On the interpretation of the multicolour disc model for black hole candidates

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On the multiplicity of terminal singularities on threefolds

a r X i v :m a t h /0004105v 2 [m a t h .A G ] 22 J a n 2001On the multiplicity of terminal singularities onthreefoldsNobuyuki KakimiDepartment of Mathematical Sciences,University of Tokyo,Komaba,Meguro,Tokyo 153,Japan (e-mail:kakimi@318uo.ms.u-tokyo.ac.jp )Abstract.We give the multiplicity of terminal singularities on threefolds by simple calculation.Then we obtain the best inequalities for the multiplicity and the index.By using this,we can improve the boundedness number of terminal weak Q -Fano 3-folds in [KMMT,Theorem 1.2].Furthermore,we can extend [K,Theorem 3.6]for Fujita freeness conditions to nonhypersurface terminal singularities.0IntroductionOur results are the multiplicity of terminal singularities and the best inequal-ities for the multiplicity and the index of terminal singularities on threefolds.Our results are partially generalizations of Artin [A]’s result,that,for a nor-mal surface S ,a rational singular point p of S ,embdim p S =mult p S +1.We shall prove the following results in this paper:(Theorem 2.1)Let (X,p )be a 3-fold terminal singular point over C .Then,for all integers kdim m k X p /m k +1X p =mult p X ·k (k +1)/2+k +1and embdim p X =mult p X +2and mult p X ≤index p X +2(if index p X =1,then mult p X ≤2).We can improve [KMMT Theorem 1.2(2)]by (Theorem 2.1)to the fol-lowing:(Theorem 3.4)Let X be a terminal weak Q -Fano 3-fold.Then the following hold.(1)−K x ·c 2(X )≥0,and hence I (X )|24!.(2)Assume furtherthat the anti-canonical morphism g :X →¯Xdoes not contract any divisors.Then (−K X )3≤63·(2+24!).(3)The terminal Q -Fano 3-folds are bounded.We also can extend [K 3.6]by (Theorem 2.1)to the following:(Theorem 4.1)Let X be a normal projective variety of dimension 3,x 0∈X a nonhy-persurface terminal singular point for index x 0X =r ≥2,and L an ample Q -Cartier divisor such that K X +L is Cartier at x 0.Assume that there are positive numbers σp for p =1,2,3which satisfy the following conditions:(1)pr +3,and σ3>(1+1/r )3√|K X+L|is free at x0.Acknowledgment:The author would like to express his thanks to Professor Yujiro Kawamata for his advice and warm encouragement.He also would like to express his thanks to Mr.Masayuki Kawakita for teaching him RIMS-1273 [KMMT]preprint’s existence.1PreliminariesDeﬁnition1.1.Let m X p be the maximal ideal of p of X.The embedding dimension of X at p is the dimension of the Zariski tangent space,m X pembdim p X=dim=k mult p S+1,m S k+1pand embdim p S=mult p S+1.We would like to calculate the multiplicity of terminal singularities on threefolds.We shall need the following Mori’s classiﬁcation theorem of ter-minal singularities in dimension3.Theorem1.3([M]).Let0∈X be a3-fold terminal nonhypersurface sin-gular point over C.Then0∈X is isomorphic to a singularity described by the following list:(1)cA/r,{xy+f(z,u r)=0,f∈C{z,u r},(r,a)=1}⊂C4/Z r(a,r−a,r,1),(2)cAx/4,{x2+y2+f(z,u2)=0,f∈C{z,u2}}⊂C4/Z4(1,3,2,1),(3)cAx/2,{x2+y2+f(z,u)=0,f∈(z,u)4C{z,u}}⊂C4/Z2(1,2,1,1),(4)cD/2,{u2+z3+xyz+f(x,y)=0,f∈(x,y)4},or{u2+xyz+z n+f(x,y)= 0,f∈(x,y)4,n≥4},{u2+y2z+z n+f(x,y)=0,f∈(x,y)4,n≥3}⊂C4/Z2(1,1,2,1),(5)cD/3,u2+x3+y3+z3=0,or{u2+x3+yz2+f(x,y,z)=0,f∈(x,y,z)4},{u2+x3+y3+f(x,y,z)=0,f∈(x,y,z)4}⊂C4/Z3(1,2,2,3),2(6)cE/2,{u 2+x 3+g (y,z )x +h (y,z )=0,g,h ∈C {y,z },g,h ∈(y,z )4}⊂C 4/Z 2(2,1,1,1).The equations have to satisfy 2obvious conditions:1.The equations deﬁne a terminal hypersurface singularity.2.The equations are Z n -equivariant.(In fact Z n -invariant,except for cAx/4.)2Main TheoremTheorem 2.1.Let (X,p )be a 3-fold terminal singular point over C .Then,for all integers k dimm X p k2+k +1,embdim p X =mult p X +2,and mult p X ≤index p X +2(if index p X =1,then mult p X ≤2).Moreover,we assume that (X,p )∼=(xy +f (z,u r )=0⊂C 4/Z r (a,r −a,r,1),0)or (C 3/Z r (a,r −a,1),0)for (r,a )=1and r >1.Let r i :=min {r i −1−a i −1,a i −1}(r 0>r 1>···>r n =1)and a i =r i −1(mod r i )for r 0=r ,a 0=a .Then,mult p X =⌊r 0r 2⌋+···+⌊r n −1m k +1X p=2(k +2)(k +1)2+k +1.Hence mult p X =2and embdim p X =mult p X +2=4.Case 2.Let (X,p )be a terminal quotient singular point of typeC 3/Z r (a,−a,1)with (r,a )=1Let S i =C 2/Z r (i,1)for i =a,−a .For i =a,−a ,we have (xy )w ·m k −w Si pm k +1X pandm k −wSa pm k −w +1S −a p=(z r )k −w for 0≤w ≤k.3Then by Theorem 1.2,dimm X k pm S a k −w +1p+dimm S −a k −wp2+k +1.Hence,mult p X =mult p S a +mult p S −a and embdim p X =mult p X +2.Since we haver ir i +1⌋+1)−r i +1−a i +1r i +1⌋−1+mult p C 2/Z r i +1(r i +1−a i +1,1).Since we have thatr ir i −r i +1,thatr i −r i +1r i −2r i +1,···,and thatr i −(⌊r i /r i +1⌋−2)r i +1r i −(⌊r i /r i +1⌋−1)r i +1,then mult p C 2/Z r i (r i −r i +1,1)=1+mult p C 2/Z r i +1(a i +1,1).Thus mult p C 2/Z r i (r i +1,1)+mult p C 2/Z r i (r i −r i +1,1)=⌊r i /r i +1⌋+mult p C 2/Z r i +1(r i +2,1)+mult p C 2/Z r i +1(r i +1−r i +2,1).Hnece,mult p X =⌊r 0r 2⌋+···+⌊r n −1m S i k −w +1p∈m k X pm S a k −w +1p∩m S −a k −wpThe rest of the proof is the same as Case2.Hence,embdim p X=mult p X+2,mult p X=⌊r0r2⌋+···+⌊r n−1m X k+1p =kt=0{(2k−2t+1)+(2k−2t)+(k−t)+(k−t)} =kt=0(6k−6t+1)=6k(k+1)m X k+1p =ks=0(2k−2s+1)+k−1t=0(2k−2t)=4k(k+1)m X k+1p =kt=0(k−t+1)+k−1t=0(k−t+3)+k−2t=0k−t−2s=03=12·k(k+7)+32+k+1.Hence mult p X=index p X+2=5and embdim p X=mult p X+2=7.5We give the following concrete example:Example2.2.Let(X,p)be a quotient singular point of type C3/Z13(5,8,1). Then,mult p X=[(13/5)]+[(5/2)]+[(2/1)]+2=8.Theorem2.1is wrong on the following canonical singularity on threefolds. Example2.3.Let(X,p)be a quotient singular point of type C3/Z3(1,1,1). We have mult p X=9and embdim p X=10Then,embdim p X=10< mult p X+2=11and mult p X=9>index p X+2=5.3Application1We can improve the boundedness number in[KMMT,Theorem1.2(2)]by Theorem2.1.Deﬁnition3.1(KMMT Theorem1.2).Let X be a normal projective variety and X is called a terminal(resp.klt)Q-Fano variety,if X has only terminal singularities and−K X is ample.By replacing’ample’with’nef and big’,terminal(resp.klt)weak Q-Fano varieties are similarly deﬁned.Let I(X)be the smallest positive integer I such that IK X is Cartier;I(X)is called the Gorenstein index of X.We note that if X is a klt Q-Fano variety then|−mK X|is free for some m>0.The induced birational morphism X→¯X is said to be the anti-canonical morphism of X.Lemma3.2([KMMT Lemma4.1]).Let X be an n-dimensional projec-tive variety and x a closed point with multiplicity r.Let D be a nef and big Q-Cartier divisor on X and l a covering family of curves containing x such that D·l≤d.Then D n≤rd n.The following is our improvement for[KMMT Theorem5.1]. Theorem3.3.Let X be a Q-factorial terminal Q-Fano3-fold withρ(X)= 1.Then(−K X)3≤63·(2+24!).Proof.(cf.[KMMT Theorem5.1])By[MM86,Thm.5],there is a covering family of rational curves{l}such that−K X·l≤6.If{l}has aﬁxed point x,then Lemma3.2,we have(−K X)3≤63·mult x X.We have mult x X≤2+index x X.By[KMMT Theorem1.2(1)],we have index x X≤24!.Hence(−K X)3≤63·(2+24!)in this case.6If{l}has aﬁxed point x,the proof is the same as the one of[KMM92a, Theorem.].By[KMMT,Construction-Proposition4.4and Claim5.2],there is a cov-ering family of rational curves{l′}with aﬁxed point x such that−K X·{l′}≤3×6.Hence by Lemma3.2,(−K X)3≤63·33in this case.The following is our improvement for[KMMT Theorem1.2].Theorem3.4.Let X be a terminal weak Q-Fano3-fold.Then the following hold.(1)−K x·c2(X)≥0,and hence I(X)|24!.(2)Assume further that the anti-canonical morphism g:X→¯X does not contract any divisors.Then (−K X)3≤63·(2+24!).(3)The terminal Q-Fano3-folds are bounded. Proof.The proof is the same as the one of[KMMT Theorem1.2]except that we can use Theorem3.3instead of[KMMT Theorem5.1].4Application2We can extend[K,Theorem3.6]to nonhypersurface terminal singularities in the following.Theorem4.1.Let X be a normal projective variety of dimension3,x0∈XX=r≥2,and L an a nonhypersurface terminal singular point for index xample Q-Cartier divisor such that K X+L is Cartier at x0.Assume that there are positive numbersσp for p=1,2,3which satisfy the following conditions: (1)p√r+3,andσ3>(1+1/r)3[K]N.Kakimi:Freeness of adjoint linear systems on threefolds with terminal Gorenstein singularities or some quotient singularities.J.Math.Sci.Univ.Tokyo.7(2000)347–368[Ka1]Y.Kawamata:On the plurigenera of minimal algebraic3-folds with K≡0.Math.Ann.275(1986)539–546[Ka2]Y.Kawamata:Boundedness of Q-Fano threefolds.Proc.Int.Conf.Algebra,Contemp.Math.131Amer.Math.Soc.Providence,RI(1992)439–445[Ka3]Y.Kawamata:The minimal discrepancy of a3-fold terminal sin-gularity,appendix to“3-folds logﬂips”by V.V.Shokurov.RussianAcad.Sci.Izv.Math.40(1993)201–203[Ka4]Y.Kawamata:Divisorial contractions to3-dimensional termi-nal quotient singularities.Higher Dimensional complex Varieties(Proc.Trento),Walter de Gruyter J(1996)241–246[KMM]Y.Kawamata,K.Matsuda,and K.Matsuki:Introduction to the minimal model problem.Adv.St.Pure Math.10(1987)283–360[KMMT]J.Koll´a r,Y.Miyaoka,S.Mori,and H.Takagi:Boundedness of canonical Q-Fano3-folds.RIMS-1273preprint[KSB]J.Koll´a r and N.Shepherd-Barron:Threefolds and deformations of surface singularities,Invent.Math.91(1998)299–338[M]S.Mori:On3-dimensional terminal singularities,Nagoya Math.J.98(1985)43–66[MM]Y.Miyaoka and S.Mori:A numerical criterion for uniruledness, Ann.of Math.124(1986)65–69[R]M.Reid:Young person’s guide to canonical singularities.Algebraic Geometry,Bowdoin,1985,Proc.Symp.Pure Math.46(1987)345–4148。

专业英语2第六单元B翻译

Separation of Powers in the American Public Law美国公法中的三权分立It has already been intimated that Montesquieu’s theory（指孟德斯鸠的三权分立理论）of the separation of powers was made the basis of the system of government adopted in the United States at the end of the eighteenth century.A perusal of the writings of those men who influenced most profoundly the political thought of the time will reveal a practically unanimous 1acceptance of the theory.我们都知道，孟德斯鸠的三权分立学说是美国在18世纪末组建政府体系的理论基础，一些熟读相关政治理论作品且在政治领域有很大影响力的学者认为，时间会证明，总有一天绝大多数的人都会接受这一理论。

The theory was accepted not ,however ,as a scientific theory but as a legal rule. Many of the state constitutions, which either were adopted soon after the American revolution or have been put into force since , contain clauses known as “distributing clauses,” of which that contained in the constitution of Massachusetts（马萨诸塞州）may be taken as a most forcible example. Article 30 of the first constitution of Massachusetts provides that “in the government of this common-wealth the legislative department shall never exercise the executive or judiciary powers or either of them；the executive shall never exercise the legislative or judicial powers or either of them；the judiciary shall never exercise the legislative or executive powers or either of them,to the end that it may be a government of laws and not of men.” Other constitutions, of which the constitution of the United States is one , provide that the legislative power shall be vested in a legislature, that the executive power shall be vested in a President or governor , and that the judicial power shall be vested in certain courts.Such provisions,however ,are held to have practically the same legal effect as the distributing clause in the Massachusetts constitution, on the theory th at “affirmative（肯定的）words are often , in their operation , negative of other objects than those affirmed.”这个理论并没有被全面接受，更多的时候它只是一个科学的理论而不是法律规章。

《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记

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00230Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
00240The Roman writer Horace(:e0lQCQMR65-8t^ WlN0) said captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive 0
00The world s first vast interior space.NLu
N,{ Colosseum('Yt珐) is an enormous.2)Yvsb_q_gRb
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00; Father of History ! Herodotus ! war(between Greeks and Persians)
00This war is called Peleponicion wars. ZSWTY嬒d 3
00fH[ v^l g_洺0
00; The greatest historian that ever lived. ( geggO'YvS[) ! Thucydides ! war (Sparta Athens and Syracuse)
00200The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
00210The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (Wl_ g ^Jvh)
00220From 146 B.C. Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.

GMAT阅读理解模拟试题(6)

GMAT阅读理解模拟试题(6)环球北美考试院为大家整理了GMAT阅读理解模拟试题(6)，供考生们参考，以下是详细内容。

Colonial historian David Allen's intensive study of five communities in seventeenth-century Massachusetts is a model of meticulous scholarship on the detailed microcosmic level, and is convincing up to a point. Allen suggests that much more coherence and direct continuity existed between English and colonial agricultural practices and administrative organization than other historians have suggested. However, he overstates his case with the declaration that he has proved "the remarkable extent to which diversity in New England local institutions was directly imitative of regional differences in the mother country."Such an assertion ignores critical differences between seventeenth-century England and New England. First, England was overcrowded and land-hungry; New England was sparsely populated and labor-hungry. Second, England suffered the normal European rate of mortality; New England, especially in the first generation of English colonists, was virtually free from infectious diseases. Third, England had an all-embracing state church; in New England membership in a church was restricted to the elect. Fourth, a high proportion of English villagers lived under paternalistic resident squires; no such class existed in New England. By narrowing his focus to village institutions and ignoring these critical differences, which studies by Greven, Demos, and Lockridge have shown to be so important, Allen has created a somewhat distorted picture of reality.Allen's work is a rather extreme example of the "country community" school of seventeenth-century English history whose intemperate excesses in removing all national issues from the history of that period have been exposed by Professor Clive Holmes. What conclusion can be drawn, for example, from Allen's discovery that Puritan clergy who had come to the colonies from East Anglia were one-third to one-half as likely to return to England by 1660 as were Puritan ministers from western and northern England? We are not told in what way, if at all, this discovery illuminates historical understanding. Studies of local history have enormously expanded our horizons, but it is a mistake for their authors to conclude that village institutions are all that mattered, simply because their functions are all that the records of village institutions reveal.文章概况：第一段开头说有一个家伙研究社区，这个家伙的研究还是比较考谱的。

理想国的名词解释英语

理想国的名词解释英语The Noun Definition of "Utopia" in EnglishIntroduction:Utopia is a concept that has intrigued and inspired people for centuries. Coined by Sir Thomas More in his 1516 book of the same name, this term describes an ideal society or community that is perfect, harmonious, and free from the flaws and problems of the real world. In English, the word "Utopia" has come to signify an idyllic and aspirational place. This article aims to explore the noun definition of "Utopia" in English, highlighting its historical origins, characteristics, and the impact it has had on society's imagination.Origins and Etymology:The word "Utopia" comes from the Greek words "ou" and "topos," meaning "no" and "place" respectively. It was initially introduced by Sir Thomas More as the fictional name of an ideal island society in his book. The term was intentionally ambiguous, signifying both "no place" and "good place," setting the stage for the ongoing philosophical debates and interpretations surrounding the concept of utopia.Characteristics of Utopia:1. Perfection and Harmony:Utopian societies envision a world where all aspects of life are perfect and harmonious. In such societies, individuals live in peace, sharing resources equitably, and cooperating for the greater good. Conflict, inequality, and injustice are absent, creating a sense of unity and contentment for all members of the community.2. Social Equality:Another crucial characteristic of utopia is the absence of social divisions based on wealth, power, or social status. Utopian societies prioritize equality, ensuring that allcitizens have access to the same opportunities, rights, and resources. This creates a fair and just society, where everyone is valued and treated equitably.3. Innovative and Progressive:Utopias often emphasize the pursuit of knowledge, the advancement of technology, and the development of human potential. These societies encourage creativity, innovation, and intellectual pursuits, fostering an environment that promotes personal growth and collective progress.4. Sustainable and Balanced:Utopias strive to maintain a sustainable balance between human needs and the natural environment. They prioritize ecological harmony, adopting practices that ensure the longevity of resources and protect the planet. Utopian societies recognize the interdependence of humans and nature, nurturing a symbiotic relationship for the benefit of both.Influence on Society's Imagination:The concept of utopia has had a profound impact on society's imagination throughout history. It has served as a powerful tool for reflection, questioning the flaws and limitations of existing social structures. Utopian visions have inspired movements seeking to create a better world, such as the socialists, anarchists, and environmentalists. These ideologies have attempted to implement elements of utopia in their visions of a more just and sustainable society.Additionally, literature and art have often used utopian themes to explore societal ideals and aspirations. From Thomas More's original work to Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World" and other dystopian novels, utopia's counterpart, the concept of an ideal society has provided rich material for literary exploration, encouraging readers to contemplate the possibilities and pitfalls of a perfect world.Conclusion:In conclusion, the noun definition of "utopia" in English encapsulates an idealistic vision of a perfect society. The term's origins lie in Sir Thomas More's 16th-century book, which introduced this concept to the world. Utopia embodies characteristics such as perfection, harmony, social equality, innovation, and sustainability. While utopia remains an unattainable ideal, its influence has been far-reaching, stimulating social and political movements and inspiring artistic expression. The concept of utopia continues to provoke contemplation on how to create a better world, challenging societies to strive for a more just and harmonious future.。

美国文学史及选读名词解释

美国文学史及选读名词解释本文出自网络，作者不详1. Transcendentalism19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. In their religious quest, the Transcendentalists rejected the conventions of 18th-century thought; and what began in a dissatisfaction with Unitarianism developed into a repudiation of the whole established order.2. Langston HughesAmerican poet and writer emphasized on lower-class black life. He established himself as a major force of the Harlem Renaissance. In 1926, in the Nation, he provided the movement with a manifesto when he skillfully argued the need for both race pride and artistic independence in his most memorable essay, 'The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain." In many ways Hughes always remained loyal to the principles he had laid down for the younger black writers in 1926. His art was firmly rooted in race pride and race feeling even as he cherished his freedom as an artist. He was both nationalist and cosmopolitan. As a radical democrat, he believed that art should be accessible to as many people as possible. He could sometimes be bitter, but his art is generally suffused by a keen sense of the ideal and by a profound love of humanity, especially black Americans.3. Henry David ThoreauAmerican essayist, poet, and practical philosopher, renowned for having lived the doctrines of Transcendentalism as recorded in his masterwork, Walden (1854), and for having been a vigorous advocate of civil liberties, as evidenced in the essay “Civil Disobedience” (1849).In his writings Thoreau was concerned primarily with the possibilities for human culture provided by the American natural environment. He adapted ideas garnered from the then-current Romantic literatures in order to extend American libertarianism and individualism beyond the political and religious spheres to those of social and personal life. He demanded for all men the freedom to follow unique lifestyles, to make poems of their lives and living itself an art. In a restless, expanding society dedicated to practical action, he demonstrated the uses and values of leisure, contemplation, and a harmonious appreciation of and coexistence with nature. Thoreau established the tradition of nature writing later developed by the Americans4. the Harlem RenaissanceThe Harlem Renaissance, a flowering of literature (and to a lesser extent other arts) in New York City during the 1920s and 1930s, has long been considered by many to be the high point in African American writing. It probably had its foundation in the works of W.E. B. Du Bois who believed that an educated Black elite should lead Blacks to liberation. He further believed that his people could not achieve social equality by emulating white ideals; that equality could be achieved only by teaching Black racial pride with an emphasis on an African cultural heritage. Although the Renaissance was not a school, nor did the writers associated with it share a common purpose, nevertheless they had a common bond: they dealt with Black life from a Black perspective. Among the major writers who are usually viewed as part of the Harlem Renaissance are Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Rudolph Fisher, James Weldon Johnson, and Jean Toomer.5. Mark Twainpseudonym of Samuel Langhorne Clemens American humorist, writer, and lecturer who won a worldwide audience for his stories of youthful adventures, especially The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1883), and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). Writing in American colloquialism and subjects with humors and satires, Mark Twain shed great influence upon later writers such as Sherwood Anderson, Earnest Hemingway and Faulkner.6. Walt WhitmanAmerican poet, journalist, and essayist whose verse collection Leaves of Grass is a landmark in the history of American literature. Whitman's greatest theme is a symbolic identification of the regenerative power of nature with the deathless divinity of the soul. His poems are filled with a religious faith in the processes of life, particularly those of fertility, sex, and the “unflagging pregnancy” of nature: sprouting grass, mating birds, phallic vegetation, the maternal ocean, and planets in formation. The poetic “I” of Leaves of Grass transcends time and space, binding the past with the present and intuiting the future, illustrating Whitman's belief that poetry is a form of knowledge, the supreme wisdom of mankind.7. the Lost GenerationIn general, the post-World War I generation, but specifically a group of U.S. writers who came of age during the war and established their literary reputations in the 1920s. The term stems from a remark made by Gertrude Stein to Ernest Hemingway, “You are all a lost generation.” Hemingway used it as an epigraph to The Sun Also Rises (1926). The generation was “lost” in the sense that its inherited values were no longer relevant in the postwar world and because of its spiritual alienation from a U.S. that, basking under President Harding's “back to normalcy” policy, seemed to its members to be hopelessly provinc ial, materialistic, and emotionally barren. The term embraces Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, e.e. cummings and many other writers who made Paris the centre of their literary activities in the '20s. They were never a literary school. In the 1930s, as these writers turned in different directions, their works lost the distinctive stamp of the postwar period. The last representative works of the era were Fitzgerald's Tender Is the Night (1934).8. Ralph Waldo Emerson:American lecturer, poet, and essayist, the leading exponent of New England Transcendentalism. Nature, “The American Scholar,” and Address—had rallied together a group that came to be called the Transcendentalists, of which he was popularly acknowledged the spokesman. Emerson helped initiate Transcendentalism by publishing his Nature. Emerson felt that there was no place for free will in the chains of mechanical cause and effect that rationalist philosophers conceived the world as being made up of. This world could be known only through the senses rather than through thought and intuition; it determined men physically and psychologically; and yet it made them victims of circumstance, beingswhose superfluous mental powers were incapable of truly ascertaining reality. Emerson asserts the human ability to transcend the materialistic world of sense experience and facts and become conscious of theall-pervading spirit of the universe and the potentialities of human freedom. Emerson's doctrine of self-sufficiency and self-reliance naturally springs from his view that the individual need only look into his own heart for the spiritual guidance that has hitherto been the province of the established churches. The individual must then have the courage to be himself and to trust the inner force within him as he lives his life according to his intuitively derived precepts.9. Edgar Allen PoePoe's work owes much to the concern of Romanticism with the occult and the satanic. It owes much also to his own feverish dreams, to which he applied a rare faculty of shaping plausible fabrics out of impalpable materials. With an air of objectivity and spontaneity, his productions are closely dependent on his own powers of imagination and an elaborate technique. His keen and sound judgment as appraiser of contemporary literature, his idealism and musical gift as a poet, his dramatic art as a storyteller, considerably appreciated in his lifetime, secured him a prominent place among universally known men of letters. The outstanding fact in Poe's character is a strange duality. Much of Poe's best work is concerned with terror and sadness. His yearning for the ideal was both of the heart and of the imagination. His sensitiveness to the beauty and sweetness of women inspired his most touching lyrics He is regarded as the father of detective stories.10. Black Humoralso called Black Comedy, writing that juxtaposes morbid or ghastly elements with comical ones. The term did not come into common use until the 1960s. Then it was applied to the works of the novelists Nathanael West, Vladimir Nabokov, and Joseph Heller. The latter's Catch-22 (1961) is a notable example, in which Captain Yossarian battles the horrors of air warfare over the Mediterranean during World War II with hilarious irrationalities matching the stupidities of the military system. The term black comedy has been applied to playwrights in the Theatre of the Absurd.11. Benjamin FranklinAmerican printer and publisher, author, inventor and scientist, and diplomat. Franklin, next to George Washington possibly the most famous 18th-century American. He established the Poor Richard of his almanacs as an oracle on how to get ahead in the world, and become widely known in European scientific circles for his reports of electrical experiments and theories and wrote his Autobiography which is a great contribution to the American literature.12. Ernest HemingwayAmerican novelist and short-story writer, awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. He was noted both for the intense masculinity of his writing and for his adventurous and widely publicized life. His succinct and lucid prose style exerted a powerful influence on American and British fiction in the 20th century. The main characters of The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, and For Whom the Bell Tolls are young men whose strength and self-confidence nevertheless coexist with a sensitivity that leaves them deeply scarred by their wartime experiences. War was for Hemingway a potent symbol of the world, which he viewed as complex, filled with moral ambiguities, and offering almost unavoidable pain, hurt, and destruction. To survive in such a world, and perhaps emerge victorious, one must conduct oneself with honour, courage, endurance, and dignity, a set of principles known as “the Hemingway code.”13. Sherwood Andersonauthor who strongly influenced American writing between World Wars I and II, particularly the technique of the short story. His writing had an impact on such notable writers as Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner, both of whom owe the first publication of their books to his efforts. His prose style, based on everyday speech was markedly influential on the early Hemingway. His best work is generally thought to be in his short stories, collected in Winesburg, Ohio, The Triumph of the Egg (1921), Horses and Men (1923), and Death in the Woods (1933).。

美国文学史习题

Multiple choice. Please choose the best answer among the four items. (10 x 1 ' = 10 ') In American literature, the 18 th century was the age of Enlightenment. _______ wasthe dominant.A. huma nismB. rati on alismC. roma nticismD. evoluti onThe short story “ The Lege nd of Sleepy Hollow” is take n from Irvi ng n amed .A. The Leatherstocki ng TalesB. The Sketch BookC. The AutobiographyD. The History of New York Which of the followi ng is not the characteristic of America n Roma nticismA. Rati on alismB. inner selfC. pers onal feeli ngsD. in dividualism The short story“ Rip Van Winkle ”reveals the __ attitude of its author. A. optimistic B. pessimistic C. con servative D. ironicStylistically, Henry James' ficti on is characterized by . A. short, clear senten cesB. abu ndance of local imagesC. ord inary America n speechD. highly refined lan guageTran sce nden talist doctri nes found their greatest literary advocates in __ a ndThoreau. A. Jeffers on B. Emers on Which is regarded as the“ Declarati C. Fren eau D. Mark Twainon of In tellectual In depe ndence A. The America n Scholar B. En glish TraitsC. OversoulD. Self-relia nee is considered Mark Twain' s greatest achievement. A. The Gilded Age B. Innocent AbroadC. The Adve ntures of Tom SawyerD. Adve ntures of Huckleberry Fi nn is not among those greatest figures in “ Lost GenerationA. Ezra Pou ndB. Robert FrostNaturalism is evolved from realism whe n the a less serious and less sympathetic but more iroC. Walt WhitmanD. Hemi ngway uthor' sttasnniesvriting nic and more . A. rati onal B. humorous Multiple choice. Please choose the best a (10 x 1 ' = 10 ')is the father of America n Literature. C. optimistic D. pessimistic n swer among the four items.A. Benjamin Fra nklinB. Philip Fren eauC. Pai neD. Wash ington Irvi ngis a fan tasy tale about a man who somehow stepped outside the mai n stream of life.1.1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.11. 12. 13.s workA. “ Rip Van Winkle ”B. “ The Pion eers ”C. "The Lege nd of Sleepy Hollow ”D. " The Fall of the House of Usher was the most lead ing spirit of the Tran sce nden tal Club.A. ThoreauB. EmersonC. Hawthor neD. Whitman14.Which of followi ng is NOT a typical feature of Mark Twa in ' s Ian guageA. ver nacularB. colloquialC. elega ntD. humorous15.From Thoreau ' s jail experienee, came his famous essay, ________________ which states hisbelief that no man should violate his con scie nee at the comma nd of a gover nment.A. Walde nB. NatureC. Civil Disobedie neeD. Com monSense16.Which is re garded as the “ Declaration of Intellectual IndependenceA. The America n ScholarB. En glish TraitsC. OversoulD. Self-relia nee17.Most of the poems in Whitman ' s Leaves of Grass sing of -heass” and the en__________ as well.A. n atureB. self-relia neeC. selfD. life18. What did Fitzgerald call the 1920sA. The Roar ing 20sB. The Gay 20sC. The Jazz AgeD. The Lost Ge nerati on19.Naturalism is evolved from realism when the author ' s tone in writing becomesless serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more ___________ .A. rati onalB. humorousC. optimisticD. pessimistic20.For Melville, as well as for the reader and __________ , the narrator, Moby Dick is stilla mystery, an ultimate mystery of the uni verse.A. AhabB. StubbC. IshmaelD. StarbuckII.Identify Works as Described Below (1'x15 =15 '):1.The novel has a sole black protagonist who tells his own story but whose name in unknown to us.a.Native Sonb.U ncle Tom 's Cab inc.I nvisible Mand. Go Tell It on theMountains2.The main conflict of the play is the protagonist 's false value of fine appearaneeand popularity with people and the cruel reality of the society in which money is everyth ing.a.A Street Car Named Desireb. The Hairy Apec.L ong Day's Jour ney intoNight d. Death of Salesma n3.It is an autobiographical play and Edmund in the play is based on the playwright himself.a. Long Day's Jour ney into Nightb. Hen ders on the Rain Kingc. The Hairy Aped. The Glass Men ageries4.The novel tells of how a black man kills a white woman by accident and how the society is responsible forthe murder.a.Native Sonb.Uncle Tom 's Cabinc.Invisible Mand. Go Tell It on theMountains5.__________ is one of the best works in American literature about the SecondWorld War.a.A Farewell to Armsb.The Catcher in the Ryec.The Red Badge ofCourage d. The Naked and the Dead6.The novel by Hemingway is the best of its kind about World War I.a.A Farewell to Armsb.The Sun Also Risesc.The Old Man and the Sead. The Naked and the Dead7.The novel is about how a family of farmers cannot survive in Oklahoma and travel to California to seek a living and how they suffer hunger in California. a.The Grapes of Wrath b. U.S. A.c.Babbittd. The Adventures of Augie March8.It is a trilogy including The 42nd Parallel , 1919, and The Big Money , with such techniques as biographies,newsreels and camera eye.9.It is a novel which uses the stream of consciousness technique and whose title is taken from Shakespeare's Macbeth .a. Absolom, Absolom!b. The Sound and the Furyc.A Farewell to Armsd. The Great Gatsby10.It is a naturalistic work about how a country girl is seduced and how she becomes a famous actress andhow her lover falls into a beggar and finally commits suicide.a.An American Tragedyb. Sister Carriec. McTeagued.Maggie, A Girl of the Streets11.The novel is set on the Mississippi with the protagonist telling us the story in the local dialect. It is arepresentative work of local colorism.a. Sister Carrieb.The Adventures of Tom Sawyerc. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finnd.The Portrait of a Lady12.The novel is a psychological study of a soldier (Henry Fleming) 's reactions in the Civil War.a.An American Tragedyb. Sister Carriec.The Red Badge of Couraged. McTeague13.The poem is written in free verse in 52 cantos with the theme of the universality and equality in value ofall people and all things.a.Cantosb. The Ravenc. Song of Myselfd.Chicago14.The novel is about how a group of people on a whaling ship kill a great whale but themselves are killedby the whale, with the conflict between man and his fate.a.The Octopusb. Moby-Dickc. The Rise of Silas Laphamd. Leaves of Grass15.It is a philosophical essay in 8 chapters plus an introduction mainly concerned with the four uses ofnature.a. Waldenb. Naturec. The Scarlet Letterd. The American ScholarI.Choose the Best Answer for Each of the Following (1'X15=15'):1.An English ship brought 102 people from Plymouth, England on September 16,1620 and arrived in the present Provincetown harbor on November 21 in the same year. This ship wasnamed ________________________________________ .a. The Pilgrimsb. Mayflowerc. Americad. Titanic2.__________ is father of American drama and in his dramatic career he wrote 49plays.a. Tennessee Williamsb. Eugene O'Neillc. Arthur Millerd. Elmer Rice3.__________ was the first American writer to write entirely American literature.a. Anne Bradstreetb. Washington Irvingc. Mark Twaind. Ernest Hemingway4._______ was the leader of American transcendentalism.a. Benjamin Franklinb. Washington Irvingc. Ralph Waldo Emersond. Henry David Thoreau5._______ was the greatest woman poet in American literature and she wrote about1,700 short lyric poems in her life time.a. Pearl S. Buckb.Harriet Bicher Stowec. Emily Dickensond. Walter Whitman6.__________ is father of the detective story and of psychoanalytic criticism.a. Washington Irvingb. Ralph Waldo Emersonc. Walt Whitmand. Edgar Allan Poe7.William Dean Howells is concerned with the middle class life; ___________________ w ritesabout the upper class society, and Mark Twain deals with the lower class reality.a. Stephen Craneb. Frank Norrisc. Theodore Dreiserd. Henry James8.Which of the following is a naturalistic writera. William Dean Howellsb. Mark Twainc. Ernest Hemingwayd.Theodore Dreiser9.His writings are characterized by simple, colloquial language and deep thoughts.He is _________ .a. Ernest Hemingwayb. William Faulknerc. F. Scott Fitzgeraldd. Mark Twain10.He wrote 18 novels all set in Jefferson Town, Yoknapatwapha County in the deep south. He is .a.William Faulknerb. John Steinbeckc. Ernest Hemingwayd. Mark Twain11. _________ i s Jewish in origin and in many of his novels the American Jews aremajor characters.a. Sinclair Lewisb. Saul Bellowc. Norman Mailerd. Jerome David Salinger12. _________ is often regarded as the greatest American woman poet and she wroteover 1,700 short lyric poems in her life time.a. Anne Bradstreetb. Robert Frostc. H.D.d. Emily Dickinson13. _________ is father of American drama and won the Nobel Prize for literature in1936.a. John Steinbeckb. William Faulknerc. Eugene O 'Neilld. ArthurMiller14.He was the first black American to write a book about black life with great impact on the consciousnessof the nation and his masterpiece is one of the three classics about black Americans. Who is hea. Richard Wrightb. Harriet Beecher Stowec. Langston Hughesd. Ralph Ellison15.Hemingway wrote about American compatriots in Europe whereas _____________wrote about the Jazz age, life in American society.a.William Carlos Williamsb. William Faulknerc. John Steinbeckd. F. Scott Fitzgerald1.Choose the Best An swer for Each of the Followi ng (1 X15 %):2.The American Civil War broke out in 1861 between the Northern states and theSouth states, which are known respectively as the _________________ and the ________ .a. N, Sb. Revolutionaries, Reactionariesc. Union, Confederacyd. Slavery, Anti-Slavery2.________________ was praised by the British as the “Tenth Muse in America ”.a. Anne Bradstreetb. Edward Taylorc. Thomas Pained. Philip Freneau3.Mark Twain was a representative of ____________ in American literature.a. transcendentalismb. naturalismc. local colorismd. imagism4.________ was the leader of American transcendentalism.a. Benjamin Franklinb. Washington Irvingc. Ralph Waldo Emersond. Henry David Thoreau5.The greatest American poet and the first writer of free verse is ____________________ .a. Washington Irvingb.Ezra Poundc. Walt Whitmand. Emily Dickinson6. _________ is father of the detective story and of psychoanalytic criticism.a. Washington Irvingb. Ralph Waldo Emersonc. Walt Whitmand. Edgar Allan Poe7. __________________________________________________________ H enry James is concerned with the upper class life; _________________________________________________________ writes about the middle class society, and Mark Twain deals with the lower class reality.a. Stephen Craneb. Frank Norrisc. Theodore Dreiserd. William Dean Howells8.Which of the following is a naturalistic writera. William Dean Howellsb. Mark Twainc. Ernest Hemingwayd.Theodore Dreiser9.________ 's writings are characterized by simple, colloquial language and deepthoughts.a. Ernest Hemingwayb. William Faulknerc. F. Scott Fitzgeraldd.Mark Twain10. ______ wrote 18 novels all set in Jefferson Town, Yoknapatwapha County inthe deep south. .a. William Faulknerb. John Steinbeckc. Ernest Hemingwayd. Mark Twain11. ________ is Jewish in origin and in many of his novels the American Jews aremajor characters.a. Sinclair Lewisb. Saul Bellowc. Norman Mailerd. Jerome DavidSalinger12. __________ is often regarded as the greatest American woman poet and she wroteover 1,700 short lyric poems in her life time.a. Anne Bradstreetb. Robert Frostc. H.D.d. Emily Dickinson13. ________ is father of American drama and won the Nobel Prize for literature in1936.a. John Steinbeckb. William Faulknerc. Eugene O'Neilld. Arthur Miller14. _______ was the first black American to write a book about black life with greatimpact on the consciousness of the nation and his masterpiece is one of the three classics about black Americans.b.Richard Wright b. Harriet Beecher Stowengston Hughesd. Ralph Ellison15. _________ first used the “Jazz age”as the title of a collection of short storiesa. F. Scott Fitzgeraldb. William Faulknerc. John Steinbeckd. ErnestHemingwayII.Ide ntify Works as Described Below (1 X15 %):6.The play is about a stoker whose identity as a human being is not recognized by his fellow human beingsand who tries to find affinity with a monkey in the zoo and is finally killed by the animal.a. The Hairy Apeb. Henderson the Rain Kingc.Long Day's Journey into Nightd. The Glass Menageries7.The protagonist in this play is a crippled girl named Amanda.a.A Street Car Named Desireb. The Hairy Apec.Long Day's Journey into Nightd.The Glass Menageries8.The hero of this novel tells about his own story to us but his name is unknown.a.Native Sonb.Uncle Tom 's Cabinc.Invisible Mand. Go Tell It onthe Mountains4.It is an autobiographical play and Edmund in the play is based on the playwright himself.a. Long Day 's Journey into Nightb. Henderson the Rain Kingc.The Hairy Aped. The Glass Menageries5.The novel tells of how a black man kills a white woman by accident and how he is finally arrested and triedand sentenced to death.a.Native Sonb.Uncle Tom's Cabinc.Invisible Mand. Go Tell It on theMountains6._____________ is one of the best works in American literature about the SecondWorld War.a.A Farewell to Armsb.The Catcher in the Ryec.The Red Badge of Couraged.The Naked and the Dead6.The novel by Hemingway is the best of its kind about World War I.a. A Farewell to Armsb.The Sun Also Risesc.The Old Man and the Sead. The Naked and the Dead10.The novel is about how a family of farmers cannot survive in Oklahoma and travel to California to seek aliving and how they suffer hunger in California.b.The Grapes of Wrath b. U.S. A.c.Babbittd. The Adventures of Augie March11.It is a trilogy including The 42nd Parallel , 1919, and The Big Money, with such techniques as biographies,newsreels and camera eye.12.It is a novel which uses the stream of consciousness technique and whose title is taken fromShakespeare's Macbeth.a. Absolom, Absolom!b. The Sound and the Furyc.A Farewell to Armsd. The Great Gatsby10.It is a naturalistic work about how a country girl is seduced and elopes with Hurstwood and how shebecomes a famous actress and how her lover falls into beggary and finally commits suicide.a.An American Tragedyb. Sister Carriec. McTeagued.Maggie, A Girl of the Streets11.It is a novel with 135 chapters plus an epilog; in it a group of people on a whaling ship kill a great whalebut they themselves are killed by the whale in the end, except Ishmael the narrator who survives by adhering to a coffin.b.Sister Carrie b.The Adventures of Tom Sawyerc.Moby Dickd. The Portrait of a Lady12.The novel is a psychological study of a soldier (Henry Fleming) 's reactions in the Civil War, in which wound is called the red badge which symbolizes courage. a.An American Tragedy b.Sister Carrie c.The Red Badge of Courage d. McTeague13.The poem is written in free verse in 52 cantos with the theme of the universality and equality in value ofall people and all things.a.Cantosb. The Ravenc. Song of Myselfd.Chicago14.The novel is about how a man falls economically and socially but who rises morally because he gives upthe opportunity to sell his factory to an English Syndicate, which would otherwise mean a ruin to that syndicate.a.The Octopusb. The Rise of Silas Laphamc. Moby-Dickd. Leaves of Grass15.It is a speech delivered at Harvard University. It is often hailed as the “declaration of intellectualindependence ”in America.a. The American Scholarb. Naturec. The Scarlet Letterd. WaldenII. Match the followi ng (1 >20%)A. Match Works with Their Authors1.Hugh Selwyn Mauberly2.Walden3.Autobiography4.The Scarlet Letter5.Leaves of Grass6.The Raven7.The Rise of Silas Lapham8.The Adventures of Tom Sawyer9.Long Day 's Journey into Night10.The Old Man and the Seaa.Mark Twainc. Eugene O 'Neille. Edgar Allan Poeg. Nathaniel Hawthornei. Henry David Thoreauk.Thomas Jefferson b . Ernest Hemingway d. William Dean Howells f. Walt Whitman h. Benjamin Franklin j. Ezra Pound l. T.S. EliotB. Match the Characters with the works in which they appear.2. Mrs. Touchett4.Benjy Compson6.General Edward Cummings7. Bigger Thomas9.Happyb. The Scarlet Letterd. A Farewell to Armsf. The Grapes of Wrathh. The Catcher in the Rye j.Death of a Salesmanl. C atch-22III. Match the follow ing(1'>20=20') A. Match works with their authors1. Nature2. Rip Van Winkle3. Nature4. The Scarlet Letter5. Leaves of Grass6.The Raven7. The Rise of Silas Lapham8. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn9. Cantos 10. The Old Man and the Seaa.Ezra Poundc. Mark Twaine. Edgar Allan Poeg. Nathaniel Hawthornei. Washington Irving b. Ernest Hemingway d. William Dean Howells f. Walt Whitman h. Ralph Waldo Emerson j. Waldo EmersonB. Match characters with the works in which they appear.2. Captain Ahab and Starbuck 2.Isabel Archer 1. Hester Prynne3.Frederick Henry 5.the Joads 7.Holden Caulfield 8.Yank a.The Portrait of a Lady c. The Hairy Ape e.The Sound and the Fury g. The Naked and the Dead i. Native Son k.Invisible Man3.Frederic Henry and Catherine4.Benjy Compson5.the Joads7.Holden Caulfield 6.Ge neral Edward Cummi ngs 8.Bigger Thomas9.The Tyronesa.The Portrait of a Lady c. Death of a Salesma n 10.Willy Lomanb. Moby-Dickd. A Farewell to Armse.The Sou nd and the Fury g. The Naked and the Dead i. Native Sonk.Absalom, AbsalomV. Essay Questions (30%; cf. The Grapes of Wrathh. The Catcher in the Ryej. Long Day 's Jour ney into Nightl. The Old Man and the Seahoose only ONE of the following three topics andwrite a short essay of at least 300 words. Note: [1]Your essay should have at least 3 paragraphs; you are not simply to make a list of facts.[2] You may give a title to your essay, but you are required to in dicate which of the 3 topics it bel ongs to. [3]You are not to write on a topic of your own.1.To the best of your knowledge, analyze and make comments on Emerson ' Naturement on any American poet you like.3.Analyze and/or comment on any one of the American novels or plays you have read.V. Essay Questions (30%; choose only ONE of the following three topics and write a short essay of at least 300 words. Note: [1]Your essay should have at least3 paragraphs; you are not simply to make a list of facts.[2] You may give a title to your essay, but you arerequired to in dicate which of the 3 topics it bel ongs to.[3]You are not to write on a topic of your own.)4.Make comments on an American novel we have discussed in this course.ment on an American poet.6.Describe how your knowledge of American literature is improved after taking this course..IV.Please answer the following questions briefly. (2 x 10 ' = 20 '1.Why do people think Franklin is the embodiment of American dream2.What is "Lost Generation ”V.Discussion. (1 x 20 ' = 20 'State your own in terpretati ons of Hemi ngway iceberg thBosy of writ ingIV. Please answer the following questions briefly. (2 x 10 ' = 20 '3.What is Hawthorne ' s style Explain the style with examples .4.At the end of the 19 th cen tury, there were three fighters for ________________________Realism . Who are they What are their differencesTrue or False. (10 x 2 ' = 20 ')1. American literature is the oldest of all national literature.2.Thomas Jefferson was the only American to sign the 4 documents that created the US.3.All his literary life, Hawthorne seemed to be haunted by his sense of sin and evil.4.Most of the poems in Leaves of Grass are about human psychology.5. Hurstwood is a character in Dreiser ' s An American Tragedy .6. Faulkner ' s region was the Deep North, with its bitter history of slavery, civil war and destruction.7.Placed in historical perspective, Howells is found lacking in qualities and depth. But anyhow he is a literary figure worthy of notice.8.Faulkner ' s works have been termed the Yoknapatawpha Saga, “ one connected story9.As a moral philosophy, transcendentalism was neither logical nor systematical.10.Emily Dickinson expresses her deep love in the poem “ Annabel Lee ”.II.Decide whether the statements are True or False. (10 x 2 ' = 20 ')1. Early in the 17th century, the English settlements in Virginia and began the main stream of what we recognize as the American national history.2.American Romantic writers avoided writing about nature, medieval legends and with supernatural elements.3.As a moral philosophy, transcendentalism was neither logical nor systematical.4.“ Young Goodman Brown” wants to prove everyone possesses kindness in heart.5.Henry James was a realist in the same way as one views the realism of Twain or Howells.6.The American realists sought to describe the wide range of American experienceand to present the subtleties of human personality.7.Frost 's concern with nature reflected his deep moral uncertainties.8.Faulkner 's works have been termed the Yoknapatawpha Saga, “one connected story ”.9.Roger Chillingworth is a character in Dreiser 's An American Tragedy .10.After the Civil War, the Frontier was closing. Disillusionment and frustration were widely felt. What had been expected to be a “ Golden Age ” turned to be a “ Gilded ” one.。

学术英语（社科）Unit2二单元原文及翻译

学术英语（社科）Unit2二单元原文及翻译第一篇：学术英语(社科)Unit2二单元原文及翻译UNIT 2 Economist1.Every field of study has its own language and its own way of thinking.Mathematicians talk about axioms, integrals, and vector spaces.Psychologists talk about ego, id, and cognitive wyers talk about venue, torts, and promissory estoppel.每个研究领域都有它自己的语言和思考方式。

数学家谈论定理、积分以及向量空间。

心理学家谈论自我、本能、以及认知的不一致性。

律师谈论犯罪地点、侵权行为以及约定的禁止翻供。

2.Economics is no different.Supply, demand, elasticity, comparative advantage, consumer surplus, deadweight loss—these terms are part of the economist’s language.In the coming chapters, you will encounter many new terms and some familiar words that economists use in specialized ways.At first, this new language may seem needlessly arcane.But, as you will see, its value lies in its ability to provide you a new and useful way of thinking about the world in which you live.经济学家也一样。

历届诺贝尔经济学奖获得者演讲词

10 Economic Sciences 19691. T HE L URES OF U NSOLVABLE P ROBLEMSDeep in the human nature there is an almost irresistible tendency to concen-trate physical and mental energy on attempts at solving problems that seem to be unsolvable. Indeed, for some kinds of active people only the seemingly un-solvable problems can arouse their interest. Other problems, those which can reasonably be expected to yield a solution by applying some time, energy and money, do not seem to interest them. A whole range of examples illustrating this deep trait of human nature can be mentioned.The mountain climber. The advanced mountain climber is not interested in fairly accessible peaks or fairly accessible routes to peaks. He becomes enthu-siastic only in the case of peaks and routes that have up to now not been con-quered.The Alchemists spent all their time and energy on mixing various kinds of matter in special ways in the hope of producing new kinds of matter. To produce gold was their main concern. Actually they were on the right track in prin-ciple, but the technology of their time was not advanced far enough to assure a success.The alluring symmetry problem in particle physics. Around 1900, when the theory of the atom emerged, the situation was to begin with relatively simple. There were two elementary particles in the picture: The heavy and positively charged PROTON and the light and negatively charged ELECTRON. Subsequently one also had the NEUTRON, the uncharged counterpart of the proton. A normal hydrogen atom, for instance, had a nucleus consisting of one proton, around which circulated (at a distance of 0.5. 10-18 cm) one electron. Here the total electric charge will be equal to 0. A heavy hydrogen atom (deuterium) had a nucleus consisting of one proton and one neutron around which circu-lated one electron. And similarly for the more complicated atoms.This simple picture gave rise to an alluring and highly absorbing problem. The proton was positive and the electron negative. Did there exist a positively charged counterpart of the electron? And a negatively charged counterpart of the proton? More generally: Did there exist a general symmetry in the sense that to any positively charged particle there corresponds a negatively charged counter-part, and vice versa? Philosophically and mathematically and from the view-point of beauty this symmetry would be very satisfactory. But it seemed to be an unsolvable problem to know about this for certain. The unsolvability, however, in this case was only due to the inadequacy of the experimental technology of the time. In the end the symmetry was completely established even experimentally. The first step in this direction was made for the light particles (because here the radiation energy needed experimentally to produce the counterpart, although high, was not as high as in the case of the heavy particles). After the theory of Dirac, the positron, i.e. the positively charged counterpart of the electron, was produced in 1932. And subsequently in 1955 (in the big Berkeley accelerator) the antiproton was produced.The final experimental victory of the symmetry principle is exemplified in the following small summary tableR. A. K. Frisch11Electric charge0-1Note. Incidentally, a layman and statistician may not be quite satisfied with the terminology, because the “anti” concept is not used consistently in connection with the electric charge. Since the antiproton has the opposite charge of the proton, there is nothing to object to the term anti in this connection. The difference between the neutron and the antineutron, however, has nothing to do with the charge. Here it is only a question of a difference in spin (and other properties connected with the spin). Would it be more logical to reserve the terms anti and the corresponding neutr to differences in the electric charge, and use expressions like, for instance counter and the corresponding equi when the essence of the difference is a question of spin (and other properties connected with the spin)? One would then, for in-stance, speak of a counterneutron instead of an antineutron.The population explosion in the world of elementary particles. As research pro-gressed a great variety of new elementary particles came to be known. They were extremely short-lived (perhaps of the order of a microsecond or shorter), which explains that they had not been seen before. Today one is facing a variety of forms and relations in elementary particles which is seemingly as great as the macroscopic differences one could previously observe in forms and relations of pieces of matter at the time when one started to systematize things by considering the proton, the electron and the neutron. Professor Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel prize winner 1969, has made path-breaking work at this higher level of systematization. When will this drive for systematization result in the discovery of something still smaller than the elementary particles?Matter and antimatter. Theoretically one may very precisely consider the existence of the “anti” form of, for instance, a normal hydrogen atom. This anti form would have a nucleus consisting of one antiproton around which circulated one positron. And similarly for all the more complicated atoms. This leads to the theoretical conception of a whole world of antimatter. In theory all this is possible. But to realize this in practice seems again a new and now really unsolvable problem. Indeed, wherever and whenever matter and anti-matter would come in contact, an explosion would occur which would produce an amount of energy several hundred times that of a hydrogen bomb of the same weight. How could possibly antimatter be produced experimentally? And how could antimatter experimentally be kept apart from the normal matter that surrounds us? And how could one possibly find out if antimatter exists in some distant galaxes or metagalaxes? And what reflections would the12 Economic Sciences 1969existence of antimatter entail for the conception of the “creation of the world”, whatever this phrase may mean. These are indeed alluring problems in physics and cosmology which - at least today - seem to be unsolvable problems, and which precisely for this reason occupy some of the finest brains of the world today.Travelling at a speed superior to that of light. It is customary to think that this is impossible. But is it really? It all depends on what we mean by “being in a certain place”. A beam of light takes about two million years to reach from us to the Andromeda nebula. But my thought covers this distance in a few seconds. Perhaps some day some intermediate form of body and mind may permit us to say that we actually can travel faster than light.The astronaut William Anders, one of the three men who around Christmas time 1968 circled the moon in Apollo 8 said in an interview in Oslo (2):“Nothing is impossible . . .it is no use posting Einstein on the wall and say: Speed of light-but not any quicker . . .30 nay 20, years ago we said: Impos-sible to fly higher than 50 000 feet, or to fly faster than three times the speed of sound. Today we do both.”The dream of Stanley Jevons. The English mathematician and economist Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) dreamed of the day when we would be able to quantify at least some of the laws and regularities of economics. Today - since the break-through of econometrics - this is not a dream anymore but a reality. About this I have much more to say in the sequel.Struggle, sweat and tears. This slight modification of the words of Winston Churchill is admirably suited to caracterize a certain aspect of the work of the scientists - and particularly of that kind of scientists who are absorbed in the study of “unsolvable” problems. They pass through ups and downs. Some-times hopeful and optimistic. And sometimes in deep pessimism. Here is where the constant support and consolation of a good wife is of enormous value to the struggling scientist. I understand fully the moving words of the 1968 Nobel prize winner Luis W. Alvarez when he spoke about his wife: “She has provided the warmth and understanding that a scientist needs to tide him over the periods of frustration and despair that seem to be part of our way of life” (3).2. A P HILOSOPHY OF C HAOS. T HE E VOLUTION TOWARDS A M AMMOTH S INGULAR T RANSFORMATIONIn the The Concise Oxford Dictionary (4) - a most excellent book - "philo-sophy"is defined as“love of wisdom or knowledge, especially that which deals with ultimate reality, or with the most general causes and principles of things”.If we take a bird’s eye-view of the range of facts and problems that were touched upon in the previous section, reflections on the “ultimate reality”quite naturally come to our mind.A very general point of view in connection with the “ultimate reality” I developed in lectures at the Institut Henri Poincaré in Paris in 1933. Subse-quently the question was discussed in my Norwegian lectures on statistics (5).R. A. K. Frisch 13The essence of this point of view on “ultimate reality” can be indicated by a very simple example in two variables. The generalization to many variables is obvious. It does not matter whether we consider a given deterministic, em-pirical distribution or its stochastic equivalence. For simplicity consider an empirical distribution.Let x 1 and x 2 be the values of two variables that are directly observed in aseries of observations. Consider a transformation of x 1 and x 2 into a new setof two variables y 1 and y 2. For simplicity let the transformation be linear i.e.The b’s and a’s being constants.(2.2)is the Jacobian of the transformation, as it appears in this linear case.It is quite obvious - and well known by statisticians - that the correlation coefficient in the set (y 1y 2) will be different from-stronger or weaker than-thecorrelation coefficient in the set (x 1x 2) (“spurious correlation”). It all dependson the numerical structure of the transformation.This simple fact I shall now utilize for my reflections on an “ultimate reality”in the sense of a theory of knowledge.It is clear that if the Jacobian (2.2)is singular, something important happens.In this case the distribution of y 1 and y 2 in a (y 1y 2) diagram is at most one-dimensional, and this happens regardless of what the individual observations x 1 and x 2 are - even if the distribution in the (x 1x 2) diagram is a completelychaotic distribution. If the distribution of x 1 and x 2 does not degenerate to apoint but actually shows some spread, and if the transformation determinant is of rank 1, i.e. the determinant value being equal to zero but not all its elements being equal to zero, then all the observations of y 1 and y 2 will lie on a straight linein the (y l y2) diagram. This line will be parallel to the y 1 axis if the first row ofthe determinant consists exclusively of zeroes, and parallel to the y 2 axis if thesecond row of the determinant consists exclusively of zeroes. If the distribution of x 1 and x 2 degenerates to a point, or the transformation determinant is of rankzero (or both) the distribution of y 1 and y 2 degenerates to a point.Disregarding these various less interesting limiting cases, the essence of the situation is that even if the observations x 1 and x 2 are spread all over the (x 1x 2)diagram in any way whatsoever, for instance in a purely chaotic way, the corresponding values of y 1 and y 2 will lie on a straight line in the (y 1y 2) diagramwhen the transformation matrix is of rank 1. If the slope of this straight line is finite and different from zero, it is very tempting to interpret y 1 as the “cause”of y 2 or vice versa. This “cause”,however, is not a manifestation of somethingintrinsic in the distribution of x 1 and x 2, but is only a human figment, a humandevice, due to the special form of the transformation used.What will happen if the transformation is not exactly singular but only14Economic Sciences 1969near to being singular? From the practical viewpoint this is the crucial question. Here we have the following proposition:(2.3)Suppose that the absolute value of the correlation coefficient r x i n(x1x2) is not exactly 1. Precisely stated, suppose that(2.3.1)0 1.This means that ε may be chosen as small as we desire even exactly 0, but it must not be exactly 1. Hence |rX|may be as small as we please even exactly 0, but not exactly 1.Then it is possible to indicate a nonsingular transformation from x1 and x2to the new variables y1 and y2with the following property: However small wechoose the positive, but not 0, number δ, the correlation coefficient rYi n(yl y2) will satisfy the relation(2.3.2) |rY|( 0R. A. K. Frisch 15 techniques. The latter is only an extension of the former. In principle there is no difference between the two. Indeed, science too has a constant craving for regularities. Science considers it a triumph whenever it has been able by some partial transformation here or there, to discover new and stronger regularities. If such partial transformations are piled one upon the other, science will help the biological evolution towards the survival of that kind of man that in the course of the millenniums is more successful in producing regularities. If “the ultimate reality” is chaotic, the sum total of the evolution over time - biological and scientific - would tend in the direction of producing a mammoth singular transformation which would in the end place man in a world of regularities. How can we possibly on a scientific basis exclude the possibility that this is really what has happened? This is a crucial question that con-fronts us when we speak about an “ultimate reality”. Have we created the laws of nature, instead of discovering them? Cf. Lamarck vs. Darwin.What will be the impact of such a point of view? It will, I believe, help us to think in a less conventional way. It will help us to think in a more advanced, more relativistic and less preconceived form. In the long run this may indirectly be helpful in all sciences, also in economics and econometrics.But as far as the concrete day to day work in the foreseeable future is con-cerned, the idea of a chaotic “ultimate reality” may not exert any appreciable influence. Indeed, even if we recognize the possibility that it is evolution of man that in the long run has created the regularities, a pragmatic view for the fore-seeable future would tell us that a continued search for regularities - more or less according to the time honoured methods - would still be “useful” to man.Understanding is not enough, you must have compassion. This search for regularities may well be thought of as the essence of what we traditionally mean by the word “understanding”. This “understanding”is one aspect of man’s activity. Another - and equally important - is a vision of the purpose of the understand-ing. Is the purpose just to produce an intellectually entertaining game for those relatively few who have been fortunate enough through intrinsic abilities and an opportunity of top education to be able to follow this game? I, for one, would be definitely opposed to such a view. I cannot be happy if I can’t believe that in the end the results of our endevaours may be utilized in some way for the betterment of the little man’s fate.I subscribe fully to the words of Abba Pant, former ambassador of India to Norway, subsequently ambassador of India to the United Arab Republic, and later High Commissioner of India to Great Britain:“Understanding is not enough, you must have compassion.” (6).3. A B RIEF S URVEY OF THE D EVELOPMENT OF E CONOMICS IN THE L AST C ENTURY Turning now to the more specifically economic matters, it is inevitable that I should begin by making a brief survey of the development of economics in the last century.In the middle of the 19th century John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) in his famous work “Principles of Economics”said that so far as general principles are concerned the theory of value and price was now completely elaborated.16 Economic Sciences 1969There was nothing more to add, he said, neither for himself nor any other author. To us with our relativistic view on knowledge and the development of science, it is difficult to understand that such a statement could be made. But to the generation that lived at that time these words by Mill appeared to be very close to the truth. In Mill’s “Principles” the ideas of Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-l823)and Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) had been knit together into an organic, logically and seemingly complete whole.Subsequent developments have thoroughly denounced Stuart Mill’s words. Two break-throughs have emerged in economic theory since the time of Stuart Mill.The classical theory of value - as we find it streamlined in Stuart Mill - was essentially a theory of production costs based on the thinking of the private entrepreneur. The entrepreneur will think about as follows: “If I could only cut my selling price I would be able to draw the customers to me. This, how-ever, is also the way my competitors think. So, there emerges a sort of gravita-tional force that pulls prices down. The cost of production is so to speak the solid base on to which the prices fall down and remain. Hence the cost of production is “the cause”of prices. This general viewpoint the classical economists applied with great sagacity to a whole range of commodities , to the relation between wages and profits and to the theory ofinternational prices etc.This theory contains, of course, an irrefutable element of truth. But it is too simple to give even a crude presentation of the forces at play. The economic process is an equilibrium affair where both technological and subjective forces. are at play. The subjective element was nearly left out by the classicists.On this point economic theory was completely renewed in the years between 1870 and 1890 when a number of Austrian economists headed by Karl Menger (1840-1921) undertook a systematic study of the human wants and their place in a theory of prices. Similar thoughts were expressed also by the Swiss Léon Walras (1834-1910) and the Englishman Stanley Jevons (1835-l882). This was the first break-through since Stuart Mill.The Englishman Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) subsequently did much to combine the subjective viewpoint and the cost of production viewpoint. This led to what we now usually speak of as the neo-classical theory.Neither the classicists nor the neo-classicists did much to verify their theo-retical results by statistical observations. The reason was partly that the statistics were poor, and partly that neither the classical nor the neo-classical theory was built out with the systematic statistical verification in view. The architec-tural plan of the theory had so to speak not made room for this verification. This fact was criticized by the German historical school under the leadership of Gustav Schmoller (1838-1917) and by the American institutionalists. These schools, however, had an unfortunate and rather naive belief in something like a “theory-free” observation.“Let the facts speak for themselves”. The impact of these schools on the development of economic thought was therefore not very great, at least not directly. Facts that speak for themselves, talk in a very naive language.A. A. K. Frisch17In the first part of the 20th century the picture changed. Partly under the influence of the criticism of the historical school and the institutionalists the theoreticians themselves took up a systematic work of building up the theory in such a way that the theory could be brought in immediate contact with the observational material. One might say that from now on economics moved into that stage where the natural sciences had been for a long time, namely the stage where theory derives its concepts from the observational technique, and in turn theory influences the observational technique.For the first time in history it now seemed that the work on the theoretical front in economics - now to a large extent mathematically formulated - and the work on the outer descriptive front should converge and support each other, giving us a theory that was elaborate enough to retain the concrete observatio-nal material, and at the same time a mass ofobservations that were planned and executed with a view to be filled into the theoretical structure.Of course, there had been forerunners for such a combination of economic theory, mathematics and statistics even earlier. It was represented by such men as Johan Heinrich von Thünen (1783-l850), Augustin Cournot (1801-1877), A. J. Dupuit (1804-1866) and Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810-1858). But from the first part of the 20ieth century the movement came in for full. This was the beginning of the econometric way of thinking. And this is what I would call the second break-through since Stuart Mill.A crucial point in this connection is the quantification of the economic concepts, i.e. the attempts at making these concepts measurable. There is no need to insist on what quantitative formulation of concepts and relations has meant in the natural sciences. And I would like to state that for more than a generation it has been my deepest conviction that the attempted quantification is equally important in economics.The quantification is important already at the level of partial analysis. Here one has studied the demand for such important commodities as sugar, wheat, coffe, pig iron, American cotton, Egyptian cotton etc.And the quantification is even more important at the global level. Indeed, at the global level the goal of economic theory is to lay bare the way in which the different economic factors act and interact on each other in a highly complex system, and to do this in such a way that the results may be used in practice to carry out in the most effective way specific desiderata in the steering of the economy.As long as economic theory still works on a purely qualitative basis without attempting to measure the numerical importance of the various factors, practically any “conclusion”can be drawn and defended. For instance in a depression some may say: A wage reduction is needed because that will increase the profits of the enterprises and thus stimulate the activity. Others will say: A wage increase is needed because that will stimulate the demand of the consumers and thus stimulate activity. Some may say: A reduction of the interest rate is needed because this will stimulate the creation of new enter-prises. Others may say: An increase of the interest rate is needed because that18Economic Sciences1969will increase the deposits in the banks and thus give the banks increased capacity of lending money.Taken separately each of these advocated measures contains some particle of truth, taken in a very partial sense when we only consider some of the obvious direct effects, without bothering about indirect effects and without comparing the relative strengths of the various effects and countereffects. Just as one would say: If I sit down in a rowing boat and start rowing in the ordinary way, the boat will be driven backwards because of the pressure exerted by my feet in the bottom of the boat.In a global analysis that shall be useful for practical applications in economic policy in the nation as a whole, the gist of the matter is to study the relative strengths of all relevant effects and countereffects, hence the need for quanti-fication of the concepts.This perhaps is the most general and most salient formulation of the need for econometrics. How far we would be able to go in this direction was of course another question. But at least the attempt had to be made if economics were to approach the state of an applied science.It goes without saying that econometrics as thus conceived does not exhaust all the contents of economics. We still need - and shall always need - also broad philosophical discussions, intuitive suggestions of fruitful directions of research, and so on. But this is another story with which I will not be concerned here (7). Let me only say that what econometrics - aided by electronic computers - can do, is only to push forward by leaps and bounds the line of demarcation from where we have to rely on our intuition and sense of smell.4. S OME H ISTORICAL N OTES ON THE F OUNDING OF T HE E CONOMETRIC S OCIETY In the files of the Oslo University Institute of Economics I have located a folder containing letters and copies of letters dating from the years when the plans for an econometric society took shape. Here are interesting ideas and opinions from outstanding people in different parts of the world. Most of these people have now passed away.One of them was my good friend professor Francois Divisia. His letter of 1 September 1926 from his home in Issy les Moulineaux (Seine) was handwritten in his fine characters, 8 pages to the brim with every corner of the paper used. Most of the letter contained discussions on specific scientific questions, but there were also some remarks of an organizational sort. He spoke for instance of his correspondence with professor Irving Fisher of Yale. About this he said: ”Je suppose qu'il s’agit d’une liste destinée àétablir une liason entre les écono-mistes mathématiciens du monde entier”.Whether this was an independent initiative on the part of Fisher in connection with a plan for a society, or it was an outcome of my previous correspondence with Fisher, I have not been able to ascertain, because the files are missing. Divisia continues:“Dans la politique, je ne suis pas très partisan des organismes internationaux . . .mais dans les domaines desinteresses comme celui de la science, j’en suis au contraire partisan sans restriction”.Answering Divisia in a letter of 4 September 1926 I said inter alia: “JeR. A. K. Frisch19 saisis avec enthousiasme l’idee d’une liste ou d’un autre moyen de communication entre les économistes mathematiciens du monde entier. J’ai eu moi-même l’idée de tâcher de réaliser une association avec un périodique consacré à ces questions. Il est vrai que les périodiques ordinaires tels que la Revue d’économie politique ou l’Economic Journal, etc. acceptent occasionnellement des memoires mathematiques, mais toujours est-il que l’auteur d’un tel memoire se trouve duns l’obligation de restreindre autant que possible l’emploi de symboles mathematiques et le raisonnement par demonstration mathematique.Je connais déjà plusieurs economistes-mathématiciens dans differents pays, et j'ai pensé érire un jour ou l’autre une lettre à chacun d’eux pour avoir leur opinion sur la possiblité d’un périodique, (que dites-vous d’une “Econometrica”?, la soeur du”Biometrika”.) Maintenant je serai heureux d’avoir votre opinion d’abord. Si vous pensez que cela vaut la peine on pourra peut-être commencer par former un cercle restreint qui s’adressera plus tard au public. Dans les années à venir j’aurai probablement l’occasion de voyager souvent en Amérique et en Europe, alors j'aurai l’occasion de faire la connaissance des économistes qui pourront s’intéresser à ce projet, et j’aurai l’occasion de faire un peu de propagande. Peut-être pourra-t-on obtenir l’appui d’une des grandes fondations américaines pour la publication du périodique.Voici une liste de quelque personnes que je connais par correspondance comme étant très intéressées au sujet de l’économie pure: Jaime Algarra, Professeur d’éc. pol. UniversitéBarcelone, L. von Bortkievicz, Professeur de Stat. Univ. Berlin, E. Bouvier, Prof. de S C. fin. Univ. Lyon, K. Goldziher, Prof. Techn. Hochschule, Budapest, K. G. Hagström, Actuaire, Stockholm, Charles Jordan, Docteur és S C., Budapest, Edv. Mackeprang, Dr. polit., Copenhague, W. M. Persons, Prof. de Stat. Harvard Univ. Cambridge. Mass. U.S.A., E. Slutsky, Moscou, A. A. Young, Prof. d’éc. polit., Harvard Univ. Cam-bridge. Mass. U.S.A., P. Rédiadis. Contreamiral, Athènes.”I mentioned also a number of others, among whom were: Anderson, Prof. Ecole Supérieure de Commerce, Varna, Bulgarie, Graziani, Prof. d’éc. pol. Univ. Napoli, Italie, Huber, Dir. de la Stat.gén. de la France, Paris, Ricci, Prof. Univ. Roma, Gustavo del Vecchio R. Univ. Commerciale, Trieste.In a letter of 22 September 1926 Divisia answered inter alia: “Je suis, vous le savez, tout à fait d’accord avec vous sur l’utilité d’une Association Internationale d’Éco-nomie pure et j'aime beaucoup le titre d’"Econometrica" auquel vous avez songé pour un périodique. Toutefois, avant de passer aux realisations, je pense qu’il est indispensable de réunir tout d’abord un certain nombre d’adhésions. .. . je me demande s’il ne serait pas aussi possible et opportun de s’aboucher à une organisation existente comme l’lnstitut international de statistique. . . .Enfin, d’ores et déjà, tout mon concours vous est acquis.”In a letter of 1 November 1926 I wrote to Divisia: “Mon départ pour l’Amérique a été ajourné de quelques mois. J’en ai profité pour écrire aux personnes suivantes: Bortkievicz, Université de Berlin, A. L. Bowley, London School of Economics, Charles Jordan,Université de Budapest, Eugen Slutsky, Moscou, pour avoir leur opinion sur l’utilité et la possibilité de réaliser d’abord un cercle restreint et plus turd peut-être une association formelle . . .J’ai trouvé que je n’ai pas pû expliquer la chose d’une meilleure fagon qu’en copiant certains passages de votre dernière lettre . . .C’est peut-être là une petite indiscretion dont je me suis rendu coupable.”The same day 1 November 1926 I wrote to the four persons in question. In。

Text Comprehension泛读L2

Text Comprehension1. Main IdeaFor the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the expedition undertaken by Lewis and Clark, the author tells a story about the two men with regard to their cooperation and their influence on American history.2. Text OrganizationThe text can be roughly divided into two parts.Part I (Paragraph 1)The author briefly introduces the Lewis and Clark Expedition and its significance.Part II (The rest part of the text)The author depicts the two great explorers and their expedition in detail. In the last line of this article the author gives his commentary words on the expedition.3. Paraphrasing Difficult Sentences(1) All that evidence notwithstanding, the more we learn about the two captains who gave their names to the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the more powerful becomes their pull on our imagination.In spite of the evidence, the more we learn about the two captains who gave their names to the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the more we want to know about the two captains.(2) The two were living together on a point of land overlooking the Ohio River just below Louisville when William received an astonishing letter from his old Army buddy.The two were living together on a piece of land overlooking the Ohio River just in south of Louisville when William received a letter from his old Army friend that surprised him greatly.(3) When Clark’s anticipated commission as a captain instead came through as second lieutenant—a misstep that still annoyed years later—they never told their men and treated each other as equals—placing them among the few effective co-CEOS in organizational history. They did not tell their men that Clark had been commissioned as a second lieutenant instead of a captain and treated each other as equals, though the commission had been regarded as being wrong for many years. They were one of the most successful collaborates in history. (4) But beset by administrative battles in his new job as Governor of Louisiana Territory, frustrated in his romantic aspirations and sinking into a depression fueled by alcohol and possibly disease, Lewis developed one of history’s monumental cases of writer’s block.But busy with administrative work in his new job as Governor of Louisiana Territory, frustrated in his unrealistic aspirations and sinking into a depression worsened by alcohol and possibly disease, Lewis could not write anything.(5) Prominently marked on Clark’s map were the names of dozens of tribes that lived there, in bold type that continues to undermine the notion that the West was ever an unpopulated wilderness.Clearly marked on Clark’s map were the names of many tribes that lived there, in bold type that continues to break the traditional concept that the West was ever an unpopulated wilderness.4. General Comprehension of the TextThe Lewis and Clark Expedition was a 3-year 6,000-mile journey to the west that marks the first overland trail in American westward expansion. The present article, Leading Men, features one of the most stimulating and fascinating parts of the epic expedition---the perfect co-operation between the two leaders.1) How do you understand the title Leading Men? What do you expect of therelationship between the two leaders of the expedition?The title “Leading Men” can be understood as a pun. It is true that Lewis and Clark are the persons who had co-led the expedition. But on the other hand, they also led in the exploration of the West. Since then many other explorers followed their steps. The title shows the author's focus in looking at the historic event. Judging from many stories about human jealousy and hatred, we may be inclined to expect a tension between the two leaders and even conflicts and grudges.2) What is implied in the first paragraph about the relationship between the co-CEOs?The first paragraph presents some hard facts of the expedition. The fact that Lewis and Clark spent almost a thousand days and nights together and finally came up with such substantial fruits testifies unquestionably to their harmonious co-operation. This introduction is also meant to arouse the reader’s curiosity about the two heroes under discussion.3) From his quotes, we can understand why the author calls Lewis and Clark “fearless spell ers”. Can you guess the right forms of those misspelled words?looner observations --- lunar observations; water millions --- water melons bearfooted --- barefooted; Untied States --- United States chearfully --- cheerfully; Missourie –Missouributifull --- beautiful musquetors--mosquitoesocian --- ocean; herd --- heardComeing---Coming releaf---reliefTeacher's CommentThe misspellings are cited here for two reasons at least. It shows the kindly amused tone of the author---you can't help laughing when you think twice of the opposing Untied States and United States, bearfooted and barefooted. On the other hand, it also serves as evidence that the author does a lot of reading of the original journals and therefore his account of the two men is well-grounded.4) Can you make a list of the similarities and differences between Lewis and Clark? They were both Virginians, Army officers, six-footers, experienced outdoors men, lovers of nature and Enlightenment sciences. As to their contrastive personalities, see Characterization in Part I.5) How does the author build up the main idea that Lewis and Clark are among the few effective co-CEOs in organizational history?The first point is their complementary personalities which enabled them to deal with crises and all kinds of persons. The second point is their capacity to assume sole leadership if necessary. The third point is their mutual care and support as is shownin the stories of their injuries. Most importantly their devoted partnership is demonstrated in the publishing of their journals, particularly in Lewis's full trust in Clark's coming to his relief in the final moments of his life.6) Did the expedition fulfil the objective designated by President Jefferson? Why or why not?Apparently the expedition did not find the most direct and practicable communication across the continent as Jefferson had expected. Yet Jefferson acknowledged their success in the understanding of numerous Indian tribes and the examining of plants and animals in the vast territory of the west.。

专四模拟试题附参考答案

专四模拟试题附参考答案（1）Part III Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on your answer sheet.The “standard of living” of any country means the average pe rson's share of the goods and services the country produces. A country's standard of living, ____31_______, depends first and 32 on its capacity to produce wealth. “Wealth” in this sense is not money, for we do not live on money 33 on thing s that money can buy: “goods” such as food and clothing, and “services” such as transport and “ __34 __ ” .A country's capacity to produce wealth depends upon many factors, most of 35 have an effect on one another. Wealth depends 36 a great extent upon a country's natural resources. Some regions of the world are well supplied with coal and minerals, and have a fertile soil and a 37 climate; other regions possess none of them.Next to natural resources 38 the ability to turn them to use. China is perhaps as well 39 as the USA in natural resources, but suffered for many years from civil and 40 wars, and 41 this and other reasons was 42 to develop her resources. 43 and stable political conditions, and 44 _____ from foreign invasion, enable a country to develop its natural resources peacefully and steadily, and to produce more wealth than another country equally well 45 by nature but less well ordered.A country's standard of living does not only depend upon the wealth that is produced and consumed 46 it own borders, but also upon what is indirectly produced through international trade. 47 Britain's wealth in foodstuffs and other agricultural products would be much less if she had to depend only on 48 _ grown at home. Trade makes it possible for her surplus manufactured goods to be traded abroad for the agricultural products that would 49be lacking. A country’s wealth is, therefore, much influen ced by its manufacturing capacity, 50 that other countries can be found ready to accept its manufactures.31. A. however B. therefore C. neverthelessD. furthermore32. A. primary B. principal C. foremostD. uniquely33. A. or B. nor C. butD. except34. A. recreation B. enlightenment C. refreshmentD. entertainment35. A. if B. them C. whichD. that36. A. with B. for C. toD. on37. A. neutral B. favorable C. virtuousD. marine38. A. comes B. come C. comingD. came39. A. off B. known C. done D. furnished40. A. military B. external C. contemporary D. domestic41. A. for B. because C. because of D. due to42. A. Impossible B. Incapable C. unableD. proficient43. A. Strong B. Sturdy C. SoundD. Robust44. A. liberty B. freedom C. preventionD. liberation45. A .assisted B. avenged C. rescuedD. served46. A. with B. within C. nearD. without47. A. In short B. For example C. firstlyD. On one hand48. A. those B. what C. thatD. it49. A. likely B. likewise C. certainlyD. otherwise50. A. provided B. depended C. givenD. supposedPART IV GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY [15 MIN]There are thirty sentences in this section. Beneath each sentence there are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence.Mark your answers on your answer sheet.51. We often advise him not to drink more wine __________is good for his health.A. asB. thanC. thatD. but52. It is necessary that an efficient worker __________his work on time.A. accomplishesB. can accomplishC. accomplishD. has accomplished53. My father will be here tomorrow, but at first I thought that he __________ today.A. was comingB. is comingC. will comeD. come54. Without facts, we cannot form a worthwhile opinion for we need to have factual knowledge __________ our thinking.A which to be based on B. which to be base uponC. upon which to baseD. to which to be based55. I didn't call to make my airline reservation, but I __________.A. should haveB. may haveC. must haveD. shall have56. It’s the first time that she has been to the United States, __________?A. isn't sheB. hasn't sheC. isn't itD. hasn't it57. I think that the labor bill will pass; it's ____________that it will.A. almost surelyB. very likelyC. near positiveD. quite certainly58. An increase in a nation's money supply, without an accompanying increase in economic activity, __________result in higher prices.A. tendsB. tends theC. tending toD. will tend to59. X-rays are able to pass through objects and thus make __________details that are otherwise impossible to observe.A. it visibleB. visiblyC. visibleD. they are visible60. Prices for bikes at that store run__________250 dollars.A. as high asB. as high toC. so high toD. so high as61. He will not be __________ to vote in this year's election.A. enough oldB. as old enoughC. old enoughD. enough old as62. Thomas Jefferson's achievements as an architect rival his contributions __________a politician.A. suchB. moreC. asD. than63. According to the conditions of my scholarship, after finishing my degree__________.A. my education will be employed by the universityB. employment will be given to me by the universityC. the university will employ meD. I will be employed by the university64. If Bob's wife won't agree to sign the papers, ____________.A. neither he willB. neither will heC. neither won't heD. he won't neither65. _____ is generally accepted, economic growth is determined by the smooth development of production.A. WhatB. ThatC. ItD. As66. A violent revolution having broken out, all the ports of that country were laid under a(n) ______.A. boycottB. embargoC. embarkD. ban67. Since_________ can't work in the United States without a permit, so it is of great importance for them to present their credentials to the government.A. emigrantsB. expatriatesC. migrantsD. immigrants68. Most investors are taught at the very beginning that there is no place for __________in investment markets.A. feelingB. emotionC. passionD. sentiment69. I__________ my ordinary income by doing some part-time work.A. complimentB. ComplementC. supplementD. implement70. Before the statue could be __________to the United States, a site had to be found for it and a pedestal had to be built.A. transformedB. transportedC. transferredD. transmitted71. The final document was, of course, supposed to mend the damage __________upon the world by the war,A. imposedB. impressedC. compelledD. compressed72. Roger, who __________in courage, is highly respected by all his peers in the villages.A. boundsB. possessesC. declaresD. abounds73. The tourists are told that the remotest village in this area is only_________ by a river.A. accessibleB. availableC. obtainableD. achievable74. He__________ interrupted me by asking irrelevant questions.A. continuallyB. continuouslyC. consistentlyD. constantly75. Being a man of _________ and public spirit. Mr. Russell labored zealously to advance the interest of the community and was much interested in bringing new manufacturing interests to Waterloo.A. firmB. enterpriseC. companyD. corporation76. W hen people do things wrong we should try hard to forgive them, as the idiom goes, “To ______ is human.”A. referB. conferC. deferD. err77. Although gaining a job as a real __________agent or broker may be relatively easy, beginning agents and brokers may face competition from well-established, more experienced ones.A. propertyB. estateC. houseD. assets78. The constitution of the State required that property should be __________for taxation at its market value.A. estimatedB. appraisedC. evaluatedD. valued79. On June 15, 1909, after Scott finished his rushed plans for his________ to the South Pole, he departed from England.A. tourB. voyageC. expeditionD. excursion80. The government authority had to __________oil and other products so that it would not run out during war.A. shareB. fareC. provideD. rationPART V READING COMPREHENSION [25 MIN]In this section there are four passages followed by questions or unfinished statements, each with four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one that you think is the best answer.Mark your answers on your answer sheet.TEXT AAll Sir William Jones wanted to do was to learn Sanskrit. While he was studying, however, he made a surprising discovery. This ancient language of India was amazingly similar to Latin and Greek. The Sanskrit word for "mother"—matar—was almost identical to the Latin word, mater. “Father” was pitar in Sanskrit, pater in Latin and Greek. The more he studied, the more similarities he found.How could this be? Thousands of miles and many natural barriers separated India and Europe. Still, Jones concluded, the similarities were too strong to be accidental. In 1786, he announced “No one could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source.”Since then, scholars have traced many languages to this “common source.” Today, these languages are called the Indo-European family. But where did this source originate? Language and geography provide the clues. European languages have similar words for the animals and trees of northern Europe, such as oak, willow, bear, and wolf. There are no common words for the animals and trees of southern Europe.To scholars, this suggests that the Indo-European languages began in north central Europe. In time, some northern Europeans set out toward the east, settling in Iran, India, and Pakistan. Others migrated westward toward southern and western Europe. The root language developed into dozensof different languages, but the family resemblances remain. The word for “three” is drei in German, tres in Spanish, tre in Albanian, and tri in Russian.Almost every language in Europe is part of the Indo-European family, but there are exceptions. Hungarian and Finnish cling to other language families. High in the Pyrenees, the Basque people speak a language that has no known relatives. Perhaps the Basques were the original inhabitants of the region. Isolated by mountains, they may have been bypassed by the spread of Indo-European culture.81. What did Sir William Jones discover when he was learning Sanskrit?A. Sanskrit was very similar to some European languages.B. Sanskrit was an ancient language.C. The Sanskrit word for mother is the same as that in Latin.D. Latin and Greek were very similar.82. Which of the following statements is true about "the common source"?A. Jones found out the common source.B. All languages sprang from the common source.C. Only three languages sprang from the common source.D. Since 1786, scholars have traced many languages to the common source.83. Where did the common source originate?A. In southern Europe.B. In north-central Europe.C. In India.D. in Pakistan.84. What can be concluded from the passage?A. Jones first discovered the root language.B. The languages with the common source are called the Indo-European family.C. The root language developed into different languages as people migrated.D. Every language in Europe is part of the Indo-European family.TEXT BYour first culture shock came after you left your home country and you needed to adjust to the United States, It is now important to learn cultural information about your company, so that you will fit in and perform successfully. The people who make up this environment have their own customs, habits and expectations of each new employee. Gathering information that is formal (policy) and informal (traditions) will help you learn the professional norms and become fully accepted.Policies are corporate documents describing procedures, rules, and standards that guide decision making and conduct. They are similar to official laws that govern a country. Some sources of such written company information include the annual report, product or service brochures, technical and procedural manual, employee directory and the company newsletter. Organizational traditions are usually unwritten hut common practices that have evolved over time. They set the tone and philosophy of the particular corporation, just as the customs of a country do. The best way to learn such information is to observe and talk with others such as your supervisor and co-workers.You can supplement ideas from formal introductory materials given you earlier. Explore with fellow employees those behaviors that may be tolerated but frowned upon. Ask your supervisor for feedback to avoid typical traps that could cause your co-workers to reject you as a professional.Keep this guide nearby, and refer to it often in private. Reviewing formal company procedures, handouts, written notes, ideas, comments from bosses and colleagues, together with materials in this handbook, will help you make a more healthy cultural adjustment.85. What is the purpose to learn cultural information?A. To know the U. S. A. better.B. To work better in the new environment.C. To make more money.D. To improve one's English.86. According to the passage, ___________ is not the policy's function.A. describing procedures, rules and standardsB. governing a countryC. helping to guide decision making and conductD. writing down the company's information87. ____________ is the best way to learn the organizational traditions.A. To read the policiesB. To study the philosophyC. To study a country's customsD. To observe and communicate with the colleagues and boss.88. How to make a more healthy cultural adjustment?A. Read this passage often.B. Discuss the organizational culture with your colleagues.C. Gather and review the formal and informal information in the corporation.D. Ask your boss for help.89. The passage is written to ___________.A. help readers to understand the organization's cultureB. explain the culture shockC. analyze the policies and traditionsD. help readers to work better with their supervisor and co-workersTEXT C“White hostility toward African Americans, and the resulting discrimination, have bee n fueled by a sense of threat. During slavery, many working-class whites, encouraged by slaveholders, feared the release of large numbers of blacks into the labor market and society in general. When northern industries used African Americans as strikebreakers in the first decades of this century, white workers feared the loss of their jobs. Today, many white Americans fear “black violence”. Moreover, specific fears about the “costs” of welfare as well as the "taking" of jobs through affirmative action have added to the fear of black violence.These fears have translated into negative stereotypes of African Americans as a people who are prone to crime and violence, unwilling to work, and a drain on the white taxpayer through their welfare dependency. In turn, these stereotypes have been used to justify informal discrimination, to prevent the help to the urban poor, to be negligent in enforcing laws or policies prohibiting discriminatory practices against black workers, and most important, to hesitate in making a seriouseffort at job creation for African Americans. The result is that African Americans’ share of valued resources has not increased much over the last two decades, even as formal discrimination has been greatly lessened. This fact is used to further the negative belief that African Americans have "not taken advantage of their equal opportunities."90. According to the passage, how did the northern industries make use of African Americans in 1900s?A. Sent them to ask the strikers to go back to work.B. Made them work very hard.C. Employed them to threaten the white strikers.D. Released them into the labor market.91. What is the ill influence of these negative stereotypes?A. Giving help to the poor black.B. Justifying informal discrimination.C. Enforcing laws prohibiting discriminatory practices against black workers.D. Creating opportunities of employment for the black.92. What can be inferred from "a drain on the white taxpayer" about the African Americans?A. They are unwilling to work.B. They never pay tax.C. They lack security.D. Their welfare depends on the white's tax.93. The author wrote the passage to tell us__________.A. African Americans pose a threat to the whites in employmentB. African Americans are dependent on the tax paid by the whitesC. African Americans are discriminated against because they are often on strikeD. the sense of threat intensifies the white's hospitality and discrimination against the African AmericansTEXT D“People thought of themselves as having rights from companies,” said Hoshua Freeman, a labor historian at Columbia University. That sense of entitlement grew even stronger in the early decades after World War II and collective bargaining became the arena for arguing out wages, pensions, health insurance, vacations, hours and job security.That system is disappearing today. Career-long attachments to one employer, a notion born in the 1920's, are no longer the .norm. The new class-consciousness makes less distinction between workers and managers. Rights are relative, at best. An increasingly conservative electorate has reduced government's role in regulating the economy. Unions have lost influence and membership.What people do is try to cope, by themselves, said Ms. Skelly, of DYG. Self-employment is one solution, DYG's polls show, and that is a rising trend. "They try, on the job, to hide any weakness in their performance," she said. “They work longer hours and take work home, without letting the boss know, to give the impression that they can do diffic ult tasks quickly. There is nothing like, ‘we are all in this together.’ There is too much competition. People talk of their weakness to friends and spouses, but not to coworkers.”And many Americans feel in their hearts that the unemployment might be just ified. “There is a sense among people that we are inefficient and bloated,” Ms. Skelly said. “And until they feel that is no longer true, they are reluctant to criticize the forces that are cutting out the fat and the inefficiencies.”94. It can be inferred from the second paragraph that ___________.A. people do not enjoy their rights nowadaysB. people are more likely to change their jobs than they were in the 1920'sC. workers and managers share the same rights todayD. nowadays, people refuse to take part in the Union95. According to Ms Skelly, which of the following is true?A. People like to work overtime.B. People want to work at home.C. People want to impress the boss with their capability and efficiency.D. People need help from their families, for they cannot cope with difficult problems themselves.96. People hide their weakness from___________.A. their parentsB. their wives or husbandsC. their friendsD. their colleagues97. The main idea of the passage is___________.A. people thought of themselves as having rights from companiesB. people's sense of entitlement is not as strong as it used to beC. people work at homeD. people regard unemployment as usualTEXT EYou may not have thought of it just this way, but the letter you write is part of you, and expression of your personality. Therefore to write letters that are mere patterns of form is to present a colorless personality.Letters, by their very nature, are too individual to be standardized. A letter may be absolutely perfect according to the standards of good taste and good form; but unless it also expresses something of the writer's personality, it is not a good letter.In other words, don't be satisfied to write letters that are just correct and nothing more. Try to write letters that are correct for you... letters that are warm and alive with reflections of your own personality.And if this sounds like a platitude (陈词滥调), stop for a moment and think back over your recent correspondence. What was the most interesting letter you received? Was it a letter anyone could have written? Or was it a letter that instantly “came alive” as you read it—that brought the personality of the sender right into the room with you. as though you were face to face, listening instead of reading?The fault with too many letters, today as in the past—the reason so many letters are dull and lifeless, and often fail to accomplish the purpose for which they are written is simply this: Theysound exactly like the letters everyone else writes. They are neither exciting to receive nor stimulating to read.98. What does the author mean by saying “the letter you write is part of you”?A. Writing letters plays an important part in your life.B. When you write letters, you should be careful about what to write.C. People can see your personality from the letters you write.D. You should write good letters.99. What does the author want to explain in the fourth paragraph?A. A good letter presents one's personality.B. His opinion is a platitude.C. Letter-writing is interesting.D. Talking face to face is a better way to communicate than writing letters.100. The best title for the passage is___________.A. Letter WritingB. Personality in Letter WritingC. To Write Interesting LettersD. To Write Correct Letters PART VI WRITING [45 MIN] SECTION A COMPOSITION[35 MIN]We all know that men and women play different roles in modern society, and that they differ in many ways, such as how to perceive the world, how to tackle problems and how to approach people. Think about the issue and discuss the different ways in which men and women behave in terms of interpersonal relationships, expressing affection, friendship and views on beauty.Write on ANSWER SHEET TWO a composition of about 200 words on the following topic:The Different Approaches or Perceptions of Men and WomenYou are to write in three parts.In the first part, state your view on this issue.In the second part, support your view with details or examples.In the last part, bring what, you have written to a natural conclusion or a summary.Marks will be rewarded for content, organization, grammar and appropriacy. Failure to follow the instructions may result in a loss of marks.SECTION B NOTE-WRITING [10 MIN]Write on ANSWER SHEET TWO a note of about 50-60 words based on the following situation: You are William or Aileen. You are invited this weekend to a farewell party hosted by your friend, Sandy, who is going abroad for his PhD. Study. However, you are unable to see him off. Write him a note politely declining his invitation and expressing your good wishes to him.Marks will be awarded for content, organization, grammar and appropriateness.参考答案Part III31-35BCCDC 36-40CBAAB 41-45ACCBD 46-50BBADAPart IV51-55BCACA 56-60CBDCA 61-65CCDBD 66-70BDDCB 71-75ADAAB 76-80DBBCD Part V81-84ADBC 85-89BBDCB 90-93CBDD 94-97BCDB 98-100CAB专四模拟试题附参考答案（2）CLOZE[15 MIN.]Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on your answer sheet.All Americans are at least vaguely31with the plight of the American Indian. Cutbacks in federal programs for Indians have made their problems32more severe in recent years. Josephy reports，“331981 it was estimated that cutbacks in federal programs for Indians totaled about $500 million” or more than ten times the cuts affecting their34fellow Americans. Additional cuts seem to be threatened in the future. This reduced funding is affecting almost all 35of reservation life，36education. If the Indians could 37their38problems，solutions to many of their other problems might not be far behind. In this paper the current status of Indian education will be described and39and some ways of improving this education will be proposed.Whether to40with the dominant American culture or to 41Indian culture has been a longstanding issue in Indian education. After the Civil War full responsibility for Indian education was turned over by the government to churches and missionary groups. The next fifty years became a period of42assimilation in all areas of Indian culture，but especially in religion and education. John Collier，a reformer who agitated43Indians and their culture 44the early 1920s until his death in 1968，had a different idea. He believed that instead of effacing native culture，Indian schools should encourage and45it.Pressure to assimilate remains a potent force today，46. More and more Indians are graduating from high school and college and becoming47for jobs in the non-Indian society. “ When Indians obtain the requisite skills，many of them enter the broader American society and succeed. ”48 approximately 90 percent of all Indian children are educated in state public school systems.How well these children compete with the members of the dominant society，49，is another50.31. A. agreeable B. regardless C. familiarD. sympathetic32. A. even B. ever C. greatly D. further33. A. Since B. Up to C. Before D. By the end of34. A. non-Indian B. Indian C. previousD. former35. A. respects B. aspects C. kinds D. parts36. A. except B. regarding C. besidesD. including37. A. solve B. dissolve C. deal D. treat38. A. cultural B. educational C. socialD. severe39. A. estimated B. evaluated C. settledD. decided40. A. agree B. push forward C. assimilateD. deal41. A. preserve B. keep up with C. acknowledge D. confess42. A. enforced B. overall C. contemptuousD. unbelievable43. A. in favor of B. on behalf of C. side by side withD. far behind44. A. in B. through C. from D. during45. A. realize B. assimilate C. acknowledgeD. revitalize46. A. yet B. furthermore C. howeverD. just the same47. A. available B. reachable C. suitableD. eligible48. A. In the future B. In the past C. At presentD. Maybe49. A. therefore B. consequently C. however D. moreover50. A. question B. issue C. aspect D. matterPART ⅣGRAMMAR & VOCABULARY[15 MIN.]There are thirty sentences in this section. Beneath each sentence there are four words or phrases marked A，B，C and D. Choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Mark your answers on your answer sheet.51. The reporters exposed the corruption of several senior officers in the government；consequently，these officers to resign from office.A. have askedB. were askedC. had askedD. had been asked52. The train at the present speed until it reaches the next city at about seven o'clock this evening.A. will be goingB. wentC. would goD. went53. Such the case，there are no grounds to justify your complaints.A. wasB. isC. is beingD. being54. I beg your nephew's wedding.A. to be excusedB. to be excused fromC. to excuse fromD. to be excused to55. The only candidate can hope to defeat him is quit now.A. whoB. whichC. thatD. when56. Humble it may be，there's no place like home，he may go.A. like，whenB. as，whereverC. although，whereD. which，wherever57. He ought to attend the meeting，？A. should heB. ought heC. shouldn't heD. oughtn't he58. Mary is 18 years old this year；she 19 next year.A. will beB. is to beC. is going to beD. should be59.Though it was late in the night，he continued to work vigorously.A. butB. yetC. andD. that60. The doctor advised him to stay in bed，saying he was much.A. ill enoughB. too illC. so illD. very ill61. I was study French yesterday，but I changed my mind.A. to be startingB. to startC. to have startedD. to have been starting62. You'd rather go to theater with him this evening，？A. are youB. hadn't youC. isn't itD. wouldn't you63. that the formation of the sun，the planets，and other stars began with the condensation of an interstellar gas cloud.A. It is believedB. BelievingC. Being believedD. To believe64. One of the most spectacular qualities of man is notably his to any kind of natural environment.A. tendencyB. adoptabilityC. adaptabilityD. availability65. I'm in no now to go to concert with you.A. moodB. intentionC. emotionD. sense66. The judger doesn't know whether the witness is telling the truth，but he will it.A. identifyB. enforceC. distinguishD. verify67. Before the plane ，the pilot bailed out.A. clashedB. crashedC. smashedD. struck68. Doctors often make higher for their works than they should.A. chargesB. billsC. costsD. payments69. Most of the earliest into America came from Europe.A. migrantsB. emigrantsC. immigrantsD. inhabitants70. His name was on the of my tongue，but I just couldn't remember.A. edgeB. rimC. borderD. tip71. I caught a of the name of the book before she put it into the drawer.A. glimpseB. glanceC. sightD. stare。

翻译与跨文化阐释_王宁

理论的翻译也是如此。米勒在不同的场合对理论的翻译或阐释也发表了自己的见解，在一篇题为《越过边界：翻译理论》(Border Crossings: Translating Theory, 1993) 的文章中，米勒主要探讨的问题与赛义德的著名概念“理论的旅行”(traveling theory) 有些相似，但与之不同的是，赛义德并没有专门提到翻译对理论传播的中介和阐释作用，而米勒则强调了理论在从一个国家旅行到另一个国家、从一个时代流传到另一个时代、从一种语言文化语境被传送到另一种语言文化语境时所发生的变异。他认为造成这种变异的一个重要因素就是翻译。从变异的角度来比较一国文学在另一国的传播已经成为中国比较文学学者近年来关注的一个话题。① 在这里，翻译 (translation) 实际上不亚于变异 (transformation)。正如他的那本题为《新的开始》的论文集的标题所示，理论经过翻译的中介之后有可能失去其原来的内在精神，但也有可能产生一个“新的开始”。强调作为 “新的开始”的理论的再生就是他这部文集的一个核心观点 (Miller, 1993: vii)。②
在当今的解构主义批评家中，希利斯 · 米勒的批评生涯也许最长，影响也最大，他的批评道路始终呈现出一种与时俱进的发展态势。但是与他的一些学术同行所不同的是，他是一位从不满足于现状的学者型批评家，始终坚持自己独特的批评立场。虽
然他很少就翻译问题发表著述，但他始终对跨文化的翻译有着自己的独特见解。他对中国文学也十分热爱，曾不惜花费大量时间读完了宇文所安编译的《诺顿中国文学选》，发现里面有许多可供跨文化阐释的成分。早在本世纪初，他就撰文呼吁，美国高校的世界文学课应把中国文学名著《红楼梦》列入必读的经典书目，哪怕只阅读节选的译本也比不读要好。这里的节选译本实际上就是一种文化上的翻译。当译入语文化的接受者并没有了解异域文化全貌的需求时，他们也许出于好奇仅想知道异域文化或文学的一点皮毛或概貌，而这时若让他们去静心地阅读大部头的完整的译著显然是不合时宜的。《红楼梦》作为一部鸿篇巨制，即使对许多非中文专业的中国读者来说也会使他们望而却步，更不用说对英语世界的普通读者了。为了让英语世界的读者进一步了解并品尝中国文学的魅力，首先阅读节选译本仍不失为一种有效的途径。这种节选译本也许就其字面意义而言，远离语言文字层面对应和忠实之标准，其间还会穿插一些译者的介绍和阐发，但是它却在文化的层面上达到了使非汉语读者了解中国古典文学名著和中国社会状况的目的。因此这样一种近乎跨文化阐释式的翻译对于当前的中国文学和文化走向世界不失为一种有益的尝试。因此就这一点而言，米勒的呼吁是颇有远见的。

Introduction to American Historical English

The South wanted to expand savings to new states, while the North proposed this idea
This difference led to a breakdown in political negotiations and ultimate violence
This difference led to a growing divide between the two regions
01 The War's Course
02
The war Began in 1861 after Confederate forces
attached Fort Sumter in South Care Declaration: The Declaration of Independence has a far reaching impact on world history as it inspires other nations to fit for their independence and seek their own The process and outcome of war forms of government
The Native Americans have their own unique beliefs, social structures, and ways of life that were completely separated from those of Europe
The Native Americans have their own languages, which were oral compared to written languages

第二单元的作文的英文

第二单元的作文的英文英文回答：In the realm of language acquisition, the debate surrounding the optimal sequence for introducing multiple languages to learners has ignited extensive research and yielded diverse perspectives. The predominant approach, known as the "sequential method," advocates for the mastery of one language before embarking on the study of a second or subsequent languages. This approach emphasizes the development of a solid foundation in the first language to provide a cognitive scaffolding for subsequent linguistic endeavors.On the other hand, the "simultaneous method" espouses the simultaneous introduction of multiple languages from the outset. Proponents of this method contend that it fosters cognitive flexibility, enhances language processing skills, and promotes cross-linguistic transfer. They argue that the exposure to various linguistic systems duringformative years enables learners to develop a more nuanced understanding of language structure and use.Research on the relative efficacy of these two approaches has yielded inconclusive results, with studies demonstrating benefits and drawbacks associated with each method. The sequential method has been shown to foster greater proficiency in the first language, while the simultaneous method may lead to enhanced language processing abilities and cross-linguistic transfer.Ultimately, the choice between the sequential and simultaneous methods depends on a multitude of factors, including individual learner characteristics, instructional context, and educational goals. For learners with limited exposure to language instruction, the sequential method may provide a more structured and supportive environment for language acquisition. Conversely, for learners with a strong foundation in one language and a desire to develop proficiency in multiple languages, the simultaneous method may offer a more engaging and enriching experience.中文回答：多语言环境下学习语言的顺序是一个颇有争议的问题，并引发了广泛的研究和不同的观点。

multiple points of view名词解释

multiple points of view名词解释Multiple Points of View: A DefinitionIntroductionThe concept of multiple points of view refers to the idea that different individuals or groups may have varying perspectives or opinions on a particular issue or topic. It recognizes the diversity and complexity of human experiences, acknowledging that there can be multiple valid viewpoints that may exist simultaneously. In this article, we will explore the meaning, significance, and implications of multiple points of view in various contexts.Understanding Multiple Points of ViewMultiple points of view encompass the recognition that there is rarely a single, absolute truth or perspective. Instead, it acknowledges that individuals' backgrounds, beliefs, experiences, and cultural influences shape the way they perceive and interpret the world around them. These different perspectives may arise from variations in personal values, socio-economic status, cultural upbringing, education, or even geographical location.Significance in Literature and ArtMultiple points of view hold immense significance in the world of literature and art. Authors and artists often employ this technique to present a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of their subject matter. Through the use of multiple narrators or shifts in perspective, they can explore different characters' thoughts, emotions, motivations, and experiences. This approach can create a richer and more multifacetednarrative, allowing readers or viewers to gain a deeper appreciation of the complexities of the human condition.Implications in Journalism and MediaIn journalism and media, recognizing and incorporating multiple points of view is crucial for responsible and ethical reporting. A diverse range of perspectives ensures a more balanced and accurate representation of events or issues. Journalists strive to provide a comprehensive view by interviewing various sources and presenting contrasting opinions. This practice not only fosters a more informed public but also encourages critical thinking and a deeper understanding of complex topics.Importance in Social Sciences and AcademiaIn the field of social sciences and academia, the acknowledgment of multiple points of view is essential for rigorous and comprehensive research. Researchers often employ qualitative research methods to explore different perspectives and experiences related to their study. By considering multiple viewpoints, scholars can gain a more holistic understanding of phenomena, acknowledging the existence of diverse interpretations and realities.Promoting Empathy and ToleranceEmbracing multiple points of view promotes empathy and tolerance in society. When individuals recognize and respect diverse perspectives, they become more understanding of others' experiences and challenges. This understanding can bridge differences, foster dialogue, and promote cooperation. It allows for the recognition that alternative viewpoints are notnecessarily inferior or invalid but rather a reflection of differing lived experiences.Challenges and LimitationsWhile multiple points of view offer numerous advantages, they also present challenges and limitations. It can be challenging to navigate conflicting perspectives and reach a consensus in decision-making processes. Additionally, some viewpoints may perpetuate misinformation or harmful ideologies, requiring critical evaluation and discernment.ConclusionIn conclusion, multiple points of view recognize the diversity of human experiences, acknowledging the existence of differing perspectives on any given issue. From literature and art to journalism, academia, and societal interactions, the concept of multiple points of view encourages empathy, understanding, and critical thinking. By embracing multiple perspectives, we can move towards a more inclusive and compassionate world that values diverse viewpoints and seeks to foster cooperation and mutual respect.。

2015年6月第三套四级作文

2015年6月第三套四级作文英文回答：In the context of globalization, it is imperative to recognize the multifaceted nature of cultural exchange. On the one hand, it fosters cross-cultural understanding, appreciation, and tolerance. By exposing individuals to diverse perspectives, customs, and beliefs, cultural exchange helps break down barriers and promotes a more inclusive and compassionate world.On the other hand, cultural exchange inevitably involves the transmission of values, norms, and practices. This can sometimes lead to confusion, conflict, or even resistance, as individuals grapple with the implications of adopting or rejecting foreign influences. Moreover, the unequal power dynamics between nations can lead to cultural imperialism, where the dominant cultures exert undue influence on others, potentially eroding their unique identities and traditions.To harness the benefits of cultural exchange while mitigating its potential risks, it is crucial to adopt an open, respectful, and equitable approach. This includes promoting dialogue, encouraging empathy, and fostering a spirit of mutual learning. It also requires recognizing the inherent value of all cultures and respecting the right of individuals to maintain their cultural heritage.Government policies can play a significant role in shaping the nature of cultural exchange. By supporting initiatives that promote cultural understanding, such as educational exchanges, arts programs, and cross-cultural dialogues, governments can foster a climate of tolerance and respect. Additionally, they can provide incentives for businesses and non-profit organizations to engage in activities that promote cultural diversity and inclusivity.Ultimately, the success of cultural exchange depends on the willingness of individuals to embrace diversity and engage with different cultures with an open mind. By fostering a spirit of curiosity and understanding, we canharness the transformative power of cultural exchange to create a more interconnected and harmonious world.中文回答：在全球化的背景下，认识文化交流的多面性势在必行。

英国文学第二册思考问题

Study Questions for William Wordsworth’s “Daffodils”(威廉·华兹华斯诗歌“水仙”思考问题)1. What is the critical appreciation of the poem “daffodils”by William Worthworth?2. What type of poem is “daffodils” by William Wordsworth??3. What is the meaning of the poem “daffodils ”by William Wordsworth?4. Why did William Wordsworth write “Daffodils”?5. What is the Central idea of the poem “daffodils”?6. Where did William Wordsworth write the poem “Daffodils”?7. What will be 6 lines summary of “daffodils”by William Wordsworth?Study Questions for Ode to the West Wind(《西风颂》思考问题)1.What’s the main idea of the poem?2.Describe west wind’s effect on the land.3.Describe west wind’s effect in the sky.4.Describe west wind’s effect over the sea.5.What does the west wind symbolize?6.What kind of feelings is the author trying to express in the poem?Study Questions for Ode to a Nightingale(《夜莺颂》思考问题)1.What is the main idea of the poem?2.What is the similarity between wine and nightingale?3.The author mentions three means of identifying himself with thenightingale. What are they?4.Why the nightingale is immortal?Study Questions for Ivanhoe(《艾凡赫》思考问题)1. What is Scott's judgment about King Richard's gallant behavior? What possible tension exists between the code of chivalry and the rules of behavior that govern kings?2. Compare and contrast Rowena and Rebecca. What are the different difficulties faced by each of the women? How do those difficulties relate to their cultural differences--the fact that one of them is a Saxon and the other is a Jew?3. One of the strange things about Ivanhoe as a hero story is that the hero plays such a small part in the story: Ivanhoe is out of commission with an injury for nearly two-thirds of the book, thenarrative is almost never shown from his perspective, and he actually fails in the climactic battle at the end of the book. Why is he the hero? Why is he the title character?4. With particular attention to the first chapter of the book, what has caused the conflict between the Saxons and the Normans? Who, if anyone, is to blame? What are some of the consequences of the conflict for each group?5. Think about the novel's portrayal of religion in medieval English life. With particular attention to characters such as the Templars, Prior Aymer, Friar Tuck, and the palmer, what does Scott seem to say about the medieval church?6. Many of the important characters in Ivanhoe spend time in various disguises, including Ivanhoe, Richard, Wamba, and Cedric. What role does the motif of disguise play in the novel as a whole? Why do characters take such pains to hide their identities?7. "As a general rule, there is no character development in Ivanhoe; characters are the same at the end of the book as they were at the beginning." Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why?8. Women play a decidedly limited part in the story, often discussed solely in terms of their marriageability. (There are three prospective suitors for Rowena alone.) But women, particularlyUlrica and Rebecca, are also among the most vivid, sympathetic, and believable characters in the novel. What exactly is the role of women in Ivanhoe? How does Scott portray them? In terms of social prejudice and psychological accuracy, do you think his portrayal is objectionable, acceptable, or admirable by the standards of his own time? What about by the standards of our time?Study Questions for Pride and Prejudice(《傲慢与偏见》思考问题)1. Jane Austen’s original title for the novel was First Impressions. What role do first impressions play in Pride and Prejudice?2. Analyze how Austen depicts Mr. Bennet. Is he a positive or negative figure?3. Discuss the importance of dialogue to character development in the novel.4. Discuss the importance of social class in the novel, especially as it impacts the relationship between Elizabeth and Darcy.5. Though Jane Austen satirizes snobs in her novels, some critics have accused her of being a snob herself. Giving specialconsideration to Mrs. Bennet and Mr. Collins, argue and defend one side of this issue.6. Pride and Prejudice is a novel about women who feel they have to marry to be happy. Taking Charlotte Lucas as an example, do you think the author is making a social criticism of her era’s view of marriage?7. Giving special attention to Wickham, Charlotte Lucas, and Elizabeth, compare and contrast male and female attitudes toward marriage in the novel.8.Discuss the relationship between Mrs. Bennet and her children, especially Elizabeth and Lydia.9. Compare and contrast the Bingley-Darcy relationship with the Jane-Elizabeth relationship.pare and contrast the roles of Lady Catherine de Bourgh and Mrs. Bennet.Study Questions for Oliver Twist(《雾都孤儿》思考问题)1. Victorian stereotypes about the poor asserted that poverty and vice were fundamentally connected and that, moreover, both werehereditary traits: the poor were supposedly bad from birth. How does Dickens approach such stereotypes?2. Consider the female characters of Nancy, Rose Maylie, and Agnes Fleming. How are the three women different? How are they similar? What do their differences and similarities suggest about Dickens’s ideas about women?3. Discuss the portrait of the criminal justice system presented in Oliver Twist.4. In Chapters 48 and 52, Dickens explores the consequences of Sikes’s and Fagin’s crimes. Is the narrative technique in these chapters different from that in the rest of the novel? If so, how? How does the reader’s persp ective on Sikes and Fagin change in these chapters? How do these chapters address the issues of guilt and punishment?5. Discuss the character of Fagin. To what extent does anti-Semitism influence Dickens’s portrait of him? Should Fagin be taken to represent all Jews? May he be taken to represent anything else?6. Oliver Twist is full of thievery. Some of it is committed by criminals like Sikes against respectable people like the Maylies, while some of it is committed by “respectable” people like Mrs. Mann and Mr. Bumble against the poor. How are these two typesof thievery different? What do they have in common? Also, consider the various ways in which other people “rob” Oliver of his identity. What does the prevalence of thievery in the novel say about the world that it portrays?7. What role does clothing play in the various characters’ identities? Consider Nancy’s disguise, the new suit that Brownlow purchases for Oliver, and Mr. Bumble’s regret at giving up the office of parish beadle.8. How does Dickens represent marriage in Oliver Twist? Compare and contrast the marriages of Mr. Bumble and Mrs. Corney, of Rose and Harry, and of Mr. Leeford and Monks’s mother. Consider also the prevalence of “families” that do not center around a marriage: for example, Oliver, Brownlow, Grimwig, and Mrs. Bedwin; or Mrs. Maylie, Rose, and Mr. Losberne.Study Questions for Adam Bede(《亚当·贝德》思考问题)1. Why does Eliot title her novel Adam Bede? What is the book really about?2. Eliot claimed that the scene of Hetty’s conversion of the jail was the point toward which the whole novel was driving. Do you agree?3. Why is Adam so blind to Hett y’s true nature?4. How is the role of women in society portrayed in the novel? What significance, if any, do you think it has on the novel that George Eliot is a woman who took on a male pseudonym?5. Why is it important that Dinah Morris and Seth Bede are Methodists? Is Adam Bede a religious novel?6. Is Captain Donnithorne responsible for Hetty’s plight? Is he a bad man?7. Why is Dinah the only person able to get through to Hetty while she is in jail?8. Why is Adam so devastated by Hetty’s crime and in carceration? What does the reaction of the different characters to the news about Hetty say about them?Study Questions for Jane Eyre(《简爱》思考问题)1. In what ways is Jane Eyre influenced by the tradition of the Gothic novel? What do the Gothic elements contribute to the novel?2. What do the names mean in Jane Eyre? Some names to consider include: Jane Eyre, Gateshead, Lowood, Thornfield, Reed, Rivers, Miss Temple, and Ferndean.3. Discuss Jane as a narrator and as a character. What sort of voice does she have? How does she represent her own actions? Does she seem to be a trustworthy storyteller, or does Brontë require us to read between the lines of her narrative? In light of the fact that people who treat Jane cruelly (John Reed, Mrs. Reed, Mr. Brocklehurst) all seem to come to unhappy endings, what role does Jane play as the novel’s moral center?4. In what ways might Jane Eyre be considered a feminist novel? What points does the novel make about the treatment and position of women in Victorian society? With particular attention to the book’s treatment of marriage, is there any way in which it might be considered anti-feminist?5. What role does Jane’s ambiguous social position play in determining the conflict of her story? What larger points, if any, does the novel make about social class? Does the book criticize orreinforce existing Victorian social prejudices? Consider the treatment of Jane as a governess, but also of the other servants in the book, along with Jane’s attitude toward her impoverished students at Morton.6. Compare and contrast some of the characters who serve as foils throughout Jane Eyre: Blanche to Jane, St. John to Rochester, and, perhaps, Bertha to Jane. Also think about the points of comparison between the Reed and Rivers families. How do these contrasts aid the development of the book’s themes?Study Questions for Wuthering Heights(《呼啸山庄》思考问题)1. Many of the names in Wuthering Heights are strikingly similar. For example, besides the two Catherines, there are a number of Lintons, Earnshaws, and Heathcliffs whose names vary only slightly. What role do specific names play in Wuthering Heights?2. In many ways, Wuthering Heights structures itself around matched, contrasting pairs of themes and of characters. What are some of these pairs, and what role do they play in the book?3. Analyze the character of Edgar Linton. Is he a sympathetic figure? How does he compare to Heathcliff? Is Catherine really in love with him?4. Discuss the novel’s narrative structure. Are the novel’s narrators trustworthy? Why or why not? With particular reference to Nelly’s story, consider what might be gained from reading between the lines of the narration. What roles do the personalities of the narrators play in the way that the story is told?5. What role does social class and class ambiguity play in Wuthering Heights? To what extent is Heathcliff’s social position responsible for the misery and conflict so persistent in the book?6. Discuss revenge in Wuthering Heights. In what ways is it connected to love? What is the nature of love in the novel, that it can be so closely connected to vengeance?7. Think about the influence of the physical landscape in the novel. What role do the moors play in the development of the story, and in the presentation of the charact ers? How does Catherine’s abiding love of the moors help us to understand her character? What do the moors come to symbolize in the novel?Study Questions for the poem “Ulysses” by Tennyson(丁尼生诗歌“尤利西斯”思考问题)1.Point out the negative terms used in the first stanza.2.Explain the sentence: Yet all experience is an arch wherethroughgleams that untraveled world whose margin fades forever and forever when I move.3.According to the poem, what kinds of qualities are needed of aleader to successfully lead a country?4.What kinds of feelings are expressed by the author in the poem?Study Questions for “My Last Duchess”(诗歌“我已故的公爵夫人“思考问题)1.Introduce the historical background of the poem.2.What is the main idea of the poem?3.How does the duke feel about his last duchess?4.What happens to the last duchess?Study Questions for Tess of the D’Urbervilles(《德伯家的苔丝》思考问题)1.Discuss the character of Tess. To what extent is she a helpless victim? When is she strong and when is she weak?2.Discuss the role of landscape in the novel. How do descriptions of place match the development of the story? Does the passing of the seasons play any symbolic role?3.Hardy rarely questions public morality openly in Tess of thed’Urber villes. Nevertheless, the novel has been taken as a powerful critique of the social principles that were dominant in Tess’s time. How does Hardy achieve this effect? Why might we infer a level of social criticism beneath Tess’s story?4. What is the role of fate in Tess of the d’Urbervilles? What does Hardy mean by “fate”? To what extent does Tess’s tragedy hinge on improbable coincidence?5. Throughout Tess’s story, a number of sources are presented as possible moral authorities and possible guides on which characters might base their moral choices. What are some of these sources? Which of them, if any, prevails?6. Discuss the character of Alec. Is he the villain of the novel? Does he really love Tess? In what ways does he exemplify the novel’s critique of the upper class?7. Tess’s story is full of omens, and her tragedy is largely prefigured by all the bad omens that occur throughout her story. What are some of these omens? Are they an effective device? Do they build suspense, or are they simply a kind of heavy-handed foreshadowing?8.Social class and lineage are powerful forces for determining character in the novel. What role does Tess’s noble lineage play in the depiction of her character? With regard to noble blood, is it possible that the novel’s por trayal of Tess advances some of the very social stereotypes it otherwise criticizes?9. Hardy’s style has been praised as rhythmic and imaginative, and also criticized as clunky and rough-edged. How is Hardy’s style best characterized? What are some of its other characteristics?Study Questions for The Picture of Dorian Gray(《道林·格雷的画像》思考问题)1. Discuss the character of Lord Henry and his impact on Dorian.2. Discuss the role of homoeroticism in the novel.3. “There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book,” Wilde says in the Preface. “Books are well written, or badly writ ten. That is all.” Does the novel confirm this argument?4. Discuss the relationship between Basil and Dorian.5.Analyze the Gothic elements in The Picture of Dorian Gray.6.Discuss the role of Sibyl Vane in the novel.7.Discuss the parallels between D orian’s story and the Faust legend. Does Dorian make a pact with the devil?8.Why does Dorian decide to destroy the painting at the end of the novel?9. Compare and contrast the characters of Basil and Lord Henry. What is their relationship to one another? To Dorian?Study Questions for Sons and Lovers(《儿子与情人》思考问题)1. The novel is arranged in a series of episodes, not necessarily in chronological order. This type of narrative is called episodic. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of narration? One effect this technique has is the blending of different time periods. Another element that contributes to the blending of time periods is the use of the iterative mode, whichcauses confusion about whether events happened one or many times. Think about the effects these techniques have on the text.2. Think about the role the chapter titles play in the novel. Do they reveal too much information about the story? Contrast them with chapter headings in eighteenth-century episodic novels like Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones or Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy, both of which have elaborate chapter headings describing everything that happens in the chapter. Also think about if the novel would have been different if the chapters had no titles.3. What role do the shifting narrative perspectives play in the novel? Trace the shifting perspective throughout the novel to determine from which character’s point of view the story seems to be narrated at each point.4. What function does the division of the novel into two parts serve? One possible interpretation: the first part of the novel focuses on Mrs. Morel and the second part focuses on Paul. Does this seem like a valid distinction? What other factors seem to distinguish the two sections of the novel from each other?5. Much of the novel is concerned with Paul’s relationship with women, most importantly his mother, Miriam, and Clara. Examine Paul’s interactions with the other male characters in thenovel. Consider his father, his brothers, Mr. Pappleworth, Edgar Leivers, Baxter Dawes.6. Paul’s close relationship with his mother has provoked many Freudian and Oedipal readings of this novel. Is this type of reading valid? If not, what do you make of the relationship between Paul and his mother, which seems to be the one constant force throughout the novel?7. Is Mrs. Morel the most important woman to Paul throughout the novel, or are there moments at which his relationships with Miriam or Clara take precedence? If so, what is the significance of these moments? Why does he always come back to his mother in the end? You may also want to trace the theme of a higher level of understanding between Paul and his mother throughout the novel, possibly beginning with his illness immediately after William’s death.8. What goes wrong between Paul and Miriam? Is it just that she cannot compete with his love for his mother, or is there some other problem?9. Why does Paul change his mind so often? Trace his on- again,off-again feelings for Miriam and Clara throughout the novel.10. Think about the religious aspects of this novel. Consider inparticular Miriam’s notions of sacrifice and of “baptism of fire in passion.”11. Morel speaks in a dialect throughout the novel. Why mightLawrence have chosen to make Morel use a dialect? Does it set him apart from the other characters? Are there any othercharacters who speak in this dialect, and, if so, what purposedoes this serve? What is the function of language ascommunication in the novel?Study Questions for Mrs Dalloway(《达洛维夫人》思考问题)1. “Fear no more the heat ’o the sun / Nor the furious winter’s rages” is a quote from Shakespeare’s play Cymbeline. The words are repeated or alluded to many times throughout Mrs. Dalloway, by both Clarissa and Septimus. What do the words mean, and why do Clarissa and Septimus repeat them?2. Woolf created Septimus Warren Smith as a double for Clarissa. In what ways are Clarissa and Septimus different? In what ways are they the same?3. Conversion is seen as a constant threat in the novel. Which characters wish to convert others, and what are they trying to convert others to? Are some characters more susceptible to conversion than others?4.Mrs. Dalloway is constructed from many different points of view, and points of view are sometimes linked by an emotion, a sound, a visual image, or a memory. Describe three instances when the point of view changes and explain how Woolf accomplishes the transitions. How do the transitions correspond to the points of view being connected?5. Flowers, gardens, and nature are important motifs in the novel. Choose three characters and describe their relationships to the natural world. What do these relationships reveal about the characters or their functions in the novel?6.Characters in the novel come from a range of social classes. What does Peter mean when he feels the “pyramidal accumulation” that weighed on his generation is shifting? How did the old social order weigh particularly heavily on women?7. What role does Sally Seton play in Clarissa’s life, and what is the significance of her surprise appearance at the party?8. World War I affected all the characters in the book to some degree. How did the war influence at least three of the characters?9. The multitude of minor characters in the novel can be compared to the chorus in a classical Greek drama. They are often observers in the street. Choose three or four minor characters and describe their roles. What is their importance to the novel as a whole?10. When Clarissa reflects on Septimus’s death at the end of thenovel, she experiences a moment of being, or an epiphany. What truth becomes clear to her, and why is it significant?Study Questions for Araby(《阿拉伯集市》思考问题)1. Joyce brings the reader’s attention to everyday objects throughout his stories. Discuss some examples and explain the significance of Joyce’s use of them in the collection.2. In the first three stories of Dubliners, Joyce uses first-person narration, though for the rest of the collection he uses third-person. What purpose do the two narrative approaches serve?3. Discuss the role of story titles in the collection. How does a given title interact with its story and with the titles of other stories? What is the significance of the collection’s title?4.Of the fifteen stories in Dubliners, Joyce focuses on women as protagonists in only four stories, but women appear throughout the collection in various small roles, often in relation to male protagonists. What is the symbolic role of these latter women? Consider particular stories as well as the collection as a whole.5. As the title implies, Dubliners examines the lives of people in Ireland’s capital, and Joyce provides ample geographical det ails. Since not all readers are familiar with Dublin, such details can be unfamiliar. What purpose, then, do these elements serve?6. Consider the number of deaths, both literal and metaphorical, that occur or are referred to in Dubliners. Which stories connect through the presence of death, and why is this connection significant?7.Do any stories contain moments in which Joyce’s authorial voice and point-of-view seem to speak through the narrators? Use the text to show how this occurs and what Joyce expresses.8. Some stories include a full version of a text cited internally by a character. For example, in “A Painful Case” the reader canexamine the article about Mrs. Sinico’s death that Mr. Duffy finds, and in “Ivy Day in the Committee Room” the reader can review Hynes’s poem about Parnell. What sort of relationship between reader and story do such forms create? What might be Joyce’s aim in cultivating this relationship?。

《论语》英译

刘译：
The Master said, “A man is worthy of being a teacher who gets to know what is new by keeping fresh in his mind what he is already familiar with.”

英译概况

1687年巴黎出版拉丁文译本，《中国哲学家孔子. 用拉丁文解释中国人的智慧》 (Confucius Sinarum Philosophus, sive Scientia Sinensis Latine Exposita) ，编者为耶稣会会士柏应理（Philippe Couplet，比利时人）。最早的英译为英国传教士马希曼（Joshua Marsman) 的节译本The Works of Confucius (1809)。 1861年香港出版理雅格（James Legge）翻译的《中国经典》（ Chinese Classics）第一卷第二卷，包括《大学》，《中庸》，《论语》，《孟子》。译为 Confucian Analects,成为后来所以《论语》学术译本的原型。理雅各还首次使用了 "Analects" 这个词来作为《论语》英译本的书名，他认为这样可以言简意赅地表示出这本书实际上是 “讨论和评论的选段”。
5. 黄治中，1997年牛津大学出版社。该译本可以所是目前所见的最新的译本了。除了《论语》译文以外，该译本还包括了“引言”、“术语”、“比较历史年代表”、“发音指南”、“地图”、“中国历史年代表”、“孔夫子生平”、“孔夫子的弟子” 和“索引”等部分。 6. 森舸澜Edward Cilman Slingerland ，2003年，美国。Analects. 7. 刘殿爵， 2008年中华书局。Confucius’ The Analects (1979年）

【英文文学】On Interpretation

【英文文学】On InterpretationChapter 1First we must define the terms ‘noun’and ‘verb’, then the terms ‘denial’and ‘affirmation’, then ‘proposition’and ‘sentence.’Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience and written words are the symbols of spoken words. Just as all men have not the same writing, so all men have not the same speech sounds, but the mental experiences, which these directly symbolize, are the same for all, as also are those things of which our experiences are the images. This matter has, however, been discussed in my treatise about the soul, for it belongs to an investigation distinct from that which lies before us.As there are in the mind thoughts which do not involve truth or falsity, and also those which must be either true or false, so it is in speech. For truth and falsity imply combination and separation. Nouns and verbs, provided nothing is added, are like thoughts without combination or separation; ‘man’and ‘white’, as isolated terms, are not yet either true or false. In proof of this, consider the word ‘goat-stag.’It has significance, but there is no truth or falsity about it, unless ‘is’or ‘is not’is added, either in the present or in some other tense.Chapter 2By a noun we mean a sound significant by convention, which has no reference to time, and of which no part is significant apart from the rest. In the noun ‘Fairsteed,’the part ‘steed’has no significance in and by itself, as in the phrase ‘fair steed.’Yet there is a difference between simple and composite nouns; for in the former the part is in no way significant, in the latter it contributes to the meaning of the whole, although it has not an independent meaning. Thus in the word ‘pirate-boat’the word ‘boat’has no meaning except as part of the whole word.The limitation ‘by convention’was introduced because nothing is by nature a noun or name-it is only so when it becomes a symbol; inarticulate sounds, such as those which brutes produce, are significant, yet none of these constitutes a noun.The expression ‘not-man’is not a noun. There is indeed no recognized term by which we may denote such an expression, for it is not a sentence or a denial. Let it then be called an indefinite noun.The expressions ‘of Philo’, ‘to Philo’, and so on, constitute not nouns, but cases of a noun. The definition of these cases of a noun is in other respects the same as that of the noun proper, but, when coupled with ‘is’, ‘was’, or will be’, they do not, as they are, form a proposition either true or false, and this the noun proper always does, under these conditions. Take the words ‘of Philo is’or ‘of or ‘of Philo is not’; these words do not, as they stand, form either a true or a false proposition.A verb is that which, in addition to its proper meaning, carries with it the notion of time. No part of it has any independent meaning, and it is a sign of something said of something else.I will explain what I mean by saying that it carries with it the notion of time. ‘Health’is a noun, but ‘is healthy’is a verb; for besides its proper meaning it indicates the present existence of the state in question.Moreover, a verb is always a sign of something said of something else, i.e. of something either predicable of or present in some other thing.Such expressions as ‘is not-healthy’, ‘is not, ill’, I do not describe as verbs; for though they carry the additional note of time, and always form a predicate, there is no specified name for this variety; but let them be called indefinite verbs, since they apply equally well to that which exists and to that which does not.Similarly ‘he was healthy’, ‘he will be healthy’, are not verbs, but tenses of a verb; the difference lies in the fact that the verb indicates present time, while the tenses of the verb indicate those times which lie outside the present.Verbs in and by themselves are substantival and have significance, for he who uses such expressions arrests the hearer’s mind, and fixes his attention; but they do not, as they stand, express any judgement, either positive or negative. For neither are ‘to be’and ‘not to be’the participle ‘being’significant of any fact, unless something is added; for they do not themselves indicate anything, but imply a copulation, of which we cannot form a conception apart from the things coupled.Chapter 4A sentence is a significant portion of speech, some parts of which have an independent meaning, that is to say, as an utterance, though not as the expression of any positive judgement. Let me explain. The word ‘human’has meaning, but does not constitute a proposition, either positive or negative. It is only when other words are added that the whole will form an affirmation or denial. But if we separate one syllable of the word ‘human’from the other, it has no meaning; similarly in the word ‘mouse’, the part ‘ouse’has no meaning in itself, but is merely a sound. In composite words, indeed, the parts contribute to the meaning of the whole; yet, as has been pointed out, they have not an independent meaning.Every sentence has meaning, not as being the natural means by which a physical faculty is realized, but, as we have said, by convention. Yet every sentence is not a proposition; only such are propositions as have in them either truth or falsity. Thus a prayer is a sentence, but is neither true nor false.Let us therefore dismiss all other types of sentence but the proposition, for this last concerns our present inquiry, whereas the investigation of the others belongs rather to the study of rhetoric or of poetry.The first class of simple propositions is the simple affirmation, the next, the simple denial; all others are only one by conjunction.Every proposition must contain a verb or the tense of a verb. The phrase which defines the species ‘man’, if no verb in present, past, or future time be added, is not a proposition. It may be asked how the expression ‘a footed animal with two feet’can be called single; for it is not the circumstance that the words follow in unbroken succession that effects the unity. This inquiry, however, finds its place in an investigation foreign to that before us.We call those propositions single which indicate a single fact, or the conjunction of the parts of which results in unity: those propositions, on the other hand, are separate and many in number, which indicate many facts, or whose parts have no conjunction.Let us, moreover, consent to call a noun or a verb an expression only, and not a proposition, since it is not possible for a man to speak in this way when he is expressing something, in such a way as to make a statement, whether his utterance is an answer to a question or an act of his own initiation.To return: of propositions one kind is simple, i.e. that which asserts or denies something of something, the other composite, i.e. that which is compounded of simple propositions. A simple proposition is a statement, with meaning, as to the presence of something in a subject or its absence, in the present, past, or future, according to the divisions of time.Chapter 6An affirmation is a positive assertion of something about something, a denial a negative assertion.Now it is possible both to affirm and to deny the presence of something which is present or of something which is not, and since these same affirmations and denials are possible with reference to those times which lie outside the present, it would be possible to contradict any affirmation or denial. Thus it is plain that every affirmation has an opposite denial, and similarly every denial an opposite affirmation.We will call such a pair of propositions a pair of contradictories. Those positive and negative propositions are said to be contradictory which have the same subject and predicate. The identity of subject and of predicate must not be ‘equivocal’. Indeed there are definitive qualifications besides this, which we make to meet the casuistries of sophists.Chapter 7Some things are universal, others individual. By the term ‘universal’I mean that which is of such a nature as to be predicated of many subjects, by ‘individual’that which is not thus predicated. Thus ‘man’is a universal, ‘Callias’an individual.Our propositions necessarily sometimes concern a universal subject, sometimes an individual.If, then, a man states a positive and a negative proposition of universal character with regard to a universal, these two propositions are ‘contrary’. By the expression ‘a proposition of universal character with regard to a universal’, such propositions as ‘every man is white’, ‘no man is white’are meant. When, on the other hand, the positive and negative propositions, though they have regard to a universal, are yet not of universal character, they will not be contrary, albeit the meaning intended is sometimes contrary. As instances of propositions made with regard to a universal, but not of universal character, we may take the ‘propositions ‘man is white’, ‘man is not white’. ‘Man’is a universal, but the proposition is not made as of universal character; for the word ‘every’does not make the subject a universal, but rather gives the proposition a universal character. If, however, both predicate and subject are distributed, the proposition thus constituted is contrary to truth; no affirmation will, under such circumstances, be true. The proposition ‘every man is every animal’is an example of this type.An affirmation is opposed to a denial in the sense which I denote by the term ‘contradictory’, when, while the subject remains the same, the affirmation is of universal character and the denial is not. The affirmation ‘every man is white’is the contradictory of the denial ‘not every man is white’, or again, the proposition ‘no man is white’is the contradictory of the proposition ‘some men are white’. But propositions are opposed as contraries when both the affirmation and the denial are universal, as in the sentences ‘every man is white’, ‘no man is white’, ‘every man is just’, ‘no man is just’.We see that in a pair of this sort both propositions cannot be true, but the contradictories of a pair of contraries can sometimes both be true with reference to the same subject; for instance ‘not every man is white’and some men are white’are both true. Of such corresponding positive and negative propositions as refer to universals and have a universal character, one must be true and the other false. This is the case also when the reference is to individuals, as in the propositions ‘Socrates is white’, ‘Socrates is not white’.When, on the other hand, the reference is to universals, but the propositions are not universal, it is not always the case that one is true and the other false, for it is possible to state truly that man is white and that man is not white and that man is beautiful and that man is not beautiful; for if a man is deformed he is the reverse of beautiful, also if he is progressing towards beauty he is not yet beautiful.This statement might seem at first sight to carry with it a contradiction, owing to the fact that the proposition ‘man is not white’appears to be equivalent to the proposition ‘no man is white’. This, however, is not the case, nor are they necessarily at the same time true or false.It is evident also that the denial corresponding to a single affirmation is itself single; for the denial must deny just that which the affirmation affirms concerning the same subject, and must correspond with the affirmation both in the universal or particular character of the subject and in the distributed or undistributed sense in which it is understood.For instance, the affirmation ‘Socrates is white’has its proper denial in the proposition‘Socrates is not white’. If anything else be negatively predicated of the subject or if anything else be the subject though the predicate remain the same, the denial will not be the denial proper to that affirmation, but on that is distinct.The denial proper to the affirmation ‘every man is white’is ‘not every man is white’; that proper to the affirmation ‘some men are white’is ‘no man is white’, while that proper to the affirmation ‘man is white’is ‘man is not white’.We have shown further that a single denial is contradictorily opposite to a single affirmation and we have explained which these are; we have also stated that contrary are distinct from contradictory propositions and which the contrary are; also that with regard to a pair of opposite propositions it is not always the case that one is true and the other false. We have pointed out, moreover, what the reason of this is and under what circumstances the truth of the one involves the falsity of the other.Chapter 8An affirmation or denial is single, if it indicates some one fact about some one subject; it matters not whether the subject is universal and whether the statement has a universal character, or whether this is not so. Such single propositions are: ‘every man is white’, ‘not every man is white’;’man is white’,’man is not white’; ‘no man is white’, ‘some men are white’; provided the word ‘white’has one meaning. If, on the other hand, one word has two meanings which do not combine to form one, the affirmation is not single. For instance, if a man should establish the symbol ‘garment’as significant both of a horse and of a man, the proposition ‘garment is white’would not be a single affirmation, nor its opposite a single denial. For it is equivalent to the proposition ‘horse and man are white’, which, again, is equivalent to the two propositions ‘horse is white’, ‘man is white’. If, then, these two propositions have more than a single significance, and do not form a single proposition, it is plain that the first proposition either has more than one significance or else has none; for a particular man is not a horse.This, then, is another instance of those propositions of which both the positive and the negative forms may be true or false simultaneously.Chapter 9In the case of that which is or which has taken place, propositions, whether positive or negative, must be true or false. Again, in the case of a pair of contradictories, either when the subject is universal and the propositions are of a universal character, or when it is individual, as has been said,’one of the two must be true and the other false; whereas when the subject is universal, but the propositions are not of a universal character, there is no such necessity. We have discussed this type also in a previous chapter.When the subject, however, is individual, and that which is predicated of it relates to the future, the case is altered. For if all propositions whether positive or negative are either true or false, then any given predicate must either belong to the subject or not, so that if one man affirms that an event of a given character will take place and another denies it, it is plain that the statement of the one will correspond with reality and that of the other will not. For the predicate cannot both belong and not belong to the subject at one and the same time with regard to the future.Thus, if it is true to say that a thing is white, it must necessarily be white; if the reverse proposition is true, it will of necessity not be white. Again, if it is white, the proposition stating that it is white was true; if it is not white, the proposition to the opposite effect was true. And if it is not white, the man who states that it is making a false statement; and if the man who states that it is white is making a false statement, it follows that it is not white. It may therefore be argued that it is necessary that affirmations or denials must be either true or false.Now if this be so, nothing is or takes place fortuitously, either in the present or in the future, and there are no real alternatives; everything takes place of necessity and is fixed. For either he that affirms that it will take place or he that denies this is in correspondence with fact, whereas if things did not take place of necessity, an event might just as easily not happen as happen; for the meaning of the word ‘fortuitous’with regard to present or future events is that reality is so constituted that it may issue in either of two opposite directions. Again, if a thing is white now, it was true before to say that it would be white, so that of anything that has taken place it was always true to say ‘it is’or ‘it will be’. But if it was always true to say that a thing is or will be, it is not possible that it should not be or not be about to be, and when a thing cannot not come to be, it is impossible that it should not come to be, and when it is impossible that it should not come to be, it must come to be. All, then, that is about to be must of necessity take place. It results from this that nothing is uncertain or fortuitous, for if it were fortuitous it would not be necessary.Again, to say that neither the affirmation nor the denial is true, maintaining, let us say, that an event neither will take place nor will not take place, is to take up a position impossible to defend. In the first place, though facts should prove the one proposition false, the opposite would still be untrue. Secondly, if it was true to say that a thing was both white and large, both these qualities must necessarily belong to it; and if they will belong to it the next day, they must necessarily belong to it the next day. But if an event is neither to take place nor not to take place the next day, the element of chance will be eliminated. For example, it would be necessary that a sea-fight should neither take place nor fail to take place on the next day.These awkward results and others of the same kind follow, if it is an irrefragable law that of every pair of contradictory propositions, whether they have regard to universals and are stated as universally applicable, or whether they have regard to individuals, one must be true and the other false, and that there are no real alternatives, but that all that is or takes place is the outcome of necessity. There would be no need to deliberate or to take trouble, on the supposition that if we should adopt a certain course, a certain result would follow, while, if we did not, the result would not follow. For a man may predict an event ten thousand years beforehand, and another may predict the reverse; that which was truly predicted at the moment in the past will of necessity take place in the fullness of time.Further, it makes no difference whether people have or have not actually made the contradictory statements. For it is manifest that the circumstances are not influenced by the fact of an affirmation or denial on the part of anyone. For events will not take place or fail to take placebecause it was stated that they would or would not take place, nor is this any more the case if the prediction dates back ten thousand years or any other space of time. Wherefore, if through all time the nature of things was so constituted that a prediction about an event was true, then through all time it was necessary that that should find fulfillment; and with regard to all events, circumstances have always been such that their occurrence is a matter of necessity. For that of which someone has said truly that it will be, cannot fail to take place; and of that which takes place, it was always true to say that it would be.Yet this view leads to an impossible conclusion; for we see that both deliberation and action are causative with regard to the future, and that, to speak more generally, in those things which are not continuously actual there is potentiality in either direction. Such things may either be or not be; events also therefore may either take place or not take place. There are many obvious instances of this. It is possible that this coat may be cut in half, and yet it may not be cut in half, but wear out first. In the same way, it is possible that it should not be cut in half; unless this were so, it would not be possible that it should wear out first. So it is therefore with all other events which possess this kind of potentiality. It is therefore plain that it is not of necessity that everything is or takes place; but in some instances there are real alternatives, in which case the affirmation is no more true and no more false than the denial; while some exhibit a predisposition and general tendency in one direction or the other, and yet can issue in the opposite direction by exception.Now that which is must needs be when it is, and that which is not must needs not be when it is not. Yet it cannot be said without qualification that all existence and non-existence is the outcome of necessity. For there is a difference between saying that that which is, when it is, must needs be, and simply saying that all that is must needs be, and similarly in the case of that which is not. In the case, also, of two contradictory propositions this holds good. Everything must either be or not be, whether in the present or in the future, but it is not always possible to distinguish and state determinately which of these alternatives must necessarily come about.Let me illustrate. A sea-fight must either take place to-morrow or not, but it is not necessary that it should take place to-morrow, neither is it necessary that it should not take place, yet it is necessary that it either should or should not take place to-morrow. Since propositions correspond with facts, it is evident that when in future events there is a real alternative, and a potentiality in contrary directions, the corresponding affirmation and denial have the same character.This is the case with regard to that which is not always existent or not always nonexistent. One of the two propositions in such instances must be true and the other false, but we cannot say determinately that this or that is false, but must leave the alternative undecided. One may indeed be more likely to be true than the other, but it cannot be either actually true or actually false. It is therefore plain that it is not necessary that of an affirmation and a denial one should be true and the other false. For in the case of that which exists potentially, but not actually, the rule which applies to that which exists actually does not hold good. The case is rather as we have indicated.chapter 10An affirmation is the statement of a fact with regard to a subject, and this subject is either a noun or that which has no name; the subject and predicate in an affirmation must each denote a single thing. I have already explained’what is meant by a noun and by that which has no name; for I stated that the expression ‘not-man’was not a noun, in the proper sense of the word, but an indefinite noun, denoting as it does in a certain sense a single thing. Similarly the expression ‘does not enjoy health’is not a verb proper, but an indefinite verb. Every affirmation, then, and every denial, will consist of a noun and a verb, either definite or indefinite.There can be no affirmation or denial without a verb; for the expressions ‘is’, ‘will be’, ‘was’, ‘is coming to be’, and the like are verbs according to our definition, since besides their specific meaning they convey the notion of time. Thus the primary affirmation and denial are ‘as follows: ‘man is’, ‘man is not’. Next to these, there are the propositions: ‘not-man is’, ‘not-man is not’. Again we have the propositions: ‘every man is, ‘every man is not’, ‘all that is not-man is’, ‘all that is not-man is not’. The same classification holds good with regard to such periods of time as lie outside the present.When the verb ‘is’is used as a third element in the sentence, there can be positive and negative propositions of two sorts. Thus in the sentence ‘man is just’the verb ‘is’is used as a third element, call it verb or noun, which you will. Four propositions, therefore, instead of two can be formed with these materials. Two of the four, as regards their affirmation and denial, correspond in their logical sequence with the propositions which deal with a condition of privation; the other two do not correspond with these.I mean that the verb ‘is’is added either to the term ‘just’or to the term ‘not-just’, and two negative propositions are formed in the same way. Thus we have the four propositions. Reference to the subjoined table will make matters clear:A. Affirmation. Man is justB. Denial. Man is not just\ // \D. Denial. Man is not not-just C. Affirmation. Man is not-justHere ‘is’and ‘is not’are added either to ‘just’or to ‘not-just’. This then is the proper scheme for these propositions, as has been said in the Analytics. The same rule holds good, if the subject is distributed. Thus we have the table:A'. Affirmation. Every man is just B'. Denial. Not every man is just\ // \D'. Denial. Not every man is not-just C'. Affirmation. Every man is not-just.Yet here it is not possible, in the same way as in the former case, that the propositions joined in the table by a diagonal line should both be true; though under certain circumstances this is the case.We have thus set out two pairs of opposite propositions; there are moreover two other pairs, if a term be conjoined with ‘not-man’, the latter forming a kind of subject. Thus:A". Not-man is just. B". Not-man is not just\ // \D". Not-man is not not-just. C". Not-man is not-just.This is an exhaustive enumeration of all the pairs of opposite propositions that can possibly be framed. This last group should remain distinct from those which preceded it, since it employs as its subject the expression ‘not-man’.When the verb ‘is’does not fit the structure of the sentence (for instance, when the verbs ‘walks’, ‘enjoys health’are used), that scheme applies, which applied when the word ‘is’was added.Thus we have the propositions: ‘every man enjoys health’, ‘every man does-not-enjoy-health’, ‘all that is not-man enjoys health’, ‘all that is not-man does-not-enjoy-health’. We must not in these propositions use the expression ‘not every man’. The negative must be attached to the word ‘man’, for the word ‘every’does not give to the subject a universal significance, but implies that, as a subject, it is distributed. This is plain from the following pairs: ‘man enjoys health’, ‘man does not enjoy health’; ‘not-man enjoys health’, ‘not man does not enjoy health’. These propositions differ from the former in being indefinite and not universal in character. Thus the adjectives ‘every’and no additional significance except that the subject, whether in a positive or in a negative sentence, is distributed. The rest of the sentence, therefore, will in each case be the same.Since the contrary of the proposition ‘every animal is just’is ‘no animal is just’, it is plain that these two propositions will never both be true at the same time or with reference to the same subject. Sometimes, however, the contradictories of these contraries will both be true, as in the instance before us: the propositions ‘not every animal is just’and ‘some animals are just’are both true.Further, the proposition ‘no man is just’follows from the proposition ‘every man is not just’and the proposition ‘not every man is not just’, which is the opposite of ‘every man is not-just’, follows from the proposition ‘some men are just’; for if this be true, there must be some just men.It is evident, also, that when the subject is individual, if a question is asked and the negative answer is the true one, a certain positive proposition is also true. Thus, if the question were asked Socrates wise?’and the negative answer were the true one, the positive inference ‘Then Socrates is unwise’is correct. But no such inference is correct in the case of universals, but rather a negative proposition. For instance, if to the question ‘Is every man wise?’the answer is ‘no’, the inference ‘Then every man is unwise’is false. But under these circumstances the inference ‘Not every man is wise’is correct. This last is the contradictory, the former the。

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a r X i v :a s t r o -p h /9911457v 1 24 N o v 1999Mon.Not.R.Astron.Soc.000,000–000(0000)Printed 1February 2008(MN L A T E X style ﬁle v1.4)On the interpretation of the multicolour disc model forblack hole candidatesA.Merloni 1,A.C.Fabian 1and R.R.Ross 21Institute of Astronomy,Madingley Road,Cambridge,CB30HA2Physics Department,College of the Holy Cross,Worcester,MA 01610,USAABSTRACTWe present a critical analysis of the usual interpretation of the multicolour disc model parameters for black hole candidates in terms of the inner radius and temperature of the accretion ing a self-consistent model for the radiative transfer and the vertical temperature structure in a Shakura-Sunyaev disc,we simulate the observed disc spectra,taking into account doppler blurring and gravitational redshift,and ﬁt them with multicolour models.We show not only that such a model systematically underestimates the value of the inner disc radius,but that when the accretion rate and/or the energy dissipated in the corona are allowed to change the inner edge of the disc,as inferred from the multicolour model,appears to move even when it is in fact ﬁxed at the innermost stable orbit.Key words:accretion,accretion discs -black hole physics -radiative transfer -X-rays:stars1INTRODUCTIONX-ray spectra of galactic black hole candidates (GBHC)are becoming an increasingly important tool in determin-ing both the physical properties of the source surroundings and,as the ultimate goal,the parameters (mass and spe-ciﬁc angular momentum)of the black hole.Two main spec-tral states,as deﬁned by their spectral components and ﬂux level (typically in the 1−10keV band),have been observed in GBHC.In the Hard/Low state ,the sources emit most of their power in a hard power law tail with photon index Γ∼1.3−1.7and exponential cutoﬀat about 100keV.In the generally more luminous Soft/High state ,most of the energy comes from a thermal component with characteris-tic temperature kT ≤1keV,while a power law compo-nent (with Γ∼2.0−2.5)dominates above a few keV.In addition,sources have been reported to be in a Very high state ,spectrally intermediate between the Soft/High and the Hard/Low states,when the power law component has a ﬂux comparable to the thermal one and no sign of a cutoﬀis seen in the high energy tail.We will focus our discussion on the Soft/High state.According to the common paradigm in interpreting the observed spectra,the ultra-soft thermal component is the product of the emission from an optically thick accretion disk.On the other hand,the hard power law component is probably due to multiple Compton scattering of soft photons by a population of hot electrons which reside in an active (or ﬂaring)coronal region surrounding the accretion disc.In the zeroth order approximation for describing emis-sion from the accretion disc,not only is the disc assumed tobe geometrically thin and optically thick (Shakura &Sun-yaev 1973),but also the vertical temperature structure is neglected,as is the eﬀect of Comptonization on the emer-gent spectrum.Each point of the disc is then assumed to radiate like a blackbody at an eﬀective temperature which scales with the radius as r −3/4.This is the so-called multi-colour disc model (MCD;Mitsuda et al.1984).Such a simple model has the advantage of being easy to use in trying to ﬁt spectral data.It has only two adjustable parameters:a (colour )temperature,independent on the source distance,and a normalization factor,which in turn depends on the inner radius of the disc,on the distance of the source and on the inclination of the disc from the line of sight.When these two latter quantities are independently known,or can be reasonably inferred,ﬁtting the ultra-soft component of a GBHC spectrum with the MCD model immediately gives estimates of the temperature in the inner region of the disc and its inner radius.The aim of this letter is to demonstrate that the val-ues one can obtain with this ﬁtting procedure,which is now a standard one,are not in general directly related (or at least not in a reliable way)to the actual disc parameters.We will use a self-consistent model for the radiative trans-fer in Shakura-Sunyaev accretion discs about a compact source,including ﬁrst-order corrections for gravitational red-shift and Doppler blurring,as developed by Ross &Fabian (1996).The observable spectrum is computed for a num-ber of diﬀerent physical situations,each determined by the values of the viscosity parameter α,the accretion rate andc0000RAS2 A.Merloni et althe fractionof theaccretedpower dissipatedin the corona (Svensson &Zdziarski 1994).In all the cases we consider,the value of the inner radius of the disc will be kept ﬁxed.Nevertheless,when trying to ﬁt the computed spectra with the MCD model,we will obtain results at variance with this assumption.That is because changes in the normalization factor of the MCD model are produced,in a very compli-cated way,by the variations in the disc structure (and hence in the Comptonized spectrum)induced by variability of the accretion rate and coronal activity.2STRUCTURE OF THE DISCWe assume the basic structure for spatially thin accretion discs around Schwarzschild black holes given by the standard theory of Shakura &Sunyaev (1973).The disc is assumed to have a ﬁxed inner boundary at the innermost stable orbit at radius R in =3R S =6GM/c 2.We consider both an in-ner,radiation pressure dominated region and an outer,gas pressure dominated region of the disc.In determining the structure of the disc,the opacity is assumed to be domi-nated by Thomson scattering,κ≈κT =0.2(1+X )cm 2g −1,(1)where X is the mass fraction of hydrogen.Following Svens-son &Zdziarski (1994),we slightly modify the standard set of disc equations,allowing a fraction f of the disc accretion power to be dissipated in the corona instead of in the cold disc itself.Furthermore,at every given radius R ,the den-sity is taken to be uniform in the vertical direction (which is the correct solution for the disc structure when radiation pressure dominates).Choosing dimensionless parameters m =M˙MEdd ,r =R3/r ).The radial structure of the disc issummarized by the values of the half-thickness of the disc (in units of the Schwarzschild radius)h and the uniform gas density ρ0:(i)Radiation pressure dominated region h =H3τﬀ(ν)(τT +τﬀ(ν)),(7)where τT is the Thomson depth below the surface,and τﬀ(ν)is the optical depth due to free-free absorption.For high en-ergy photons the thermalization depth (where τ∗(ν)=1)can be reached at very high Thomson depths,where the temper-ature is considerably higher than near the pton scattering in the outer layers of the disc downscatters these photons to lower energies and produces a Wien-law tail.Decreasing the ﬂux emerging from the disc itself,either by lowering the accretion rate (˙m )or increasing the fraction (f )of the accretion power dissipated in the corona,results in ever larger regions of very high density,both in the outer-most portions of the disc and,for very low ﬂuxes,in the very innermost portions as well.In those cases Comptonization is not complete or ‘saturated’because y =4kTJ (r AB)16/21≃370(mα)2/21˙m 16/21(1−f )6/7.(9)We use equations (3)and (4)for all the annuli for which3<r <r AB ,and equations (5)and (6)for r >r AB .The typical emergent spectrum from each annulus is calculated and then multiplied by the area of the annulus to ﬁnd the contribution to the spectral luminosity.The resulting spec-tra are added together,taking into account blurring due to gravitational redshift and transverse Doppler eﬀect us-ing the method described by Chen,Halpern &Filippenko (1989).Finally,in order to allow direct comparison with ob-servations in which a dramatic change in the inner radius has been reported (GRS 1915+105,see e.g.Belloni et al.(1997b)),we choose an inclination angle i =70◦and a dis-tance D =12.5kpc.c0000RAS,MNRAS 000,000–000On the interpretation of the multicolour model3 3THE MULTICOLOUR DISC MODELFor each set of parameters the emergent disc spectrum isused as a table model to create a fake set of data(withRXTE response matrix p012970804.rsp,integrationtime1000s).These data are thenﬁtted with the standardmulticolour blackbody model(DISKBB in XSPEC)in the2−20keV band.The model assumes that the local emis-sion from the disc is Planckian,with a temperature proﬁleT(r)∝r−3/4.Therefore the observedﬂux from the disc isapproximated byF d(E)=8πR2col cos iT col −11/3B(E,T)dTD2,where R col is expressed in km and the distance D in units of10kpc.The parameter R col is not the eﬀective inner disc radius (i.e.the radius at which the temperature of the disc is the highest).The assumption behind using the MCD model is that the Comptonized emergent spectrum can be approxi-mated by a diluted blackbody spectrum with a colour tem-perature(T col)higher than the eﬀective temperature(T eﬀ). The ratio f col=T col/T eﬀ,the spectral hardening factor (Shimura&Takahara1995),is then assumed to be constant throughout the disc and for varying physical parameters(˙m,α,f,etc.).Thus the actual inner edge of the disc would be given byR in=ηR eﬀ=ηg(i)R col(T col/T eﬀ)2,(11) whereηis the ratio of the inner radius of the disc to the radius at which the emissivity actually peaks,typically η≃0.6−0.7(Shakura&Sunyaev1973;Shimura&Taka-hara1995).The factor(T col/T eﬀ)2comes from the assumed dilution of the blackbody spectrum,while g(i)takes into account general relativistic corrections and is of the order g≃0.7−0.8(Ebisawa et al.1994).In the next section we will show that these assumptions are not justiﬁed in general due to the diﬀerences in Compton processes induced by changes in˙m,f,andα.4RESULTSWe have simulated disc spectra in eleven diﬀerent physical situations represented by the ten sets of parameters S1-S11 (see Table1).The sets are listed in order of decreasing value of the radius r AB,the boundary between the radiation pres-sure and gas pressure dominated regions.Table1also lists the value of the radial coordinate r coh for the boundary of the region(s)where Compton scattering has been treated as coherent(see section2).As the power dissipated in the disc decreases and the density increases,from the combined ef-fects of changes in˙m and f,this boundary moves inwards. That is,for an increasing portion of the disc Comptoniza-tion is incomplete and the local spectrum will be somewhat Table1.Physical parameters.SETα˙m f r AB r cohS10.10.30.010050S20.10.20.07036S30.10.10.05028S40.10.20.55018S50.30.080.13622S60.30.080.23618S70.10.10.42813S80.10.050.02813S90.10.10.5229.6S100.10.050.513 4.6-5.2S110.10.050.8--Table2.Fit parameters in the range2-20keV.All the models refer to a10M⊙black hole with inclination angle and distance set to the values of the black hole candidate GRS1915+105,namely i=70◦and D=12.5kpc.SET T col[keV]R col[km]χ2redf colS10.9854.547 1.80S20.8756.922 1.76S30.7553.3 6.0 1.82S40.7552.1 6.4 1.84S50.7049.2 2.7 1.90S60.6949.3 2.5 1.90S70.6946.5 2.8 1.95S80.6841.1 1.6 2.08S90.6741.5 1.5 2.07S100.5939.0 1.8 2.12S110.5524.50.7 2.68harder.For the S10model,the density in the innermost re-gion of the disc is so high(due to the J(r)−2term)that we have to consider incomplete Compton scattering also in the ﬁrst inner annuli,where a signiﬁcant fraction of the X-ray power is emitted.Consequently,for this set of parameters, two values of r coh are listed.Finally,for the model S11, when the disc is entirely gas pressure dominated,we consid-ered incomplete Compton scattering throughout all the disc (but see next section for a caveat on the applicability of our model to this extreme case).Figure1shows the observed spectra for S1,S4,S7and S10,taking into account Doppler blurring and gravitational redshift.For comparison,Fig.1also shows the blurred spec-tra that would be observed if each point on the surface of the accretion disc emitted a blackbody spectrum at the lo-cal eﬀective temperature.The observed spectra are harder than such eﬀective blackbody spectra,and the discrepancy increases as we increase the density of the disc and decrease the power released in the disc itself(going from S1to S10).Table2lists the values of theﬁt parameters T col and R col for the ten cases,as well as the corresponding reduced χ2of theﬁts and the spectral hardening factors obtained from eq.(11)by assumingηg(70◦)=0.5and R in=88.6km, as appropriate for the10M⊙Schwarzschild black hole we are considering.The results are also shown in Figures2a and2b,where we plot the spectral hardening factor and the colour radius as functions of˙m(1−f),which is a measure of theﬂux emergent from the disc itself.To check the sensitivity of our results to the energy rangeﬁtted,we alsoﬁtted the spectra in the3−10keVc 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–0004 A.Merloni etalFigure 1.The disc spectra (solid lines)computed for the parameter sets S1(˙m =0.3,f =0,α=0.1);S4(˙m =0.2,f =0.5,α=0.3);S7(˙m =0.1,f =0.4,α=0.1)and S10(˙m =0.05,f =0.5,α=0.1).For each of the plots also shown are the spectra that would be observed for a blackbody-emitting disc (dashed lines).band.The values obtained for the colour radii were,at most,just one or two kilometers smaller than those obtained in the 2-20keV band (i.e.a change of about 3−4%).It is clear that the multicolour model gives systemati-cally lower values for the “inner radius”than the actual ones,a point which is well known.More interestingly,our results show that the hardening factor is by no means constant when we change the physical parameters of the disc.For example,assuming the conventional value f col =1.7±0.2(Shimura &Takahara 1995;Sobczak et al.1999)and taking Doppler blurring and gravitational redshift into account,we would have underestimated the value for the inner disc radius by up to a factor of 2(S11)using the ﬁts with a multicolour model.On the other hand the model gives quite stable and acceptable results for high accretion rates and/or lower val-ues of the fraction of the power eventually dissipated in the corona.This in turn can help to understand the cases in which a nearly constant value of R col is observed even when T col varies (Tanaka &Lewin 1995).5DISCUSSIONWe have shown that MCD models systematically underesti-mate the value of the inner radius of the accretion disc for a black hole candidate.We also have shown that the spectral hardening factor f col ,which is needed to correct the results of the ﬁts with a multicolour model,is not,as is usually as-sumed,constant when the accretion rate and/or fractional coronal activity change.Recent observations of galactic black hole candidates seem to point towards an extreme dependence of the ob-served colour radius on f .In the work of Sobczak et al.(1999),where the au-thors report on the RXTE spectral observations of the 1996-97outbursts of the microquasar GRO J1655-40,a sudden jump inward of the color radius (see their Fig.7)occur for the ﬁve very high state observations of the source during which the power-law (hard)ﬂux was extremely high and the blackbody–to–total ﬂux ratio was less than 0.5(see their Fig.5).A similar trend has been reported by Muno et al.(1999)in the case of the microquasar GRS 1915+105.In their ob-servations,the smallest values of the inner disc radius ob-tained by ﬁtting the spectrum with the MCD model are associated with the highest values of the power-law–to–c0000RAS,MNRAS 000,000–000On the interpretation of the multicolour model5Figure 2.(a):the points are the values or R col (in km)plotted as functions of ˙m (1−f ),which is a measure of the ﬂux emergent from the disc,while the solid line marks the actual inner boundary of the disc,ﬁxed in all our ten simulations.(b):triangles represent the value of the spectral hardening factor needed to rescale the computed R col to R in .blackbody ﬂux ratio,which in turn should be directly related to the value of f .In both these cases the inferred inner disc radii can change by more than a factor of four.Belloni et al.(1997a,1997b),analyzing RXTE data of GRS 1915+105,interpreted the sudden change measured in the inner colour radius of roughly a factor of four in terms of the rapid disappearence of the whole inner part of the geometrically thin accretion disc.Once again,in that case the inner edge of the disc appears to shrink to its smallest values during an outburst in which the power law ﬂux dom-inates the blackbody,and the blackbody–to–total ﬂux ratio is less than 0.5.This behaviour is exactly what our results predict we should expect from the MCD model when we increase f and/or reduce the accretion rate.In this case,every time we the observations imply that the coronal activity is domi-nant,the multicolour ﬁts should be corrected with a varying hardening factor 1.7<f col <3in order to recover the actual value of the inner disc radius.It should be clear,however,that the issue of determin-ing the exact shape of accretion disc spectra is very com-plicated and is very sensitive to the actual physical models used to describe it.In particular,key elements are the verti-cal structure of the disc,its density proﬁle and,in particular,the surface density.It is quite possible,and perhaps easier to conceive,that dramatic changes in the disc spectrum are produced by changes in the surface properties of the accretion disc rather than by the disappearance of the entire inner regions.This,unfortunately,is hard to model theoretically.It would be in-teresting,for example,to assess the problem in the extreme case when almost all the accretion power is dissipated in the corona (i.e.in the limit f →1).As we believe that even in our most extreme simulation (S11)with f =0.8the simple treatment of the vertical disc structure we used here can be inadequate,and as this must be true a fortiori for larger values of f ,we do not push our study further.To do that we would need to take into account the X-ray reﬂection spectra of discs illuminated by a hot corona and to model carefully the heating of the disc atmosphere (e.g.,see Sincell &Krolik (1997),Ross &Fabian (1993),who show how a hard tail in the disc spectrum is produced in this case).It is natural to believe,given the trend we observe in the simulations presented above and the observational results we referred to,that in such a situation the oversimpliﬁed multicolour model will give even smaller values of the colour radius.A detailed treatment of this kind requires further nu-merical work which is beyond the aim of this Letter.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis work was done in the research network “Accretion onto black holes,compact stars and protostars”funded by the European Commission under contract number ERBFMRX-CT98-0195’.AM,RRR and ACF thank the PPARC,the College of the Holy Cross and the Royal Society for support,respectively.REFERENCESBelloni T.et al.,1997,ApJ,479,L145.Belloni T.et al.,1997,ApJ,488,L109.Chen K.,Halpern J.P.,Filippenko A.V.,1989,ApJ,311,241.Ebisawa K.et al.,1994,PASJ,46,375.Mitsuda K.et al.,1984,PASJ,36,741.Muno M.P.,Morgan E.H.&Remillard R.A.,astro-ph/9904087.Ross R.R.&Fabian A.C.,1993,MNRAS,261,74.Ross R.R.&Fabian A.C.,1996,MNRAS,281,637.Ross R.R.,Weaver R.,McCray R.,1978,ApJ,219,292.Shimura T.&Takahara F.,1995,ApJ,445,780.Shakura N.I.,Sunyaev R.A.,1973,A&A,24,337.Sincell M.W.&Krolik J.H.,1997,ApJ,476,605.Sobczak G.J.et 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