of Uses) works.17世纪文学(The Period of Revolution and Restoration)The 17th century was one of the most tempestuous periods in English history. It was a period when absolute monarchy impeded the further development of capitalism in England and the bourgeoisie could no longer bear the sway of landed nobility. The contradictions between the feudal system and the bourgeoisie had reached its peak and resulted in a revolutionary outburst.1. John Milton is the greatest writer of the 17th century. He is often considered the greatest English poet after Shakespeare. In his life and literary career the two dominant historical movements of renaissance and Reformation combine and receive their most intense and intelligent expression. His works include paradise lost, paradise regained and Samson Agonistes. Milton has noble thought and splendid imagery. He is a great stylist. His poetry has a grand style. His poetry is noted for sublimity of thought and majesty of expression. Milton is a great master of blank verse. He is the glorious pioneer to introduce blank verse into non-dramatic poetry. He has used it as the main tool in his masterpiece Paradise Lost. His blank verse is rich in every poetic quality and never monotonous. His works are marked by cosmic themes and lofty religious idealism. Paradise lost is his masterpiece and the greatest English epic. In the poem, god is no better than a selfish despot, who is cruel and unjust in punishing Satan, the rebel. Adam and Eve embody his belief in the powers of man. Satan is the real hero of the poem.2. John Bunyan. The Pilgrim’s Progress.The story starts with a dream in which the author sees Christian the Pilgrim, with a heavy burden on his back, reading the Bibble, from which he learns that the city in which he and his family live shall be burnt down in a fire. He tries to convince his family and his neighbours of the on coming disaster and asks them to go with him i search of salvation, but most of them simply ignore him. so he starts off with a friend Pliable. Pliable turns back after they stumble into a pit, the Slough of despond. Christian struggles on by himself. Then he is misled by Mr. Worldly Wiseman and is brought back onto the right road by Mr. Evangelist. There he joins Faithful, a neighbor who has set out later but has made better progress. The two go on together through many adventures, including the great struggle with Apollyon, who claims them to be his subjects and refuses to accept their allegiance to God. After many other adventures, they come to the Vanity Fair where both are arrested as alien agitators. They are tried and Faithful is condemned to death. Christian, however, manages to escape and goes on his way, assisted by a new friend, Hopeful. Tired of the hard journey, they are attempted to take a pleasant path and are thn captured by Gelestial City at last. There they enjoy eternal life in the followship of the blessed.The Pilgrim’s Progress is the most successful religious allegory in English language. Its predominant metaphor –life as a journey –is simple and familiar. The objects that Christian meets are homely and commonplace, and the scenes presented are typical English scenes, but throughout details. Here the strange is combined with familiar and trivial joined to the divine, and at the same time, everything is based on universal experiences. Besides, a rich imagination and a natural talent for story-telling also contribute to the success of the work which is at once entertaining and morally instructive.Th secret of its success is probably simple. It is, first of all, not a procession of shadows repeating theauthor’s declamations, but a real story, the first extended story in English. The Puritans may have read it because they found in it true personal experience told with strength, interest humour, in a word, with all qualities that cuch a story should possess. Young people have read it, first, for its intrinsic worth, because the dramatic interest of the story lured them on to the very end; and second, because it was their introduction to true allegory. It was the only book having an story interest in the great majority of English and American home for a full century.18世纪文学(the age of Enlightenment in England)After the tempestuous events of the 17th century, England entered a period of a comparatively peaceful development.Enlightenment: it was an expression of struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. They thought the chief means for bettering the society is enlightenment or education for the people.Realism. The eighteenth century was the golden age of the English novel. The novel of this period spoke the truth about life with an uncompromising courage. What the writers described in their works were social realities and the main characters were usually common men. The writers and philosophers of the Enlightenment held that man is good and noble by nature but many succumb to an evil environment.1. Daniel Defoe has been regarded as the discoverer of the modern novel. Defoe was a very good story-teller. He had a gift for organizing minute details in such a vivid way that his stories could be both credible and fascination. His sentences are sometimes short, crisp and plain, and sometimes long and rambling, which leave on the reader an impression of casual narration. His language is smooth, easy, colloquial and mostly vernacular.Robinson Crusoe was one of the forerunners of the English realistic novel. Crusoe was a sailor, a merchant and a slave-owner. On the voyage to Africa, he met a shipwreck and found himself cast by the sea waves upon the shore of an uninhabited island. He managed the livelihood there by himself. Finally, he was saved and got married in England. At last, he sailed back to the island and established a colony there.2. Jonathan Swift: Gulliver’s travels ; A Modest Proposal3. Joseph Addison. Sir Roger at Church; Sir Roger at the Assizes.3. Henry Fielding The History of Tom Jones4. William Blake songs of innocence, songs of experience- the chimney-sweeper, London and the tiger. It shows the poet’s eyes are open to the evils and vices of the world.5. Robert burns a red, red rose. He wrote poems to express his hatred for the oppression of the ruling class and his love for freedom.浪漫主义时期The Romantic Period1. William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet. His major poets include I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and The solitary reaper. His poetry is distinguished by the simplicity and purity of its language.2. George Gordon Byron is one of the most excellent representatives of English romanticism. His literary career was closely associated with the struggle and progressive movement of his age. She walks in beauty and Don Juan. Don Juan is a Spanish youth of aristocratic birth. T he long poem describes Don Juan’s adventures in many countries.3. Percy Bysshe ShelleyHis short poems on nature and love form an important part of his literary output. His best love lyrics are Ode to the west wind and to a skylark. “If winter comes, can spring be far behind?” is a famous line in ode tothe west wind.4. John KeatsHis famous works are ode to a nightingale, ode on a Grecian Urn and ode to autumn. Ode is his main form of poetry. He sought to express beauty in all his poems. His leading principle is beauty in truth, truth beauty. His poetry is distinguished by sensuousness and the perfection of form.5. Walter ScottWaverley, Rob Roy and Ivanhoe. He is the first novelist to recreate the past. In his novels, historical events are closely interwoven with the fates of individuals. He is always mindful of the role and fates of the ordinary people.In a sense, his literary career marks the transition from romanticism to realism in English literature of the 19th century.6. Jane AustenHer major works are Pride and prejudice, Emma, sense and sensibility. She was popular all through the 19th century. Pride and prejudice is his masterpiece. The central character is Elizabeth Bennet, one of the daughters in the Bennets. Elizabeth meets a young man Darcy and has prejudice against him because she thinks he has nothing but pride. After many twists and turns, misunderstandings disappear and they are happily united. The plot is simple, but Austen has woven vivid pictures of everyday life of English country society. Her novels show a wealth of humor, wit and delicate satire. Her dialogues are admirably true to life. 维多利亚时期文学The Victorian AgeCritical realism appeared during this period. Dickens is the representative writer. With striking force and truthfulness, he pictured bourgeois civilization, showing the misery of common people. The 19th century critical realists made use of the form of novel for full and detailed representation of social and political events, and one of the fate of individuals and of whole social class.1. Charles Dickens is the greatest representative of English critical realism. He wrote lots of famous works, such as a tale of two cities. David Copperfield, Hard times and.Oliver Twist,Oliver Twist is one of the best works of Dickens. Oliver Twist is an orphan boy. He is born in a workhouse and brought up under cruel conditions. Then he runs to London and meets a gang of thieves. They try to convert Oliver into a thief. He is rescued by a rich man, but the thieves kidnap him, make him join them again. At last, he is saved and adopted by the kind man. His vivid description of the thieves’ den and the underworld of London shows the sympathy for the lower classes. Among the characters of the lower strata, Oliver is the only one who emerges happy and successful in the end. This happy issue shows his optimistic belief in the inevitable triumph of good over evil.2. William Makepeace Thackeray is a representative of critical realism in 19th century. He is a realist, a satirist and a moralist.Vanity fair: the title was taken from Bunyan’s pilgrim’s Progress. The main characters are Amelia and Becky. Amelia is a simple but kind girl and Becky is a craft and resourceful girl. Becky is an orphan and tries to make her way into the upper society. She is a classic example of those who grub money by all means.3. Charlotte Bronte:Jane Eyre is a story about an orphan girl called Jane Eyre. Maltreated by her aunt, she goes to a charity school. Later she becomes a governess of Mr. Rochester. He loves her. Before their wedding, she learns that he has got a mad wife. Shocked by the news, she left him. When she heard that his house is destroyed in a fire and he becomes blind, she returned to him and became his wife. In the novel, Jane Eyre maintains that women should have equal rights with men. Charlotte also aims to criticize the bourgeoisie educational system.4. Emily Bronte:Wuthering Heights it deals with the story of the hero Heathcliff who is a gipsy. He ispicked up by Me. Earnshaw and brought up together with his children. Healthcliff and the daughter Miss Catherine have loved each other since childhood. When he grows up, he joins the army and three years later he becomes a rich man. When he comes back, he finds his lover has been married to another man. Later, he becomes the master of the family and takes revenge upon the next generation. It’s a powerful attack on the bourgeoisie marriage system.5. George Eliot: has three remarkable novels: Adam Bede, The mill on the floss, silas marner. The hero of Adam Bede is a village carpenter, an honest young man. He falls in love with a girl, but the girl gives her heart to a selfish squire. Later the girl is put into prison for deserting her own child. Adam and a woman preacher get married.7. Alfred Tennyson was recognized as the greatest poet of Victorian England. His main poetical works include Ulysses; break, break, break; Crossing the Bar. He has a total mastery of the sounds and rhythms of the English language. He has genius for evoking moods and states of mind in his poems. No poet could surpass him at linking descriptions of nature to the state of the mind.8. Robert Browning is realistic, optimistic and believes in the progress of mankind. His contribution to poetry is his dramatic monologues.现代作家—twentieth century literature.In modernist writers concentrate more on the private and subjunctive than on the public and the objective, mainly concerned with the inner being of an individual. The major themes of the modernist literature are the distorted, and ill relationships between man and nature, man and society, man and man, man and himself. 1. John Galsworthy is one of the greatest novelists in the early 20th century. He was born in a wealthy family. After graduation from Oxford, he began to devote himself to literary work. His style is noted for its strength and elasticity. His language is simple, clear and straightforward.The forsyte saga has been regarded as his masterpiece. It includes three novels and two interludes. And the man of propert y marks the peak of critical realism in all Galsworthy’s works. Forsyte is the central figure of the story, who is the man of property. He has married a girl, but pays no attention to her thoughts and feelings, regarding her as a piece of his property. Then his wife loves another who is killed by a car.2. Bernard Shaw was a greatest dramatist in the 20th century. He used stage to criticize the evils of capitalism. He is a critical realist writer and a humorist. His play deals with contemporary social problems. His major plays include widowers’ houses, the apple cart, Major Barbara, Mrs. Warren’s profession and heartbreak house. Widowers’ houses satirizes bourgeois businessmen whose ill-gotten money is squeezed out of poor, suffering people. An English businessman Mr. Sartorius and his daughter meet a young doctor Harry Trench while traveling in Germany. The two youth fall in love with each other and plan to get married. Then Trench finds that his future father-in-law makes his money by renting slum housing to the poor, so he refuses to marry her daughter. Later, Sartorius reveals that Trench's income is as dirty as the money made by Sartorius. At last, Harry and Blanche reunite.3. David Herbert Lawrence was an English author, poet, playwright and literary critic. In his works, he confronts issues relating to emotional health and vitality, spontaneity, human sexuality and instinct. He is best known for his novels Sons and Lovers, the Rainbow, Women in Love and Lady Chatterley's Lover. Within these Lawrence explores the possibilities for life and living within an Industrial setting. In particular Lawrence is concerned with the nature of relationships that can be had within such settings. Though often classed as a realist, Lawrence's use of his characters can be better understood with reference to his philosophy. His use of sexual activity, though shocking at the time, has its roots in this highly personal wayof thinking and being. It is worth noting that Lawrence was very interested in human touch behavior and that his interest in physical intimacy has its roots in a desire to restore our emphasis on the body, and re-balance it with what he perceived to be western civilization's slow process of over-emphasis on the mind.Sons and Lovers is Lawrence’s semi-autob iographical novel. It tells the story of a coal miner’s family with the son Paul as the central character. The thread of the story evolved around Paul’s love for the two girls Miriam and Clara as well as his love for his mother Mrs. Morel.4. James Joyce was born in Dublin. His major novels include: a portrait of the artist as a young man, Ulysses and Dubliners. James Joyce is the founder of stream of consciousness.He tried not merely to describe how a character might think, but also to present a record of the character’s thoughts.5. Thomas Hardy1)The underlying theme of Hardy’s writing is the struggle of man against the mysterious force which rulesthe world, brings misfortune into his life and predetermines his fate. 2) fatalism is strongly reflected in his writings. 3) Hardy has a strong sense of humor and often describes nature with charm and impressiveness.Tess of the D’Urbervilles, His masterpieces are Tess of the D’Urbervilles, the major of Casterbridge, far from the madding crowed and Jude the obscure. Tess is a poor dairymaid who has been seduced by Alec D’Urbervilles, a wealthy villain, and gives birth to a child. Later she falls in love with a man called Clare. On their wedding night, she confesses to her husband that she has been seduced and given birth to a child. He husband can not accept the fact and goes abroad. Some years later, he comes back and wants Tess to come back to him. Tess murders her seducer and is arrested and hanged. The tragedy of Tess is an exposure of the wicket oppressors represented by Alec.The son’s veto。
英国文学——18世纪概述
启蒙时期文学（17世纪后期—18世纪中期）1688年的“光荣革命”推翻复辟王朝，确定了君主立宪制，建立起资产阶级和新贵族领导的政权，英国从此进入一个相对安定的发展时期。
18世纪初，新古典主义成为时尚。
新古典主义推崇理性，强调明晰、对称、节制、优雅，追求艺术形式的完美与和谐。
亚历山大·蒲柏（Alexander Pope, 1688-1744）是新古典主义诗歌的代表，他模仿罗马诗人，诗风精巧隽俏，内容以说教与讽刺为主，形式多用英雄双韵体，但缺乏深厚感情。
18世纪英国散文出现繁荣，散文风格基本建立在新古典主义美学原则之上。
理查德·斯梯尔（Richard Steele, 1672-1729）与约瑟夫·艾迪生（Joseph Addison, 1672-1719）创办《闲谈者》（Tatler）与《观察者》（Spectator）刊物，发表了许多以当时社会风俗、日常生活、文学趣味等为题材的文章，他们清新秀雅、轻捷流畅的文体成为后人模仿的典范。
乔纳森·斯威夫特（Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745）是英国文学史上最伟大的讽刺散文作家，他的文风纯朴平易而有力。
斯威夫特的杰作《格列佛游记》（Gulliver's Travels）是一部极具魅力的儿童故事，同时包含着深刻的思想内容。
作者通过对小人国、大人国、飞岛国、慧马国等虚构国度的描写，以理性为尺度，极其尖锐地讽刺和抨击了英国社会各领域的黑暗和罪恶。
塞缪尔·约翰逊（Samuel Johnson, 1709-1784）是18世纪英国人文主义文学批评的巨擘，《莎士比亚戏剧集序言》（The Preface to Shakespeare）和《诗人传》（Livesof the Poets）是他对文学批评作出的突出贡献。
他从常识出发，在某些方面突破了新古典主义的框框，不乏真知灼见。
约翰逊的散文风格自成一家，集拉丁散文的典雅、气势与英语散文的雄健、朴素于一体。
4十八世纪英国文学：理性的时代
• People learn through their experience of feeling, seeing, touching, measuring and weighing, and reason is of the primary importance in learning to understand the whole concept of God and Trinity and inspire people to believe that they can deduce the nature of God by looking around his creation, that religion is based on reason, not revelation, and that God works through general laws and not the tablets He gave to Moses.
• The world owed its existence to God and the best way to worship God was to worship His creation – n, nature, and the world as a whole
• Formal religion disappeared, which became private and personal, not intermingled with public affairs
The background for Deism:
• The nature of the universe became a kind of mechanical universe as it was likened to a clock which God made but left ticking away on its own laws.
英语八级英美文学整理
美国文学第一阶段独立革命之前（十七世纪中期之前）（before the revolution of independence）第一节美国本土文学（美国印第安传统文学）印第安传统文学的主要内容和形式：在各种典仪上咏颂的祝词，在劳作中吟唱的歌曲，时代交口相传的部落神话故事和英雄故事，刻写在山河岩壁上的象形史诗。
第二节北美殖民时期文学（十六世纪末-----十七世纪中）（colonial settlement）这一时期的文学作品主要是一些英国的殖民地官员或者传道士、冒险家们以日记或游记等形式记录的新大陆的风土人情、自然景色和民间生活等。
John Smith 约翰·史密斯《关于弗吉尼亚的真实叙述》A True Relation of Virginia（被认为是美国文学史上的“第一部作品”）第三节请教思想的表述（Puritanism）他们的作品主要是以传布清教主义思想的布道文为主第二阶段独立革命时期（十七世纪中期-------十八世纪末）（around the revolution of independence）独立革命前后的美国文学，标志着北美文学产生后的第一次大转折该期文学特色：充满浓烈的政治性和思辨性。
主题多为爱国主义及对于独立民主自由的热切呼唤。
Benjamin Franklin 本杰明·富兰克林《穷查理历书》Poor Richard’s Almanac《自传》The AutobiographyThomas Paine 托马斯·潘恩《常识》Common Sense 《美国危机》The America Crisis《人的权利》Rights of Human《理性时代》The Age of ReasonPhilip Freneau 菲利普·弗伦诺（18世纪最杰出的美国诗人，被誉为“the poet of the American revolution）《英国囚船》The British Prison Ship 《美国的荣耀蒸蒸日上》The Rising Glory of America《印第安人殡葬地》（lyric）The Indian Burying Ground 《野金银花》The Wild Honey Suckle第三阶段浪漫主义时期（18世纪末---19世纪中后期）（American Romanticism）该时期主题多为传统文化与现代文明之间的冲突、“对久远与遥远故事的兴趣”以及对死亡、潜意识的剖析等。
英国理性主义时期文学概览
英国理性主义时期文学概览作者：陈达陈飞来源：《文教资料》2019年第10期摘 ; ;要：理性主义走入了近代社会的门槛，涤荡着封建主义的残余，使得资产阶级发展有了理性的方向，也有了理论上的指导。
在此背景下的英国文学，呈现出小说为主的新型模式。
文学家更关注社会变化发展的因素，更关注普通民众的生活状况。
本文从理性启蒙内容出发，论说文学作家和作品的特点。
关键词：理性 ; ;小说 ; ;詩歌一、《社会契约论》的启蒙内容18世纪是启蒙时代或者理性时代，所谓启蒙，实际就是启蒙主义者为了改良社会对民众的教育。
为什么要对民众进行教育？教育的内容是什么？18世纪是英法美革命时代，英国光荣革命，法国大革命，美国独立运动。
而思想家们，诸如孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰和卢梭，他们颂扬社会契约论，主张人生来平等，提倡博爱精神。
启蒙者之所以被称为启蒙者，是因为他们认为启蒙或教育是改善社会的主要手段。
启蒙运动知识分子对社会经济法律的改良运动使用的武器是理性，即基于制度和法律上的公民自治和公民权利的宣传教育。
要了解法国大革命，就要了解《社会契约论》。
了解《社会契约论》是了解19世纪后近代思想变化的主要方式。
这种思想变化是近代人乃至现代社会和政治生活的主要模式。
即使文字不说话，但是文字蕴含的力量不容置疑。
社会变革的产生更是通过暴力行为达到的，深刻影响了世界历史走向和人类命运。
卢梭并没有想到《社会契约论》产生的重大影响，甚至对自己人生的改变。
卢梭写完此书就受到法国当局的通缉流亡，直至死亡。
卢梭追根溯源地系统探讨了政治层面的人类生活方式，从而归纳总结社会化的政治生活模式。
“人生来是自由的，却无处不身处枷锁”是整部文论的开篇和论证前提基础。
其实作者除了做出以上这样的声明外，他的文字还包含了暴力的元素基因，比如说“别人根据什么权利剥夺他们的自由，他们也可以运用同样的权利恢复他们的自由”。
卢梭从原始社会的人际关机谈起，谈到家庭关系、管理，比如奴隶制度。
The 18th Century Literature 英国文学史 新古典主义时期18世纪的英国文学
新古典主义时期—18世纪的英国文学(1660-1798)(In 1798 Wordsworth and Coleridge published Lyrical ballads and Romanticism began.)✓The Age of Enlightenment/Reason理性/启蒙时期–the movement was afurtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, a progressive intellectual movement, reason (rationality), equality & science (the 18th century) It is a revival of interest in the old classical works, order, logic, restrained emotion(抑制情感) & accuracy✓Modern English novel–newly rising literary form现实主义小说诞生(themid-18th c.)✓Gothic novel (哥特式小说) - mystery, horror & castles (from middle part to theend of 18th c.)✓PoetsEnglish criticism英国文学批评之父An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (《论戏剧诗》) (1668)him the supreme value was order. An Essay on Criticism《论批评》(1711)He was a master in the art of poetry, a good craftsman, in using heroic couplets in particular.last neoclassicist enlightener. A Dictionary of the English Language《英语大词典》✓NovelistsRobinson Crusoe was one of the forerunners of the English realistic novel. It creates the image of an enterprising Englishman, Robinson, narrates how he goes to sea, gets shipwrecked and marooned (放逐) on a lonely island, struggles to live for 24 years there and finally gets relieved and returns to England. It praises the human labor and the Puritan fortitude (清教徒坚韧).Gulliver’s Travels《格列佛游记》It offers people an opportunity for self-scrutiny. In his opinion, human nature is seriously and permanently flawed. The book is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life.Lilliput(小人国),Brobdingnag(大人国), Flying Island(飞岛)& Houyhnhnm(智马国)(1707-1754)- Father of English novelH e was the first to write a “Comic epic in prose” (散文体的滑稽史诗), the firstto give the modern novel its structure and style. He adopted “the third-person narration”.He, a combination of novelist, playwright, and satirist, political pamphleteer, sees the novel as a vehicle for moral inculcation, a mirror and an imitation of nature and life.The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling《弃儿汤姆·琼斯》is a masterpiece on the subject of human nature, which brings the author the name of the “Prose Homer”✓Prose writersand write character sketches and use conversational styles, correspondences in essays. English familiar essay featured with humor, intimacy and elegance was shown first in The Tatler and The Spectator.SentimentalismDiscontented with reason, sentimentalists resort to emotion, to “the human heart”. Sentiment serves as a means of achieving happiness and social justice.(1700-1748) The Seasons in blank verse (1740)Night Thoughts in blank verseThe Task in blank verseTo Simplicity, The Passion, To Eveningleader of sentimental poetry, “The Graveyard School”(墓园诗人)Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 《墓畔哀歌》reflects on death,the sorrows of life, and the mysteries of human life with a touch of his personal melancholy. He sympathized for the poor and the unknown, but mocks the great ones who despise the poor and bring havoc (破坏) on them.Pre-Romanticism雕刻家)Songs of Innocence《天真之歌》:a happy and innocent world from a child’s point of viewSongs of Experience《经验之歌》: a world of misery, poverty, disease, war and repression with a melancholy (忧郁的) tone from an adult’s point of view.(1759-1796)He is a master of the old Scottish tradition. He used Scottish dialect, English and a medley of the two to write poems. He is the poet of the people.A Red Red Rose expresses the noblest and sweetest human sentiment.Auld Lang Syne eulogizes friendship。
英美文学时期划分
美国文学
北美殖民地时期文学
一、科顿•马瑟（1663-1728）
二、乔纳森•爱德华兹（1703-1758）
三、安妮•布拉德斯特里特（1612-1672）
独立革命前后的文学
一、托马斯•潘恩（1737-1809）
二、本杰明•富兰克林（1706-7190）
三、菲力浦•弗瑞诺（1752-1832）
浪漫主义时期
一、华盛顿•欧文（1783-1859）
二、詹姆斯•费尼莫尔•库柏（1789-1851）
三、拉尔夫•华尔多•爱默生（1803-1882）超验主义Transcendentalism
四、纳森尼尔•霍桑（1804-1864）象征主义（Symbolism）
五、亨利•大卫•梭罗（1817-1862）超验主义Transcendentalism
六、埃德加•爱伦•坡（1808-1849）象征主义（Symbolism）
七、赫尔曼•梅尔维尔（1819-1891）象征主义（Symbolism）
八、华尔特•惠特曼（1819-1892）象征主义（Symbolism）
九、爱米莉•狄金森（1830-1886）
十、亨利•沃兹沃斯•朗费罗（1807-1882）
十一、约翰•格林利夫•惠蒂埃（1807-1896）十二、哈丽特•比彻•斯托（1811-1896）
十三、弗雷德里克•道格拉斯（1817-1895
现实主义时期
现代时期。
【分析】18世纪英国文学特点分析
【关键字】分析The Literary Principles of the 18th Century English LiteratureThe 18th century was generally considered as “the Age of Reason”. In the period Enlightenment prevailed in England and most European countries. Most of the literary works put significant emphasis on the social order, morality, justice and freedom of human nature, which are the essence of Enlightenment. Reason, which Enlightenment advocated, was the most important mode for the English people in the 18th century. The main tasks of the Enlighteners were to call for the elimination of the feudal remnants and religious ignorance, and to pave the path for the development of the bourgeoisie.The 18th century was of great significance in English history. Owing to the enormous strides in politics and economy, the literature of the century entered the period of prosperity.1. Historical BackgroundIn politics, the “Glorious Revolution” in 1688 made the smooth transition to a constitutional monarchy in peace come into realization, and afterwards Capitalism was definitely established in Britain. After many centuries of wars and civil trifles, the 18th century saw a period for the English people to enjoy peace and tranquility in their social and political life.The power of the monarch was deprived and fell into the hands of the Parliament, which was under the control of two major political parties, the Whigs and the Tories. Even though the Whigs were for the democracy and the Tories were the supporters of the British monarchy, the two parties had no much dispute in economic development and the policy of moderation, which ensured a relatively speedy development of the English society in economy and in democracy.The Act of Union united England, Scotland and Welsh into one country, which laid a foundation for the rise of the British Empire in the middle of the 18th century.In economy, the international trading and the lucrative slave trade brought tremendous wealth. Although almost all the European countries had been on the process of industrialization, in England the development was accelerated with the help of the new inventions and a large-scale Enclosure Movement all over the country. The social status of the newly rising bourgeoisie was gradually set up by the boom of economy at home and abroad.However, the time the capitalists accumulated the enormous profits was the time thousands of peasants were expropriated off the land and the labor workers lost their jobs. The gap between the ruling class and the oppressed was aggravated. The social contradictions were accumulated and deteriorated.In social life, economic development also brought changes for the English people’s way of life. The people began to have more energy to participate in the social life. Such places for the social activities as the coffeehouse, the theaters and libraries gradually thrived. In the coffeehouse, information, opinions and even gossips on various issues were exchanged and the style of literature was formed and influenced in the public way.The economic prosperity and the rising of the bourgeois class produced a new requirement for a new social order and rules to meet the need of the social development in politics and morality, and the need of a way to clear away the feudal remnants. The literary men achieved the aim by means of the introduction of the reason, morality, and equality. The development of science and technology boosted the process. Isaac Newton exerted great influence upon Enlightenment with his law of gravitation, which smashed the medieval superstition to the natural forces.2. The Principles of LiteraryIt was impossible to make a clear distinction of the different literary genres with so many factors mixed together. Roughly, the literature in the 18th century was divided into three periods, from the late of the 17th century to the middle of the 18th century the popularity of the Neoclassicism, the early to the middle 18th century the rapid growth of the realistic novels of Defoe, and the outstanding novelists Fieldingand Smollett, and the last decades of the prevalence of Sentimentalism and the appearance of Romanticism.The literary trend of this century could be summarized as the development of poetry, the prosperity of prose, the rise of novel and the decline of drama.2.1 Enlightenment in LiteraryThe 18th century is known as “the Age of Enlightenment”, which is a progressive intellectual movement as a furtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries. The Enlightenment left a lasting heritage for the 19th and 20th centuries.Enlightenment was not only a culture and thought movement, but has exerted huge influence on almost all of the aspects of the English people’s social life. The Enlighteners took the task to enlighten the people with the modern ideas in philosophy, politics and arts. The Enlighteners believed that the universe was rational and could be understood through Reason. Truth could be got through the empirical observation. And reason was the only yardstick to measure all human activities and relations. Only in this way can the primitive thoughts and feudal behaviors, such as superstition, injustice, oppression and religious persecution, be eliminated. The Enlighteners also fought against the social hierarchy system and called on the development of science and technology.Besides, they praised highly for the function of education. They held the belief that the universal education could bring about rationality, equality and truth. They believed that the human beings could be manipulated like the engine once they acquired these characteristics.In essence, the Enlightenment Movement was the struggle of the progressive bourgeoisie against Feudalism. For the bourgeois intellectuals, the Reason was the weapon to overthrow the domination of Feudalism. They sought the freedom of politics and academic thinking to pave the way for the establishment of the Capitalism.In brief, the Enlightenment movement was to enlighten or educate the peoplewith the modern philosophical and artistic ideas. Literature at the time showed the strong characteristics of didacticism and moralization. Among the famous Enlighteners in England, John Dryden and Alexander Pope were the most conspicuous.2.2 NeoclassicismThe influence of the Enlightenment Movement to the English literature of the 18th century was first reflected in the emergence and popularity of the Neoclassicism. Neoclassicism was a literature genre that came into being in the middle and late of the 17th century in England and France, and thrived in the beginning of the 18th century. John Dryden，though dead in 1700, was the first advocator and the most important performer.After the Renaissance, a reaction came against intricacy, boldness and extravagance. In the period, the literature brought about a revival of interest in the old Classical works. The writers got the ideas and art forms from the classical times. As John Dryden stated in his Essay of Dramatic Poesy, the Neoclassicists demanded that literature should learn from the Classical works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers and also their contemporary French writers, such as V oltaire and Diderot. The Neoclassicists advocated simplicity, restraint, regularity and good sense. They believed that accuracy and wits should be the most important elements in the art creation.The Neoclassicists formulated fixed rules and laws guided by Greek and Latin works for the genres of literature to follow. They believed that there was the proper language to choose and the right style and tone to use when they wrote different literature, which was the “correctness” that they pursued. Therefore, such standards of the Classics as drama, rhyme and good proportion were advocated. Under the guideline, poetry should be lyric, epic, didactic, or dramatic, and prose should be precise, direct, smooth and flexible.Meanwhile, the Neoclassicists argued that literature should be judged by the function of moralization and education. Therefore, most of the literature during thatperiod was didactic so as to form a new social order and morality to meet the needs of the new era.What’s more, another aim of the literature was to entertain the readers. With the boom of the publishing industry and the increase of the educated population, new ways to entertain the mass, especially the people of the middle class, were called on. The expectation of the people to participate in social activities and express their emotions grew stronger. Hence, the simple, elegant and restraint writing styles gained popularity.Furthermore, the writings of Neoclassicism shared a common feature—objectivity. As the neoclassicists emphasized Reason and thought that art should be logically organized, neoclassical art did not appreciate the emotion or imagination, but logic, good organization and proportion. However, literature under this guideline seemed a bit cold and inhumane. The absence of any elements of romantic and the over emphasis on Reason led to the rise of the opposite genr e—Romanticism in the period followed.However, literature at that period was not simply the imitation of the Classics but something new was injected into it. Dryden, the advocator of the Movement, laid emphasis not only on Neoclassicism, but also on the traditional English literature. He praised the works of Shakespeare’s and Chaucer’s, and encouraged the combination of the classics with the native elements of England to make the writing style new. Dryden’s theory was modern and flexible, so it was easy to be accepted and promoted by his followers in the 18th century, such as Alexander Pope and Swift. The idea promoted the popularity of the English literature, especially the first half of the 18th century.With the influence of Neoclassicism, the prose was developed dramatically. A lot of prose writers and novelists appeared, like Addison, Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding and Samuel Richardson.Even though the Neoclassicism did not flourish very long in the history of English literature and was substituted by the Sentimentalism and Romanticism. The ideas of reason, wit, simplicity and regularity existed and influenced the Englishliterature even to the modern times.2.3 The Origin of the English NovelThe 18th century was the golden age of the novel. The origin of the novel can date back to Homer’s epic, the legend in the medieval times of Europe and the adventure stories in Europe. However, in English literature, the novel, the new genre, emerged and the realistic novels reached the peak in the 18th century. Many great novelists, such as Defoe, Swift, Richardson, Fielding and Smollett, were not only world famous, but has left a great cultural heritage.In the 18th century, the rapid growth of economy boomed the city life. The middle class had more leisure time to entertain themselves. They called for fresh ways of entertainment and expressions of their thoughts and emotions. In the new social system, the patronage, which used to be the main means for the writers to get subsidization, was substituted by the new system of publishing and copyright. The writers had more freedom to write what they wanted to and some of them wrote to cater to the popular taste. At the same time, a new and great need for the reading emerged. Libraries stepped into the people’s daily life, so that more and more prints were called for in the huge market. They were all the reasons to promote the originality and development of English novels, especially the rise and the prosperity of the realistic novels in the 1730s to 40s.2.3.1 The Realistic NovelIn the first half of the 18th century, “reality”became the most important conception of the creation of novels. Novels were not only the means for the writers to reflect their life and feelings but also the way for the common people to express their passion and emotions.In the process of elevating their social status and accumulating the wealth, the bourgeois fought with the old system and had endured the hardships. The whole meaning of their life was to work hard, to make wealth and to get a better life. What was realistic in the true life was represented faithfully in the realistic novels of thecentury.The feature was best found in Robinson Crusoe, Denial Defoe’s masterpiece. Denial Defoe was named the “father of English realistic novel” by some scholars not only because Robinson Crusoe was the first realistic novel in the 18th century and the first modern English novel, but also it was a good example of the “truth to life”.In the novel, the writer gave the reader a vivid description of the spirit of struggle and adventure at the beginning of the Capitalism, and successfully portrayed an image of an enterprising Englishman. The realistic presentation of the growth and struggle of Robinson showed the spirit of that time. Robinson, as a businessman who pursued wealth, was a typical representative of the English middle-class men with courage, energy, persistence and wisdom. His struggle against the hostile natural environment showed the strong confidence of the bourgeoisie to fight for the ambitions. Robinson grew from a naive youth full of dreams into a realistic and hardened man, tempered by numerous trials in his eventful life.Besides, Robinson was also the representative of the bourgeois colonizers who took control of the new land and his servant, Friday. Therefore, this novel was the product of the Industrial Revolution and a real presentation of life of the common people.Generally, the writers of the realistic novels would claim that what they had written was really based on the true events with the real place names and the exact date as the background. At the beginning of Robinson Crusoe, “he” said, “I was born in the Year 1632, in the City of York, of a good Family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen who settled first at Hull.” And later the description of his life in Brazil as a planter conformed to the historical facts at that time. In the novel, the colloquial, easy language and sometimes, short, plain sentences were used to leave the readers the impression that the hero was true to life and was telling his stories face to face. In the narrative, the writers put an emphasis on the detailed account of the process and the description of the mental activity. In Robinson Crusoe, the vivid description of the details made the story fascinating. However, this novel was criticized for the repetition and the loose structure.Besides, even though the themes of the realistic novels were different, they had the same core, which was the searching for the essence of life. Through the account of the living conditions and the way of living at that period, the writers sought the answers from the common people, and even the vulgar and the poor, which was contrary to the traditional romance of aristocrats or epics. Through Robinson, who lived alone in an isolated island, and Tom Jones, an outcast in Henry Fielding’s masterpiece The life and History of the Foundling Tom Jones, the writers, against the mode of the Neoclassicism, expounded that the courage, the wisdom, the persistence and the morality of the mass people were the primitive power for the social progress.To summarize, the realistic novels, for the first time turning their attention from the grand themes and the high classes to the common people and the reality, adding the modern element to the writing style of that period. That is why Robinson Crusoe was taken as the forerunner of the modern novel.Besides Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding and Tobias Smollett made even higher achievement. Their works had impact on some of the great works of European writers, and paved the way for the great 19th century realistic writers like Jane Austen, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens and William M. Thackeray.2.3.2 The Epistolary NovelIn the 18th century, another style emerged and brought in a new way of narrative, which is the epistolary novel. Samuel Richardson flourished the style by three famous works Pamela, Clarissa and Grandson.The novel Pamela was written in the form of a series of letters from the heroine to her parents. In the letters she told them her life and experience at her master’s house. The epistolary novels not only enriched the narrative form of the novel, but also transformed the role of the writers from the narrator to the editor. By means of the pile of letters, the heroine herself told the story. In the epistolary novel, the characters would get closer to the reader. The mental activities and the change of their emotions could be more vivid. It was easy to get the readers to resonate deeply with the fate of the heroine. Pamela was among the first novels to give detailed descriptionof the character’s psychology. It described not only the common life of the characters, but through the letters their inner thoughts and feelings. Therefore, this novel was also considered as the first psycho-analytic novel in the history of English literature. The vivid description of the psychology of the females gave an impetus to the development of the modern novels. From this perspective, Richardson was thought of the real founder of English modern novels by some scholars.The subtitle of the novel was Virtue Rewarded, the function of moral instruction and education was clearly showed in the novel beside that of entertainment.2.3.3 The Gothic NovelIn the last decades of the 18th century, the English realistic novel gradually gave way to the Gothic novel or the Gothic romance.The Gothic novel refers to the strange, mysterious adventures happening in dark and lonely places such as graveyards and old castles built in the middle ages, such as the Gothic castle. The Gothic novel originated from Horace Walpole’s novel The Castle of Otranto in 1764. As a branch of the English literature, the Gothic novels played an important role in the development of the horror movies and left great influence upon the English romanticists.Generally speaking, the Gothic novels included such elements as horror, mystery, supernature, and death. Usually the story would be set in the classic castles with haunted ghosts. The typical story focused on the sufferings or mystery imposed on an innocent heroine. Frequent use was made of ghosts, mysterious disappearances, sensational and supernatural occurrences. The principal aim of such novels was to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a variety of horrors.2.4 The Satire StyleSatire，another typical feature of this period’s writing, prevailed in the first half of the 18th century. A common feature of satire was to use strong irony or sarcasm, usually in parody, exaggeration and comparison, to attack something they did not accept or approve of. Not only was satire an effective weapon for arguments of allkinds and attacks on the political views, the social system and social life, but also it answered well the purpose of the Enlightenment, aiming at universal education to perfect the mass in moral, social as well as cultural life.In the 18th century, satire prevailed at a certain historical background. Even though this was a relatively peaceful period in English history, various divergences of values and conflicts still existed. With the increase of the wealth, the bourgeoisie expected to have higher social status and more power to control the nation, which was to turn over the social hierarchy and social custom. The contradictions between the two parties increased the social unrest. Among them the contradictions between the ruling class and the laboring poor were gradually intensified. The industrial Revolution and foreign trade brought a large quantity of wealth to the country, but that did not spread to the mass of the poor people. Correspondingly, social problems and discontent were constantly emerging. The social reality was reflected in the literary works in a satirical style.Pope and Swift were the superb satirists during that period. Swift defined a good style as “proper words in proper places”. Their satires are well-known for witty remarks and adept techniques. So satire became the fashion and was performed almost in all forms of writing at the time.Jonathan Swift not only was one of the greatest representatives of the genre, but also was thought of the first writer to perform the modern satire. Even though he advocated Reason, he sometimes held certain skepticism to the “universal Reason”. He was well-known for his meaningful wording and the diversified writing techniques in his satiric novels.In A Modest Proposal, the writer suggested a seemingly logical proposal for the Irish slum, only to mock the heartlessness and selfishness of the high classes as well as their inhumane Irish policy in general. This essay has been regarded as the most ridiculous and savage ironical satire.In Gulliver’s Travels, the writer used fancy to make up an imaginary social condition, by using imaginary plots and exaggerated techniques to satirize and attack the social system and the politics. The book seemed to be an allegorical story forchildren, but in it the vanity and hypocrisy of the contemporary courts, statesmen and political parties were satirically attacked. In the first two parts of the novel, the writer mocked the conflicts between the parities, the Whigs and the Tories. In the part of the Flying Island, the writer described the strange and useless experiments that the scientists did, through which Swift satirized that the science was far away from the practical life.Henry Fielding’s works showed a grand panorama of life of the 18th century English society through the realistic description of the details. In his works, the characters were true-to-life, and full of optimism. Yet he also mildly criticized the weakness of the human nature and the vulgar social customs. His works Joseph Andrews was at first written to ridicule Richardson’s Pamela for its utilitarian morality, but made a big success unexpectedly. He claimed that this novel was “a comic epic poem in prose”in the preface of Joseph Andrews. However, different from the traditional epic, which is a genre generally used to praise heroes, nobles or kings, Fielding took advantage of the conception but portrayed the heroes of the middle or low classes so as to produce the ironic effect.Fielding’s Jonathan Wild the Great is a bitter satire on the exploiting and oppressing class. It is one of the best exposures of the corruption of the English bourgeois-aristocratic society. The “great”in the title referred not only to the hero “Jonathan Wild”, but also the minster “Robert Walpole” and other “great” men in the ruling class. From these men, Fielding summarized a common virtue “greatness” from their true nature of tyranny, corruption, oppression and exploitation to others.The Life and the History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, as Fielding’s masterpiece, was another good example. The story, through the growth of a foundling, Tom Jones, touched upon all kinds of people as well as the social problems. The novel was about a young man and a young woman who tried to unravel their birth myth, and their love story. In the process of their looking for their birth, Fielding gave the readers an extensive view of the social life in the city and the town. Through the comparison of different characters they met, the writer severely criticized the corruption, greed and hypocrisy of the nobles at that period. Fielding contributed a lot to the advance of theEnglish and European novels.2.5 SentimentalismSentimentalism was a trend of thought beginning in the 1740s and 50s. Its name was gained from Laurence Stern’s A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768). By the middle of the 18th century, sentimentalism came into being due to the discontent with the social reality.In the middle of the century, the contradictions were intensified to the degree that the nation was faced with the threat of instability. The Enlighteners, such as, Fielding and Smollett, who at first had sufficient faith in the eventual triumph of virtue and the final achievement of social justice, began to be skeptical about the eternal “truth” and Reason, which were preached by the bourgeoisie.Even though the people began to doubt the power of the Reason to solve the social problems, they could not find out a more positive way to make the society better. The decline of the great Enlightenment brought about sentimentalism and pre-romanticism as the protest against the social reality of the day. Sentimentalism was an outlet for their dissatisfaction to the reality and for the escape from the far-from-perfect reality. Sentimentalism was the forerunner of the Romanticism later prevailing in the European literature.Form the angle of the ideology, sentimentalism was against the classicism and the rationalism. It was totally opposite to the perspective of the rationalism that the individuals should be under the control of the sovereignty. Sentimentalism stressed the expression of the emotions and feelings of the individual in the daily life. It concentrated on the distress of the poor and the virtuous people. It revealed grief, pains and tears. The emotions were mainly melancholy, sentimental and sensitive.Leslie Stephen once argued, “Sentimentalism could be defined to be indulgence in emotion for its own sake. The sentimentalist does not weep because painful thoughts are forced upon him but because he finds weeping pleasant in itself (p160).”In sentimental works, the first characteristics is that the characters’ mood and miserable life were portrayed to arouse readers’ sympathy to the ordinary people and discontent towards the social reality. The appeal to sentiment, not Reason, was themain characteristics. Sentimentalists thought that Reason was only a cold rule or law to tell the people the code of conduct. In their views, human beings were born good and were endowed with compassion, kindness and morality. Hence, the function of literature was to awaken and motivate the potential.The writers usually made use of death, loneliness and miserable experience to make the atmosphere desolate, dark and melancholy. In this way, the readers were easy to move and full of sympathy to the character. At the beginning of the century, almost all the works, as poetry, novels and essays were rational, ironic and instructive. Sentimentalism totally changed the direction of English literature. At the same time, the educational function was also fulfilled.Besides, the common people molded in the works made the readers feel real empathy for what the characters had been through. And the sympathy for the misery of others became a sign of good manners and social morality.What’s more, in the views of the sentimentalists, there was no distinction of the genres of literature, that is, elegance or vulgarity. Therefore, a lot of different literature styles, such as prose, lyric, letter, autobiography, became the common styles in sentimentalism.Sentimentalism, having obtained pleasure in nature and the mysterious, paved the way for Romanticism, which put high value on nature and spontaneous expression of emotion. In addition, romanticists’ praise for the virtue of the common people and the attack on the rich and the system owed a good deal to sentimentalism.The most outstanding figure of English sentimentalists are Laurence Sterne who wrote A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy in 1768 and Thomas Gray with his masterpiece, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, the model of sentimental poetry.Sentimentalism in poetry first found its full expression in the 40s and the 50s and was the bridge from Classicism to Romanticism. In Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, the poem reflected the poet’s melancholy on the death and the sorrowful life of human beings. The poet also pointed out that death was inevitable no matter who you were. This poem, with the well-balanced structure and。
《英美文学教案》
《英美文学教案》第一章：英国文学概述1.1 英国文学的历史背景介绍英国文学的发展历程，包括中世纪、文艺复兴、启蒙时期、维多利亚时期等主要阶段。
强调英国文学在全球文学中的重要地位和影响力。
1.2 英国文学的重要作家和作品介绍几位具有代表性的英国作家，如莎士比亚、简·奥斯汀、查尔斯·狄更斯等。
分析他们的代表作品，如《哈姆雷特》、《傲慢与偏见》、《双城记》等。
1.3 英国文学的特点和风格探讨英国文学的特点，如现实主义、浪漫主义、象征主义等。
分析英国作家的写作风格，如细腻的描写、丰富的心理描写、幽默与讽刺等。
第二章：美国文学概述2.1 美国文学的历史背景介绍美国文学的发展历程，包括殖民时期、浪漫主义时期、现实主义时期等主要阶段。
强调美国文学在全球文学中的重要地位和影响力。
2.2 美国文学的重要作家和作品介绍几位具有代表性的美国作家，如马克·吐温、欧内斯特·海明威、弗朗茨·卡夫卡等。
分析他们的代表作品，如《汤姆·索亚历险记》、《老人与海》、《美国》等。
2.3 美国文学的特点和风格探讨美国文学的特点，如多元文化、创新性、社会批判等。
分析美国作家的写作风格，如直接叙述、对话丰富、寓言与象征等。
第三章：文学作品的主题与形式3.1 文学作品的主题介绍文学作品的主题概念，包括情节、人物、背景等。
分析文学作品主题的多样性，如爱情、友情、权力、成长等。
3.2 文学作品的形式介绍文学作品的常见形式，如小说、诗歌、戏剧、散文等。
探讨不同形式对文学作品表达效果的影响。
3.3 文学作品的象征与隐喻解释象征与隐喻的概念，其在文学作品中的应用。
分析象征与隐喻对文学作品深层意义的贡献。
第四章：文学作品的分析方法4.1 文本分析法介绍文本分析法的基本概念和步骤。
强调文本分析法对文学作品主题、形式、语言等方面的深入探究。
4.2 历史文化分析法介绍历史文化分析法的基本概念和步骤。
英美文学之十八世纪英国文学
主
题——
哀悼好友而作； 对下层默默无闻的人民的深切同情 对他们纯朴善良品质的赞扬，为他们没有机会施展天赋和才华而惋惜 同时也表现了对权贵的蔑视和嘲讽，对大人物傲慢奢侈生活的谴责
风
格——
古典诗歌的形式 感伤主义的内容
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day; The lowing herd wind slowly o‘er the lea; The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. （1）
--- Neo-classical Poetry
In the early 18th century, neo-classical became fashionable. It promotes reason, emphasizes clarity and symmetry, temperance, elegance, pursues the perfect and harmonious forms of art. English poets endeavored to imitate the styles of the classical Greek writers. In poetry the most outstanding feature was the domination of the heroic couplet. The consummate exemplar of English neo-classical poetry was Alexander Pope.
18世纪的英国文学
“假如一间铁屋子，是绝无窗户而万难破毁的，里 面有许多熟睡的人们，不久都要闷死了，然而是从 昏睡入死灭，并不感到就死的悲哀。现在你大嚷起 来，惊起了较为清醒的几个人，使这不幸的少数者 来受无可挽救的临终的苦楚，你倒以为对得起他们 么？”
“然而几个人既然起来，你不能说决没有毁坏 这铁屋的希望。”
All partial Evil, universal Good;
And spite of Pride, in erring Reason's spite， One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right （Alexander Pope： An Essay o n Man， To Henry St， John ， lines 289~294）
For
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
Fools
admire, but men of sense approve.
Why do people have to follow rules?
How do we understand “Those rules of old discover’d, not devis’d/Are Nature still, but Nature methodiz’d”?
A little learning is a dangerous thing. (from An Essay on Criticism)
To
err is human, to forgive, divine.
An
honest man is the noblest work of God.
英语专八-最全英美文学常识.
英国文学(English Literature)一、Old and Medieval English Literature中古英语文学(8世纪-14世纪)1) The Old English Period / The Anglo-Saxon Period古英语时期(449-1066)a. pagan poetry(异教诗歌): Beowulf《贝奥武甫》- 最早的诗歌；长诗(3000行) heroism & fatalism & Christian qualitiesthe folk legends of the primitive northern tribes; a heroic Scandinavian epic legend; 善恶有报b. religious poetry: Caedmon(凯德蒙610-680): the first known religious poet; the father of English songCynewulf(基涅武甫9C): The Christc. 8th C, Anglo-Saxon prose: Venerable Bede(673-735); Alfred the Great(848-901)2) The Medieval Period中世纪(1066-ca.1485 / 1500):a. Romance中世纪传奇故事(1200-1500): the Middle Ages; 英雄诗歌无名诗人- Sir Gawain and the Green Knight《高文爵士与绿色骑士》: Celtic legend; verse-romance; 2530 lines~ 14th C,Age of Chaucer:* Geoffrey Chaucer(乔叟1340-1400): 文风：vivid and exact language, his poetry is full of vigor and swiftnessthe father of English poetry; the father of English fiction; 首创“双韵体”couplet; 首位用伦敦方言写作英国作家The Canterbury Tales:pilgrims stories 受Boccaccio(薄伽丘) - Decameron《十日谈》启发The House of Fame; Troilus and Criseyde; The Romaunt of the Rose《玫瑰罗曼史》(译作)* William Langland(朗兰1332-1400)：The Vision of Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯之幻象》: 普通人眼中的社会抗议b. 15th C, English ballads: Thomas Malory (1395-1471):Morte D’Arthur《亚瑟王之死》- 圆桌骑士二、The Renaissance Period英国文艺复兴(1500-1660): humanism十四行诗，文艺复兴，无韵诗，伊丽莎白戏剧1) 诗歌Henry Howard(霍华德1516-1547)a. Thomas Wyatt (怀亚特1503-1542): the first to introduce the sonnet into English literatureb. Sir Philip Sidney(雪尼爵士1554-1586)：代表了当时的理想- “the complete man”Defense of Poetry《为诗辩护》Astrophel and Stella; Arcadia《阿卡狄亚》: a prose romance filled with lyrics; a forerunner of the modern worldc.Edmund Spenser(斯宾塞1552-1599): the poets’ poet; non-dramatic poet of伊丽莎白时代- long allegorical romance文风：a perfect melody, a rare sense of beauty and a splendid imagination. The Shepherd CalendarThe Faerie Queen《仙后》：long poem for Queen Elizabeth; Allegory - nine-line verse stanza/ the Spenserian Stanza Spenserian Stanza(斯宾塞诗体): Nine lines, the first eight lines is in iambic(抑扬格) pentameter(五步诗),and the ninth line is an iambic hexameter(六步诗) line.2) Prose 散文a. Thomas More(莫尔1478-1535): 欧洲早期空想社会主义创始人Utopia《乌托邦》: More与海员的对话b. John Lyly (黎里1553-160，剧作家&小说家)：EupheusEuphuism(夸饰文体): Abundant use of balanced sentences, alliterations(头韵) and other artificial prosodic(韵律) means.The use of odd similes(明喻) and comparisonsc. Francis Bacon (培根1561-1626)：英国首位散文家，中世纪至现代欧洲时期; 近代唯物主义哲学奠基人和近代实验科学先驱the trumpeter of a new age;Essays(论说文集)：Of Studies, Of Love, Of Beauty: the first true English prose classic3) 戏剧a. Christopher Marlowe(马洛1564-1593): University Wits 大学才子派Edward II；The Jew of Malta《马耳他的犹太人》first made blank verse(无韵诗：不押韵的五步诗) the principle instrument of English dramaThe Tragical History of Doctor Faustus《浮士德博士的悲剧》：根据德国民间故事书写成; 完善了无韵体诗。
十八世纪英国文学简介
Neo-classicism
• It refers to the literary principle according to which the writing and criticism of poetry and drama were to be guided by rules and precedents derived from the best ancient Greek and Roman writers. Often employed in contrast with Romanticism, this term has also been used to describe the characteristic world-view or value-system of this “Age of Reason”, denoting a preference for rationality, clarity, restraint, order and decorum, for general truth rather than particular insights.The neo-classical view of literature included the principle of decorum by which the style must suit the subject matter, and the believe that art must both delight and instruct.The central assumption was that the ancient authors had already attained perfection, so that the modern author’s chief task was just to imitate them.
英美文学重点作者汇总情况
一、早期和中世纪的英国文学◆Geoffrey Chaucer ii1.简介：Geoffrey Chaucer is the founder of English poetry and a forerunner ofhumanism. He was regarded as the founder of English realism. 代表作：Troilus and Criseyde《特洛伊斯洛与克瑞西达》(改变于意大利)；The CanterburyTales《坎特伯雷故事集》（包括：“The Prologue”《总序》；“The Wife of Bath”《巴斯妇人》）。
●The Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事集》的影响：①It shows a true-to-lifepicture of Chaucer’s time. (之所以说乔叟是The founder of realism，是因为早期英国文学歌颂英雄(Anglo-Saxon poetry)，中期英国文学歌颂骑士精神(TheRomance)，之后虽然有了piers the plowman,也不曾直接写社会不公，直到乔叟真实描写中世纪及各层人民。
) ②Taking from the stand of risingbourgeoisie, Chaucer affirms men and opposes the dogma of asceticismpreached by the Church. ③His tales expose and satirize the evils of histime, attack degeneration of the noble, the corruption of the Church.2.语言特色/贡献：①He is the first great poet who wrote in the English language.②He introduced from France the rhymed stanza of various types, especiallythe Heroic couplet to English poetry. ③He is good at the terza rima, whichmakes his language a high style.二、英国文艺复兴◆Thomas More ii1.简介：Thomas More is an English humanism churchman. 代表作：Utopia《乌托邦》。
英国理性主义时期文学概览
2019年第!"期（总第820期）攵敖冬'科英国理性主？时期文学概览陈达！陈飞"（1赣南师范大学外国语学院，江西赣州341000,2河北医科大学外语部，河北石家庄050017）摘要：理性主义走入了近代社会的门槛，涤荡着封建主义的残余，使得资产阶级发展有了理性的方向，也有了理论上的指导。
在H背景下的英国文学，呈现出小说为主的新型模式。
文学家更关注社会变化发展的因素，更关注普通民众的生活状况。
本文从理性启蒙内容出发，论说文学作家和作r的特点。
关键词：理性小说诗歌一、《社会契约论》的启蒙内容18世纪是启蒙时代或者理性时代，所谓启蒙，实际就是启蒙主义者为了改良社会对民众的教育$为什么要对民众进行教育？教育的内容是什么？18世纪是英法美革命时代，英国光荣革命，法国大革命，美国独立运动。
而思想家们，诸如孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰和卢梭，他们颂扬社会契约论，主张人生来平等，提倡博爱精神。
启蒙者之所以被称为启蒙者，是因为他们为启蒙或教育是改社会的主要$启蒙运动对社会法的改良运动的是理性，基于制度和法上的公民自治和公民权的教育$要了解法国大革命，就要了解《社会契约论》$了解《社会契约论》是了19世纪代思想的主要$丈思想是近代人代社会和生活的主要$，是的容$社会革的生是行为的，了世和人命运。
卢梭想《社会契约论》生的大，对自人生的改$卢梭就法国的，$卢梭了的人生，而总社会的生$“人生来是自由的，”是论的开篇和论提基$实作者了以上的I 外，他的还包含了的元素基，比如说“别人据什么权剥夺他们的自，他们也可以运同的权利恢复他们的自”。
卢梭从原始社会的人际关机谈起,谈到家庭关系、管理，比如奴隶制度。
奴隶制度关和牛羊群管理区别。
亚里士多德也奴隶制度的天然合理性$可见亚里士多德这样的哲学家，对今天的社会制度关系也是理解不了的。
卢梭为，奴隶（制度）关是天生的、浑浑噩噩的$主权者（奴隶主/国王）的是权属关，是以为乐的。
为什么称18世纪的英国是理性时代
British political parties Yingguo zhengdangBritish political partiespolitical parties in BritainBritain is the world's first appeared on the bourgeois parties, and the first country to establish and implement two-party system.History of the United Kingdom Stuart Restoration, formed within the Parliament representing different class interests and political factions. 1679, the Council on James Duke (later James II) succession rights issue heated debate, against James, Duke has succession rights of members who are political opponents denounced Whig (Whig, Scotland bandits), in favor of James Duke has succession rights other lawmakers were scolded for Tory (Tory, the Irish Catholic bandits). After the two factions gradually as claimed, the formation of two political factions. Whig Party and the new aristocracy of the emerging interests of the bourgeoisie, in favor of limiting sovereignty, increased parliamentary power; Tory party landed nobility interests, safeguard the sovereign prerogative. In 1688, the same two parties as opposed James II and to cooperate in a coup launched by the "Glorious Revolution." Whig Party played a major role in the coup, the coup became the ruling party. With the development of British capitalism, the gradual change in composition Tories, some of the Whig party of the landed aristocracy, bankers, arms dealers and bureaucrats and politicians to join the Tory party, the party's strength, but because of the Whig Party split gradually lost its political life in the country's dominant position. 1783 - 1830 Tory party. Whig Party and the Tory party turns cabinet period, the internal party activities are restricted to Parliament. 1830s, the basic completion of the British Industrial Revolution, the British social class structure changed significantly, the formation of two antagonistic classes of bourgeois and industrial ─ ─ industrial proletariat. Meanwhile, the British ruling class has also changed, forming a representative of the landed aristocracy, nobility and merchants, the financial interests of conservative forces representing the industrial interests of the bourgeoisie with the reform forces. The former landed aristocracy as the core, in the original composition on the basis of Tory Tory; the latter eager to free trade as its core factory owners, in the original Whig Party formed on the basis of the Liberal Party. After the 1832 electoral reform, expansion of universal suffrage. The competition for voters to obtain a parliamentary majority, the two parties competing to develop their own extra-parliamentary organization, the establishment of constituency associations, as a campaign organization. With Parliament and the establishment and development of two-party system, parties in the 19th century, Ye Ducheng to have strict central and local organizations, national political parties, the late 19th, early 20th century, liberal capitalism has been replaced by monopoly capitalism, the Conservative Party gradually by the landed aristocracy of the party into the monopoly bourgeoisie party. At the same time, the gradual decline of the Liberal Party, the party of free trade policies advocated by the British lost the "world factory" monopoly, a large number of industrial capitalists turned to the Conservative Party. Early 20th century, with the development of the industrial revolution and the growing ranks of workers, the rise of the Labour Party. From 1924, the Labor Party replaced the Liberal Party, and Conservative Party turns in power. By the late 1980s, the British Conservative Party and the Labour Party in addition to the two major political parties, there are social Liberal Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party, Communist Party of Britain, co-party, Welsh National Party, Scottish National Party, National Front and the British Revolutionary Communist League and so on.Two-party system formation, development and characteristics of the British two-party systemformation and development in general through three stages: the first is the Whig party and the Tory party has came to power. 1714 George I's reign, the king did not attend the British gradually formed a cabinet meeting, chaired by the parliamentary majority leader of the constitutional conventions cabinet, so that was the parliamentary majority party control of the Cabinet. Whig Party and the Tory party based on changes in the number of parliamentary seats in turn form a cabinet, the formation of two-party basis. The second stage is the Conservative Party and Liberal Party came to power in turn. At this stage, the two parties from the parliamentary political parties within the development of national, mass political party, which is the basic condition for the formation of two-party system and an important symbol. After several parliamentary reform, completely changed the lower house and upper house, the balance of power between the royal family, the king became a virtual monarch, weakened the power of the House of Lords, to improve the status of the lower house. On this basis, established a two-party system. The third stage, from the late 19th century early 20th century, two-party system gradually complete. Conservative shadow cabinet in 1907, first, who later received in the general election the majority of seats in the House of times the legal opposition political party has become. Opposition parties in Parliament vote of no confidence may be replaced by the ruling party.British two-party system, combined with the cabinet, has the following characteristics: ①The Cabinet consists of the lower house election the party won the majority seats in a separate component. ②by the lower house majority leader as prime minister. ③only one-party cabinet and the cabinet members responsible for the lower house, such as loss of confidence in the House, Cabinet resigns; or the Prime Minister drew the king to dissolve parliament, re-election and form a new one-party cabinet. ④House of the largest opposition party can create a shadow cabinet. Have appeared in British history by the two parties or three-party coalition cabinet, mainly in the special circumstances of war took place.Britain's main political parties in the main political parties are:British Conservative Party, formerly known as the Tory party in 1833 to its present name in 1912, merged with National Unity Party, said the Conservative Unity Party, referred to as the Conservative Party. 1868 with the ruling Liberal Party, in turn, gradually become the big bourgeoisie, representing the interests of large landowners and nobles. During World War I and the Liberal Party coalition partners. After 1924, with the Labor Party turns in power. July 1945 general election, except 1923 ~ 1929 ~ 1924 and 1931, twice in the short term by the ruling Labour Party, the Conservative Party has been in the ruling coalition government position or as the largest political party. However, in 1945 to 1979, except from 1951 to 1964 and from 1970 to 1974, the ruling, but are in the opposition position. February 1975, MH Margaret Thatcher was elected party leader, the proposed self-reliance, free enterprise and less government intervention policy. May 1979 general election, the party obtained an absolute majority of seats, Margaret Thatcher became the United Kingdom and Western Europe's first woman prime minister in 1983 and twice reelected prime minister in 1987. Re-election victory in 1990. Party came to power in 1979, further emphasized that "against the socialist system and the centralized state, to defend individual freedom," this traditional doctrine has changed 30 years successive governments to implement the post-war Keynesian, monetarist-oriented implementation of economic policy, re- are conservative, traditional features. [MH Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher, prime minister of 11 years (May 1979 - November 1990)]Organization of the Conservative Party leader, parliamentary groups, the National Union andformed the central office. Leaders great power, not the party bound by any organization, came to power as prime minister, the opposition when the opposition leader. By the lower house parliamentary group composed of all the conservative party, by which a cabinet or shadow cabinet. Setting Business Committee (also known as 1922 Committee), the Steering Committee and the backbenchers will. Conservative National Union is the extra-parliamentary organization, which includes the Conservative Party Conference 2007, the Central Council, Executive Committee, district organizations and constituency associations. National Union only play the role of discussion and proposals, no right to decide the party's policy, whose main task is outside the legislature and organizations engaged in advocacy work to expand the party's power and influence. The party's central office administration. In addition, the Conservatives have the Carlton Club, Primrose Club, and other peripheral tissue. Conservative party members never published the number, it is estimated that one million in 1945, 2.8 million in 1954, 1970, 225 million and 200 million people since the 1980s. 1990 J. Major office leaders.British Labour Party in February 1900 by the Trades Union Congress (ie Union) initiated the creation, the beginning of labor representatives said the Commission, by the TUC affiliated trade unions and Fabian Society, Independent Labour Party and Social Democratic coalition. 1906 renamed the Labour Party. 1906 - 1914, attached to the Liberal Party in Parliament. After the outbreak of World War I, support the Government's war policy, and joined the Liberal Party's coalition cabinet. After the war, joined the Berne International. Early 20th century, the growing strength, and gradually replaced the Liberal Party. February 1918 by the founder of the Fabian Society by SJ Webb helped draft the new constitution, the provisions of the collective members in addition to keeping the existing system, each constituency has also set up organizations to absorb the individual members. In June 2002, by Weber drafted by a programmatic statement, "Labor and the new social order", the first time to bury private ownership. January 1924, in support of the Liberal Party the first time under cabinet, and take turns with the Conservative Party began ruling. Before 1945, only in 1923 ~ 1929 ~ 1924 and 1931, two short-term power. 1945 election to 1951, organized two Cabinet. During this period, initiate re-establishment of the Socialist International. 1964 - 1970, 1974 to 1979, has organized a 4 th Cabinet, which is the longest ruling Labour Party's history twice. 1979, 1983, 1987 and April 1990 presidential election suffered a failure. Labor Party platform is based on the traditional theory of Fabian socialism. Advocates of production, distribution methods and means of exchange of public ownership, the implementation of project management to achieve equitable distribution. After World War II, this Attlee Labour government implemented in 1948, announced the completion of the welfare state. But 50 years, with the British economy, ideological differences emerged within the party workers. Right that capitalism has changed, socialism should be "to increase social welfare, social equality", rather than the purpose of production into public ownership; opposition to the new social system to replace the existing social system, and holds that the existing system based on the pursuit of a higher degree of maturity. 50 to 60 years, these ideas prevail in the Labour Party. However, the nationalization of the Left insisted that there would be no socialism without nationalization. The early 1960s, "New Left" from the cultural criticism of capitalism, that the rule of the bourgeois cultural alienation of people in the state overall, so must the culture of the bourgeoisie launched a full attack on the capitalist society in general practice transformation. This is active again after 70 years of left-wing Labour Party produced a certain effect, which should be added and then proposed the nationalization of industry and lifestyle of democratization democratization of thetraditional socialist Labor Party was supplemented.Organized by the Labor Party leader, parliamentary groups, composed of extra-parliamentary organizations and headquarters. When the annual election of opposition leader and a deputy leader; in office from time to re-election, not based deputy. All the lower house of parliament by the Labor caucus members. Start of each parliamentary elections that leaders, supervisors, deputy leader and total. Opposition, by the leader, deputy leader, the lower house parliamentary group chairman, the House of Lords Labour Party leaders, supervisors and both houses of the total Labour MPs parliamentary committee composed of representatives of leading parliamentary group activities. To power, instead of by the Labour cabinet, a separate Liaison Committee to keep in touch with backbenchers. In parliament, the National Congress (the annual Labour Party) is the highest authority of the Labor Party. Under the National Executive Committee, regional meetings, constituency organizations and the National Labour Council. Labour Party headquarters administration. Number of members: 1947 is 500 million people in 1957 was 660 million, 650 million in 1975, 1984, 622 million people. Leader N. Kinnock (1983).Liberal Democratic Party of British society in March 1988 by the Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party supported the merger with the Liberal Party formed a majority. Domestic and foreign policies primarily in the former Liberal Party policy on the basis of adjustment, more emphasis on domestic economic development and social justice, the balance between the importance assigned areas of "fairness" issues and the environmental and ecological protection; of foreign opposition to racial discrimination, and advocating to improve Third World relations, emphasizing the maintenance of peace and common development. There are about more than 100,000 members. P. Ashdown, leader (since 1988).British Social Democratic Party March 26, 1981 was established. Founder of a splinter from the Labor Party in the four right-wing. On behalf of the interests of small and medium bourgeoisie. Most of the participants is the manager, staff, business executives, professionals and private practitioners. Advocates reform parliamentary electoral system, the implementation of public and private sectors co-exist "mixed economy" system, to encourage SMEs to expand employment opportunities. In September 1983, with the Liberal Party reached an agreement to form electoral coalitions. 1987 general election after the failure, disintegration of the Union. In March 1988 the party split, the majority and the Liberal Party merged to form the Social Liberal Democratic Party, leaving about 3 million members continue to use the name of the Social Democratic Party. The new Social Democratic Party of nuclear deterrence, defense, social market economy and parliamentary elections, proportional representation in policy making for the subject. Leaders D.A. Owen (1983).Communist Party of Britain July 31, 1920 by the British Socialist Party, Socialist Labour Party and the Communist Committee merged to form South Wales. After the establishment of the Third International, a British branch of the Third International. In 1936, the organization went to Spain to participate in the British Detachment F. Franco against the war. Later, it launched a solidarity against the Chinese Anti-Japanese War and AN Chamberlain's "appeasement" policy, requiring alliance with the Soviet Union formed a peace movement. During World War II, fully support the anti-fascist war and promote the early open a second front, the party's strength has great development in 1942, the number was increased to 5.6 million members. After the war the party's strength continues to drop. In 1947 the British proposed to go a different from the Soviet October Revolution of the British-style socialism. 1951 published the first peaceful transition program,"the British road to socialism", announced by the British Parliament can be transformed into truly represent the will of the people's democratic institutions and the establishment of People's Government of the road, the transition to socialism. In 1977, some party members because they did not agree to resign from the party line and, a separate new British Communist Party. In September 1988, the British were published in "the future" document, proposed to give up the old form of "class struggle" in order to adapt to consumer and technological revolution arising from the "new order." The British were held every two years the party congress. Organization into the national executive committee, district committees and branch three. In 1988 members of about 9700 people. Party General Secretary N. Temple (1990). Central organ for the "Morning Star newspaper," (Journal); theoretical journal "Marxism Today" (monthly).。
英国文学简史——18世纪文学
Masters and works:
Steel and Addison: The Sepectator (1711-1712) Alexander Pope:
-Essays Essay on Criticism (1711) The Rape of the Lock (1714) The Dunciad (1728-1742) Poems Essay of Man (1732-1734) Pope's Homer(translation): Iliad (1715-1720) Odyssey (1725-1726) Pope's Shakespeare (1725, edition)
Masterpieces:
The Rape of The Lock:
A mock-heroic narrative poem, first published anonymously in May 1712. The poem satirises a minor incident by comparing it to the epic world of the gods. It was based on an actual incident recounted by his friend - a fop at the court forcibly cut off a lock of curls of a pretty maid of honour and which caused a quarrel between the families and became the talk of London. Pope satirized the triviality and silliness of the high class with a delicate wit. Pope's most famous Poem.