Contrastive Analysis of Pragmatic Strategies Between Chinese and English Application Letters
Pragmatics
美国语言哲学家格赖斯(H,P.Grice)1975提出的 会话含义理论(conversational implicature )以 及合作原则(cooperative principle)等等，为语 用学的创立提供了基本的理论基础。 语用学作为一个独立的学科门类有三个标志： A、1977年在荷兰创刊的《语用学杂志》 (Pragmatics) B、1985年在意大利召开的第一次国际语 用学大会 C、1986年正式建立的国际语用学会。(IPrA)
英国哲学家奥斯汀( John Langshaw Austin) 于 1955 年在哈佛大学作题为《 论言有所为》 ( How To Do Thing with Words) 的系列演讲中提 出言语行为理论 ( Theory of Speech Act ) , 反对 逻辑实证主义的凡不能验证其真或假的陈述都是 伪陈述, 就是无意义的实证观点, 向当时的逻辑实 证主义发起挑战。 美国语言哲学家赛尔( John R. Searle) 1969 年出 版《言语行为》( Speech Act s) , 1975 年出版 《间接言语行为 》( Indirect Speech Acts ) ,继承 发展了由奥斯汀提出的言语行为理论, 使之进一 步系统化、完善化。至此, 言语行为理论成为语 用学研究的重要内容之一。
1982 年, 胡附、文炼在《 中国语文》杂志第三期上首先发 表了《 句子分析漫谈》一文, 倡导三个平面( 句法, 语义, 语 用) 语法观, 明确提出语序所表达的有的属于语义,有的属于 语法, 有的属于语用, 开始把语用纳入汉语语法的研究范围。 自1989 年, 中国社会科学院语言研究所设立了汉语运用的 语用原则课题组以来, 语用学的研究一直被限制在研究语用 法和语法( 句法) 的关系这一规定的范围内。 1997 年, 钱冠林的《汉语文化语用学》问世。此书是国内 外第一部以汉语文化为背景的语用学专著。它的构建体系 和以英语文化为背景的语用学同中有异。
第二章对比分析和偏误分析
第一节 对比分析 第二节 偏误分析
对比分析（Contrastive Analysis）产生于20世纪50年代， 兴盛于60年代。 1945年，Charles Fries在《作为外语的英语教学与学习》 （Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language ） 提出对比分析的思想。
分析方法 对比分析的两种观点
语言迁移（Language Transfer）
母语的语言形式、意义及其分布、文化 迁移到第二语言系统中去；
目的语与母语结构特征相似时，产生正迁 移，反之，负迁移； 差异（difference）=困难（difficulty）
对比（Contrast）
音位（phoneme）、语法（grammar）、 书写（writing）、文化（culture）
2. 鉴别偏误
偏误的标准 偏误和失误的辨别 隐性偏误和显性偏误的鉴别
3. 描写偏误
表层特征分类（surface feature of errors） 表层策略分类（surface feature of strategy） Corder（1974）：前系统偏误（presystematic errors），系统偏误（systematic errors），和 后系统偏误（postsystematic errors）。
区分了： “失误”（mistakes）：无规律、无系统、 偶然性 “偏误”（errors）：有规律、成系统、必 然性 Corder关于学习者语言偏误的认识改变 了人们以往排斥语言偏误的看法，学习者 的语言偏误进入SLA研究的视域。
1. 收集资料
Metaphorical terms
Metaphorical pattern analysis in financial texts:Framing the crisis in positive or negative metaphorical termsAna Mar ía Rojo L ópez a ,*,Mar ía A´ngeles Orts Llopis b ,1a Departamento de Traducci ón e Interpretaci ón,Facultad de Letras,Campus de La Merced,Universidad de Murcia,Murcia 30071,SpainbDepartamento de Traducci ón e Interpretaci ón,Campus de La Merced,Universidad de Murcia,Murcia 30071,Spain1.The conceptual theory of metaphor and specialized languagesFrom the publication of Lakoff and Johnson’s book Metaphors we live by (1980),the study of conceptual metaphor has undoubtedly been one of the major topics in the cognitive linguistics research program.Since its inception,the conceptual theory of metaphor has provided us with hundreds of examples which have demonstrated at length the power of a cognitive construct which pervades every aspect of experience.More recently,Lakoff (2004)has taken the value of metaphors as a matter of thought and action a step further by demonstrating they can be used as a type of ideological weapon serving to frame political or economic issues.The theory of conceptual metaphor has certainly stirred up the world of linguistics,and its applications have been extended to numerous areas such as discourse analysis,pragmatics,and contrastive analysis.One field where the theory of metaphor has felt at ease has been that of English for Specific Purposes.Specialized languages have,indeed,proven particularly fruitful for the application of the conceptual theory of metaphor.Even if our first intuition about the jargon of experts is that of a plain,unexciting language,most analyses of professional jargon have revealed a rich language that abounds in metaphors.But specialized languages have not only been alluring for advocates of the conceptual theory of metaphor as a prolific source of examples.They have also helped cognitive linguists to verify theirJournal of Pragmatics 42(2010)3300–3313A R T I C L E I N F O Article history:Received 18August 2009Received in revised form 17May 2010Accepted 2June 2010Keywords:Conceptual metaphor Cognitive linguistics FinanceFinancial language TranslationA B S T R A C TThis paper aims to show that metaphors are a powerful tool to frame economic issues and serve certain political interests.To this purpose,we have carried out a comparative study of the conceptual metaphors of the Global Systemic Crisis in both English and Spanish.The financial crisis has indeed caused havoc in the economic panorama worldwide.Spain has been no exception,but,unlike other European countries,financial problems were initially belittled by the Spanish mass media for several months,until the subsequent outbreak of the crisis in relatively recent times.Following the current trend of corpus approaches to metaphor analysis (Charteris-Black,2004;Deignan,2006;Stefanowitsch and Gries,2006),our study is based on a corpus of English and Spanish financial articles selected from those published during 2007and the end of 2008in the English journal The Economist and the Spanish newspaper El Economista .The analysis of the metaphors used in these articles will allow us to show how the same economic reality may be differently conceptualized at different points in time on account of different socio-political factors,such as a Government which,on the verge of national elections,refused to reveal the grim state of affairs of the national economy.ß2010Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.*Corresponding author.Tel.:+34868883197;fax:+34868883265.E-mail addresses:anarojo@um.es (A.M.R.L ópez),mageorts@um.es (M.A´.O.Llopis).1Tel.:+34868883858;fax:+34868883265.Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Pragmaticsj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.co m /l o c a t e /p r a g m a0378-2166/$–see front matter ß2010Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.06.001A.M.R.López,M.A´.O.Llopis/Journal of Pragmatics42(2010)3300–33133301 hypotheses by providing them with a testingfield completely different from that of literary language.In this way,the number of studies which have demonstrated the ubiquity of metaphor and its usefulness as a cognitive tool to understand abstract concepts by way of more concrete ones has proliferated in specializedfields,such as those of economics andfinance (Charteris-Black and Musolff,2003;White,2003),medicine(Tercedor Sánchez,1999/2000),or computing and Internet (Maglio and Matlock,1998).In this paper we focus on conceptual metaphor in one of the most influencing specializedfields nowadays,namely,that of financial language.In the age of globalization,business growth and economicfluctuations,financial issues are a burning topic of international interest.But economists are not the only ones under the sway of thefinancial world.Linguists have also succumbed to the magnetism of its language,filled with a unique imagery andflexibility.As a result,in recent years we have witnessed a proliferation of studies on the language of economy andfinance,with a special focus on the use of metaphor in economic texts(e.g.White,1997,2003,2004;Smith,1995;Boers and Demecheleer,1997;Charteris-Black,2000).The aim of most of the current studies on metaphor from a cognitive linguistics perspective is not to achieve a characterization of the language offinance per se,but rather to profile the underlying contextual and ideological motivations that give rise to its linguistic features.From this point of view,the comparison of the same conceptual metaphor in different languages proves to be a useful methodology to uncover similarities and differences in the conceptualization of economic andfinancial issues in different societies.So far,the comparison of English with languages such as French and Dutch(see Boers and Demecheleer,1997),German(see Charteris-Black and Musolff,2003)or Spanish(see Gómez Parra et al.,1999;Charteris-Black and Ennis,2001)has mainly revealed a high similarity between the conceptual metaphors found in the languages under comparison,while differences have been mostly reported in the frequency of use of some specific metaphors.For example,Charteris-Black and Ennis(2001)contrasted a corpus offinancial reports in English and Spanish during the Stock Exchange crisis of October1997,and they found that while Spanish favours metaphors based on psychological states,English prefers sailing metaphors.The authors explain such differences in terms of the influence of religion on Spanish and of sailing on English.The present work is in keeping with this contrastive approach,but differs from the papers previously mentioned in adopting a corpus linguistics methodology.As in some of the literature reviewed here,our aim is to compare the conceptual metaphors found in a corpus offinancial articles in English and Spanish in order to discover possible similarities and differences in the construal or conceptualization of thefinancial events described.However,we also attempt to demonstrate that corpus linguistics can be a powerful tool to research the conceptual theory of metaphor.2.Corpus linguistics and conceptual metaphorFrom the emergence of the Cognitive Theory of Metaphor,the introspective approach was the one traditionally applied to reveal the conceptual mappings of a given domain.Authors,relying mainly on their own intuitions and knowledge of the language,routinely listed a series of expressions typical of the domain under study,and classified them according to the conceptual mappings they instantiated.However,the main shortcoming of this method was that such an eclectic collection of metaphorical expressions was still far from representing real usage and providing empirical validation of the postulated theoretical claims.In order to overcome these limitations,this paper focuses specifically on corpus-based research on conceptual metaphorical mappings(cf.Charteris-Black,2004;Deignan,2006;Stefanowitsch and Gries,2006).Stefanowitsch (2006:2–5)mentions three specific strategies which have been used to extract linguistic expressions instantiating conceptual mappings from non-annotated corpora:(a)searching manually for metaphors,usually by reading through the corpus and extracting all the metaphorical expressions one comes across;(b)searching for metaphorical expressions which contain words from their source domains;and(c)searching for metaphorical expressions which contain words from their target domains.In Stefanowitsch’s view(2006),the latter strategy of searching for target domain vocabulary allows researchers to overcome the main shortcomings of the other two,namely,the limitation of the size of the corpus imposed by a manual search,and the need of having the a priori knowledge of the source domains which is required in a search for source domain vocabulary.Stefanowitsch(2006:65)proposes a method which,not only helps to remedy these limitations,but also deals with the main methodological problem corpus linguistics must face when studying metaphorical mappings.While corpora are accessed using word forms,metaphorical mappings are not easily related to linguistic forms and are,thus,not easy to be retrieved automatically.To deal with this difficulty,Stefanowitsch(2006)puts forward what he calls‘metaphorical pattern analysis’(MPA).As he acknowledges,the idea behind the method is simple:one or more lexical items are selected from the target domain under study and a sample of their hits or occurrences are extracted from the corpus.Then,the metaphorical expressions the lexical items belong to are identified as metaphorical patterns,and groups of conceptual mappings are established on the basis of the metaphors they instantiate.For example,in our study,the term‘crisis’was selected as an instance of lexical item from the target domain under scrutiny.A search for its hits in the corpus yielded the metaphorical expression‘the roots of the crisis’.This expression was then identified as the metaphorical pattern‘the roots of the NP’. Following Stefanowitsch(2004:138–139),the identification of a metaphorical pattern was,therefore,based on the syntactic/ semantic frame the term occurs in.Furthermore,it was also supported by the existence of similar patterns in the source domain.This allowed us to relate the item from the target domain to those items from the source domain that could be expected to occur in the same pattern:e.g.‘the roots of the tree/plant’.The pattern‘the roots of the crisis’was then considered to instantiate the metaphor THE CRISIS IS A PLANT.In the present paper,we attempt to apply MPA to the study of metaphors in four financial corpora,two in English and twoin Spanish,from two different periods:before the Spanish 2008presidential elections,when the crisis was being announced in the USA but denied in Spain,and after these elections,when Spain had finally acknowledged the crisis.Financial metaphors have already been researched via traditional methods of manual search in corpora.However,we believe that MPA is more powerful than these traditional methods,and can allow us to represent a more complete inventory of the metaphorical mappings which take place in the target domain of finance.Moreover,we also argue that,by providing a more exhaustive account of metaphorical mappings,MPA can help to demonstrate that metaphors can be used to frame certain political interests.paring positive and negative metaphorical language in English and Spanish financial reports 3.1.Our corpus and its contextualization:the Global Systemic CrisisThe LEAP/E20202was able to anticipate,at the end of 2006,the four main sectors at the centre of the Global Systemic Crisis in the year 2007,namely international trade,exchange rates,the financial sector and energy.Regarding finance,our focus of linguistic analysis,it estimated that at least one large US financial institution would file for bankruptcy before February 2008,sparking off bankruptcies among a series of other financial institutions and banks in Europe,Asia and in various emerging countries.At the present time,recession has already spread all over the European Union,and Spain has played an important part:the Spanish economy followed the US lead with a housing bubble which started to burst at the beginning of 2008,entailing a collapse of the financial bubble and a vast balance of payments deficit.These events fulfilled the predictions that The Economist had been voicing over the previous two years,while the world press kept maintaining that the Western world was living an unprecedented era of wealth.As far as the Spanish situation was concerned,The Economist had highlighted an unbalanced economy and a low domestic productivity,as well as an imminent property crash.3In the meantime,the Spanish economic press,on the verge of imminent elections,kept stating that the country would be much more resilient to the crisis than the countries in the Eurozone,and that,in worldwide terms,it would not suffer the catastrophe as deeply as many other countries.In view of this fascinating informative tour de force ,we aimed at studying,parallely,the financial newspapers The Economist and El Economista .To this purpose,we analyzed two corpora,one from the English periodical and one from the Spanish one.Each corpus consisted of two different subcorpora which revolve around two different stages of the development of the Subprime Crisis.The publications were selected on the basis of their similarity of content:they consisted of quick weekly snapshots of the state of investment funds,raw materials and financial institutions,in Spain,America,and the world at large.Incidentally,monographic economic articles are usually longer in The Economist than in El Economista ,but we chose to select a specific type of shorter news-item,within the so-called ‘Market.view’section in the foreign paper,as it adjusted perfectly to our needs of illustration and coherence with the version in Spanish.The first group of subcorpora (Corpora A,henceforth),one in English,one in Spanish (with 4699and 4913words,respectively),extended over the period of the months of June to November 2007,when the notions of the global crisis in the media outside our country were already being voiced and weakly insinuated within our frontiers.The second group (Corpora B,henceforth,with 4830words in the Spanish version and 5028in the English one)belonged to the period between September and December 2008,in which the current financial crisis,having at its core the US economic collapse,was already causing havoc in the economic panorama worldwide.The American subprime crisis had severely affected the American banks and the repercussions of the Credit Crunch had reached every corner of the world.Spain,mirroring the globe,was also ailing with financial institutions and faced a political corruption problem of extraordinary proportions,entwined with urban abuse and with an unstoppable wave of town council scandals,which have borne dire consequences for the country’s employment and infrastructures.The analysis and comparison of the metaphors used in these two groups of corpora will allow us to show how the same economic reality may be differently conceptualized at different points of time,on account of different socio-political factors,such as a Government that,on the verge of national elections,refused to unveil to the electorate the grim state of affairs of the international economy and its national repercussions.In fencing off the language of market movements and fluctuations in English and Spanish during a specific period of time,we will attempt to account for the different sensitiveness of the global community to a momentous phenomena such as the Global Systemic Crisis,as opposed to the way in which mass media,the political class and the think-tanks of a country like Spain,reacted to it at the onset of the collapse.3.2.MethodsOur data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively.On the one hand,a quantitative analysis gave us the opportunity to establish a direct comparison between the corpora under study.On the other,a qualitative analysis allowed2The Laboratoire europ éen d’Anticipation Politique Europe 2020,LEAP/E2020,is a website devoted to European political anticipation,developed in partnership with many different organisations including think-tanks,research centres and individual researchers.3View,for example,the two articles on the subject in The Economist 3rd of May 2008edition:‘‘Conquistadors on the beach’’,and ‘‘Spain’s economy.Plain sailing no longer’’.A.M.R.L ópez,M.A´.O.Llopis /Journal of Pragmatics 42(2010)3300–33133302A.M.R.López,M.A´.O.Llopis/Journal of Pragmatics42(2010)3300–33133303 us to carry out a deeper and more detailed conceptual analysis of the corpus,enabling us to discover similarities and differences between the metaphorical expressions of the two corpora.In order to carry out a quantitative analysis,we adopted Stefanowitsch’s‘metaphorical pattern analysis’(2004,2006).As previously mentioned,this method focuses on metaphorical expressions which contain lexemes from target domains.Since our aim was to study metaphorical expressions associated with the target domain of economy,we searched for lexemes related to this domain.In order to increase the potential of the method to identify metaphors,23key words from the world of finance were searched for in each language.The Spanish words selected were:acción,activo,banca,bien,capital,crédito,crisis, consumo,compra,demanda,deuda,economía,entidad,finanza,fondo,materia prima,mercado,monetario,producción,recesión, sector,tecnología,venta.The English words chosen were,similarly:asset,bank,capital,consumption,credit,crisis,debt, demand,economy,finance,fund,goods,market,money,production,purchase,raw material,recession,sales,sector,share, stock,technology.Each entry was searched for all its derivatives;for instance,the Spanish stem‘banc*’yielded occurrences for the lexemes‘banca’,‘banco’,‘bancos’,‘bancario’,‘bancarios’,‘bancaria’,‘bancarias’.Once the metaphorical patterns were identified,we proceeded to describe the metaphorical mappings they instantiated.In order to carry out a qualitative analysis of the corpora and describe the metaphorical mappings for each lexeme,we took as a starting point the classification offinancial metaphors proposed by Rojo and Orts(2008)and Orts and Rojo(2009) and the classification of political metaphors by Moreno Lara(2008).Although Moreno Lara’s study is set in thefield of politics,she offers one of the most exhaustive and up-to-date models for the analysis of conceptual metaphor.Furthermore, thefield of politics and that of economy share many conceptual features that make them particularly likely to be described by similar metaphors.For example,both politics and economy often involve an element of contest and rivalry that allow them to be conceptualized as a COMPETITION GAME or as a BATTLE:a political campaign or afinancial operation may be envisioned as a sports event or a competition,and a politician and a company may be conceived of as warriors in a battle.Our analysis was organized into three main stages:firstly,we isolated all the metaphorical patterns found in the English and Spanish articles.We gathered a total of421metaphorical expressions:192in Spanish and229in English.Secondly, every metaphorical pattern was individually analyzed,taking into account the nature of the source domain,the type of motivation and the mappings established across the domains,and was subsequently classified under a specific metaphor. For instance,the Spanish metaphorical expression,‘‘la sequía crediticia provocada por la tormenta[[financiera]]hizo que los bancos se vieran forzados a restringir los préstamos a las empresas’’was analyzed as an instantiation of the specific metaphor FINANCE IS A STORM.Every specific metaphor was then assigned to one of three types based on the taxonomy by Moreno Lara (2008:108):(a)metaphors based on the Great Chain of Being,(b)metaphors based on image-schemas and(c)generic metaphors based on the metaphor ACTIONS ARE EVENTS.In the case of the specific metaphor FINANCE IS A STORM,this metaphor was grouped within the higher-level metaphor ECONOMY IS A NATURAL FORCE,which,in turn,was classified within the generic metaphors based on the GREAT CHAIN OF BEING.Thirdly,we compared the English and the Spanish articles in terms of the number and types of metaphors classified in each category,in order to detect possible similarities and differences in the metaphorical conceptualization of thefinancial crisis in America and in Spain.We also compared the articles prior to the crisis(Corpora A in both languages)with those written during the economic recession(Corpora B in both languages)in order to reveal possible differences in the use of metaphorical language to serve a certain political or economic interest.To this purpose,we analyzed which of these metaphors were used in a positive or negative sense in each language.The positive or negative value was assigned taking into account the context in which the metaphorical pattern was used.For instance,the previous example‘‘la sequía crediticia provocada por la tormenta[[financiera]]hizo que los bancos se vieran forzados a restringir los préstamos a las empresas’’was classified as negative because the context yielded a negative view of the economy.Our hypothesis predicted that the Spanish articles prior to the crisis would have a higher number of metaphors used in a positive sense,whereas the articles written during the crisis would have more metaphors used in a negative sense.Moreover, we also predicted that the English articles would have a higher number of metaphors used in a negative sense than the Spanish articles in both periods.The risk of a systemic crisis was voiced in the USA long before Spanish authorities admitted the existing economic recession.The March2008presidential elections led the Spanish government to deny that Spain could be affected by the global economic crisis.3.3.ResultsTables1and2below summarize the hits found for each lexeme and its derivatives in each corpus,and specify how many of these hits constitute a metaphoric expression.Graph1shows the metaphors found in Spanish and English,both in Corpus A and B.Thefirst type of metaphor analyzed was based on what Lakoff and Turner(1989:170)called the G REAT C HAIN OF B EING,which is a cultural model that establishes the attributes and behaviour of natural beings.In this model,natural beings are organized into the following hierarchy:humans,animals,plants and complex and natural objects.In the Spanish corpus,the metaphors based on the G REAT C HAIN OF B EING were the most numerous(see Table3below):54.3%in Corpus A and62%in Corpus B.The same applied to the English corpus,with57.8%in Corpus A and77.7%in Corpus B.As far as the Spanish corpus was concerned,out of the54.3%of metaphors found in Corpus A,29.3%were used in a positive sense and25%were negative.In Corpus B22%out of62% were positive and40%were negative.The specific metaphors found in our Spanish corpus were the following.As regards the English corpus(see Table4),out of the57.8%of metaphors found in Corpus A,10.7%were used in a positive sense and47.1%were negative.In Corpus B,19.4%out of77.7%were positive and58.3%were negative,as follows.Graph 2below shows the percentages of positive and negative metaphors based on the G REAT C HAIN OF B EING for both languages in each corpus.The second type of metaphor was that based on the PATH schema (see Tables 5and 6below).Financial operations may be conceived of as a series of activities carried out to achieve certain economic objectives.In our corpus we found four different types of metaphors based on the PATH schema.In general terms,this conceptualization serves as the basis for the metaphorATable 2Lexemes,hits and metaphors in both English corpora.Table 1Lexemes,hits and metaphors in both Spanish corpora.A.M.R.L ópez,M.A´.O.Llopis /Journal of Pragmatics 42(2010)3300–33133304Graph 1.Metaphors in both Spanish and Englishcorpora.Table 5Metaphors based on the PATHschema,Spanish corpora.Table 3Metaphors based on THE GREAT CHAIN OF BEING ,Spanish corpora.Table 4Metaphors based on THE GREAT CHAIN OF BEING ,English corpora.A.M.R.L ópez,M.A´.O.Llopis /Journal of Pragmatics 42(2010)3300–33133305FINANCIAL PROCESS IS A JOURNEY OR A TRIP TO A DESTINATION .The source domain is given by the basic structure of the SOURCE –PATH –GOALschema and other additional elements,such as the trajector,his/her intended goal,the trajectory he/she describes,his/her position at a given time,his/her direction at that time and his/her final goal,which may or may not coincide with the intended one,the presence of a vehicle,its speed,the difficulties it comes across,the forces which act favourably or unfavourably and the presence of other possible trajectors (Moreno Lara,2008:196).Most of the expressions in our corpus which were based on the structure of a journey conceptualized the crisis as an undesired destination and a force which acted adversely,slowing down the speed of economic matters,which were conceptualized as a vehicle.Apart from the SOURCE –PATH –GOAL schema,we found expressions based on the subsidiary VERTICALITY schema and the CONTAINER schema.In the expressions based on the VERTICALITY schema,economic events were conceptualized as forces which drove prices up or down,and the Stock Market was conceived as a vehicle which took them higher or lower.In those metaphorical patterns based on the CONTAINER schema,the economic crisis was conceptualized as a container we had entered and should get out of.On the whole,the expressions based on the PATH schema were used in a negative sense in both languages.In Spanish,24.3%of the expressions were negative and 13.7%positive.Moreover,the number of negative expressions increased significantly in Corpus B,with 19.4%being negative vs.the 4.9%of negative expressions in Corpus A,and only a 5.5%of positive ones vs.the 8.2%of Corpus A.In English,also 22.9%of the metaphorical patterns were negative and 15.2%positive,but we found a large difference between the distributions of negative expressions in each corpus.While the highest percentage of negative patterns in English was detected in Corpus A (16.5%in English vs.4.9%in Spanish),the Spanish corpora displayed the highest percentage of negative expressions (19.4%in Spanish vs.6.4%in English)in Corpus B.Graph 3compares the total number of positive and negative metaphors based on the PATH schema which were found for each language in all the different corpora.The third type of metaphor analyzed was based on the generic metaphor ACTIONS ARE EVENTS .This metaphor allows us to conceptualize financial activities as certain events.The expressions located in our corpus which instantiated this metaphor made reference to four types of events,namely,a competition game,a war,show business and medieval tournaments (see Tables 7and 8below).From a conceptual point of view,the metaphors of the three events share some features or elements,such as a high degree of competitiveness,a certain spirit of aggressiveness and the search for victory or fame.According to Ching (1993),the GAME and SHOW metaphors pervade American life,since they reflect the prototypical Western citizen.But curiously enough,our corpus contained a greater number of these metaphors in Spanish than in English:39.27%in Spanish vs.25.9%in English.Moreover,Spanish used them mostly in a positive way (out of 39.27%,29.8%were positive and 9.4%negative)while English ones were mainly negative (out of 25.9%,19.9%were negative and 6%positive).Spanish articles made use of the elements which activated a positive image of the events,such as the winner,the victory,the top value,etc.ThisGraph 2.Positive and negative metaphors based onTHE GREAT CHAIN OF BEINGfor bothlanguages.Table 6Metaphors based on the PATHschema,English corpora.A.M.R.L ópez,M.A´.O.Llopis /Journal of Pragmatics 42(2010)3300–33133306。
Contrastive Analysis语言学中的对比分析
Corpus-based data/ Introspective data
Introspective data is based on intuition to make judgment, the judgment of sentimentality. Personal judgment may not always be reliable, but this procedure can not be abandoned because it is very convenient. So that is why everybody uses it. You can not mix the two data. You can only use one, either corpus-data or introspective.
Contrastive pragmatics ----Analysis needs to consider not only linguistic contrasts but also pragmatic contrasts such as the similarities and differences in the stylistic uses , cultures , and other communicative networks.
他赞美大学辉煌的美是因为那是痛恨愚昧的人孜孜求知之所领悟真理的人诲人不倦之generallyenglishchineseappearlogicalcharacteristicsdirectstructurespiralstructurerespectively
Contrastive Analysis
a collection of materials that has been made for a particular purpose, such as a set of textbooks which are being analyzed and compared or a sample of sentences or utterances which are being analyzed for their linguistic features.
Contrastive Analysis语言学中的对比分析PPT
kinds
Phonological interference ----Those who cannot distinguish /n/and /l/
sound in Chinese cannot distinguish the two sounds in English , either
Contrastive Analysis
Group Member：...
Outline
➢ What is Contrastive Analysis/ Study/ Linguistics?
➢ What is the psychological basis of CA? ➢ What procedures should we adopt while conducting CA? ➢ What do we contrast / compare?
Teaching materials based on contrastive analysis can reduce the effects of interference and difficulties , and facilitate L2 learning.
Two types of transfer
kinds
Intralingual Cross-linguistic/Interlingual Phonological interference Syntactic interference Contrastive pragmatics
Kinds
Intralingual ---Analysis of contrastive phonemes. ---Feature analysis of morph syntactic categories. ---Analysis of morphemes having grammatical
对比分析和偏误分析
结构主义语言学（Structural Linguistics） 结构主义语言学注重结构和分布，强调对 语言特征进行客观、静态的科学描写。
语言学习理论的发展
20世纪60年代，Chomsky语言学理论的建 立，对心理语言学的研究带来很大的影响，使语 言习得研究完全抛开行为主义理论的限制，为以 后的儿童语言研究开辟了新的理论框架。乔姆斯 基理论中很重要的一个方面就是对语言习得的解 释，即语言天赋论，这种理论认为儿童天生就具 有一种语言能力，儿童掌握语言并不是一种“学 习 （ learning ） ” 的 过 程 ， 而 是 一 种 “ 习 得 （acquisition）”过程，儿童最终学会的语言 要比儿童接受的语言训练复杂、细致得多。
语言迁移在两种相近的语言中更容易发生
第一语言是学习策略的一部分
20世纪60年代开始，对比分析不断受到挑 战，偏误分析（Error Analysis）作为一种 新的分析方法应运而生。偏误分析产生于 60年代，兴盛于70年代。70年代后期，偏 误分析因为在研究方法和研究范围上的问 题开始衰落。有的学者认为，80年代末90 年代初，偏误分析开始复苏。
实验研究和教学实践也对对比分析提出了挑战。
对比分析仍是一种分析手段，是语言系统 的一个良好起点。（Selinker， 1992）
母语迁移的假设：
语言迁移并非或有或无（all-or-nothing） 语言迁移不是简单的行为过程，是人主动参与的心
理过程
学习者的偏误是由多种原因引起的，母语干扰是其 中之一
语言迁移（Language Transfer）
母语的语言形式、意义及其分布、文化 迁移到第二语言系统中去；
目的语与母语结构特征相似时，产生正迁 移，反之，负迁移；
_法庭口译的话语_法律_证人和译员的话语实践_述介
1．引言法律面前人人平等。
庭审是法律实施、适用及体现法律公平公正的关键环节。
在庭审过程中，一旦涉及双语或多语，处于语言劣势的一方当事人很难获得法律所赋予的公民权和法律平等（郭晶英，2007）。
因此，法庭口译是实现法律平等的必要手段。
随着移民人数的增加，以及法律机构对人们生活的各方面的影响和控制的加强，法庭口译也变得越来越重要。
与此不相匹配的是，社会对法庭口译缺乏应有的认可和尊重，法庭口译理论研究被忽视。
只有少部分律师和译员通过澳大利亚译者协会（AUSIT）推动法庭口译职业化。
之前的关于法庭口译的文献多为规定性的或轶事趣闻，少有理论和实证证据支撑。
2．作者简介桑德拉·比阿特丽斯·黑尔（Sandra Beatriz Hale）多年从事社区口译和会议口译实践、教学和研究，在社区口译教学法方面是先驱，并且是该领域的第11卷第3期2013年9月Vol.11No.3Sep.，2013英语研究The Journal of English Studies《法庭口译的话语：法律、证人和译员的话语实践》述介曹嬿（上海外国语大学高级翻译学院，上海200083）摘要：桑德拉·黑尔的《法庭口译的话语：法律、证人和译员的话语实践》以真实的法庭听审录音为研究对象，使用观察法、实验法和调查法等多元研究方法，从语用学和话语分析角度对法庭上律师与证人的问答以及法庭译员对这些问答的口译进行了深度剖析，以期对法庭口译中存在的问题做出解答，推动法庭口译实践、培训和研究。
本文简要介评该书的主要内容、贡献和局限性，并指出其对我国法庭口译研究的借鉴意义。
关键词：法庭口译；话语分析；语用学中图分类号：H315.9文献标识码：A文章编号：13-273（2013）03-0080-05Book Review：The Discourse of Court Interpreting：Discourse Practices of the Law，the Witness and the InterpreterCAO YanAbstract：By using multiple research methods such as observation，experiment and survey，The Discourse of Court In-terpreting：Discourse Practices of the Law，the Witness and the Interpreter by Sandra Hale studies the authentic record-ings of court hearing，providing a detailed analysis of the questions and answers by lawyers and witnesses in court and in-terpreter’s interpretation of them from the perspective of pragmatics and discourse analysis.It expects to give possible so-lution to problems existing in court interpreting，and promote the practice，training and research of court interpreting. This paper gives a brief summary of the main content of this book，and points out its contributions and limitations，as well as its significance,for court interpreting research and practice in China.Key Words：court interpreting；discourse analysis；pragmatics收稿日期：2012-09-17基金项目：本文得到上海市财政部门预算学科建设项目“外国语言学及应用语言学”（项目编号：A-2801-13-00204）和2012年度华东政法大学教学改革项目“以法律为特色的复合应用型翻译专业人才培养模式的构建”（项目编号：A-1802-12-00142）的资助。
The-Role-of-The-First-Language
2、regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of Contrastive Analysis.
3、reservations about whether Contrastive Analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching
Theoretical criticisms
➢The issues will be considered
(1) The attack on “Verbal Behaviors”
(2) The nature of the relationship between “difficulty” and “error”
目录
A multi-factor approach
L1 interference as a learner strategy
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive pragmatics
Summary and conclusion
1 Introduction
Two popular belief
Empirical research and the predictability of error
➢Four causes of learner error:
1、the learner does not know the structural pattern and so makes a random response 2、 the correct model has been insufficiently practiced 3、distortion may be induced by the first language 4、the student may follow a general rule which is not applicable in particular instance
9 Constrastive Analysis
linguistics, language independent, looking for the realization of universal categories in two or more languages, by giving an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between them, providing an adequate model for their comparison, and determining their comparability. Applied contrastive studies belong to applied linguistics, concerned not only with the comparison as well as similarities between them, but also with possible consequences for a given field of application. Its another task is to identify the probable areas of difficulty in L another language.
interfering elements of learning, claiming that interference means difficulty in learning. Linguistic aspect, based on structuralist linguistics, lays strong emphasis on differences between languages and provides the tools to describe accurately the two languages in question, and to match those tow descriptions against each other to determine the differences and similarities between them. CA is based on four assumptions:
Contrastive Analysis语言学中的对比分析 PPT课件
Kinds
Cross-linguistic/Interlingual ---Comparative analysis of morph syntactic
systems. ---Comparative analysis of lexical semantics ---Analysis of translational equivalence ---Study of interference in foreign language
Contrastive Analysis
Group Member：...
Outline
➢ What is Contrastive Analysis/ Study/ Linguistics?
➢ What is the psychological basis of CA? ➢ What procedures should we adopt while conducting CA? ➢ What do we contrast / compare?
➢ Introspective data:
➢ a kind of data involving the subject reflecting the kinds of decisions they make and the kinds of strategies they use while carrying out a task, and reporting them as they occur.
2) selection (i.e. certain areas or items of the two
languages were chosen for detailed comparison such as phonology, syntax and lexicon)
对比分析
Байду номын сангаас 研究方法
1. 错误分析 2. 策略分析
具体工作
1 垂直研究—对某一些学习者学习外语的过 程进行跟踪调查。 2 交叉研究—同时对处于同一学习阶段的学习 者的中介语进行研究。
研究重点
1 词素研究— 研究学习者学习习得的顺序 2 句法研究— 研究学习者习得不同语法结构 的顺序
中介语的三个特征
１.开放性。 ２.灵活性。 ３.系统性。 发现了外语学习过程中的有趣的现象——僵 化（化石化）
理论基础
CA的心理学理论基础是行为主义心理学中 的刺激反应理论和联想理论。语言是一种 习惯，学习外语就是学习一套新习惯。 正迁移、负迁移。
贡献
1. 形成了一套较为严密的对比分析方法。 2 .丰富了普通语言学理论。 3 .积累了丰富的语言素材和参考资料。 4. 使广大的外语教师更深刻地意识到了不同 语言间结构和意义上的差异。
EA的一般步骤 的一般步骤
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 选择语料 确认错误（区别偏误和失误） 对错误进行分类 解释错误产生的原因 评价（主要为教学服务)
贡献
1 . 认识到了CA研究对实际外语教学有一定的
局限性。 2. 改变了对错误本质的认识。 以前——避免及纠正 现在——是语言学习的内部过程 3 . 形成了一套有效地错误分析方法和程序。 目前EA已成为SLA研究中的一个重要的组成 部分。
需要解释的问题
１.儿童语言习得机制在青春期后失去作用，那
成年人是利用什么来处理语言的素材输入？ ２.中介语的始点是什么？ ３.外语习得究竟是一种重组（restructuring） 还是一种重新创造(recreation)。
局限性
1. 研究限于词素、句法方面，对语义习得研究 不够。 2. 忽视学习者学习外语的自我标准。 3. 忽视中介语与其它语言变体的不同的标准。 4. 研究方法还有一些技术性的问题未能解决。
Pragmatics
09级7班李梦琦2009237PragmaticsPragmatics written by Y an Huang is published in 2007 by Oxford University, and it brings us a panorama of pragmatic researches. It is authoritative, up to date, and comprehensive, which covers the latest research developments. It relates work in linguistics and philosophy of language, as well as examples from English and a wide range of languages.Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter. The remainder of the book is then divided into two parts. Part Ⅰcovers those topics that are usually included in a pragmatic textbook. Chapter 2 is concerned with classical and neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of implicature. The author points out that the conversational implicature has defeasibility/cancellability, non-detachability, calculability, non-conventionality, reinforceability and universality. The focus of Chapter 3 is on presupposition. There are mainly three categories of researches concerning presupposition. They are filtering-satisfaction analysis raised by Karttunen and Stalnaker, cancellation analysis raised by Gazdar and accommodation analysis raised by Heim. Chapter 4 is devoted to speech act theory, concentrating on the classic work by Austin and Searle. Austin divides sentences into performatives and constatives, and divides performatives further into explicit performatives and implicit performatives. Searle raises felicity conditions, i.e. propositional content condition, preparatory condition, sincerity condition and essential condition. Speech acts are divided into 5 parts, i.e. representatives/assertives, directives, commissives, expressive anddeclarations/declaratives. Searle proposes indirect speech act theory, and the author introduces inferential model and idiom model. About politeness, there are four major theoretical models, i.e. social norm, conversational maxim, face-saving and conversational contract. Chapter 5 provides an in-depth descriptive analysis of various types of deixis. Deixis are generally divided into personal deixis, time deixis, space deixis, social deixis and discourse deixis.PartⅡ deals with topics which represent new ground in pragmatics, but which are under-represented in any of the existing pragmatics textbooks. In particular, it focuses on various interfaces between pragmatics and other core areas of inquiry. Chapter 6 discusses the pragmatics-cognition interface, concentrating on relevance theory. The interface between pragmatics and semantics is the topic of Chapter 7. There are two major views about their relationship. One is reductionism and another is complementarism. Finally, Chapter 8 examines the interaction and the division of labor between pragmatics and syntax, focusing on anaphora and binding.After reading this book, I have also found some points which I am quite interested in. First is the study of the interface between semantics and pragmatics. There has been a long controversy over the relationship between semantics and pragmatics, but there is a shift of focus in study from this concern to the semantics-pragmatics interface in post-Gricean pragmatics. The semantic minimalism claims that a sentence expresses a proposition independent of context, and meanwhile maintains that there are context-sensitive elements in language, while contextualism holds that the utterance meaning of a sentence, including explicit and implicitmeaning claimed as implicature, must be determined through pragmatic processes in context. The rising of semantics-pragmatics interface study provides us with a new perspective from which linguistic meaning and language use can be explained in relation to human cognition.Secondly, so far as speech act theory is concerned, its application in education arouses my interest. We all know teachers’ roles in education are decisive, what they say can even decide the future development of students. Their utterances will have strong effect on students. Therefore it is important to pay much attention to remarks and grasp the skills of being eloquent. In our life, Speech Act Theory can be and should be app lied greatly and it can be useful if we use it probably and carefully. The purpose of learning any kind of theory is to use it in daily life and relate the theory with the practices. That is to say, there are many applications of this theory in life, and we need to think as many applications as we could, so as to use this theory as freely as possible, such as to teach the stuff of the company the skills of being eloquent in dealing with different clients, to treat the patients with deadly disease skillfully and so on. In a word, we need to give enough attention to this issue, it has many good results if we attach enough importance to it, such as that it can enhance our personal relationship with others in work and in life, it can build up a good environment in education and so on and so forth.Thirdly, it is deixis. As a pragmatic phenomenon, it is traditionally studied within the pragmatic framework with respect to their functions and other parameters. In this way, some problems arise, some of which are regarded as linguisticphenomena and are not given satisfactory explanations. Cognitive approach can solve some of these problems if there is a cognitive structure for deixis, I believe.Fourthly, it is anaphora. Anaphora has been one of the hot topics in linguistic studies for its special linguistic features. Given the standard formulation of Chomsky’s binding conditions A and B, it is predicted that anaphors and pronominals should be in strict complementary distribution. That is, anaphors can occur only where pronominals cannot, and vice versa. This is because the two binding conditions are precise mirror-images of each other. However, from the author’s derivation, we could conclude that the strict distributional complementarity between anaphors and pronominals dictated by Chomsky’s binding conditions A and B cannot be maintained. The author presents a revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora. The central idea underlying is that the interpretation of certain patterns of anaphora can be made utilizing pragmatic inference, dependent on the language user’s knowledge of the range of opinions available in the grammar, and of the systematic use or avoidance of particular anaphoric expressions or structures on particular occasions. Anaphoricity is a property not of specific lexical items, but of the systematic use or avoidance of lexical items.Pragmatics written by Y an Huang is based on a rich collection of cross-linguistic data. It is authoritative and provides us with a brand new perspective of meditating over the theories or language phenomena that we have met before. I have been inspired a lot from it.。
哈师大语言学chapter 8 pragmatics
Pragmatics is different from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context.
Definition
• Definition: • ---- the study of language in use or language communication; • ----the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. • ---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
pragmatics
语用学
Some general observations:
1 Definition of Pragmatics
1) After grammatical and semantic analysis of a sentence, there is still something unsaid about it. 2) Once a linguistic expression is used, some extra meaning is conveyed on top of and based on the literal meaning. 3) When we hear or read pieces of language, we normally try to understand not only what the words mean, but also what the speaker or writer intended to convey. 4) Contextual factors and the speaker’s intention have to be taken into consideration in order to catch the full meaning of the language in use. • The realization of those facts gradually gave birth to a new field of study, which takes care of that extra part of
Contrastive analysis语言学
Shortcomings of CA
• Many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative or inaccurate.
For more examples: The girl is in blue ski jacket. The girl is dressed in a blue ski jacket. * The girl is worn in a blue ski jacket.
Know of the target language ,institutions and communication strategies in other situation.
• For example, between English and French, there are many "false friends", words and phrases which are rather similar in spelling and sound yet different in meaning and function.
• Predicted errors did not materialize in learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. •
Shortcomings of CA
•
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(语用学)【圣才出品】
第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语用学的定义；语法分析与语用学的区别；微观语用学中的基本概念；宏观语用学中言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则；实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
pragmatics-2-Deixis-and-distance-Ss
situational insertion
This kind of “you” is referred to by Maitland and Wilson as a “situational insertion”,
Deixis
Deixis:
the earliest target or first study area of pragmatics, since it directly concerns the relationship between language structure and the context in which it is
I’m working on a new book now.
Classification of deixis
person deixis place deixis time deixis discourse deixis social deixis --- Fillmore, 1971
Deixis: warm-up
A: —你说你是小狗我就给你这块糖 B: —你是小狗 A: —我让你说你是小狗 ! B: —我说的就是你是小狗啊 A: —你说“我是小狗”! B: —啊 ? 你是小狗 ?
Deixis
Deictics / indexicals / deictic or indexical expressions: language forms whose referents are identifiable only in the context concerned. Pronouns, Demonstratives (proximal vs. distal), tense markers, adverbs of time and space, and motion verbs.
contrastive analysis名词解释题
contrastive analysis名词解释题Contrastive analysis (对比分析) is a linguistic theory that aims to predict and explain the difficulties a learner may encounter in acquiring a second or foreign language by comparing the similarities and differences between the learner's native language and the target language.1. Contrastive analysis suggests that language transfer occurs when a learner transfers linguistic elements or patterns from their native language to the target language.对比分析认为，语言迁移是指学习者将自己的母语中的语言元素或模式转移到目标语言中。
2. The contrastive analysis hypothesis suggests that similarities between the native language and the target language facilitate language learning, while differences may result in errors or difficulties.对比分析假设指出，母语与目标语之间的相似之处有助于语言学习，而差异可能会导致错误或困难。
3. For example, in contrastive analysis, if a learner's native language uses a subject-verb-object word order, they may have difficulty understanding and producing sentences ina target language that has a different word order, such as subject-object-verb.例如，在对比分析中，如果学习者的母语使用主谓宾的语序，他们可能会在目标语言中产生困难，因为目标语言的语序可能是主宾谓。
英汉称谓语思维模式对比刍议
2472020年50期总第542期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS英汉称谓语思维模式对比刍议文/肖 敏人梁章锯的《称谓录》三十二章，对各种称谓分类编排，体现了我国古代称谓系统之庞大。
这与中国传统宗族形式关系密切，体现出不同时期人们的价值观念差异和民族心理变化。
此外，20世纪50年代以来，中国学者称谓研究的成果就不断涌现。
50年代，赵元任先生对中国现代汉语称谓作了详尽描述。
80年代初，祝畹瑾和美国社会语言学家Scotton研究了“同志”一词的七种使用模式，充分体现了称代选择的复杂性与社会变化的关系。
1992年，马鸣春出版了《称谓修辞学》一书，将称谓和修辞手段相连。
90年代末，田惠刚的《中西人际称谓系统》成为首部全面系统分析中国称谓的著作。
三、英汉称谓语思维模式差异研究称谓行为是一个互动的过程。
为了顺畅交流，有效传达和获取信息，很多因素都应考虑在内，如年龄、性别、职业、身份、亲疏关系、观点情感及环境等，这样就可以有效避免误解或歧义。
这种心理活动大都在潜意识中完成，即心理语言活动，其差异与人的文化背景、思维习惯及习惯有着紧密联系。
著名社会语言学家Hudson曾说：“Thought covers anumber of different types of mental activity, and lies in the province of cognitive psychology.” 也就是说，思维模式可以记录人们对事物的思考、感知、辨识、记忆和推理，人们可以透过语言去了解思维过程。
接下来，我们尝试从称谓者、被称者两个角度去分析称谓语是如何在此过程中起作用的。
1. 称谓者。
称谓者是交际行为的发起者，他如何称呼对方将会给对话定下基调。
自称语就是一个重要的标志，它可以帮助听话者作出判断，以断定他在对方心目中的位置或态度。
人称代词就是一个主要的类别。
一、引言称谓语是一种敏感的社会指示语，它将语言和社会紧密相连。
翻译理论 英译中
2) A: Could you give me a lift home? B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister. ( with natural coherence though lack of cohesion )
2. The maximum unit in grammar --- sentence (syntax) The maximum unit in discourse --- a full text (context relation)
Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical and other relations which provide links between various parts of a text, and it is a surface relation. There are five main cohesive devices : reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. 1) Here is Sue. She has just arrived. (backward ref.) 2) A: You can do bedding yourself, if you like. B: I think so. ( clausal sub.)