A review of models for low impact urban stormwater drainage
The implications of a changing climate for buildings
The implications of a changing climate for buildingsPieter de WildeSchool of Architecture, Design and Environment, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, United KingdomPieter de WildeDavid ColeyDepartment of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, United KingdoDavid Coley/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.03.014, How to Cite or Link Using DOI Permissions & ReprintsHighlights► Review of the state-of-the-art in adaptation of buildings to a changing climate. ► Summary of contributions to Special Issue. ► Common conclusions and pointers for future research.►审查国家最先进的建筑对气候变化的适应。
►总结贡献的特殊问题。
►共同结论和未来研究的指针。
Keywords∙Climate change;∙Environmental effects;∙Impact on buildings and occupants;∙Performance predictionbuildings depends on the climate they are exposed to. Their long lifetime (in the range of 50–100 plus years) corresponds to the timescale over which the climate is expected to show substantial change. This implies that buildings built today need to be designed to work successfully in both the current and future climate, and with the aim of reducing the greenhouse emission burden they place on this and future generations. While greenhouse gas emissions and climate change are thus intrinsically linked, traditionally most attention is paid to curbing emissions and climate change mitigation. The special issue focuses on the reverse relation: adaptation or resilience of buildings towards climate change.This review paper sets the scene for the special issue, starting off by providing an overall introduction to the interaction between buildings and climate change. It then describes the emerging body of knowledge in this specific field, giving an overview of the key publications of the last decade. It summarizes the contributions to the special issues and classifies them, demonstrating the main current research themes in the field, and discussing the geographical coverage. The paper concludes by combining the main findings from the contributions to the special issue, in an attempt to identify needs for further research and limitations of the current state-of-the art.2. Climate change and buildings 气候变化与建筑Buildings provide an interface between the outdoor environment, which is subject to climate change, and the indoor environment, which needs to be maintained within a range that keeps the building occupants safe and comfortable, and which is suitable for any key processes that are taking place within the building. Fig. 1conveys the complexity of this relationship. Thecolumns in Fig. 1 contain, from left to right: (a) climate change as a driving force; (b) the environmental effects of climate change that pertain to buildings; (c) the likely impact of those environmental effects on specific buildings; and (d) potential consequences for building occupants and key processes taking place in buildings. The figure is simplified and for instance does not show the feedback loop where an increase in building emissions contributes to further anthropogenic climate change.Climate change is a field of study in itself, carried out by climate and earth scientists and other specialists. It is concerned with keeping the climate record, explaining any changes to that record, as well as with predicting future changes. The seminal work in this area is the IPCC report ‘Climate Change: the Physical Science Basis’ [6]. The field is not without controversy, and major gaps in our understanding of climate change remain [7]. However, most of the debate focuses on what fraction of climate change is caused by anthropogenic emissions and what fraction by natural drivers [8] and [9], how great the changes will be, and what actions are needed to stop or even reverse these changes [10] and [11]. Almost all climate modelling ignores various difficult to predict feedback processes, for example, increases in methane emissions from melting permafrost. Should these prove important, climate change could occur much more abruptly than normally assumed [12].Most climatic models point to a substantial future change in climate of approximately plus1.5 °C in annual mean temperature by 2050 and 2–4 °C by 2080 when averaged over the planet's surface and under the conservative assumption that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (the main anthropogenic greenhouse gas) will have only increased to 600 ppm [6]. As less change is predicted over the oceans, because of their greater heat capacity and their ability to loose heat via evaporation [13], a greater change is expected over land.The models also indicate that even over land the change will not be even, with areas such as Alaska and Canada experiencing a warming of 10 °C change due to a reduced period of snow cover [6]. To put this figure into perspective, the annual mean temperature difference between the northern Mediterranean coast around Nice and London is only 5 °C [14]. It is thereforeclear that the effect is not a minor one and that the implications for the built environment are likely to be large.As discussed, climate change drives changes at a regional or local level. In Fig. 1 these are presented as environmental effects. From a building point of view, these effects range from slight gradual changes (for example a slight rise in average ambient temperature) to extreme events (for example flooding). This local viewpoint strengthens the need to change the focus from a generic climate to specific local weather conditions. Additionally, climate change might impact the context in which buildings are positioned. For instance, in terms of ecosystems this might have implications for specific animal or plant species, and thus for land use (for example farming or the spread of disease) and the urban fabric (for example consequences leading to economic and societal change). While global forecasts might be reasonably accurate, predicting local environmental effects is more difficult: the higher resolution that is needed to create regional and local predictions is bought at the price of higher uncertainties [7].These changing environmental effects then have an impact on building behaviour and performance. Typical areas affected are energy use and emissions, inefficiency and malfunction caused by systems confronted with a shift in operation conditions, and problems caused by overloading. Furthermore the environmental effects might cause issues in the urban context, like failures in the electrical grid, which can cause problems for buildings that in themselves are functioning properly. Many of these impacts need to be discussed in terms of risk, with recent work on flood insurance in the Netherlands providing a good example [15].The impact of climate change on buildings is deeply intertwined with consequences for the building occupants and key processes that take place in those buildings. As buildings have different functions, climate change impact assessment studies must be tailored towards the specific needs and requirements at hand. Complex interactions exist: for instance between the comfort as experienced by occupants, control settings in the building, and energy consumption of heating and cooling systems [16]. Note that many buildings are designed to only just meet national guidance on overheating and large change in external temperature is more than likely to take such building into problematic conditions, particularly as the bulk of the increase in mean annual temperature is expected to be during the summer months. Assuming the overheating criteria were set in a sensible manner, and given the lifetime of a building is such that the predictions are that it will experience substantial climate change, one can conclude that modelling for design and compliance should be completed using both current and future climates.The implications of climate change for the complex interaction between buildings, occupants and key processes in buildings form the focus of this special issue.3. The emerging body of knowledgeClimate impact assessment studies require a definition of the future conditions that will be considered in the analysis (i.e. the climate change scenario and the control settings), a definition of the object under investigation (a building and its (sub)systems), and a focus for observation and quantification (definition of appropriate performance metrics).3.1. Climate data for building performance studiesPredicting future climatic conditions is the starting point to all climate change impact studies. Driven by the fact that most building related studies are undertaken by means of transient building simulation tools that require an hourly dataset to represent a year of climate data, one area that receives a lot of attention is the conversion of more generic climate change predictions to hourly datasets. Guan, in a recent review of this area [17], discerns two approaches to obtaining hourly datasets: predictions based on historical data, and predictions based on fundamental physical models. She sub-divides the first category (historical models) in extrapolation of previous datasets and imposed offset methods, where a historical pattern is mapped to an average change. There also is a third alternative for historical datasets: the substitution of measured data from other geographical locations to mimic changed conditions [18]. Guan sub-divides the second category (physical models) in stochastic models and global climate models. These global models are seen in a lot of the literature on climate change under the name of General Circulation Models (GCM). Regional models then can be attached to these General Circulation models; one well-known example is the UK MetOffice's HadRM3 model that in turn produces regional (25 km resolution) projections of the future climate. Resulting predictions for the UK are the UKCIP02 and the UKCP09 datasets, with the latter taking a much broader, probabilistic approach. Work is starting to appear which looks in-depth at specific aspects of the climate change predictions, such as solar irradiations in these datasets; see for instance Tham et al. [19]. Efforts to generate various types of climate files that can directly be used with building performance simulation tools are the Prometheus project [20] and the design refence years by Du et al. [21]; Mylona [22] provides an overviewon the recent CIBSE work in this area. Nik et al. [23] demonstrate the use of regional climate models in the Swedish context. For most building simulations reported in the literature, use has been made of imposed offset methods. The prevailing approach has been developed by Belcher et al. [24]and is generally known as ‘morphing’. Crawley has applied this method to create climate files to represent the future climate of no less than 25 locations all over the world, covering 20 different climate regions [25]. Chan [26] reports on application of morphing for Hong Kong's subtropical climate. However, morphing is not without criticism. De Dear questions the use of current climate variation onto future decadal changes, and wonders whether global circulation models with a high spatial resolution would not be just as suitable to provide a high temporal resolution [27]. Guan [17] notes the lack of cross correlation between separate weather parameters in the morphing method, and introduces a mixed approach to address this issue. Eames et al. [28] discuss the spatial resolution of climate change prediction and clearly demonstrate a need to take into account the local geographic conditions. Recent work in the field is now demonstrating a direct application of (probabilistic) climate prediction data in building simulation; see for instance Kershaw et al. [29], Tian and de Wilde [30] and Jenkins et al. [31]. Note that an additional impact on climate conditions in cities, amplifying warming conditions, can be expected from the urban heat island (UHI) effect [32], [33] and [34].Studies covering single building types for specific locations are proliferating. While a full overview of all work in this area is beyond the scope of this review article, the following gives a flavour of some of the work that has been published in the main building science journals. For residential buildings, Gaterell and McEvoy [18]present a climate change impact study forexisting detached properties in the UK, while Hacker et al. [37] cover semi-detached homes. Collins et al. [38] also study UK domestic buildings, with a focus on the impact of increased use of cooling. Frank [39] have analysed the potential impact on generic residential buildings in Switzerland. Wang et al. [40] focus on a residential base case building and various more energy efficient variants in Australia, while Chan [26] presents the case for Hong Kong. In the office sector, Radhi [41]has conducted a climate change impact study for air-conditioned buildings in the United Arab Emirates, while Wan et al. [42]cover air-conditioned offices in China; Chan [26] gives the Hong Kong situation. Chow and Levermore [43] have analysed the impact on office buildings in the UK, looking at various existing types of facades and potential upgrades. Frank [39]has also analysed the potential impact of climate change on office buildings in Switzerland. Crawley [25] studies the impact of climate change on a small office building, with ‘low energy’ and ‘developing country’ variants, at the 25 locations all over the world covered by his climate data work. Ouedraogo et al. [44], in one of the few publications that deals with an African nation, have studied the impact of climate change on typicall public and commercial (office) buildings in Burkina Faso. There are less publications covering other building types. Within the UK's TARBASE project, Jenkins et al. [45]have focussed on the overheating risk of future low carbon schools; while Taylor et al. [46]have studied the emissions of UK hotels. Jentsch et al. [47] study a University building. Du et al. [21] cover a wide base of building types, including an airport, accomodation for elderly, hotel, museum, school, prison, archive, theatre, library, hospital as well as homes and offices in the context of developing and testing a future design reference year. However, all these other categories seem to warrant further investigation. The overall conclusions of these studies are wellarticulated by Crawley [25]who states that the impact of climate change will result in a reduction in building energy use of about 10% for buildings in cold climates, an increase of energy use of up to 20% for buildings in the tropics, and a shift from heating energy to cooling energy for buildings in temperate climates. More recently, further work has started to appear that deals with the impact of climate change on specific building systems, especially ventilation. In this category, Lomas and Ji [48] have studied resilience of naturally ventilated buildings in the UK; Barclay et al. [49] have carried out similar work but emphasize the issues associated with wind predictions in using UKCP09 data. Delfani et al. [50] looked at the impact of climate change on evaporative cooling systems in Iran. Kendrick et al. [51]have investigated the impact of thermal mass; Porritt et al. [52] have investigated the interventions in dwellings that would reduce overheating during future heat waves. Smith et al. [53] have studied the impact of climate change on the prospects of evaporative cooling systems. Some research on specific building types and systems is still inconclusive; for instance there are conflicting reports on the impact of climate change on the more energy efficient building variants: Crawley [25] reports that these are less sensitive to change, whereas Wang et al. [40]come to the opposite conclusion. At another scale, climate change impact studies are also applied to an urban level. Zhao et al. [54] discuss the factors that play a role in the urban heat island effect in in Beijing, China, pointing at the Chinese urban planning tradition that dates back 3500 years. Emmanuel and Krüger [55] have studied the UHI developments for Glasgow, UK, and attempt to establish resilience towards future trends. Mourshed [56]reports on the probable consequences for Dhaka, Bangladesh. Finally, novel work outside the realm of thermal behaviour that deals with the impact of climate change on the performance of drainage systems in properties has beenreported by Jack and Kelly [57], with Pyke et al. [58] covering stormwater management in the built environment in a broader sense.3.3. Performance metrics for climate change impact studiesThe overwhelming majority of studies on the impact of climate change on buildings thus far look at relatively straightforward performance indicators: energy use for heating, energy use for cooling, and building overheating. Both energy uses are often combined into one figure for overall energy use, or annual carbon emissions. However, some work is emerging that suggests a need to study alternative or more refined metrics. Lomas and Ji [48] link resilience of passively cooled buildings to their life-expectancy, which can be considered to be a large-scale holistic building performance indicator. McGilligan et al [59]have developed adaptive comfort degree-days to better assess energy consumption under changing climate conditions. At the other end of the spectrum, de Wilde et al. [60] and [61] suggest looking more closely at zonal and temporal resolution of performance indicators, as climate change effects for specific areas in a building might be masked by an overall metric and gradually change over time. They also identify a need to link thermal performance to other aspects like predicted performance for office work [60], similar to links with health effects as described by McMichael et al [2]. Almas et al. [62]combine regional climate models with building stock models to quantify the risk of wood decay in timber structures, bypassing the study of single buildings. An additional avenue of research is the study of the balance between embodied CO2and operational CO2 emissions; initial work in this direction is presented by Hacker et al. [37], with more recent work reported by Williams et al. [63]. Other recognized areas of interestassociated with the impact of climate change on building performance are risk-based categories like vulnerability, damage potential and reversibility [64]; performance indicators in these areas largely still remain to be developed.3.4. Further workMany authors mention the inherent uncertainties in climate change impact studies. For instance Lisø reminds us that ‘ there are large uncertainties associated with the future performance of buildings due to changes in regional- and local-scale climatic impact’ [64]. Guan [17]points out that ‘unlike most other scientific work, projections of climate change cannot be validated, since they do not relate to a currently replicable event’. Jentsch et al. [47] show that as a consequence predictions might look flawed or meaningless, for instance in a case where results for the past summer of 2006 show a worse performance than the predicted hot summer of 2050. Yet surprisingly few researchers are taking this issue into account and developing a probabilistic approach [65]. Some initial work in this area is described by de Wilde and Tian [60], [66] and [67].As is the case in much building simulation work, dealing with the human factor remains an issue needing further attention. De Dear [27] points out the need to look more closely at the modelling of the interaction of building occupants with building systems, as this interaction is likely to change with the climate conditions.On a more generic level, Morton et al. [68] have looked at the beliefs about climate change in a large international engineering firm and studied how this might impact any actions taken within the building industry.4. Content of the special issueThe special issue starts with a series of climate change impact assessment studies that cover individual buildings, building systems as well as the urban realm.For individual buildings, Guan [69]has conducted climate change impact studies for air-conditioned offices in Australia. Using sensitivity analysis, she concludes that a key area for adaptation to climate change is reduction of the internal heat load, with lighting load and plug load being particular targets. Gupta and Gregg [70] present a climate change impact study for English homes, studying the risks posed by climate change as a combination of hazard, vulnerability and exposure. Amongst various adaptation measures they find user-controlled shading to be the most efficient alternative approach. However, they also find that overheating risk cannot be completely eliminated. Huijbregts et al. [71]present climate change impact studies for museums, analysing the risk of climate change to museum collections housed in historic buildings. They highlight the importance of increased relative humidity, which raises the prospects of mould growth and mechanical damage to objects. Lomas and Giridharan [72] focus on the potential impact of climate change on the internal temperatures in hospital wards, which is crucial since these are occupied by vulnerable people. They present a methodology to assess thermal comfort in depth under both present and future climate conditions. A case study, Addenbrooke hospital, shows the alignment of monitoring, modelling and calibration,and the use of simulation with climate projections to ensure that these hospital wards are resilient to climate change. The companion paper to Lomas and Giridharan by Short et al. [73] continues on the subject of resilience of hospitals towards climate change, using the same case study (Addenbrooke hospital), but takes a more holistic environmental performance view, moving beyond thermal comfort only. The paper analyses various refurbishment strategies that have can be applied to maintain performance, positioning them in a line of previous interventions. The authors conclude that full air conditioning is not necessary, and undesirable from an energy efficiency point of view. Nik et al. [74] have developed a hygro-thermal model to analyse mould growth risk as a consequence of climate change for attics in Swedish homes. Their work predicts that current mould growth problems will only increase with further climate change. Various options are presented to reduce this mould growth risk, with mechanical ventilation being the safest solution.At the building system level, Hanby and Smith [75] use a probabilistic approach to study the potential of evaporative cooling systems to cool a single zone office building under future climate conditions. They conclude that present plant configuration and capacity are viable into the 2050s, but also note that it is likely that by then systems will have been updated or replaced with more efficient technology.At the urban level, Mavrogianni [76] et al investigate a broad range of domestic buildings that represent the housing stock in London. The work establishes a correlation between building geometry, building age and overheating risk. It also highlights the role of insulation levels as well as the position of this insulation in overheating, and points out the need to take this intoaccount when upgrading dwellings to reduce heating energy use. Williams et al. [77] study the risk posed by climate change to UK suburbs with a focus on increased temperatures and heat waves, changes in precipitation and extreme weather events, and also consider adaptation and mitigation options. Apart from the typical focus on technical aspects they also consider the societal aspects, which is particularly important where the object of investigation is homes. Other work addresses the impact of climate change on building design and policy. Pyke et al.[78]approach climate change from the perspective of the voluntary LEED green building certification system. They present a climate sensitivity index and a climate adaptation opportunity index that add climate change impact credits to the LEED rating. They apply these indices to a set of certified projects, with yields interesting results in terms of regional sensitivity and opportunities within the US building stock. Robert and Kummert [79] conduct a climate change impact study for a net-zero energy building, demonstrating that changing climate conditions can cause designs in this category to miss their high-profile target. Finally, the special issue contains work that aims to fill in some of the fundamental blanks in our knowledge base on the implications of climate change for buildings. Coley et al. [80] study the prospects of structural and behavioural adaptations to help a school and domestic property cope with climate change. They conclude that for the UKCP09 climate projections behavioural adaptations are capable of compensating for errors in the climate change prediction; however they stress that both approaches must be taken into account when designing buildings that need to be resilient towards climate change. De Wilde and Tian [81] also investigate the role of uncertainties in climate risk impact assessments, but with a view towards facilitiesmanagement. They find that maintenance, system degradation, system upgrades and renovation are key issues that limit the present predictive capabilities and need deeper investigation. They also find that more advanced performance indicators, such as ‘time to intervention’, might be more appropriate for climate change imp act studies than simple indicators as annual energy use and overheating hours. Steenbergen et al. [82]break new ground by investigating the relationship between climate change and the design wind speed used for structural building engineering calculations, noting that future trends in wind speeds have not yet been including in the building regulations. Their approach to deal with extreme events is transferable to other building science domains such as overheating studies.The contributions in this special issue demonstrate a global interest in the impact of projected climate change on buildings, with contributions from Northern Europe, North America, and Australia. It is notable that many contributions stem from the UK. Apart from a potential bias by the fact that this special issue was initiated from within the UK, there might be other factors that contribute to this effect. One is the prominent role of the UK scientists in climate change projections themselves, which could drive an enhanced interest of policy makers and the general society in related research. This in turn could be leading to more interest in climate change related research in the UK's building science community. Another factor is that climate change is likely to be felt to be of importance in countries that might experience a shift from predominantly heating to predominantly cooling of their buildings. Unfortunately the majority of the work thus far, whether in literature in general or in this special issue, has centred on locations and societies that are expected to be—through either pre-existing climate or wealth—the best able to cope with climate change. Areas like Africa, which is predicted toexperience a rise in mean average temperatures roughly 1.5 times the global mean response [6]and which have large populations living in naturally ventilated, low mass buildings, are particularly unrepresented.Common findings across the various papers in this special issue are:A warning that many existent rules and regulations are based on historical climatedata;The conclusion that existing performance metrics need to be handled carefully, taking into account adaptations in human perception of thermal comfort/discomfort;A general statement of the need to conduct more climate change impact studies, tocover (A) a wider range of building types, configurations and systems and (B) further climate scenarios for additional locations.The observation that building maintenance, renovation and repair play an important role in ensuring building performance in the long term, and thus have a significant impact on adaptation of buildings to climate change.In terms of knowledge gaps, we are warned that it is important to balance the efforts invested in climate change impact studies (and increasingly detailed and sophisticated approaches) with actual benefits to practice. Additionally, researchers in building science need to remain critical regarding the climate projections provided by climate change experts; for instance we。
基础设施和城市建设方面的英语
IntroductionInfrastructure and urban development play a pivotal role in shaping the economic, social, and environmental fabric of modern societies. The pursuit of high-quality and high-standard infrastructure is not merely an aesthetic or technical aspiration but an essential prerequisite for sustainable growth, improved living standards, and enhanced resilience. This comprehensive analysis delves into the various dimensions that underpin the attainment of such benchmarks, considering factors ranging from planning and design, technological innovation, environmental sustainability, financial management, to social inclusivity and governance.I. Planning and Design ExcellenceA. Long-term Vision and Strategic PlanningHigh-quality infrastructure and cities necessitate a long-term vision that transcends short-term political cycles. Strategic planning should encompass comprehensive land use policies, integrated transportation networks, efficient utility systems, and adaptable public spaces. It must align with broader national and regional development goals while responding to local needs and aspirations. Furthermore, incorporating scenario planning and risk assessment can ensure infrastructure projects withstand future uncertainties, such as demographic shifts, climate change, and technological disruptions.B. Evidence-based Decision-making and Data-driven DesignInnovative tools like Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Building Information Modelling (BIM), and Big Data analytics enable planners and designers to make informed decisions based on accurate, real-time data. These technologies facilitate optimized resource allocation, enhance project efficiency, and reduce potential conflicts during construction and operation. Moreover, they empower stakeholders to visualize and evaluate alternative designs, fostering consensus-building and enhancing public engagement in the decision-making process.C. Human-centric and Context-sensitive DesignHigh-quality infrastructure and urban spaces prioritize user experience, accessibility, safety, and comfort. Adopting principles of Universal Design ensures facilities cater to diverse user groups, including individuals with disabilities, the elderly, and children. Similarly, context-sensitive design respects the local cultural heritage, topography, and ecological systems, creating unique and harmonious built environments that foster a sense of place and community identity.II. Technological Innovation and Smart InfrastructureA. Digitalization and AutomationThe integration of digital technologies, such as Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Machine Learning (ML), transforms traditional infrastructure into intelligent, responsive systems. Smart grids, intelligent transportation systems, and connected public services enhance operational efficiency, reduce maintenance costs, and improve service quality. Additionally, these technologies facilitate real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and rapid response to emergencies, contributing to increased resilience and safety.B. Renewable Energy and Energy EfficiencyTransitioning towards renewable energy sources and implementing energy-efficient technologies are fundamental to achieving high-standard infrastructure and sustainable cities. Solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels. Energy-efficient buildings, smart lighting systems, and electric mobility infrastructure further contribute to carbon neutrality targets and lower energy costs for citizens.C. Circular Economy and Resource EfficiencyPromoting circular economy principles in infrastructure development involves minimizing resource consumption, maximizing material reuse and recycling, and reducing waste generation. Green building materials, modular construction methods, and lifecycle assessments support this transition.Furthermore, innovative waste management solutions, such as waste-to-energy plants and composting facilities, can transform waste streams into valuable resources, closing the loop and fostering a more sustainable urban metabolism.III. Environmental Sustainability and ResilienceA. Climate Adaptation and MitigationInfrastructure projects must be designed and constructed to withstand extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and other climate-related challenges. Measures such as green roofs, permeable pavements, rain gardens, and flood-resistant building techniques can mitigate urban heat islands, manage stormwater runoff, and enhance coastal protection. Additionally, promoting low-carbon transport modes, green spaces, and biodiversity conservation can contribute to carbon sequestration and urban cooling, thereby mitigating the urban heat island effect.B. Biodiversity Conservation and Green InfrastructureIntegrating green infrastructure – such as parks, green corridors, and wetlands –into urban planning enhances ecosystem services, supports biodiversity, and improves human well-being. Green spaces serve as vital carbon sinks, air purifiers, and urban cooling agents while providing recreational opportunities and enhancing community cohesion. Moreover, they can help preserve and restore native ecosystems, protecting urban biodiversity and ensuring the long-term ecological resilience of cities.IV. Financial Management and Public-Private PartnershipsA. Sustainable Financing ModelsSecuring adequate funding for high-quality infrastructure requires innovative financing mechanisms, such as public-private partnerships (PPPs), municipal bonds, infrastructure banks, and value capture instruments. These models can leverage private capital, diversify risk, and promote cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, integrating life-cycle costing and performance-based contracts can ensure infrastructure projects deliver long-term value for money and incentivize continuous improvement.B. Transparent and Accountable GovernanceEffective governance is crucial for delivering high-standard infrastructure and urban development. Transparent decision-making processes, robust regulatory frameworks, and independent oversight mechanisms can prevent corruption, safeguard public interests, and ensure project accountability. Engaging citizens, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders in planning and monitoring activities fosters trust, promotes social license, and enhances project acceptance.V. Social Inclusivity and Community EngagementA. Equitable Access and Social IntegrationHigh-quality infrastructure should provide equitable access to essential services, amenities, and opportunities for all socio-economic groups. This includes affordable housing, public transportation, healthcare facilities, and educational institutions. Moreover, infrastructure projects should facilitate social mixing and prevent spatial segregation, fostering inclusive communities where diverse populations can interact and thrive.B. Community Participation and Co-creationEngaging communities in the planning, design, and implementation of infrastructure projects empowers residents, enhances project responsiveness to local needs, and fosters a sense of ownership and pride. Participatory approaches, such as community workshops, charrettes, and online platforms, can facilitate meaningful dialogue, knowledge exchange, and collaborative decision-making. Ensuring marginalized groups have a voice in these processes is particularly crucial for addressing historical injustices and promoting social equity.ConclusionAchieving high-quality and high-standard infrastructure and urban development necessitates a holistic, multidimensional approach that encompasses planning and design excellence, technological innovation, environmental sustainability, sound financial management, transparent governance, and social inclusivity. By embracing these principles and fostering collaboration amongstakeholders, cities can create resilient, livable, and sustainable environments that enhance the well-being of current and future generations.。
urbanstructuremodels城市三大结构
不同的活動有不同的付租金能 力
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Conclusion
Small town : concentric zones 同心 環區域
Medium : sectors 扇狀形式 Large : multiple nuclei pattern 多核
Dominance 凌越:functional zoning
功能分區
residential segregation 住宅區分隔
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Invasion 侵佔 & succession 演替 Richer moved outwards from center 富有的人離開巿中心向外遷 the poor moved in and occupied the
3
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Ideas : Ideas of ecology 生態學概念
: Competition 競爭, : Dominance 凌越 / 支配 : Invasion 侵佔 : Succession 演替
5
Competition 競爭:limited space 有限 空間 (high accessibility 能達度高)
工業區以扇狀形態出現
self-contained social entities / satellite towns
自給自足的社會組合 / 衛星城市
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24
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Sector model 扇形模式
2 American cities 美國城市 in 1939 difference in accessibility / transport
route development 不同的能達度 / 交通幹線的發展
Urbanization The Evolution of Cities
Urbanization The Evolution of Cities Urbanization: The Evolution of Cities Urbanization is a complex and fascinating phenomenon that has transformed the landscape of our planet. It refers to the process of population concentration in urban areas, leading to the growth and development of cities. This process has been ongoing for centuries and has had a profound impact on various aspects of human life. In this essay, we will explore the evolution of cities through the lens of urbanization, considering multiple perspectives. From a historical perspective, urbanization can be traced back to the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. These early urban centers emerged as a result of agricultural surplus, trade, and the need for centralized governance. The growth of cities in these ancient civilizations laid the foundation for the urbanization process that continues to this day. One perspective on urbanization is that it has been a driver of economic growth and technological advancement. As cities grow, they become hubs of economic activity, attracting businesses, industries, and skilled labor. This concentration of resources and talent fosters innovation and entrepreneurship, leading to economic prosperity. The rise of industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries, for example, was closely linked to the rapid urbanization of Western countries. Cities became centers of manufacturing, trade, and finance, driving economic development on a global scale. However, urbanization is not without its challenges. One of the most pressing issues associated with urban growth is the strain it places on infrastructure and resources. As cities expand, there is a need for adequate housing, transportation, healthcare, and other essential services. The rapid pace of urbanization in many developing countries has often outpaced the ability of governments to provide these basic amenities, leading to overcrowding, slums, and inadequate living conditions for many urban dwellers. This has resulted in social inequality and a stark divide between the wealthy and the marginalized. Another perspective on urbanization is its impact on the environment. As cities expand, they encroach upon natural habitats, leading to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and increased pollution. The concentration of industries and vehicles in urban areas also contributes to air and water pollution, exacerbating climate change and posing health risks to urban populations. However, it isimportant to note that cities also have the potential to be more sustainable than rural areas, as they can benefit from economies of scale and efficient resource management. With proper planning and investment in green infrastructure, cities can mitigate their environmental impact and become models of sustainability. Urbanization also has social and cultural implications. Cities are melting pots of diverse cultures, languages, and traditions. They attract people from different backgrounds, fostering social interaction, tolerance, and cultural exchange. The vibrant arts, music, and culinary scenes in cities are often a reflection of this cultural diversity. However, urbanization can also lead to the erosion of traditional customs and values, as rural migrants assimilate into the urban way of life. This can result in a loss of cultural heritage and identity for some communities. In conclusion, urbanization is a multifaceted process that has shaped the world we live in today. It has been a catalyst for economic growth, technological advancement, and cultural exchange. However, it has also presented challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, environmental degradation, andsocial inequality. To ensure sustainable and inclusive urban development, governments, urban planners, and communities must work together to address these challenges. By investing in infrastructure, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering social cohesion, cities can continue to evolve and thrive, while preserving their unique identities and improving the quality of life for their residents.。
城市化带来的挑战与机遇英文作文
Title: Challenges and Opportunities of UrbanizationUrbanization, the rapid growth of cities driven by population migration from rural to urban areas, presents a complex array of challenges and opportunities for societies worldwide.Firstly, urbanization strains infrastructure and public services. Rapid urban growth leads to increased demands for housing, transportation, sanitation, and healthcare, often outpacing the capacity of local governments to provide adequate services. Addressing these challenges requires innovative urban planning, investment in sustainable infrastructure, and efficient resource management.Secondly, urbanization contributes to environmental degradation and resource depletion. Urban sprawl encroaches upon natural habitats, leading to biodiversity loss and increased pollution levels. Mitigating these impacts involves promoting green urban design, implementing energy-efficient technologies, and adopting sustainable waste management practices to minimize the ecological footprint of cities.Furthermore, urbanization exacerbates socio-economic inequalities. Informal settlements and slums emerge as marginalized populations seek housing in urban areas, facing inadequate access to basic services and socio-economic opportunities. Enhancing social inclusivity requires policies that promote affordable housing, equitable access to education and healthcare, and economic opportunities for all urban residents.Additionally, urbanization fosters cultural diversity and innovation hubs. Cities serve as centers of creativity, knowledge exchange, and cultural interaction, attracting diverse talent and fostering entrepreneurial ecosystems. Leveraging urban diversity and creativity can drive economic growth, technological innovation, and cultural enrichment on a global scale.Moreover, urbanization transforms lifestyles and consumer behaviors. Urban residents benefit from greater access to amenities, cultural institutions, entertainment, and diverse consumer goods. This urban lifestyle trend influences consumer preferences, shapes market dynamics, and fuels economic activities that support local businesses and global markets.Lastly, urbanization poses governance and management challenges. Effective urban governance requires collaborative decision-making, transparency, and accountability to address the needs of diverse urban populations. Smart city initiatives, digital technologies, and data-driven governance models can enhance urban management efficiency and responsiveness to citizen needs.In conclusion, while urbanization brings about significant challenges related to infrastructure, environment, inequality, and governance, it also presents opportunities for economic development, cultural enrichment, and sustainable innovation. By adopting inclusive urban planning strategies, promoting environmental stewardship, and fostering social cohesion, cities can harness the transformative potential of urbanization to create resilient, livable, and inclusive urban environments for future generations.。
2016年考研英语一真题答案解析及翻译大师兄版
2016年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语一试题Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text.Choose the best word(s)for each numbered blank and mark[A],[B],[C]or[D]on the ANSWER SHEET.(10points)In Cambodia,the choice of a spouse is a complex one for the young male.It may involve not only his parents and his friends,1those of the young woman,but also a matchmaker.A man can2a likely spouse on his own and then ask his parents to3the marriage negotiations,or the young man’s parents may make the choice of a spouse,giving the child little to say in the selection.4,a girl may veto the spouse her parents have chosen.5a spouse has been selected,each family investigates the other to make sure its child is marrying6a good family.The traditional wedding is a long and colorful affair.Formerly it lasted three days,7by the1980s it more commonly lasted a day and a half.Buddhist priests offer a short sermon and8prayers of blessing. Parts of the ceremony involve ritual hair cutting,9cotton threads soaked in holy water around the bride’s and groom’s wrists,and10a candle around a circle of happily married and respected couples to bless the 11.Newlyweds traditionally move in with the wife’s parents and may12with them up to a year, 13they can build a new house nearby.Divorce is legal and easy to14,but not common.Divorced persons are15with some disapproval. Each spouse retains16property he or she17into the marriage,and jointly-acquired property is 18equally.Divorced persons may remarry,but a gender discrimination19up:The divorced male doesn’t have a waiting period before he can remarry20the woman must wait ten months.1.[A]by way of[B]on behalf of[C]as well as[D]with regard to2.[A]adapt to[B]provide for[C]compete with[D]decide on3.[A]close[B]renew[C]arrange[D]postpone4.[A]Above all[B]In theory[C]In time[D]For example5.[A]Although[B]Lest[C]After[D]Unless6.[A]into[B]within[C]from[D]through7.[A]since[B]but[C]or[D]so8.[A]copy[B]test[C]recite[D]create9.[A]folding[B]piling[C]wrapping[D]tying10.[A]passing[B]lighting[C]hiding[D]serving11.[A]meeting[B]collection[C]association[D]union12.[A]grow[B]part[C]deal[D]live13.[A]whereas[B]until[C]if[D]for14.[A]obtain[B]follow[C]challenge[D]avoid15.[A]isolated[B]persuaded[C]viewed[D]exposed16.[A]whatever[B]however[C]whenever[D]wherever17.[A]changed[B]brought[C]shaped[D]pushed18.[A]withdrawn[B]invested[C]donated[D]divided19.[A]breaks[B]warns[C]shows[D]clears20.[A]so that[B]while[C]once[D]in thatSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts.Answer the questions below each text by choosing[A],[B],[C]or[D].Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET.(40points)Text1France,which prides itself as the global innovator of fashion,has decided its fashion industry has lost an absolute right to define physical beauty for women.Its lawmakers gave preliminary approval last week to a law that would make it a crime to employ ultra-thin models on runways.The parliament also agreed to ban websites that“incite excessive thinness”by promoting extreme dieting.Such measures have a couple of uplifting motives.They suggest beauty should not be defined by looks that end up impinging on health.That's a start.And the ban on ultra-thin models seems to go beyond protecting models from starving themselves to death-as some have done.It tells the fashion industry that it must take responsibility for the signal it sends women,especially teenage girls,about the social tape-measure they must use to determine their individual worth.The bans,if fully enforced,would suggest to women(and many men)that they should not let others be arbiters of their beauty.And perhaps faintly,they hint that people should look to intangible qualities like character and intellect rather than dieting their way to size zero or wasp-waist physiques.The French measures,however,rely too much on severe punishment to change a culture that still regards beauty as skin-deep-and bone-showing.Under the law,using a fashion model that does not meet a government-defined index of body mass could result in a$85,000fine and six months in prison.The fashion industry knows it has an inherent problem in focusing on material adornment and idealized body types.In Denmark,the United States,and a few other countries,it is trying to set voluntary standards for models and fashion images that rely more on peer pressure for enforcement.In contrast to France’s actions,Denmark’s fashion industry agreed last month on rules and sanctions regarding the age,health,and other characteristics of models.The newly revised Danish Fashion Ethical Charter clearly states:“We are aware of and take responsibility for the impact the fashion industry has on body ideals, especially on young people.”The charter’s main tool of enforcement is to deny access for designers and modeling agencies to Copenhagen Fashion Week(CFW),which is run by the Danish Fashion Institute.But in general it relies on a name-and-shame method of compliance.Relying on ethical persuasion rather than law to address the misuse of body ideals may be the best step.Even better would be to help elevate notions of beauty beyond the material standards of a particular industry.21.According to the first paragraph,what would happen in France?[A]New runways would be constructed.[B]Physical beauty would be redefined.[C]Websites about dieting would thrive.[D]The fashion industry would decline.22.The phrase“impinging on”(Line2,Para.2)is closest in meaning to_____.[A]heightening the value of[B]indicating the state of[C]losing faith in[D]doing harm to23.Which of the following is true of the fashion industry?[A]New standards are being set in Denmark.[B]The French measures have already failed.[C]Models are no longer under peer pressure.[D]Its inherent problems are getting worse.24.A designer is most likely to be rejected by CFW for_____.[A]pursuing perfect physical conditions.[B]caring too much about models’character.2016年考研英语一真题及大师兄版解析29.The author holds that George Osborne’s preference_____.[A]reveals a strong prejudice against urban areas.[B]shows his disregard for the character of rural areas.[C]stresses the necessity of easing the housing crisis.[D]highlights his firm stand against lobby pressure.30.In the last paragraph,the author shows his appreciation of_____.[A]the size of population in Britain[B]the political life in today’s Britain[C]the enviable urban lifestyle in Britain[D]the town-and-country planning in BritainText3“There is one and only one social responsibility of business,”wrote Milton Friedman,a Nobel Prize-winning economist,“That is,to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits.”But even if you accept Friedman’s premise and regard corporate social responsibility(CSR)policies as a waste of shareholders’money,things may not be absolutely clear-cut.New research suggests that CSR may create monetary value for companies—at least when they are prosecuted for corruption.The largest firms in America and Britain together spend more than$15billion a year on CSR,according to an estimate by EPG,a consulting firm.This could add value to their businesses in three ways.First,consumers may take CSR spending as a“signal”that a company’s products are of high quality.Second,customers may be willing to buy a company’s products as an indirect way to donate to the good causes it helps.And third,through a more diffuse“halo effect,”whereby its good deeds earn it greater consideration from consumers and others.Previous studies on CSR have had trouble differentiating these effects because consumers can be affected by all three.A recent study attempts to separate them by looking at bribery prosecutions under America’s Foreign Corrupt Practices Act(FCPA).It argues that since prosecutors do not consume a company’s products as part of their investigations,they could be influenced only by the halo effect.The study found that,among prosecuted firms,those with the most comprehensive CSR programmes tended to get more lenient penalties.Their analysis ruled out the possibility that it was firms’political influence,rather than their CSR stand,that accounted for the leniency:Companies that contributed more to political campaigns did not receive lower fines.In all,the study concludes that whereas prosecutors should only evaluate a case based on its merits,they do seem to be influenced by a company’s record in CSR.“We estimate that either eliminating a substantial labour-rights concern,such as child labour,or increasing corporate giving by about20%results in fines that generally are40%lower than the typical punishment for bribing foreign officials,”says one researcher.Researchers admit that their study does not answer the question of how much businesses ought to spend on CSR.Nor does it reveal how much companies are banking on the halo effect,rather than the other possible benefits,when they decide their do-gooding policies.But at least they have demonstrated that when companies get into trouble with the law,evidence of good character can win them a less costly punishment.31.The author views Milton Friedman’s statement about CSR with_____.[A]tolerance[B]skepticism[C]uncertainty[D]approval32.According to Paragraph2,CSR helps a company by_____.[A]guarding it against malpractices[B]protecting it from consumers[C]winning trust from consumers[D]raising the quality of its products33.The expression“more lenient”(Line2,Para.4)is closest in meaning to_____.[A]more effective[B]less controversial[C]less severe[D]more lasting34.When prosecutors evaluate a case,a company’s CSR record_____.[A]legacy businesses are becoming outdated.[B]cautiousness facilitates problem-solving.[C]aggressiveness better meets challenges.[D]traditional luxuries can stay unaffected.40.Which of the following would be the best title of the text?_____.[A]Shift to Online Newspapers All at Once[B]Cherish the Newspapers Still in Your Hand[C]Make Your Print Newspapers a Luxury Good[D]Keep Your Newspapers Forever in FashionPart BDirections:Read the following text and answer the questions by choosing the most suitable subheading from the list A-G for each of the numbered paragraphs(41-45).There are two extra subheadings.Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET.(10point)[A]Create a new image of yourself[B]Have confidence in yourself[C]Decide if the time is right[D]Understand the context[E]Work with professionals[F]Make it efficient[G]Know your goalsNo matter how formal or informal the work environment,the way you present yourself has an impact.This is especially true in the first impressions.According to research from Princeton University,people assess your competence,trustworthiness,and likeability in just a tenth of a second,solely based on the way you look.The difference between today’s workplace and the“dress for success”era is that the range of options is so much broader.Norms have evolved and fragmented.In some settings,red sneakers or dress T-shirts can convey status;in others not so much.Plus,whatever image we present is magnified by social-media services like LinkedIn.Chances are,your headshots are seen much more often now than a decade or two lennials,it seems,face the paradox of being the least formal generation yet the most conscious of style and personal branding. It can be confusing.So how do we navigate this?How do we know when to invest in an upgrade?And what’s the best way to pull off one that enhances our goals?Here are some tips:41.__________________As an executive coach,I’ve seen image upgrades be particular helpful during transitions—when looking for a new job,stepping into a new or more public role,or changing work environments.If you’re in a period of change or just feeling stuck and in a rut,now may be a good time.If you’re not sure,ask for honest feedback from trusted friends,colleagues and professionals.Look for cues about how others perceive you.Maybe there’s no need for an upgrade and that’s OK.42.__________________Get clear on what impact you’re hoping to have.Are you looking to refresh your image or pivot it?For one person,the goal may be to be taken more seriously and enhance their professional image.For another,it may be to be perceived as more approachable,or more modern and stylish.For someone moving from finance to advertising, maybe they want to look more“SoHo.”(It’s OK to use characterizations like that.)43.__________________Look at your work environment like an anthropologist.What are the norms of your environment?What conveys status?Who are your most important audiences?How do the people you respect and look up to present themselves?The better you understand the cultural context,the more control you can have over your impact.44.__________________Enlist the support of professionals and share with them your goals and context.Hire a personal stylist,or use the free styling service of a store like J.Crew.Try a hair stylist instead of a barber.Work with a professional photographer instead of your spouse or friend.It’s not as expensive as you might think.45.__________________The point of a style upgrade isn’t to become more vain or to spend more time fussing over what to wear. Instead,use it as an opportunity to reduce decision fatigue.Pick a standard work uniform or a few go-to options. Buy all your clothes at once with a stylist instead of shopping alone,one article of clothing at a time.Section III TranslationDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese.Your translation should be written clearly on the ANSWER SHEET.(10points)Mental health is our birthright.(46)We don’t have to learn how to be mentally healthy;it is built into us in the same way that our bodies know how to heal a cut or mend,a broken bone.Mental health can’t be learned,only reawakened.It is like immune system of the body,which under stress or through lack of nutrition or exercise can be weakened,but which never leaves us.When we don’t understand the value of mental health and we don’t know how to gain access to it,mental health will remain hidden from us.(47)Our mental health doesn’t go anywhere; like the sun behind a cloud,it can be temporarily hidden from view,but it is fully capable of being restored in an instant.Mental health is the seed that contains self-esteem–confidence in ourselves and an ability to trust in our common sense.It allows us to have perspective on our lives—the ability to not take ourselves too seriously,to laugh at ourselves,to see the bigger picture,and to see that things will work out.It’s a form of innate or unlearned optimism.(48)Mental health allows us to view others with sympathy if they are having troubles,with kindness if they are in pain,and with unconditional love no matter who they are.Mental health is the source of creativity for solving problems,resolving conflict,making our surroundings more beautiful,managing our home life,or coming up with a creative business idea or invention to make our lives easier.It gives us patience for ourselves and toward others as well as patience while driving,catching a fish,working on our car,or raising a child.It allows us to see the beauty that surrounds us each moment in nature,in culture,in the flow of our daily lives.(49)Although mental health is the cure-all for living our lives,it is perfectly ordinary as you will see that it has been there to direct you through all your difficult decisions.It has been available even in the most mundane of life situations to show you right from wrong,good from bad,friend from foe.Mental health has commonly been called conscience,instinct,wisdom,common sense,or the inner voice.We think of it simply as a healthy and helpful flow of intelligent thought.(50)As you will come to see,knowing that mental health is always available and knowing to trust it allow us to slow down to the moment and live life happily.SectionⅣWritingPart A51.Directions:Suppose you are a librarian in your university.Write a notice of about100words providing the newly-enrolled international students with relevant information about the library.You should write neatly on the ANSWER SHEET.Do not sign your own name at the end of the e“Li Ming”instead.Do not write the address.(10points)Part B52.Directions:Write an essay of160-200words based on the following pictures.In your essay you should1)describe the drawing briefly,2)explain its intended meaning,and3)give your comments.You should write neatly on the ANSWER SHEET.(20points)2016年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语一试题大师兄版参考答案Section I Use of English(10points)1.A B C D2.A B C D3.A B C D4.A B C D5.A B C D6.A B C D7.A B C D8.A B C D9.A B C D10.A B C D11.A B C D12.A B C D13.A B C D14.A B C D15.A B C D16.A B C D17.A B C D18.A B C D19.A B C D20.A B C DSection II Reading Comprehension(50points)Part A(40points)21.A B C D22.A B C D23.A B C D24.A B C D25.A B C D26.A B C D27.A B C D28.A B C D29.A B C D30.A B C D31.A B C D32.A B C D33.A B C D34.A B C D35.A B C D36.A B C D37.A B C D38.A B C D39.A B C D40.A B C DPart B(10points)41.A B C D E F G42.A B C D E F G43.A B C D E F G44.A B C D E F G45.A B C D E F G注:第29题有争议,大师兄版选B,新东方版、沪江版选A。
专题04阅读理解D篇(说明文)高考英语真题题源解密(新高考卷)(原题版)
专题04 阅读理解D篇〔说明文〕〔2023·新高考卷I阅读理解D篇〕On March 7, 1907, the English statistician Francis Galton published a paper which illustrated what has e to be known as the “wisdom of crowds〞effect. The experiment of estimation he conducted showed that in some cases, the average of a large number of independent estimates could be quite accurate.This effect capitalizes on the fact that when people make errors, those errors aren’t always the same. Some people will tend to overestimate, and some to underestimate. When enough of these errors are averaged together, they cancel each other out, resulting in a more accurate estimate. If people are similar and tend to make the same errors, then their errors won’t cancel each other out. In more technical terms, the wisdom of crowds requires that people’s estimates be independent. If for whatever reasons, people’s errors bee correlated or dependent, the accuracy of the estimate will go down.But a new study led by Joaquin Navajas offered an interesting twist (转折) on this classic phenomenon. The key finding of the study was that when crowds were further divided into smaller groups that were allowed to have a discussion, the averages from these groups were more accurate than those from an equal number of independent individuals. For instance, the average obtained from the estimates of four discussion groups of five was significantly more accurate than the average obtained from 20 independent individuals.In a followup study with 100 university students, the researchers tried to get a better sense of what the group members actually did in their discussion. Did they tend to go with those most confident about their estimates? Did they follow those least willing to change their minds? This happened some of the time, but it wasn’t the dominant response. Most frequently, the groups reported that they “shared arguments and reasoned together.〞Somehow, these arguments and reasoning resulted in a global reduction in error. Although the studies led by Navajas have limitations and many questions remain, the potential implications for group discussion and decisionmaking are enormous.32. What is paragraph 2 of the text mainly about?A. The methods of estimation.B. The underlying logic of the effect.C. The causes of people’s errors.D. The design of Galton’s experiment.33. Navajas’ study found that the average accuracy could increase even if ________.A. the crowds were relatively smallB. there were occasional underestimatesC. individuals did not municateD. estimates were not fully independent34. What did the followup study focus on?A. The size of the groups.B. The dominant members.C. The discussion process.D. The individual estimates.35. What is the author’s attitude toward Navajas’ studies?A. Unclear.B. Dismissive.C. Doubtful.D. Approving.〔2023·新高考卷II阅读理解D篇〕As cities balloon with growth, access to nature for people living in urban areas is being harder to find. If you’re lucky, there might be a pocket park near where you live, but it’s unusual to find places in a city that are relatively wild.Past research has found health and wellness benefits of nature for humans, but a new study shows that wildness in urban areas is extremely important for human wellbeing.The research team focused on a large urban park. They surveyed several hundred parkgoers, asking them to submit a written summary online of a meaningful interaction they had with nature in the park. The researchers then examined these submissions, coding (编码) experiences into different categories. For example, one participant’s experience of “We sat and listened to the waves at the beach for a while〞was assigned the categories “sitting at beach〞 and “listening to waves.〞Across the 320 submissions, a pattern of categories the researchers call a “nature language〞 began to emerge. After the coding of all submissions, half a dozen categories were noted most often as important to visitors. These include encountering wildlife, walking along the edge of water, and following an established trail.Naming each nature experience creates a usable language, which helps people recognize and take part in the activities that are most satisfying and meaningful to them. For example, the experience of walking along the edge of water might be satisfying for a young professional on a weekend hike in the park. Back downtown during a workday, they can enjoy a more domestic form of this interaction by walking along a fountain on their lunch break.“We’re trying to generate a language that helps bring the humannature interactions back into our daily lives. And for that to happen, we also need to protect nature so that we can interact with it,〞 said Peter Kahn, a senior author of the study.32. What phenomenon does the author describe at the beginning of the text?A. Pocket parks are now popular.B. Wild nature is hard to find in cities.C. Many cities are overpopulated.D. People enjoy living close to nature.33. Why did the researchers code participant submissions into categories?A. To pare different types of parkgoers.B. To explain why the park attracts tourists.C. To analyze the main features of the park.D. To find patterns in the visitors’ summaries.34. What can we learn from the example given in paragraph 5?A. Walking is the best way to gain access to nature.B. Young people are too busy to interact with nature.C. The same nature experience takes different forms.D. The nature language enhances work performance.35. What should be done before we can interact with nature according to Kahn?A. Language study.B. Environmental conservation.C. Public education.D. Intercultural munication.【命题意图】试卷所选阅读语篇围绕人与自我、人与社会、人与自然三大主题语境。
城市化带来什么问题以及如何解决英语作文
城市化带来什么问题以及如何解决英语作文全文共3篇示例,供读者参考篇1The Challenges and Solutions of UrbanizationAs a student witnessing the rapid urbanization unfolding in many parts of the world, I cannot help but ponder the profound implications of this phenomenon. While the allure of city life holds the promise of economic opportunities and a higher standard of living, the process of urbanization presents a multitude of challenges that demand our attention and innovative solutions.One of the most pressing issues arising from urbanization is the strain on infrastructure and resources. As rural populations migrate to urban areas in search of better prospects, cities often struggle to accommodate the influx of people. Housing shortages, overcrowded transportation systems, and overburdened public utilities become increasingly common. The lack of affordable housing forces many to reside in informal settlements or slums, which frequently lack access to basic amenities such as clean water, sanitation, and electricity.Furthermore, the concentration of people and economic activities in cities contributes to environmental degradation. Air pollution from vehicular emissions and industrial activities poses a significant threat to public health, exacerbating respiratory illnesses and contributing to climate change. The overconsumption of resources and the generation of excessive waste also strain the ecological balance, leading to unsustainable practices that jeopardize the well-being of future generations.Additionally, the rapid pace of urbanization can disrupt traditional social structures and cultural norms. The anonymity of city life can lead to a sense of isolation and disconnect, particularly for those transitioning from close-knit rural communities. The erosion of social cohesion can contribute to increased crime rates, substance abuse, and mental health issues, all of which undermine the fabric of urban societies.To address these challenges, a multifaceted approach is necessary, involving collaborative efforts from governments, urban planners, civil society organizations, and citizens themselves.Firstly, sustainable urban planning is crucial. Cities must be designed and developed with a long-term vision, incorporating principles of resilience, resource efficiency, and environmentalconservation. This includes investing in green infrastructure, promoting renewable energy sources, and implementing effective waste management systems. Urban planners should prioritize mixed-use development, which integrates residential, commercial, and recreational spaces, reducing the need for lengthy commutes and promoting walkability.Secondly, affordable housing initiatives must be a top priority. Governments can incentivize the construction oflow-cost housing units, implement rent control measures, and provide subsidies or tax credits to make housing more accessible to low-income populations. Public-private partnerships can be leveraged to develop innovative financing models and explore alternative housing solutions, such as modular or prefabricated housing.Thirdly, investments in public transportation infrastructure are essential. Efficient and reliable public transportation systems not only alleviate traffic congestion and reduce air pollution but also improve accessibility to employment opportunities and essential services. Cities can explore various modes of transportation, including buses, light rail, and bike-sharing programs, to cater to diverse mobility needs.Fourthly, the promotion of urban agriculture and green spaces can contribute to food security, environmental sustainability, and community building. Urban farming initiatives, such as rooftop gardens and community gardens, can provide fresh, locally sourced produce while creating opportunities for education, skill development, and social interaction. Green spaces, including parks and urban forests, offer respite from the hustle and bustle of city life, improve air quality, and serve as gathering spaces for community events and recreational activities.Fifthly, fostering social inclusion and community engagement is crucial for addressing the potential isolation and disconnection associated with urban living. Local governments and community organizations can facilitate neighborhood initiatives, cultural events, and volunteer programs that bring residents together, fostering a sense of belonging and shared responsibility for their communities.Finally, effective governance and stakeholder collaboration are essential for implementing these solutions. Local authorities must collaborate with civil society organizations, private sector entities, and residents to develop inclusive and participatory decision-making processes. Empowering communities to voicetheir concerns and contribute to the planning and implementation of urban development initiatives is key to ensuring long-term sustainability and acceptance.As a student witnessing the transformative power of urbanization, I am both awed and concerned by its implications. While cities offer unparalleled opportunities for economic growth and social advancement, the challenges posed by rapid urbanization cannot be ignored. By embracing sustainable urban planning, promoting affordable housing, investing in public transportation, fostering urban agriculture and green spaces, encouraging social inclusion, and fostering effective governance, we can harness the potential of urbanization while mitigating its negative impacts.It is our collective responsibility to shape the cities of tomorrow, ensuring they are livable, resilient, and equitable for all. As students, we have a pivotal role to play in advocating for sustainable urban development, contributing innovative ideas, and embracing a mindset of environmental stewardship and social responsibility. By working together, we can create cities that are not only economically prosperous but also socially cohesive and environmentally sustainable, safeguarding the well-being of future generations.篇2The Challenges of Urbanization and Potential SolutionsThe world is becoming increasingly urban, with more and more people flocking to cities in search of better economic opportunities and a higher standard of living. However, this rapid urbanization has brought with it a host of challenges that threaten the sustainability and livability of our cities. In this essay, I will explore some of the key problems caused by urbanization and propose potential solutions to address them.One of the most pressing issues associated with urbanization is the strain it places on infrastructure and public services. As cities grow, their existing infrastructure, such as roads, public transportation systems, water and sewage systems, and electrical grids, often struggle to keep up with the increasing demand. This can lead to traffic congestion, overcrowded public transportation, water shortages, power outages, and other disruptions that negatively impact the quality of life for urban residents.To address this challenge, cities must make significant investments in upgrading and expanding their infrastructure to accommodate the growing population. This may involvebuilding new roads, improving public transportation networks, upgrading water and sewage treatment facilities, and investing in renewable energy sources to meet the rising demand for electricity. Additionally, cities should explore innovative solutions, such as smart city technologies, to optimize the use of existing infrastructure and improve efficiency.Another critical issue associated with urbanization is the degradation of the environment. As cities expand, they often encroach on natural habitats, destroying ecosystems and contributing to deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Furthermore, the concentration of industries and vehicles in urban areas leads to increased air and water pollution, which can have severe health consequences for residents and contribute to climate change.To mitigate the environmental impact of urbanization, cities must prioritize sustainable development practices. This includes promoting green building practices, encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, implementing effective waste management systems, and investing in public transportation and other initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Cities should also work to preserve and protect natural habitats and green spaces within their boundaries, as these areas can provideessential ecosystem services and improve the quality of life for residents.Urbanization has also exacerbated social and economic inequalities within cities. As housing prices and the cost of living rise in urban areas, many low-income and marginalized communities struggle to afford decent housing and access to basic services. This can lead to the formation of informal settlements or slums, where living conditions are often substandard and access to healthcare, education, and other essential services is limited.To address this issue, cities must prioritize affordable housing initiatives and invest in community development programs that provide access to education, job training, and healthcare services for underserved populations. This may involve implementing rent control measures, offering incentives for developers to build affordable housing units, and investing in public housing projects. Additionally, cities should work to promote inclusive economic development strategies that create job opportunities and support small businesses in underprivileged areas.Finally, urbanization has also contributed to the erosion of cultural identity and social cohesion within cities. As people fromdiverse backgrounds converge in urban areas, there is often a risk of cultural homogenization and the loss of traditional practices and ways of life. Additionally, the fast-paced and impersonal nature of city living can lead to a sense of isolation and disconnect among residents.To preserve cultural diversity and promote social cohesion, cities should actively support and celebrate the unique cultural traditions and practices of their diverse populations. This may involve organizing cultural festivals, establishing community centers, and promoting intercultural dialogue and exchange. Cities should also invest in public spaces andcommunity-building initiatives that foster social interaction and a sense of belonging among residents.In conclusion, the challenges posed by urbanization are complex and multifaceted, requiring a comprehensive and coordinated approach from policymakers, urban planners, and the broader community. By prioritizing sustainable development practices, investing in infrastructure and public services, promoting affordable housing and inclusive economic development, and fostering cultural diversity and social cohesion, cities can mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization and create more livable and equitable urban environments for all.篇3The Challenges and Solutions of Rapid UrbanizationThe world is becoming increasingly urbanized at a staggering pace. Each year, millions of people migrate from rural areas to cities in search of better economic opportunities and an enhanced quality of life. While urbanization has been a driving force behind economic growth and development, it has also given rise to numerous challenges that threaten the sustainability and livability of our cities. In this essay, I will explore the multifaceted issues arising from rapid urbanization and propose potential solutions to address these pressing concerns.One of the most significant problems associated with urbanization is the strain on infrastructure and public services. As cities swell with an influx of inhabitants, existing infrastructure systems, such as transportation networks, housing, water supply, and sanitation facilities, are often overwhelmed and struggle to meet the growing demands. The inadequate provision of these essential services can lead to traffic congestion, substandard living conditions, water scarcity, and poor sanitation, all of which diminish the quality of life for urban residents.To alleviate these challenges, cities must prioritize the development and maintenance of robust infrastructure systems. This may involve investing in public transportation networks, such as bus rapid transit systems, light rail, and subway lines, to reduce traffic congestion and promote more sustainable modes of transportation. Additionally, cities should explore innovative solutions for housing, such as high-density, mixed-use developments that maximize space while providing affordable living options. Furthermore, improving water management systems, implementing rainwater harvesting techniques, and enhancing waste management practices are crucial steps towards ensuring access to clean water and proper sanitation for all city dwellers.Another pressing issue arising from urbanization is the degradation of the environment. The concentration of human activities in urban areas often leads to increased levels of air and water pollution, excessive waste generation, and the depletion of natural resources. These environmental challenges not only pose risks to human health but also contribute to the exacerbation of climate change. Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and heat waves, further exacerbating the challenges faced by city dwellers.To address these environmental concerns, cities must adopt sustainable urban planning and development strategies. This includes promoting green spaces and urban forests to improve air quality, implementing effective waste management systems that prioritize reduce, reuse, and recycle principles, and encouraging the use of renewable energy sources. Cities can also incentivize the construction of green buildings that incorporate energy-efficient designs and sustainable materials, reducing the overall carbon footprint of urban areas.Moreover, social and economic inequalities are often amplified in urban settings, leading to the marginalization of certain communities and the perpetuation of poverty cycles. Limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities can create vast disparities within cities, hindering social mobility and overall human development. These inequalities not only undermine the potential for inclusive growth but also contribute to social unrest and security concerns.To foster more equitable and inclusive cities, policymakers must prioritize the provision of accessible and affordable education, healthcare, and employment opportunities for all residents, regardless of their socioeconomic backgrounds. Thiscan involve investing in public education systems, establishing community health clinics in underserved areas, and creating job training programs tailored to the needs of the local workforce. Additionally, promoting mixed-income housing developments and encouraging the integration of diverse communities can help break down social barriers and foster a more cohesive urban fabric.Despite these challenges, urbanization also presents opportunities for innovation and sustainable development. Cities can leverage their dense populations and technological advancements to create smart cities that utilize data and digital technologies to enhance efficiency, improve service delivery, and promote sustainable living. For instance, smart energy grids, intelligent transportation systems, and real-time monitoring of environmental conditions can contribute to more efficient resource management and better decision-making processes.Furthermore, cities can foster collaboration and knowledge-sharing among diverse stakeholders, including local governments, civil society organizations, private sectors, and academic institutions. By fostering public-private partnerships and encouraging community engagement, cities can develop holistic and context-specific solutions that address the uniquechallenges they face while harnessing the collective wisdom and resources of their residents.In conclusion, the rapid pace of urbanization has brought forth multifaceted challenges that require innovative and collaborative solutions. While addressing issues such as infrastructure strain, environmental degradation, and social inequalities is crucial, we must also recognize the opportunities that urbanization presents for sustainable development and technological advancements. By adopting sustainable urban planning strategies, promoting inclusive policies, and fostering cross-sector collaboration, cities can become resilient and thriving hubs that provide a high quality of life for all residents while minimizing their environmental footprint. As students and future leaders, it is our responsibility to actively participate in shaping the cities of tomorrow, ensuring they are equitable, sustainable, and capable of meeting the needs of present and future generations.。
人教版小学六年级英语试题【答案和题解】
人教版小学六年级英语试题【答案和题解】(共50道题)下面有答案和解题分析一、综合题1.I __________ (study) for my English test right now. I __________ (look) at my notes and __________ (practice) pronunciation. Yesterday, I __________ (review) some vocabulary, and I __________ (think) I __________ (do) well on the test. I __________ (feel) confident, but I __________ (need) to study more grammar before the test.2.Which of these is the color of grass?A. RedB. BlueC. GreenD. Yellow3.What do we use to write on paper?A. ForkB. SpoonC. PenD. Plate4.My brother _______ (watch) TV right now.5.They ________ (sing) a song at the concert.6.We _______ (be/am) excited about the trip.7.My father ______ a teacher.A. isB. amC. areD. be8.I _______ (not like) to drink coffee.9.What do you do when you are thirsty?A. EatB. DrinkC. SleepD. Run10.We _______ (learn) English every day.11.Which of these is a shape?A. CircleB. CatC. ChairD. Book12.Which one is a number?A. TenB. SpoonC. PlateD. Dog13.They _______ (help) me with my homework.14.Which of these is not an animal?A. LionB. TigerC. BirdD. Chair15.I _______ (read) a story right now.16.I _______ (take) a shower every morning.17.Which of these is a day of the week?A. DecemberB. SundayC. WinterD. Christmas18.I _______ (visit) my grandmother last weekend.19.I _______ (not) understand this lesson.20.What do you use to drink water?A. SpoonB. ForkC. PlateD. Cup21.I _______ (eat) pizza for dinner yesterday.22.Which one is correct?A. I am eat apples.B. I eats apples.C. I eating apples.D. I eat apples.23.They ________ (not, go) to school on Sundays.24.Which of these is a number?A. SevenB. SpoonC. TableD. Chair25.He _______ (do) his homework at the moment.26.Every Sunday, my family goes to the __________ for a walk. We enjoy the fresh air and the __________ around us. Sometimes, we see __________ flying in the sky. My little brother likes to pick __________ from the ground. After walking, we sit on a__________ and enjoy a small picnic.27.Every morning, I __________ (wake) up at 7:00 AM. After I __________ (get) out of bed, I __________ (brush) my teeth and __________ (wash) my face. Then I__________ (eat) breakfast with my family. I __________ (like) to eat toast and drink milk. After breakfast, I __________ (put) on my school uniform and __________ (go) to school. It __________ (be) a typical day in my life.28.I _______ (write) a letter now.29.We _______ (play / plays / played) soccer every afternoon.30.We _______ (not/go) to the zoo on weekdays.31.I _______ (read) a book yesterday.32.My school is very big. It has a large playground where we can play games during recess. There are also many classrooms, a library, and a computer room. I like my school because I have many friends here, and I enjoy learning new things.33.Which of these is used to clean the floor?A. MopB. KnifeC. PlateD. Fork34.Which of these is used to play music?A. GuitarB. PlateC. ChairD. Knife35.Which of the following is an animal?A. CatB. TreeC. BookD. Table36.Which of these is a vegetable?A. BananaB. BroccoliC. StrawberryD. Grape37.They _______ (watch) TV at this moment.38.I _______ (not/like) to drink coffee.39.Which of these is a shape?A. TableB. CarC. CircleD. Dog40.I have a ______. It’s very cute.A. dogB. bookC. tableD. car41.They _______ (study) for the test next week.42.He _______ (take/takes) a shower every morning.43.Yesterday, my sister __________ (buy) a new dress. It __________ (be) very beautiful, and she __________ (look) great in it. After we __________ (go) shopping, we __________ (meet) our friends and __________ (go) to the park. We __________ (have) lots of fun.44.We _______ (not/understand) the lesson today.45.I’m going to the __ this weekend. It’s a beautiful place with many __. We can see animals like __, __, and __. I love seeing the __ the most because they are very __. After the trip, we will have some __ and go back home.46.Which of these is a fruit?A. StrawberryB. PotatoC. CarrotD. Onion47.They _______ (watch) TV when I called them.48.She _______ (study) English at the moment.49.They _______ (play) chess tomorrow afternoon.50.Yesterday, we ______ (go) to the museum to learn about dinosaurs. We ______ (see) many fossils and models. It ______ (be) very interesting, and I ______ (take) a lot of pictures.(答案及解释)。
绿色城市运动英语作文
绿色城市运动英语作文The Green City Movement has gained significant momentum in recent years as communities around the world strive to create more sustainable and environmentally-friendly urban environments. This movement is driven by the recognition that traditional models of urban development have had a detrimental impact on the natural environment, contributing to issues such as pollution, resource depletion, and climate change. In response, the Green City Movement advocates for a holistic approach to urban planning and design that prioritizes the integration of natural systems, the reduction of environmental footprints, and the enhancement of the overall quality of life for residents.At the heart of the Green City Movement is the belief that cities can and should be designed to coexist in harmony with the natural world. This involves the incorporation of green spaces, urban forests, and other natural elements into the urban landscape, providing residents with access to nature and the associated physical and mental health benefits. Additionally, the movement promotes the use of renewable energy sources, energy-efficient building practices, and sustainabletransportation options, such as public transit, cycling, and walking, to reduce the carbon footprint of cities.One of the key aspects of the Green City Movement is the emphasis on creating livable and walkable communities. This involves designing urban environments that are pedestrian-friendly, with well-connected networks of sidewalks, bike lanes, and public spaces that encourage residents to engage in active transportation and outdoor recreation. By prioritizing the needs of pedestrians and cyclists over the dominance of private vehicles, Green City initiatives aim to reduce traffic congestion, air pollution, and the overall environmental impact of urban mobility.Another crucial component of the Green City Movement is the promotion of sustainable urban food systems. This includes initiatives such as urban agriculture, community gardens, and local food production, which not only provide fresh and healthy food options for residents but also reduce the environmental impact of long-distance food transportation and industrial agriculture. Additionally, the movement advocates for the integration of green infrastructure, such as rooftop gardens and vertical farms, into the built environment, further enhancing the sustainability and self-sufficiency of urban communities.The Green City Movement also recognizes the importance ofcommunity engagement and social equity in the pursuit of sustainable urban development. This involves ensuring that the benefits of green initiatives are equitably distributed among all residents, regardless of socioeconomic status or demographic factors. This may include the provision of affordable housing, the creation of green job opportunities, and the involvement of diverse stakeholders in the planning and implementation of green city projects.One notable example of the Green City Movement in action is thecity of Copenhagen, Denmark, which has been widely recognized asa global leader in sustainable urban development. Copenhagen has invested heavily in the expansion of its cycling infrastructure, with over 400 kilometers of dedicated bike lanes and a goal of having 50% of all trips within the city made by bicycle. The city has also prioritized the creation of green spaces, with the development of innovative urban parks and the integration of natural elements into the built environment. Additionally, Copenhagen has made significant strides in the transition to renewable energy, with a target of becoming the world's first carbon-neutral capital by 2025.Another inspiring example of the Green City Movement can be found in the city of Singapore, which has earned the nickname "City in a Garden" due to its extensive green spaces and commitment to urban greening. Singapore has implemented a comprehensive plan to integrate greenery into the urban landscape, including the creationof vertical gardens, rooftop parks, and extensive tree-planting initiatives. The city has also prioritized the development of sustainable transportation options, such as an extensive public transit system and a growing network of cycling infrastructure.While the Green City Movement has gained significant traction in recent years, there are still numerous challenges and barriers that must be overcome to achieve truly sustainable urban development. These include issues such as the high upfront costs of green infrastructure, the need for coordinated policy and regulatory frameworks, and the resistance to change from entrenched interests and traditional development models.Despite these challenges, the Green City Movement remains a crucial and inspiring approach to addressing the environmental and social challenges facing urban areas around the world. By embracing the principles of sustainability, community engagement, and the integration of natural systems, cities can transform themselves into vibrant, livable, and environmentally-responsible hubs that serve as models for a more sustainable future.。
2023年四级试卷6月份试卷
2023年四级试卷6月份试卷一、写作(15%)题目: On the Importance of Lifelong Learning。
要求:1. 阐述终身学习的重要性。
2. 应包含具体的理由和事例。
3. 字数不少于120字,不多于180字。
二、听力理解(35%)Section A.Directions: In this section, you will hear three news reports. At the end of each news report, you will hear two or three questions. Both the news report and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D).News Report 1.1. What is the main topic of this news report?A) A new scientific discovery.B) A major environmental project.C) A change in government policy.D) An international cultural event.2. How will this event/development affect the local area?A) It will create more job opportunities.B) It will cause some environmental problems.C) It will increase the cost of living.D) It will change the local traffic system.News Report 2.3. What has been found in the recent study?A) A new type of plant species.B) A link between diet and disease.C) A method to improve air quality.D) A solution to water shortage.4. What does the speaker suggest people do?A) Change their eating habits.B) Do more exercise.C) Use less electricity.D) Plant more trees.News Report 3.5. What is the purpose of the new law?A) To protect consumers' rights.B) To promote economic development.C) To regulate the real estate market.D) To encourage innovation in business.6. Who will be most affected by this new law?A) Small - business owners.B) Real estate developers.C) Ordinary consumers.D) High - tech companies.Section B.Directions: In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of each conversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D).Conversation 1.7. What are the speakers mainly talking about?A) Their travel plans.B) Their work schedules.C) Their study progress.D) Their family members.8. Where does the man want to go?A) Paris.B) London.C) New York.D) Sydney.9. Why does the woman prefer another place?A) She has been there before.B) She has friends there.C) She likes the local food.D) She wants to visit some museums.10. When will they make a final decision?A) Tonight.B) Tomorrow.C) Next week.D) Next month.Conversation 2.11. What is the man's job?A) A teacher.B) A doctor.C) A salesman.D) An engineer.12. What problem does the man have at work?A) He has too much paperwork.B) He has to work overtime frequently.C) He has difficulty in communicating with colleagues.D) He has to deal with difficult customers.13. How does the woman suggest the man solve his problem?A) By taking some training courses.B) By asking for help from his boss.C) By changing his job.D) By learning some communication skills.14. What will the man probably do next?A) Look for a new job.B) Talk to his boss.C) Sign up for a course.D) Practice communication skills.Section C.Directions: In this section, you will hear three passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear three or four questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D).Passage 1.15. What is the passage mainly about?A) The history of a famous university.B) The development of modern education.C) The importance of a liberal arts education.D) The challenges in higher education.16. What can students learn from a liberal arts education?A) Specialized knowledge in a certain field.B) Practical skills for future jobs.C) Critical thinking and communication skills.D) Knowledge about different cultures.17. Why are some people against liberal arts education?A) It is too expensive.B) It is not practical.C) It takes too much time.D) It has too many requirements.18. What does the speaker think of liberal arts education?A) It should be reformed.B) It is still valuable.C) It is out - of - date.D) It needs more support.Passage 2.19. What is the main topic of this passage?A) The benefits of reading books.B) The popularity of e - books.C) The future of the publishing industry.D) The influence of the Internet on reading.20. How has the Internet affected reading?A) It has made reading more convenient.B) It has reduced people's reading time.C) It has changed the way people read.D) It has increased the variety of reading materials.21. What are the advantages of e - books?A) They are cheaper.B) They are more portable.C) They can be easily updated.D) All of the above.22. What does the speaker predict about the future of reading?A) Traditional books will disappear.B) E - books will replace traditional books completely.C) People will read more in the future.D) There will be a combination of different reading forms.Passage 3.23. What is the passage mainly about?A) A new technology in transportation.B) The problems in urban traffic.C) The development of self - driving cars.D) The impact of traffic on the environment.24. What are the advantages of self - driving cars?A) They can reduce traffic accidents.B) They can save energy.C) They can improve traffic efficiency.D) All of the above.25. What are the challenges in developing self - driving cars?A) Technical problems.B) Legal and ethical issues.C) High cost.D) All of the above.三、阅读理解(35%)Section A.Directions: In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices givenin a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices. Each choice in the word bank is identified by a letter. You may not use any of the words in the word bank more than once.The Internet of Things (IoT)The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals or people that are provided with unique _(26)_ and the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human - to - human or human - to - computer interaction.The IoT allows objects to be sensed or controlled remotely across existing network infrastructure, creating opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer - based systems, and resulting in improved _(27)_, accuracy and economic benefit in addition to reduced human intervention.Each thing is uniquely _(28)_ through its embedded computing system but is able to interoperate within the existing Internet infrastructure. Experts estimate that the IoT will consist of about 30 billion objects by 2020. It is expected to offer advanced connectivity of devices, systems, and services that goes _(29)_ machine - to - machine (M2M) communications and covers a variety of protocols, domains, and applications.The IoT has evolved from the convergence of wireless technologies, micro - electro - mechanical systems (MEMS) and the Internet. A thing, in the IoT sense, can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal with a biochip transponder, an automobile that has built - in sensors to_(30)_ tire pressure, or any other natural or man - made object that can be assigned an IP address and is able to transfer data over a network.So far, the IoT has been most _(31)_ in the manufacturing, transportation, and utility industries. However, it has also been appliedin areas such as healthcare, building automation, and home automation. For example, in healthcare, IoT devices can be used to monitor patients' vital signs remotely, allowing doctors to _(32)_ patients more effectively. In home automation, IoT devices can be used to control lighting, heating, and security systems, providing homeowners with greater convenience and energy _(33)_.Despite its many potential benefits, the IoT also poses some challenges. One of the main challenges is security. Since IoT devices are often connected to the Internet, they are vulnerable to _(34)_ attacks. Another challenge is privacy. The IoT generates a large amount of data about individuals and their activities, which raises concerns about how this data is collected, stored, and used.In conclusion, the IoT is a rapidly growing technology that has the potential to transform many aspects of our lives. However, in order tofully realize its potential, we need to address the challenges associated with it, such as security and privacy.Word Bank:A) identified.B) efficiency.C) beyond.D) monitor.E) widely.F) identifiers.G) treat.H) savings.I) cyber.J) applied.Section B.Directions: In this section, you will read several passages. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best answer.Passage 1.The concept of "time poverty" has emerged as a significant issue in modern society. Time poverty refers to the feeling of having too little time to accomplish all of one's tasks and obligations. This can lead to stress, burnout, and a decreased quality of life.One of the main causes of time poverty is the increasing demands of work. In many industries, employees are expected to work longer hours and be more productive. This often means sacrificing personal time for work - related activities. For example, a software engineer may be required to work overtime to meet project deadlines, leaving little time for family or hobbies.Another factor contributing to time poverty is the complexity of modern life. There are more tasks and responsibilities to manage than ever before. For instance, in addition to working, people may have to take care of children, manage household chores, and engage in community activities.The rise of technology has also had an impact on time poverty. While technology has made some tasks easier and more efficient, it has also created new time - consuming activities. For example, people may spend hours each day checking social media or answering emails.To combat time poverty, individuals can take several steps. First, they can prioritize their tasks and focus on the most important ones. This may involve saying no to non - essential activities. Second, they can learn to delegate tasks to others, whether it be at work or at home. Finally, they can make use of time - management techniques, such as creating schedules and setting deadlines for themselves.35. What is the main idea of this passage?A) The causes and solutions of time poverty.B) The negative effects of time poverty.C) The relationship between work and time poverty.D) The impact of technology on time poverty.36. Which of the following is NOT a cause of time poverty?A) Long working hours.B) Complex modern life.C) The use of time - management techniques.D) Technology - related activities.37. What can be inferred from the passage about the software engineer?A) He enjoys working overtime.B) He has a high - quality life.C) He may suffer from time poverty.D) He is good at managing his time.38. According to the passage, how can people deal with time poverty?A) By increasing their work productivity.B) By reducing their personal responsibilities.C) By following the suggestions in the passage.D) By relying more on technology.Passage 2.In recent years, there has been a growing trend towards urban farming. Urban farming is the practice of growing food in urban areas, such as on rooftops, in vacant lots, or in community gardens.There are several reasons for the popularity of urban farming. First, it provides a source of fresh, healthy food in urban areas where access to fresh produce may be limited. Second, it can help to reduce the environmental impact of food production. For example, urban farms can reduce the need for long - distance transportation of food, which in turn reduces carbon emissions. Third, urban farming can be a community -building activity. It brings people together to work towards a common goal and can create a sense of community pride.However, urban farming also faces some challenges. One challenge is the lack of space. Urban areas are often densely populated, and findingsuitable land for farming can be difficult. Another challenge is the lack of knowledge and experience among urban farmers. Many people who areinterested in urban farming may not have the necessary agricultural knowledge or experience to be successful.Despite these challenges, the future of urban farming looks promising. As more people become aware of the benefits of urban farming, there is likely to be more support for it. This support could come in the form of government policies, such as providing subsidies for urban farmers or making it easier to obtain permits for urban farming activities.39. What is the passage mainly about?A) The definition and benefits of urban farming.B) The challenges and future of urban farming.C) The reasons for the popularity of urban farming.D) All of the above.40. Which of the following is a benefit of urban farming?A) It increases carbon emissions.B) It provides a sense of community pride.C) It requires a lot of agricultural knowledge.D) It is only suitable for large - scale production.41. What are the challenges in urban farming?A) Lack of space and knowledge.B) High cost and lack of support.C) Competition from rural farmers.D) Unfavorable weather conditions.42. What can be inferred from the passage about the future of urban farming?A) It will face more challenges.B) It will become less popular.C) It will receive more support.D) It will be replaced by rural farming.Section C.Directions: There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best answer.Passage 1.A new study has found that people who are bilingual have better cognitive control than those who are monolingual. Cognitive control refers to the ability to focus attention, inhibit distractions, and switch between tasks.The study involved two groups of participants: bilinguals and monolinguals. The bilinguals were individuals who spoke two languages fluently, while the monolinguals spoke only one language.The researchers used a series of tests to measure cognitive control in both groups. One of the tests was the Stroop test, which measures theability to inhibit distractions. In this test, participants were shown words that were printed in different colors. They were asked to name thecolor of the word, not the word itself. For example, if the word "red" was printed in blue ink, they were supposed to say "blue".The results of the study showed that the bilinguals performed better on the cognitive control tests than the monolinguals. The researchers believe that this is because bilinguals are constantly switching between two languages, which requires more cognitive control.This finding has important implications for education. It suggests that learning a second language may improve cognitive control in students. This could lead to better academic performance, as cognitive control is an important factor in learning.43. What is the main topic of this passage?A) The differences between bilinguals and monolinguals.B) The importance of cognitive control.C) The benefits of being bilingual.D) The results of a new study.44. How did the researchers measure cognitive control?A) By asking participants to speak two languages.B) By using the Stroop test and other tests.C) By comparing the academic performance of participants.D) By observing participants' daily language use.45. Why did the bilinguals perform better on the cognitive control tests?A) Because they are more intelligent.B) Because they have more language knowledge.C) Because they are constantly switching languages.D) Because they are more focused.46. What can be inferred from the passage about education?A) Monolingual students should learn a second language.B) Bilingual students always have better academic performance.C) Cognitive control is not important in education.D) The study has no implications for education.Passage 2.The sharing economy has emerged as a significant economic trend in recent years. The sharing economy refers to the economic model in which individuals share their resources, such as cars, homes, or skills, with others through online platforms.One of the most well - known examples of the sharing economy is ride - sharing services like Uber and Lyft. These services allow individuals to share their cars with others who need a ride. Another example is home - sharing services like Airbnb, which allow homeowners to rent out their homes or rooms to travelers.The sharing economy has several benefits. First, it can make more efficient use of resources. For example, a car that is.。
中英文建筑术语翻译4
常见的建筑术语的中英文对译(4)以下整理了一些常见的建筑术语,中英文对译,以供有需要的朋友使用,仅供参考。
对译集合之四:301. 城市设计与生态影响后评估- Post-assessment of Ecological Impact from Urban Design302. 城市设计与生态空间布局优化- Urban Design and Optimization of Ecological Space Layout303. 城市设计与生态农业循环经济- Urban Design and Circular Economy in Ecological Agriculture304. 城市设计与生态农业技术创新- Urban Design and Technological Innovation in Ecological Agriculture305. 城市设计与生态工程合同管理- Urban Design and Contract Management for Ecological Engineering306. 城市设计与生态资产评估- Urban Design and Evaluation of Ecological Assets 307. 城市设计与生态审计标准- Urban Design and Standards for Ecological Audit308. 城市设计与生态服务供需平衡研究- Research on the Balance between Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services in Urban Design309. 城市设计与生态影响风险评估- Urban Design and Risk Assessment of Ecological Impact310. 城市设计与生态影响预测模型应用- Application of Prediction Models for Ecological Impact in Urban Design311. 城市设计与生态网络脆弱性评估- Urban Design and Vulnerability Assessment of Ecological Networks312. 城市设计与生态文化遗产保护- Urban Design and Conservation of Ecological Cultural Heritage313. 城市设计与生态城绿地规划- Urban Design and Greenspace Planning for Eco-cities314. 城市设计与生态教育普及- Urban Design and Promotion of Ecological Education315. 城市设计与生态融资渠道拓展- Urban Design and Expansion of Ecological Financing Channels316. 城市设计与生态保护法律法规制定- Urban Design and Development of Laws and Regulations for Ecological Protection317. 城市设计与生态健康评估- Urban Design and Evaluation of Ecological Health 318. 城市设计与生态系统稳定性增强- Urban Design and Enhancement of Ecosystem Stability319. 城市设计与生态系统服务供需平衡调控- Urban Design and Control of the Balance between Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services320. 城市设计与生态用地分类与规划实践- Urban Design and Practical Classification and Planning of Ecological Land Use321. 城市设计与生态产业发展规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Industrial Development322. 城市设计与生态文化传承- Urban Design and Transmission of Ecological Culture 323. 城市设计与生态景观设计- Urban Design and Ecological Landscape Design324. 城市设计与生态旅游规划- Urban Design and Planning of Eco-tourism325. 城市设计与生态资源可持续利用- Urban Design and Sustainable Utilization of Ecological Resources326. 城市设计与生态科技创新- Urban Design and Innovation in Ecological Science and Technology327. 城市设计与生态交通规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Transportation328. 城市设计与生态脆弱区适应性规划- Urban Design and Adaptive Planning in Ecologically Vulnerable Areas329. 城市设计与生态修复工程实施- Urban Design and Implementation of Ecological Restoration Projects330. 城市设计与生态工程安全评估- Urban Design and Safety Assessment for Ecological Engineering331. 城市设计与生态修复技术研发- Urban Design and R&D of Ecological Restoration Technologies332. 城市设计与生态保护税制设计- Urban Design and Tax System Design for Ecological Protection333. 城市设计与生态城活力营造- Urban Design and Creation of Vibrancy in Eco-cities 334. 城市设计与生态工程质量控制- Urban Design and Quality Control in Ecological Engineering335. 城市设计与生态影响评价标准制定- Development of Evaluation Criteria for Ecological Impact in Urban Design336. 城市设计与生态产品市场推广- Urban Design and Promotion of Ecological Products in the Marketplace337. 城市设计与生态用地规划实施评估- Evaluation of Implementation of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design338. 城市设计与生态教育普及策略- Strategies for Promotion of Ecological Education in Urban Design339. 城市设计与生态服务功能价值核算- Accounting for the Value of Ecosystem Services in Urban Design340. 城市设计与生态修复工程绩效评估- Performance Evaluation of Ecological Restoration Projects in Urban Design341. 城市设计与生态公益组织合作- Urban Design and Collaborations with Ecological Non-profit Organizations342. 城市设计与生态基础设施规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Infrastructure343. 城市设计与生态农业经营模式创新- Urban Design and Innovations in the Management Models of Ecological Agriculture344. 城市设计与生态用地规划修订- Revision of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design345. 城市设计与生态旅游目的地建设- Urban Design and Development of Eco-tourism Destinations346. 城市设计与生态服务供需平衡监测与预警系统建设- Development of Monitoring and Early Warning Systems for the Balance between Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services in Urban Design347. 城市设计与生态风险评估与管理- Urban Design and Ecological Risk Assessment and Management348. 城市设计与生态建设标准制定与推广- Development and Promotion of Standards for Ecological Construction in Urban Design349. 城市设计与生态信息平台建设- Urban Design and Development of Ecological Information Platforms350. 城市设计与生态用地分类调整与优化- Adjustment and Optimization of Ecological Land Use Classification in Urban Design351. 城市设计与生态网络优化布局- Urban Design and Optimal Layout of Ecological Networks352. 城市设计与生态资源循环利用- Urban Design and Circular Utilization of Ecological Resources353. 城市设计与生态补偿机制研究- Urban Design and Research on Ecological Compensation Mechanisms354. 城市设计与生态安全格局构建- Urban Design and Construction of Ecological Safety Patterns355. 城市设计与生态产品质量保障- Urban Design and Assurance of Ecological Product Quality356. 城市设计与生态建筑节能减排- Urban Design and Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction in Ecological Architecture357. 城市设计与生态文化遗产保护项目实施- Implementation of Projects for the Conservation of Ecological Cultural Heritage in Urban Design358. 城市设计与生态农业技术推广- Urban Design and Promotion of Ecological Agriculture Technologies359. 城市设计与生态旅游服务品质提升- Urban Design and Enhancement of the Quality of Eco-tourism Services360. 城市设计与生态脆弱区适应性管理- Urban Design and Adaptive Management in Ecologically Vulnerable Areas361. 城市设计与生态工业园区建设- Urban Design and the Development of Ecological Industrial Parks362. 城市设计与生态产业政策研究- Urban Design and the Study of Ecological Industry Policies363. 城市设计与生态资本运营模式探索- Urban Design and Exploration of Operating Models for Ecological Capital364. 城市设计与生态服务市场培育- Urban Design and Nurturing of the Ecosystem Services Market365. 城市设计与生态科技创新激励机制- Urban Design and Incentive Mechanisms for Ecological Science and Technology Innovation366. 城市设计与生态风险防控体系建设- Urban Design and the Establishment of Ecological Risk Prevention and Control Systems367. 城市设计与生态工程可持续性评估- Urban Design and Sustainability Assessments for Ecological Engineering Projects368. 城市设计与生态用地规划后评估- Post-evaluation of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design369. 城市设计与生态修复工程效益分析- Analysis of the Benefits of Ecological Restoration Projects in Urban Design370. 城市设计与生态文化传播平台搭建- Establishment of Platforms for the Dissemination of Ecological Culture in Urban Design371. 城市设计与生态休闲空间营造- Urban Design and the Creation of Ecological Leisure Spaces372. 城市设计与生态教育课程开发- Development of Ecological Education Curriculum in Urban Design373. 城市设计与生态旅游产品创新- Innovation of Ecological Tourism Products in Urban Design374. 城市设计与生态农业产业链整合- Integration of Ecological Agriculture Supply Chains in Urban Design375. 城市设计与生态资源环境承载力评估- Evaluation of the Environmental Carrying Capacity of Ecological Resources in Urban Design376. 城市设计与生态建设行业标准制定- Development of Industry Standards for Ecological Construction in Urban Design377. 城市设计与生态景观廊道规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Landscape Corridors378. 城市设计与生态保护国际合作项目实施- Implementation of International Cooperation Projects for Ecological Protection in Urban Design379. 城市设计与生态产品市场拓展- Expansion of Ecological Product Markets through Urban Design380. 城市设计与生态修复工程融资渠道拓展- Development of Financing Sources for Ecological Restoration Projects in Urban Design381. 城市设计与生态农业绿色发展策略- Urban Design and Strategies for Green Development of Ecological Agriculture382. 城市设计与生态农业产业集群培育- Urban Design and Nurturing of Ecological Agriculture Industry Clusters383. 城市设计与生态服务功能价值实现路径- Realization Paths of the Value of Ecosystem Services in Urban Design384. 城市设计与生态用地规划协同实施- Collaborative Implementation of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design385. 城市设计与生态文化遗产传承与活化- Urban Design and the Inheritance and Revitalization of Ecological Cultural Heritage386. 城市设计与生态产品认证体系构建- Development of Certification Systems for Ecological Products in Urban Design387. 城市设计与生态监测站点布局优化- Optimization of the Layout of Ecological Monitoring Sites in Urban Design388. 城市设计与生态建设项目管理信息化- Informatization of Ecological ConstructionProject Management in Urban Design389. 城市设计与生态修复工程技术转让与推广- Technology Transfer and Promotion of Ecological Restoration Technologies in Urban Design390. 城市设计与生态保护法律法规完善- Improvement of Laws and Regulations for Ecological Protection in Urban Design391. 城市设计与生态农业可持续发展指标体系构建- Development of Indicator Systems for Sustainable Development of Ecological Agriculture in Urban Design 392. 城市设计与生态文化传播策略研究- Study of Strategies for the Dissemination of Ecological Culture in Urban Design393. 城市设计与生态旅游目的地品牌建设- Building of Brand Names for Eco-tourism Destinations in Urban Design394. 城市设计与生态农业科技创新园区建设- Establishment of Technology Innovation Parks for Ecological Agriculture in Urban Design395. 城市设计与生态资源环境价值评估- Evaluation of the Value of Ecological Resources and Environment in Urban Design396. 城市设计与生态服务供需关系调整- Adjustment of the Supply-demand Relationship for Ecosystem Services in Urban Design397. 城市设计与生态风险预警系统建设- Development of Early Warning Systems for Ecological Risks in Urban Design398. 城市设计与生态保护政策绩效评估- Performance Evaluation of Policies for Ecological Protection in Urban Design399. 城市设计与生态旅游市场拓展策略研究- Study of Strategies for Expanding the Market for Eco-tourism in Urban Design400. 城市设计与生态农业产业链优化路径研究- Study of Optimization Paths for the Value Chain of Ecological Agriculture in Urban Design待续。
建筑术语翻译英文集2
一般建筑术语英文翻译之三201. 城市设计与文化遗产保护- Urban Design and Cultural Heritage Protection 202. 城市设计与城市更新政策- Urban Design and Urban Renewal Policies 203. 城市设计与城市营销- Urban Design and City Branding204. 城市设计与城市治理- Urban Design and City Governance205. 城市设计与公私合作- Urban Design and Public-Private Partnerships206. 城市设计与土地利用规划- Urban Design and Land Use Planning207. 城市设计与交通规划- Urban Design and Transportation Planning208. 城市设计与景观规划- Urban Design and Landscape Planning209. 城市设计与建筑设计- Urban Design and Architectural Design210. 城市设计与室内设计- Urban Design and Interior Design211. 城市设计与环境心理学- Urban Design and Environmental Psychology 212. 城市设计与文化研究- Urban Design and Cultural Studies213. 城市设计与历史建筑保护- Urban Design and Historic Preservation214. 城市设计与景观生态学- Urban Design and Landscape Ecology215. 城市设计与气候适应性设计- Urban Design and Climate-Resilient Design 216. 城市设计与生态基础设施- Urban Design and Ecological Infrastructure 217. 城市设计与气候变化适应性- Urban Design and Climate Change Adaptation 218. 城市设计与雨水管理- Urban Design and Stormwater Management219. 城市设计与风工程- Urban Design and Wind Engineering220. 城市设计与地质工程- Urban Design and Geotechnical Engineering221. 城市设计与绿色基础设施- Urban Design and Green Infrastructure222. 城市设计与社区参与- Urban Design and Community Participation223. 城市设计与地域文化- Urban Design and Local Culture224. 城市设计与经济活力- Urban Design and Economic Vitality225. 城市设计与健康城市- Urban Design and Healthy Cities226. 城市设计与生态旅游- Urban Design and Ecotourism227. 城市设计与气候变化适应性规划- Urban Design and Climate Change Adaptation Planning228. 城市设计与未来生活场景- Urban Design and Future Scenario Planning229. 城市设计与人工智能技术- Urban Design and Artificial Intelligence Technology 230. 城市设计与未来城市愿景- Urban Design and Future City Visioning231. 城市设计与人类福祉- Urban Design and Human Well-being232. 城市设计与弹性城市- Urban Design and Resilient Cities233. 城市设计与公共卫生- Urban Design and Public Health234. 城市设计与无障碍设计- Urban Design and Accessibility Design235. 城市设计与自然灾害预防- Urban Design and Natural Disaster Prevention236. 城市设计与生态恢复- Urban Design and Ecological Restoration237. 城市设计与生态修复- Urban Design and Ecological Rehabilitation238. 城市设计与绿色建筑材料- Urban Design and Green Building Materials239. 城市设计与可持续能源利用- Urban Design and Sustainable Energy Utilization240. 城市设计与低碳交通- Urban Design and Low-carbon Transportation241. 城市设计与可持续发展教育- Urban Design and Sustainable Development Education 242. 城市设计与社区经济发展- Urban Design and Community Economic Development 243. 城市设计与水资源管理- Urban Design and Water Resource Management244. 城市设计与食物系统设计- Urban Design and Food System Design245. 城市设计与废弃物资源化- Urban Design and Waste Resource Management246. 城市设计与碳减排策略- Urban Design and Carbon Emission Reduction Strategies 247. 城市设计与智能交通系统- Urban Design and Intelligent Transportation Systems 248. 城市设计与建筑能效提升- Urban Design and Building Energy Efficiency Improvement 249. 城市设计与可再生能源利用- Urban Design and Renewable Energy Utilization250. 城市设计与生态农业- Urban Design and Ecological Agriculture251. 城市设计与生态工业园- Urban Design and Ecological Industrial Parks252. 城市设计与生态旅游规划- Urban Design and Eco-tourism Planning253. 城市设计与生态恢复工程- Urban Design and Ecological Restoration Projects254. 城市设计与生态廊道规划- Urban Design and Ecological Corridor Planning255. 城市设计与生态基础设施规划- Urban Design and Ecological Infrastructure Planning 256. 城市设计与生态红线规划- Urban Design and Ecological Redline Planning257. 城市设计与生态产品开发- Urban Design and Ecological Product Development 258. 城市设计与生态价值评估- Urban Design and Ecological Value Assessment259. 城市设计与生态影响评价- Urban Design and Ecological Impact Assessment260. 城市设计与生态修复工程实践- Urban Design and Ecological Restoration Engineering Practice261. 城市设计与生态审计- Urban Design and Ecological Audit262. 城市设计与生态产业园区规划- Urban Design and Ecological Industrial Park Planning 263. 城市设计与生态城规划- Urban Design and Eco-city Planning264. 城市设计与生态足迹评估- Urban Design and Ecological Footprint Assessment265. 城市设计与生态工程设计- Urban Design and Ecological Engineering Design266. 城市设计与生态补偿机制- Urban Design and Ecological Compensation Mechanism 267. 城市设计与生态农业园区规划- Urban Design and Ecological Agricultural Park Planning268. 城市设计与生态旅游产品开发- Urban Design and Eco-tourism Product Development 269. 城市设计与生态恢复实践- Urban Design and Ecological Restoration Practice270. 城市设计与生态工程管理- Urban Design and Ecological Engineering Management271. 城市设计与生态足迹模型- Urban Design and Ecological Footprint Modeling272. 城市设计与生态卫生系统- Urban Design and Ecological Sanitation Systems273. 城市设计与生态安全评估- Urban Design and Ecological Security Assessment274. 城市设计与生态服务功能提升- Urban Design and Enhancement of Ecosystem Services275. 城市设计与生态风险管理- Urban Design and Ecological Risk Management276. 城市设计与生态服务付费- Urban Design and Ecosystem Service Payment277. 城市设计与生态效率提升- Urban Design and Enhancement of Ecological Efficiency278. 城市设计与生态适应性规划- Urban Design and Ecological Adaptive Planning279. 城市设计与生态智慧城市- Urban Design and Smart Eco-cities280. 城市设计与生态脆弱性评估- Urban Design and Ecological Vulnerability Assessment281. 城市设计与生态脆弱性缓解- Urban Design and Mitigation of Ecological Vulnerability 282. 城市设计与生态资源利用- Urban Design and Utilization of Ecological Resources 283. 城市设计与生态系统服务功能价值评估- Urban Design and Valuation of Ecosystem Service Function284. 城市设计与生态监测与评估- Urban Design and Ecological Monitoring and Assessment285. 城市设计与生态完整性保护- Urban Design and Protection of Ecological Integrity 286. 城市设计与生态工程教育- Urban Design and Ecological Engineering Education 287. 城市设计与生态规划师的角色- Urban Design and the Role of Ecological Planners 288. 城市设计与生态农业融合发展- Urban Design and the Integration of Ecological Agriculture with Development289. 城市设计与生态用地分类与管理- Urban Design and Classification and Management of Ecological Land Use290. 城市设计与生态影响预测模型- Urban Design and Prediction Models for Ecological Impact291. 城市设计与生态恢复项目实施- Urban Design and Implementation of Ecological Restoration Projects292. 城市设计与生态产品市场开发- Urban Design and Development of Ecological Product Markets293. 城市设计与生态保护地规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Conservation Areas294. 城市设计与生态网络构建- Urban Design and Construction of Ecological Networks 295. 城市设计与生态友好型建筑材料- Urban Design and Eco-friendly Building Materials 296. 城市设计与生态多样性保护- Urban Design and Protection of Ecological Diversity 297. 城市设计与生态系统服务供需平衡- Urban Design and Balancing the Supply andDemand for Ecosystem Services298. 城市设计与生态系统恢复示范工程- Urban Design and Demonstration Projects for Ecosystem Restoration299. 城市设计与生态补偿机制实施- Urban Design and Implementation of Ecological Compensation Mechanisms300. 城市设计与生态安全格局规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Safety Patterns一般建筑术语英文翻译之四301. 城市设计与生态影响后评估- Post-assessment of Ecological Impact from Urban Design302. 城市设计与生态空间布局优化- Urban Design and Optimization of Ecological Space Layout303. 城市设计与生态农业循环经济- Urban Design and Circular Economy in Ecological Agriculture304. 城市设计与生态农业技术创新- Urban Design and Technological Innovation in Ecological Agriculture305. 城市设计与生态工程合同管理- Urban Design and Contract Management for Ecological Engineering306. 城市设计与生态资产评估- Urban Design and Evaluation of Ecological Assets307. 城市设计与生态审计标准- Urban Design and Standards for Ecological Audit308. 城市设计与生态服务供需平衡研究- Research on the Balance between Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services in Urban Design309. 城市设计与生态影响风险评估- Urban Design and Risk Assessment of Ecological Impact310. 城市设计与生态影响预测模型应用- Application of Prediction Models for Ecological Impact in Urban Design311. 城市设计与生态网络脆弱性评估- Urban Design and Vulnerability Assessment of Ecological Networks312. 城市设计与生态文化遗产保护- Urban Design and Conservation of Ecological Cultural Heritage313. 城市设计与生态城绿地规划- Urban Design and Greenspace Planning for Eco-cities 314. 城市设计与生态教育普及- Urban Design and Promotion of Ecological Education 315. 城市设计与生态融资渠道拓展- Urban Design and Expansion of Ecological Financing Channels316. 城市设计与生态保护法律法规制定- Urban Design and Development of Laws and Regulations for Ecological Protection317. 城市设计与生态健康评估- Urban Design and Evaluation of Ecological Health318. 城市设计与生态系统稳定性增强- Urban Design and Enhancement of Ecosystem Stability319. 城市设计与生态系统服务供需平衡调控- Urban Design and Control of the Balance between Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services320. 城市设计与生态用地分类与规划实践- Urban Design and Practical Classification and Planning of Ecological Land Use321. 城市设计与生态产业发展规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Industrial Development322. 城市设计与生态文化传承- Urban Design and Transmission of Ecological Culture 323. 城市设计与生态景观设计- Urban Design and Ecological Landscape Design324. 城市设计与生态旅游规划- Urban Design and Planning of Eco-tourism325. 城市设计与生态资源可持续利用- Urban Design and Sustainable Utilization of Ecological Resources326. 城市设计与生态科技创新- Urban Design and Innovation in Ecological Science and Technology327. 城市设计与生态交通规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Transportation 328. 城市设计与生态脆弱区适应性规划- Urban Design and Adaptive Planning in Ecologically Vulnerable Areas329. 城市设计与生态修复工程实施- Urban Design and Implementation of Ecological Restoration Projects330. 城市设计与生态工程安全评估- Urban Design and Safety Assessment for Ecological Engineering331. 城市设计与生态修复技术研发- Urban Design and R&D of Ecological Restoration Technologies332. 城市设计与生态保护税制设计- Urban Design and Tax System Design for Ecological Protection333. 城市设计与生态城活力营造- Urban Design and Creation of Vibrancy in Eco-cities 334. 城市设计与生态工程质量控制- Urban Design and Quality Control in Ecological Engineering335. 城市设计与生态影响评价标准制定- Development of Evaluation Criteria for Ecological Impact in Urban Design336. 城市设计与生态产品市场推广- Urban Design and Promotion of Ecological Products in the Marketplace337. 城市设计与生态用地规划实施评估- Evaluation of Implementation of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design338. 城市设计与生态教育普及策略- Strategies for Promotion of Ecological Education in Urban Design339. 城市设计与生态服务功能价值核算- Accounting for the Value of Ecosystem Services in Urban Design340. 城市设计与生态修复工程绩效评估- Performance Evaluation of Ecological Restoration Projects in Urban Design341. 城市设计与生态公益组织合作- Urban Design and Collaborations with Ecological Non-profit Organizations342. 城市设计与生态基础设施规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Infrastructure343. 城市设计与生态农业经营模式创新- Urban Design and Innovations in the Management Models of Ecological Agriculture344. 城市设计与生态用地规划修订- Revision of Ecological Land Use Planning in UrbanDesign345. 城市设计与生态旅游目的地建设- Urban Design and Development of Eco-tourism Destinations346. 城市设计与生态服务供需平衡监测与预警系统建设- Development of Monitoring and Early Warning Systems for the Balance between Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services in Urban Design347. 城市设计与生态风险评估与管理- Urban Design and Ecological Risk Assessment and Management348. 城市设计与生态建设标准制定与推广- Development and Promotion of Standards for Ecological Construction in Urban Design349. 城市设计与生态信息平台建设- Urban Design and Development of Ecological Information Platforms350. 城市设计与生态用地分类调整与优化- Adjustment and Optimization of Ecological Land Use Classification in Urban Design351. 城市设计与生态网络优化布局- Urban Design and Optimal Layout of Ecological Networks352. 城市设计与生态资源循环利用- Urban Design and Circular Utilization of Ecological Resources353. 城市设计与生态补偿机制研究- Urban Design and Research on Ecological Compensation Mechanisms354. 城市设计与生态安全格局构建- Urban Design and Construction of Ecological Safety Patterns355. 城市设计与生态产品质量保障- Urban Design and Assurance of Ecological Product Quality356. 城市设计与生态建筑节能减排- Urban Design and Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction in Ecological Architecture357. 城市设计与生态文化遗产保护项目实施- Implementation of Projects for the Conservation of Ecological Cultural Heritage in Urban Design358. 城市设计与生态农业技术推广- Urban Design and Promotion of Ecological Agriculture Technologies359. 城市设计与生态旅游服务品质提升- Urban Design and Enhancement of the Quality of Eco-tourism Services360. 城市设计与生态脆弱区适应性管理- Urban Design and Adaptive Management in Ecologically Vulnerable Areas361. 城市设计与生态工业园区建设- Urban Design and the Development of Ecological Industrial Parks362. 城市设计与生态产业政策研究- Urban Design and the Study of Ecological Industry Policies363. 城市设计与生态资本运营模式探索- Urban Design and Exploration of Operating Models for Ecological Capital364. 城市设计与生态服务市场培育- Urban Design and Nurturing of the Ecosystem Services Market365. 城市设计与生态科技创新激励机制- Urban Design and Incentive Mechanisms for Ecological Science and Technology Innovation366. 城市设计与生态风险防控体系建设- Urban Design and the Establishment of Ecological Risk Prevention and Control Systems367. 城市设计与生态工程可持续性评估- Urban Design and Sustainability Assessments for Ecological Engineering Projects368. 城市设计与生态用地规划后评估- Post-evaluation of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design369. 城市设计与生态修复工程效益分析- Analysis of the Benefits of Ecological Restoration Projects in Urban Design370. 城市设计与生态文化传播平台搭建- Establishment of Platforms for the Dissemination of Ecological Culture in Urban Design371. 城市设计与生态休闲空间营造- Urban Design and the Creation of Ecological Leisure Spaces372. 城市设计与生态教育课程开发- Development of Ecological Education Curriculum in Urban Design373. 城市设计与生态旅游产品创新- Innovation of Ecological Tourism Products in Urban Design374. 城市设计与生态农业产业链整合- Integration of Ecological Agriculture Supply Chains in Urban Design375. 城市设计与生态资源环境承载力评估- Evaluation of the Environmental Carrying Capacity of Ecological Resources in Urban Design376. 城市设计与生态建设行业标准制定- Development of Industry Standards for Ecological Construction in Urban Design377. 城市设计与生态景观廊道规划- Urban Design and Planning of Ecological Landscape Corridors378. 城市设计与生态保护国际合作项目实施- Implementation of International Cooperation Projects for Ecological Protection in Urban Design379. 城市设计与生态产品市场拓展- Expansion of Ecological Product Markets through Urban Design380. 城市设计与生态修复工程融资渠道拓展- Development of Financing Sources for Ecological Restoration Projects in Urban Design381. 城市设计与生态农业绿色发展策略- Urban Design and Strategies for Green Development of Ecological Agriculture382. 城市设计与生态农业产业集群培育- Urban Design and Nurturing of Ecological Agriculture Industry Clusters383. 城市设计与生态服务功能价值实现路径- Realization Paths of the Value of Ecosystem Services in Urban Design384. 城市设计与生态用地规划协同实施- Collaborative Implementation of Ecological Land Use Planning in Urban Design385. 城市设计与生态文化遗产传承与活化- Urban Design and the Inheritance and Revitalization of Ecological Cultural Heritage386. 城市设计与生态产品认证体系构建- Development of Certification Systems forEcological Products in Urban Design387. 城市设计与生态监测站点布局优化- Optimization of the Layout of Ecological Monitoring Sites in Urban Design388. 城市设计与生态建设项目管理信息化- Informatization of Ecological Construction Project Management in Urban Design389. 城市设计与生态修复工程技术转让与推广- Technology Transfer and Promotion of Ecological Restoration Technologies in Urban Design390. 城市设计与生态保护法律法规完善- Improvement of Laws and Regulations for Ecological Protection in Urban Design391. 城市设计与生态农业可持续发展指标体系构建- Development of Indicator Systems for Sustainable Development of Ecological Agriculture in Urban Design392. 城市设计与生态文化传播策略研究- Study of Strategies for the Dissemination of Ecological Culture in Urban Design393. 城市设计与生态旅游目的地品牌建设- Building of Brand Names for Eco-tourism Destinations in Urban Design394. 城市设计与生态农业科技创新园区建设- Establishment of Technology Innovation Parks for Ecological Agriculture in Urban Design395. 城市设计与生态资源环境价值评估- Evaluation of the Value of Ecological Resources and Environment in Urban Design396. 城市设计与生态服务供需关系调整- Adjustment of the Supply-demand Relationship for Ecosystem Services in Urban Design397. 城市设计与生态风险预警系统建设- Development of Early Warning Systems for Ecological Risks in Urban Design398. 城市设计与生态保护政策绩效评估- Performance Evaluation of Policies for Ecological Protection in Urban Design399. 城市设计与生态旅游市场拓展策略研究- Study of Strategies for Expanding the Market for Eco-tourism in Urban Design400. 城市设计与生态农业产业链优化路径研究- Study of Optimization Paths for the Value Chain of Ecological Agriculture in Urban Design。
风景园林视野下我国微气候研究概述与进展
风景园林视野下我国微气候研究概述与进展一、本文概述Overview of this article随着全球气候变化的加剧,微气候作为影响人类生活和生产活动的重要因素,日益受到人们的关注。
特别是在城市化进程不断加快的今天,城市微气候问题已经成为制约城市可持续发展的重要因素之一。
因此,对于微气候的研究具有重要的现实意义和理论价值。
本文将从风景园林的视角出发,对我国微气候研究进行概述与进展分析。
With the intensification of global climate change, microclimate, as an important factor affecting human life and production activities, is increasingly receiving people's attention. Especially in today's accelerating urbanization process, urban microclimate has become one of the important factors restricting sustainable development of cities. Therefore, the study of microclimate has important practical significance and theoretical value. This article will provide an overview and progress analysis of microclimate research in China from the perspective of landscape architecture.本文将介绍微气候的基本概念、特点及其与风景园林的关系。
Urbanization Impacts and Challenges
Urbanization Impacts and ChallengesUrbanization is a complex phenomenon that has significant impacts on societies, economies, and the environment. As more and more people move to cities in searchof better opportunities, the challenges of urbanization become increasingly apparent. One of the key impacts of urbanization is the strain it puts on infrastructure and resources. Cities are often ill-equipped to handle the influxof people, leading to overcrowding, traffic congestion, and inadequate housing. This can result in a lower quality of life for residents and increased social inequality. Another major challenge of urbanization is the environmental impact. As cities grow, natural habitats are destroyed to make way for buildings and roads. This can lead to loss of biodiversity, increased air and water pollution, and a higher risk of natural disasters. Urban areas also tend to have higher energy consumption and carbon emissions per capita, contributing to climate change. Finding sustainable solutions to these environmental challenges is crucial for the future of urbanization. In addition to infrastructure and environmental challenges, urbanization also has social implications. As people move to cities, traditional communities and cultural practices may be eroded. This can lead to a loss of identity and a breakdown of social cohesion. Urban areas also tend to have higher rates of crime and social unrest, as poverty and inequality are often more pronounced in cities. Addressing these social challenges requires a holistic approach that takes into account the needs and aspirations of all urban residents. One of the key ways to mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization is through effective urban planning and governance. By investing in sustainable infrastructure, promoting affordable housing, and creating green spaces, citiescan become more livable and resilient. Engaging with local communities and stakeholders in the decision-making process is also crucial for ensuring thaturban development is inclusive and equitable. Governments and policymakers play a key role in shaping the future of urbanization, and must prioritize the well-being of all residents in their planning efforts. Another important aspect of addressing the challenges of urbanization is promoting innovation and technology. Smart cities initiatives, for example, can help cities become more efficient and sustainable by using data and technology to improve services and infrastructure.Investing in renewable energy, public transportation, and digital connectivity can also help cities reduce their environmental footprint and enhance quality of life for residents. By harnessing the power of innovation, cities can overcome the challenges of urbanization and create a more sustainable future for all. In conclusion, urbanization is a complex and multifaceted process that has both positive and negative impacts on society, the economy, and the environment. While cities offer opportunities for economic growth and cultural exchange, they also present significant challenges in terms of infrastructure, environment, and social cohesion. By taking a holistic and inclusive approach to urban planning and governance, investing in sustainable solutions, and promoting innovation and technology, cities can overcome these challenges and create a more livable and resilient urban environment for all residents. It is crucial that policymakers, stakeholders, and communities work together to shape the future of urbanization in a way that is sustainable, equitable, and inclusive.。
城市化的问题及措施英语作文
Urbanization, an inevitable outcome of societal progress and economic growth, has brought about significant transformations in the landscape of global development. However, it is not without its array of multifaceted challenges that require strategic, sustainable solutions. This essay aims to delve into the critical issues posed by urbanization and suggest potential measures to ensure its quality and high standards.Urbanization has undeniably accelerated economic activities and improved living standards, but it also brings forth a myriad of problems. Firstly, rapid urban expansion often results in uncontrolled land use, leading to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. The unchecked conversion of green spaces and farmland to accommodate urban sprawl exacerbates environmental degradation and disrupts ecosystems. Secondly, cities frequently grapple with infrastructure strain due to the influx of migrants. Overcrowding, inadequate housing, overstretched public services, and traffic congestion are common outcomes. Moreover, urbanization exacerbates income inequality as it often fails to provide equal opportunities for all, thereby creating social disparities.On the health front, air and water pollution levels soar in cities due to industrial activities and increased vehicular emissions. Furthermore, mental health concerns such as stress and loneliness are exacerbated due to the fast-paced urban lifestyle. Another pressing issue is resource depletion. Rapidly growing cities consume vast amounts of energy, water, and other resources, which can lead to shortages and environmental pressures.Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive, multi-dimensional strategies. To mitigate habitat destruction and maintain ecological balance, cities should adopt smart growth policies that prioritize compact, mixed-use development and preserve green belts. For instance, implementing green building codes, promoting vertical gardens, and ensuring that new developments include adequate green space can help create more sustainable cities.Infrastructure development must be planned proactively to cope with the increasing population. Investments in mass transit systems like metro rails andbus rapid transit can reduce traffic congestion and improve mobility. Housing policies should promote affordable, equitable, and inclusive housing, especially for low-income groups. Public-private partnerships can play a pivotal role in financing and delivering essential services.To address the problem of pollution, cities need to shift towards renewable energy sources, enforce stricter emission standards, and invest in waste management and recycling systems. Encouraging the use of electric vehicles and developing pedestrian-friendly and cycle-friendly infrastructure could significantly improve urban air quality.In terms of social equity, education and job training programs can equip urban residents with skills necessary for employment, thus reducing income disparities. Policies that support small businesses and entrepreneurship can further enhance economic opportunities for all segments of society.Lastly, managing resource consumption necessitates adopting circular economy principles and promoting resource efficiency through technology and innovation. Water conservation strategies, efficient energy systems, and waste-to-resource initiatives can ensure sustainable use of resources.In conclusion, while urbanization presents formidable challenges, they are not insurmountable. By employing foresighted planning, innovative technologies, and inclusive policies, we can harness the benefits of urbanization while mitigating its negative impacts. It's imperative that our cities evolve into models of sustainability and resilience, ensuring a high quality of life for their inhabitants. Thus, the key to successful urbanization lies not only in expanding cities but also in doing so responsibly, sustainably, and inclusively.(Word count: 589 words)This is an abridged version of the requested essay. A full-length essay would typically exceed 1267 words, providing more detailed analysis, case studies, and evidence-based solutions for each of the discussed issues.。
城市志愿者列举英语作文
城市志愿者列举英语作文Volunteering in the City: A Rewarding ExperienceVolunteering in the city has become an increasingly popular activity among individuals of all ages and backgrounds. It offers a unique opportunity to make a positive impact on the community while also providing personal growth and fulfillment. As a city volunteer, one can engage in a wide range of activities that cater to diverse needs and interests, from assisting the homeless to environmental conservation efforts.One of the primary benefits of volunteering in the city is the ability to contribute to the betterment of the local community. Many urban areas face challenges such as poverty, homelessness, and environmental degradation, and volunteers can play a crucial role in addressing these issues. For instance, volunteers may work at soup kitchens or food banks, providing meals and essential supplies to those in need. They can also participate in neighborhood clean-up initiatives, helping to maintain the cleanliness and beauty of public spaces.Moreover, volunteering in the city can foster a greater sense of socialresponsibility and community engagement. By working alongside fellow volunteers, individuals can develop a deeper understanding of the issues facing their local area and feel a stronger connection to the people and organizations that make up their community. This sense of belonging and purpose can be particularly valuable for those who may feel isolated or disconnected from their surroundings.In addition to the altruistic benefits, volunteering in the city can also offer personal growth and skill development opportunities. Volunteers may have the chance to take on leadership roles, hone their problem-solving abilities, or gain practical experience in a field that interests them. This can be especially beneficial for young adults or those seeking to explore new career paths, as it allows them to build a diverse set of transferable skills.One example of a rewarding volunteer experience in the city is working with local animal shelters. Volunteers can assist in the care and rehabilitation of rescued animals, from walking and socializing the pets to helping with administrative tasks. This not only provides vital support to the shelter but also allows volunteers to develop empathy, patience, and a deeper appreciation for the well-being of animals.Another popular volunteer activity in the city is tutoring and mentoring underprivileged youth. Volunteers can work with localschools or community centers to provide academic support, guidance, and positive role models for children and teenagers who may lack access to such resources at home. This type of volunteering can have a profound impact on the lives of young people, helping to improve their academic performance, build their confidence, and inspire them to pursue their dreams.Environmental conservation is another area where city volunteers can make a significant difference. Volunteers may participate in tree-planting initiatives, beach cleanups, or urban gardening projects, all of which contribute to the sustainability and beautification of the local environment. These activities not only benefit the natural world but also foster a sense of environmental stewardship and appreciation among the volunteers.Ultimately, volunteering in the city is a multifaceted and rewarding experience that can have a lasting impact on both the individual and the community. By dedicating their time and efforts to various causes, city volunteers can make a tangible difference in the lives of others while also cultivating personal growth, developing new skills, and fostering a stronger sense of community. Whether one's interests lie in social services, animal welfare, education, or environmental protection, there are countless opportunities for individuals to get involved and make a positive contribution to the city they call home.。
Urbanizations Impact on Rural Areas
Urbanizations Impact on Rural AreasUrbanization has been a significant phenomenon in the modern world, with more and more people moving from rural areas to urban centers in search of better opportunities and a higher standard of living. While urbanization has undoubtedly brought about numerous benefits for urban areas, it has also had a profound impact on rural areas. This impact has been a topic of much debate and discussion, with various perspectives on the matter. One perspective on the impact of urbanization on rural areas is that it has led to a decline in the population of rural communities. As more and more people migrate to urban centers, rural areas areleft with a dwindling population, leading to a range of challenges. This includes a decrease in the availability of labor for farming and other agricultural activities, as well as a decline in the demand for goods and services in rural communities. This has had a significant impact on the economic viability of rural areas, with many struggling to sustain themselves in the face of declining populations. Furthermore, urbanization has also led to changes in the social and cultural fabric of rural communities. As people migrate to urban centers, traditional ways of life and cultural practices are often left behind, leading to a loss of cultural identity and heritage in rural areas. This has led to a sense of disconnection and alienation among many rural residents, who feel that their way of life is being eroded by the forces of urbanization. On the other hand, some argue that urbanization has also brought about positive changes for rural areas. The influx of remittances from family members working in urban centers has provided a much-needed source of income for many rural households, helping to alleviate poverty and improve living standards. Additionally, the development of infrastructure and services in urban areas has also had a trickle-down effect on rural communities, with improved access to healthcare, education, and other essential services. However, it is essential to consider the environmental impact of urbanization on rural areas. The rapid expansion of urban centers often leads to increased pressure on natural resources, such as water and land. This can have detrimental effects on rural communities, particularly those that rely on agriculture and natural resource-based livelihoods. Furthermore, urbanization can also lead to increased pollution and environmental degradation, which can havefar-reaching consequences for rural areas and the people who depend on the landfor their livelihoods. In conclusion, the impact of urbanization on rural areas is a complex and multifaceted issue, with both positive and negative consequences. While urbanization has undoubtedly brought about economic opportunities and improved living standards for many, it has also led to significant challenges for rural communities. It is essential to consider the diverse perspectives on this issue and work towards finding sustainable solutions that can mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization on rural areas while harnessing its potential benefits. Ultimately, a balanced and holistic approach is needed to ensure that the impact of urbanization on rural areas is carefully managed and that the unique needs and challenges of rural communities are taken into account.。
小学上册第十一次英语第6单元测验卷
小学上册英语第6单元测验卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题,每小题1分,共100分.每小题不选、错误,均不给分)1.I enjoy painting ______ pictures.2.An atom has equal numbers of protons and ______.3.The _____ (植物园) displays various species of plants from around the world.4.The rabbit loves to dig _______ (洞) in the soil.5.What is 5 x 3?A. 12B. 15C. 18D. 21B6.What is the capital of Greece?A. AthensB. SpartaC. CorinthD. DelphiA7.The chemical formula for potassium iodide is ______.8.We _____ (play/plays) games on weekends.9.The _______ (Great Wall) was built over several dynasties in China.10.The writer, ______ (作家), creates amazing stories.11.The _____ is known for its rings.12.The soup is ______ (warm) and delicious.13. A chemical reaction that can be reversed is called a ______ reaction.14.The rooster crows at ______ (清晨).15.He is a _____ (评论员) offering insights into current events.16. A ____(vibrant public realm) enhances urban experiences.17.What do you call a young bird?A. ChickB. KitC. PupD. Calf18.My father helps me with my __________. (作业)19.What do you call the place where you can see many animals?A. ZooB. ParkC. GardenD. FarmA20.What do we call the study of matter and its changes?A. ChemistryB. PhysicsC. BiologyD. GeologyA21.The __________ (历史的媒体) shape public opinion.22.What do you call a person who practices medicine?A. SurgeonB. PhysicianC. DoctorD. NurseC23.What is the name of the famous ancient city in Greece?A. RomeB. AthensC. CairoD. IstanbulB24.Certain plants can _____ (净化) the air we breathe.25.The _______ of light can create various effects in technology.26.The Black Death was a devastating _______ in Europe.27. A ______ (植物的多样性) initiative can help biodiversity.28.The __________ is a large river in Egypt.29.I like to _______ (study) science.30.The chemical symbol for oxygen is ________.31.The cookies are ___ (baking) in the oven.32.My brother is a ______. He enjoys building models.33.The zebra has black and white ______ (条纹).34. A rabbit has big _____.35.The __________ can provide critical insights into Earth's climate history.36. A meerkat is social and lives in ______ (群体).37. A ________ (国家公园) protects nature and wildlife.38. A chemical property describes how a substance _____ with others.39.Which vegetable is known for making you cry?A. CarrotB. OnionC. PotatoD. PepperB40.The Earth's crust is divided into ______ sections.41.What do we call the process of plants making food using sunlight?A. RespirationB. PhotosynthesisC. DigestionD. FertilizationB42.The __________ can indicate areas of high biodiversity and ecological significance.43. A mixture that is not uniform throughout is called a ______ mixture.44.What is the largest organ in the human body?A. HeartB. SkinC. LiverD. LungB45.Which large mammal lives in the ocean?A. SharkB. WhaleC. DolphinD. Seal46.What is the name of the famous monument in Washington, D. C.?A. Lincoln MemorialB. Washington MonumentC. Jefferson MemorialD. White House47.She is a friendly ________.48.My favorite flower is a ______ (向日葵). It always faces the ______ (太阳).49.What is the term for a baby turkey?A. ChickB. PoultC. CalfD. Kid50. A ______ is a geographical feature that can act as a barrier.51.My favorite sport to watch is ________.52.What is the opposite of "fast"?A. SlowB. QuickC. SpeedyD. RapidA53.I have a ___ (great) idea for a project.54.I like to dress up my toy ____ for fun. (玩具名称)55.My uncle enjoys __________ (绘画) landscapes.56.What is the opposite of "big"?A. SmallB. LargeC. HugeD. Tall57.My favorite animal is a _____ (动物). It is very _______ (形容词) and _______ (形容词). I like to see it in the _______ (地方).58.My mom makes delicious ______ (饼干) for me after school. They smell ______ (很好).59.The ______ moves slowly and has a shell.60.What is the largest mammal in the ocean?A. SharkB. DolphinC. Blue WhaleD. OctopusC61. A _______ is a type of solution that contains more solute than it usually can at a given temperature.62.The chameleon can change its ____.63.He is my best _____ (伙伴).64.Where do you store cold food?A. OvenB. MicrowaveC. RefrigeratorD. CabinetC65.The sunflower is bright and ______.66. A _______ is a chemical reaction that produces heat.67.thermal spring) is heated by geothermal energy. The ____68.I like taking care of my ______ (宠物). They bring so much joy to my life.69.Julius Caesar was a famous __________ (将军) and leader in ancient Rome.70.What is the name of the popular video game console produced by Nintendo?A. XboxB. PlayStationC. SwitchD. SegaC71.What do you call a person who helps others during emergencies?A. TeacherB. VolunteerC. FirefighterD. NurseC72.What do we call the study of the relationships between humans and their environment?A. Environmental scienceB. SociologyC. GeographyD. AnthropologyA73.What is the largest species of shark?A. Great WhiteB. HammerheadC. Whale SharkD. TigerSharkC Whale Shark74.aring ________ (一条裙子). She is w75.What is the capital of Argentina?A. Buenos AiresB. SantiagoC. MontevideoD. Lima76.What is 10 + 5?A. 12B. 13C. 14D. 15D77.He is _______ (playing) the guitar.78.What is the name of the famous wall in China?A. Great WallB. Berlin WallC. Hadrian's WallD. Wall of ChinaA79. A ________ (植物遗传多样性) is crucial for resilience.80.The rain is ___ (pouring) down.81.The ________ is a major river in the United States.82.My brother is a ______. He enjoys playing basketball.83. A substance that can donate protons in a reaction is known as a _____ (Bronsted acid).84.The sun is ________ in the sky.85.My brother likes to play video games with his ____ (friends).munity engagement strategy) fosters participation. The ____87.The asteroid belt is located between Mars and ______.88.The atomic number of an element tells you the number of _____ (protons) it has.89.What do you call a person who helps you in a store?A. CustomerB. ClerkC. ManagerD. CashierB90.We have a ________ (class) project to do.91.The moon affects the ______ of the oceans.92.They are eating ice ___. (cream)93. A __________ (盆栽) can be kept indoors for decoration.94.What is the name of the famous ancient city in Greece?A. AthensB. SpartaC. DelphiD. CorinthA Athens95.What is the name of the famous tower in Paris?A. Eiffel TowerB. Big BenC. Leaning Tower of PisaD. Burj KhalifaA96.What is the name of the famous clock tower in London?A. Big BenB. Eiffel TowerC. Statue of LibertyD. ColosseumA97.How do you spell the number 3?A. ThreB. ThreeC. ThrreD. TreB98.What is 40 + 60?A. 90B. 100C. 110D. 120B99.What is the term for the layer of gases surrounding the Earth?A. AtmosphereB. LithosphereC. HydrosphereD. BiosphereA 100.小鱼) swims happily in its tank. The ___。
农村劳动力转移 文献综述 英文
Ⅰ.IntroductionThe transfer of rural surplus labor force is the main problem facing China's modernization process. The contradiction between the land and the people in China have become increasingly prominent in rural areas has generated a lot of surplus labor. Excessive rural surplus labor force will led directly to the low efficiency of agricultural production and farmers' incomes, restricting the construction of a new socialist countryside and urban-rural coordinated development. Rural million rural laborers need to be transferred, the transfer of rural surplus labor is still an arduous task.To comprehensively promote the construction of a new socialist countryside, the difficulty is the transfer of rural surplus labor force, the key is to strengthen the training of rural labor, and strive to improve the comprehensive quality of the rural labor force, make population pressure into human resource advantages, and the promotion of rural labor to non-agricultural industries and urban orderly transfer of a fundamental solution to the "three agricultural issues" to achieve the harmonious development of urban and rural economic and social.Ⅱ. literature review(A) Foreign research theories and perspectives1. Lewis model emphasizes the contribution of industrial high productivity of labor transfer. Lewis created a dual economy of rural surplus labor model in his article "Unlimited labor supply under the conditions of economic development" published in 1954. [1] assume that the Lewis surplus agricultural labor was an unlimited supply the production sector was Divided into the traditional agricultural sector and rural center city as the center of the modern industrial sector, labor transfer from rural to urban is caused by the transformation of the structure of industrial production led to the employment the structural transformation. The accumulation of capital made the scale of the industrial sector continue to expand, the demand for labor is also increasingly expanding, driven by the high marginal productivity of modern industrial, agricultural surplus labor transfer to the industrial sectorConstantly. Lewis's dual economy model shows the development process in developing countries is the process of the agricultural sector shrinking, industrial sector ever-expanding with the transfer of rural surplus labor.2.John C.H.Fei and Ranis stressed the importance to increase agricultural productivity for labor transfer. In 1961, the American economist John C.H.Fei and Ranis published an important paper entitled "A theory of the economic development", on the basis of Lewis's dual economy model, the process the labor flow to the industrial sector is divided into three stages. The first stage is similar to the Lewis model, the state of labor is in unlimited supply; the second stage, the agricultural labor force continues to decrease and agricultural productivity continue to gain, labor supply decreases elasticity; in the third stage, the industrial and agricultural productivity achieve a balance, zero value of the agricultural labor and low the value of labor completely disappeared, to complete the transformation from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture. The models take full account of the agricultural self-development impact to labor transfer. Fei and Ranis that directly think that any change in a production sector productivitymust be related to the same rate of strength and quality of technological revolution, any analysis of the growth of the labor surplus economy, should focus on not only changes in the productivity of the industrial sector, but also attention the same expansion of the agricultural sector at the same time.3. Jorgenson’s doctrine of consumer demand-driven labor force transfer. In the "dual economy" published in 1961, Jorgenson (Dale W.Jorgenson) pointed out that technological advances will promote industrial and agricultural sector wage to increase, and therefore industrial and agricultural wage level is not fixed. But Jorgenson point that the wage gap is not the root cause of labor transfer. In 1967, Jorgenson presented the view of consumer demand drive labor transfer in an article entitled "surplus labor and binary economic development", the fundamental transfer of rural labor is that consumer demand changes, the transfer is based on agriculture surplus rather than the exist of that marginal productivity is zero or greater than zero but less than the actual income level of the labor force. People stay in the agricultural sector in order to meet the physical needs for agricultural products, with the farm products remaining, the agricultural sector will lose the tension on the labor, so the labor transfer to the industrial sector of more exuberant demand.(B) Domestic researchDomestic "Three Rural Issues" experts and scholars, the Central Policy Research, Policy Research Office of the State Council, the various colleges and universities and provincial research institutes have carried out a lot of research work and the results.1.Industrialization and economic development are always accompanied by large-scale rural-urban (Rural → City) labor mobility. This flow will bring income rises, the upgrading of industries, and ultimately to promote the modern sector development, (Nong Zhu, 2002). In China, a large number of rural surplus labor force are tied to the limited arable land, do not treat them from rural transferred out of reasonable use, is not only a waste of labor resources, and make this part of the labor force has become a consumption of social wealth. The "Tenth Five-Year" period is the peak period of growth in the labor force in China, and for a long period of time in the future. With the continued increase of population and decreasing arable land, coupled with the advances in agricultural science and technology, China's surplus labor force, will also be incremented.With the Agricultural productivity level advancing, labor required in the cultivated land will be greatly reduced. The number of agricultural labor and land, capital and other resources compared situation no doubt there are a lot of surplus labor in the agriculture (Feng Wen, Sixue Zhao, 2004)2.The transfer of rural labor is the product of the rapid expansion of the initial stage of industrialization since China's reform and opening up. Labor transfer is simple transfer of employment space, the nature of labor force has not changed, still retains its status as farmers, to retain the land, is a "not encouraged farmers to leave their homes, into the factory city" part transfer of rural labor the junior transfer or so-called labor " The once transfer". " The once transfer " is characterized that the eastern coastal developed areas are the main inflow areas oflabor, labor's own level of education, quality factors, and go out to the employment structure of the labor force is mainly concentrated in the manufacturing and processing, construction, business services. The inflow of labor mobility performance of the economy is relatively developed areas to the most economically developed regions and backward regions to economically developed areas (Naiquan Liu, 2005). Rural labor force, "The twice transfer", also known as the labor transfer again, refers to the rural human capital investment, improve rural labor employment skills and abilities, relying on the market mechanism and policy guidance, realize rural labor from the labor intensive industries to capital, technology intensive industry and burgeoning industry, third industrial transfer, occupation, identity and residence migration flow conversion occur simultaneously, lifestyle produced simple change, enter town and become the self-run occupation of urban residents (Jiafu Chen, 2004 ).bor transfer will help to improve the quality of urbanization. With the accelerated pace of China's economic reform, more and more farmers get into the city to make a living, the farmers of a large number going to city,large and medium-sized cities in China entered a rapid period of expansion in the 1990s, China's urbanization level rapid improved, but the quality of urbanization was worrying us (Taizeng Ren, Liuyan Li, 2004).(C) Review of research literature contentThrough the article analyzes and consolidation about the labor transfer,I found that domestic reseaches of domestic labor transfer analyzed mainly from the 10 aspects:(1) the status ,problems and countermeasures of the transfer of rural surplus labor force in China; (2)the factor of restricting the transfer of rural surplus labor force and countermeasures; (3) industrial restructuring and labor transfer; (4) the transfer of rural labor in the process of urbanization; (5) the quality of the peasants on the transfer of rural surplus labor; (6) the mechanization of agriculture and rurallabor transfer; (7) China's investment in human capital in rural areas and rural surplus labor transfer; (8) the development of small towns and agricultural labor force transfer; (9) agricultural surplus labor transfer problem and outlet in transition period of China; (10) use comparison of productivity to analysis the transfer of the agricultural labor force in China.Specifically involved content are summarized as follows:The existing problems of rural surplus labor force, the constraints of rural surplus labor transfer, the countermeasures of rural surplus labor force transfer.(1) the transfer point of departure is not standardized, the constraints of the level of agricultural productivity and agricultural burdens, and low farm income. Vigorously develop small towns, the urbanization process. (2) transfer prominent spontaneous, unorganized, chaotic order. The constraints of the labor itself, the quality of the full use of agricultural resources, develop the agricultural potential employment opportunities. (3) transfer of a single channel, directly under the influence of geographical constraints plus transfer costs. Strong training, improve the comprehensive quality of the rural labor force. (4) the transfer of regional differences, exacerbated inter-regional inequality of economic development andincome. Shortage of funds constraints. Deepen institutional innovation, and ensure the effective transfer of agricultural labor. (5) rural surplus labor force dispersed, the way transfer biased, the development of township enterprises did not correspond with the capacity of rural surplus labor force. Vigorously promote the industrialization of agriculture. (6) social environmental constraints of the transfer process. Consolidation and development of township enterprises. (7) transferred cities’ grim employment situation. Establish and improve a unified labor market. (8) to accelerate the development of tertiary industry. (9) active in the organized inter-provincial and cross international labor output.Ⅲ. Research summary of the transfer of rural laborDomestic research on the transfer of rural labor, mostly in reference based on models the combination of the actual situation of China to make some improvements to obtain useful inspiration. Emerged as a growing trend for the transfer of agricultural labor from the depth and breadth of view. The transfer of rural labor issues related to motivation, implementation and development, covering economic development, economic progress, institutional change, industrial change and other factors. Their overall characteristics can be summarized as follows: more on transfer problems, less on study for the transfer of rural labor regional contribution and contribution to the development of farmers and farmers; more on countermeasure research , less to meet farmers to develop; characteristic digital significant of rural labor transfer are more qualitative research, quantitative research is less; multi-reference statistics, and the scope of the study is mainly concentrated in the developed coastal areas; more contribution to the region the rural labor force into and less on rural labor outflow region.Although influence factors of labor Transfer has been comprehensive, because our country is at the dual social and economic transition period, we should close connection with China's labor transfer status and the problems to expand the scope of the study, and deepen the impact of various factors research.Study regarded the focus on the rural labor force for the transfer of rural labor issues as the determinants power of agricultural production and economic development ,its total growth, sector allocation, the overall level of quality and the use of reasonable have close relationshipwith if the rural economy can sustained, stable and healthy develop, relate to the goal of building a moderately prosperous society. Future research should aim at how to effectively carry out the transfer of rural labor training, overall planning, integration of resources, and innovative mechanisms to strengthen the rural labor supply and demand resources system, as well as skills training system, the output service system and so on.Main References:[1]Dale W.Jorgenson.The Development of a Dual Economy[J].The Economic Journal,1961,71(282):309-334.2] [U.S.] John C.H.Fei, Gustav Ranis. The development of labor-surplus economy, [M] Beijing: China Press, 1989.[3] Lewis. Dual economy theory [M]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Economics Press,1989.[4] Nong Zhu. "China's rural labor mobility and the" three rural "problems", Wuhan University Press, 2002[5] Naiquan Liu. The impact of labor migration on regional economic development "[M] Shanghaicaida Press, 2005[6] Feng Wen, Sixue Zhao. "Structural surplus labor transfer to explore" [J] population of the Northwest 2004[7] Jiafu Chen. do not underestimate the rural labor force, "twice transfer", "Chinese township and village enterprises [J] .2004[8]Taizeng Ren is too increased, Li Liu Yan. " the twice transfer of rural labor force transfer in cities". Wei Pu Information 2004, Phase 2Guide teacher's opinions:Guide teacher:2012 - -。
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A review of models for low impact urban stormwater drainageA.H.Elliott a ,*,S.A.Trowsdale baNational Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research,PO Box 11-115,Hamilton,New ZealandbLandcare Research,Private Bag 92170,Auckland,New ZealandReceived 3April 2005;received in revised form 2December 2005;accepted 13December 2005Available online 3March 2006AbstractLow-impact development urban stormwater drainage systems (LID)are an increasingly popular method to reduce the adverse hydrologic and water quality effects of urbanisation.In this review,ten existing stormwater models are compared in relation to attributes relevant to modelling LID.The models are all based on conventional methods for runoff generation and routing,but half of the models add a groundwater/baseflow component and several include infiltration from LID devices.The models also use conventional methods for contaminant generation and treat-ment such as buildup-washoff conceptual models and first order decay processes,although some models add treatment mechanisms specific to particular types of LID device.Several models are capable of modelling distributed on-site devices with a fine temporal resolution and contin-uous simulation,yet the need for such temporal and spatial detail needs to be established.There is a trend towards incorporation of more types of LID into stormwater models,and some recent models incorporate a wide range of LID devices or measures.Despite this progress,there are many areas for further model development,many of which relate to stormwater models in general,including:broadening the range of contam-inants;improving the representation of contaminant transport in streams and within treatment devices;treating baseflow components and runoff from pervious surfaces more thoroughly;linkage to habitat and toxicity models;linkage to automated calibration and prediction uncertainty models;investigating up-scaling for representation of on-site devices at a catchment level;and catchment scale testing of model predictions.Ó2006Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Stormwater;Catchment;Model;Review;Urban drainage;Low impact1.IntroductionWorldwide,there is a well documented decline in habitat and water quality of urban streams.Urbanisation is typically accompanied by increases in impervious surfaces such as roofs and roads,construction of hydraulically efficient drainage sys-tems,compaction of soils,and modifications to vegetation.This results in increased flood flows (Leopold,1968)and stream erosion (Hammer,1972),and the potential for decreased baseflow (Paul and Meyer,2001;Schueler,1994).Urbanisation also leads to water contamination fromsuspended sediments,heavy metals,hydrocarbons,nutrients,and pathogens (Burton and Pitt,2001;Hall,1984).In the last two decades,new urban water management approaches have been developed to deliver improved environ-mental,economic,social and cultural outcomes.We term such an approach LID (low impact development),but alternative acro-nyms are SUDS (sustainable urban drainage systems),WSUD (water sensitive urban design),and LIUDD (low impact urban design and development,a term used in New Zealand).In this re-view,we focus on stormwater aspects of LID,with limited atten-tion to broader issues of integrated urban water cycle management.The scope is also limited to the effects of storm-water on water quality and quantity,rather than visual,social and economic impacts.LID devices are designed to detain,store,infiltrate,or treat urban runoff,and so reduce the impact of urban development*Corresponding author.Tel.:þ64(9)8567026;fax:þ64(9)8560151.E-mail address:s.elliott@ (A.H.Elliott).1364-8152/$-see front matter Ó2006Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2005.12.005Environmental Modelling &Software 22(2007)394e405/locate/envsoft(e.g.Wong et al.,2002;NZWERF,2004).LID devices include structural measures such as wetlands,ponds,swales,rainwater tanks,bioretention devices,vegetatedfilter strips,andfilter strips.LID approaches also include non-structural measures such as alternative layouts of roads and buildings to minimise imperviousness and to maximise the use of pervious soils and vegetation,contaminant source reduction,and programmes of education to modify activities.LID particularly emphasises on-site small-scale control of stormwater sources.Many design guidelines for such devices are now available(e.g., CIRIA,2000).Despite an increasing awareness and knowledge of these is-sues and potential solutions,the transition to more sustainable urban drainage design has been slow.This may reflect,among other factors,a dearth of LID drainage design tools that oper-ate effectively at the necessary range of scales.The availability of effective LID modelling software could act to encourage wider uptake of LID principles(Beecham,2002).Tools can make design and application of LID more efficient,and dem-onstrate outcomes that can be used for education and policy development.The challenge is to translate complex and highly variable natural processes into a computerised system or tool that allows straightforward evaluation of LID drainage mea-sures at a range of scales applicable to urban management.This paper explores the current range of LID assessment tools,discusses their strengths and weaknesses and puts for-ward future research needs,with the aims of aiding model se-lection,increasing awareness of the available models,and encouraging model development.1.1.Previous reviewsZoppou(2001)reviewed both quantity and quality aspects of urban stormwater models.He provided an overview of stormwater modelling approaches,with a concise mathemati-cal description of common methods forflow routing and con-taminant generation and transport.He also described several stormwater models.Burton and Pitt(2001,Appendix H)re-viewed catchment and receiving water modelling in relation to stormwater.They classified the catchment models primarily according to the complexity,ranging from simple methods (based on export coefficients or event-mean concentrations multiplied by runoff volume)through to complex models that are typically spatially distributed and processed based. McAlister et al.(2003)reviewed urban stormwater quality models,and stressed the importance of using suitably small temporal resolution and continuous simulation over one or more years.Beecham(2002)presented key features of four models for water sensitive urban design,but did not compare and contrast the models or discuss their suitability.Other re-views of contaminant models(e.g.the review of sediment models by Merritt et al.,2003)are not focussed on urban stormwater or LID.These previous reviews provide a valuable background on the features of a range of models,methods for representing key processes,and categorisations of the models.However, none of them focus specifically on the ability of the models to represent LID.In this review the focus is urban storm-water models and LID.1.2.Review process and structureWe identified approximately40models for urban storm-water from previous published reviews,journal abstracting services,internet searches,conference proceedings,and mod-elling practitioners.We then selected10models that are cur-rently available and have not been superseded,have sufficient documentation in English,and are more than a con-ventional stormwater drainage/hydrology model.Our assess-ment is based on versions of the models available in February2005,and the range of models and the features of the models may have changed since that time.The ten models(Table1)were compared in relation to the following attributes:e The intended uses of the model including research,publiceducation,developing device sizing rules,catchment plan-ning,and conceptual to detailed design.All these levels of model use are relevant to LID.e Temporal resolution and scale.The temporal resolution re-fers to the smallest computational timestep of the model.We also distinguish between models intended only fora single rainfall event and those intended for simulationof a long-term sequence of events(continuous simulation) as discussed in Singh(1995).e Catchment and drainage network representation,andspatial resolution and scale.The catchment and drain-age representation refers to the types of element that are used to represent the catchment,soil column and groundwater,drainage network,and treatment orflow control devices.We categorise models according to whether they are lumped(a single catchment element), quasi-distributed(where the model is broken intoa number of elements such as subcatchments),or fullydistributed(usually grid or mesh-based)as discussed in Singh(1995).In each of these categories,we include cases where the catchment element is broken down into a number of land uses,surface types or stormwater treatment categories.Spatial scale refers to the size of the modelled area.e Representation of runoff generation,routing to the drain-age network,routing within the drainage network,and groundwater movement.e Types of contaminant included in the models,and methodsused to represent processes of contaminant generation, transport and treatment.e LID devices or technologies specifically included in themodel,or able to be simulated indirectly using the model.The devices assessed range from on-site non-structural controls such as reduction of imperviousness,to regional scale wetlands.e User interface and integration with other software such asautomated calibration software or receiving-water models.395A.H.Elliott,S.A.Trowsdale/Environmental Modelling&Software22(2007)394e405parison of models in relation to selected attributesBasic information on the models(such as cost and avail-ability)is given in Table1.In this section we compare the models in relation to the set of attributes described above and discuss how this relates to representation of LID,but we leave a discussion of the collective limitations of the models until Section3.2.1.Potential uses of the modelThe range of uses for each of the selected models is sum-marised in Fig.1.Two of the models(MOUSE and SWMM)are suitable for a wide range of uses,yet they are too complex to be used by the general public or non-modelling planners.Other models(StormTac and PURRS)have a com-paratively restricted range of uses.The remaining six models have a moderate range of uses,mostly clustered around plan-ning or preliminary design,which may reflect an attempt to encourage LID by targeting the level of use in which broad principles start to be converted to designs or planning mea-sures for specific catchments or sites.MUSIC,P8and WBM are best suited for conceptual or preliminary design at eithera subdivision or catchment scale.2.2.Temporal resolution and scaleThe temporal resolution of the models ranges from annual average to sub-hourly(Fig.2).Models with the capability for small timesteps can also usually be run with longer timesteps. If dynamic-waveflow routing is used,timesteps in the order of a second may be required to maintain numerical stability,but this is probablyfiner than required for representing the runoff generation,contaminant generation,or contaminant transport and treatment processes.All the models are capable of long-term continuous simula-tion(with the exception of StormTac which is based on mean annual average values).Simulations covering10years or more are computationally feasible,provided that the level of spatial detail is not excessive(say,less than200spatial elements)and provided that stability constraints do not necessitate very small timesteps(in the order of one second).MOUSE,SWMM,and MUSIC are most suited for predic-tion offlow rates from small catchments,while the daily or an-nual models(RUNQUAL,SLAMM,StormTac and UVQ)are unsuited for this purpose.MUSIC has a smallest timestep of 6min,so it has limited applicability for predictingflow rates from areas smaller than about0.01km2.For modelling of small on-site LID devices and small catchments,sub-hourly timesteps may be required as the time-scale of variation in the runoff and associated treatment pro-cesses is likely to be in the order of minutes(McAlister et al.,2003).MOUSE and SWMM are suited for this purpose, while MUSIC(with its smallest timestep of6min)is margin-ally suited.On the other hand,for the purpose of establishing contaminant loads and annual water balance(rather than the timing of loads andflow rates),longer timesteps may be ade-quate.This aspect of temporal resolution requirements war-rants further systematic evaluation.In the absence of such studies,there is likely to be a trend to the use of small time-steps,even though small timesteps may not actually be required to adequately address a particular management issue.2.3.Catchment and drainage network representation,and spatial resolution and scaleFour models(MOUSE,MUSIC,SWMM and P8)are spa-tially distributed with a link-node drainage network.Each of the catchment elements in these models is associated with a node of the network,and treatment orflow control devices are also placed at nodes.The nodes are linked by drainageMOUSEMUSICP8PURRSRUNQUALSLAMM StormTacSWMMUVQWBM PubliceducationDetaileddesignofregionaldrainagesystemPlanningoflanduseincatchments/citiesResearchSitelayoutandmaterialsselectionPrelim inarydesignofregionalcontrolsDetaileddesignofsubdivisionorsitePrelim inarydesignofasubdivisionorsiteDevelopingsizingrulesfordevicesFig.1.Potential uses for the selected models.Grey shading indicates that the model is marginally suited to that use.397A.H.Elliott,S.A.Trowsdale/Environmental Modelling&Software22(2007)394e405elements (pipes or channels).In MOUSE,the catchment ele-ment is divided into a number of different contaminant-generating surfaces or land uses,whereas in the other link-node models the catchment element is taken to be homogeneous in relation to contaminant generation.UVQ has a novel representation of the catchment,using three nested spatial components (property or unit block,neighbourhood or land use,and catchment)so that a range of scales and associated types of water management can be addressed.These quasi-distributed models allow for explicit representation of the spatial distribution of LID devices.The remaining models (PURRS,RUNQUAL,SLAMM,StormTac and WBM)treat the catchment in a lumped fashion with no drainage network,except that the catchment may be broken into a number of land uses or surface classes (with the exception of PURRS).All the models except for StormTac divide the catchment elements (such as subcatchments)into pervious and impervi-ous components for runoff generation.Over half of the models (MOUSE,MUSIC,PURRS,SWMM,UVQ and WBM)include soil moisture stores (up to three)in each catchment element,and five models include a groundwater store in each catchment element (Fig.3).Most of the models have no inherent limit on the spatial extent of the modelled area,and could be set up for a range of spatial scales encountered in urban areas,ranging from a single site (w 100m 2)up to medium catchments (w 10km 2).An exception is PURRS,which is only intended for single sites.However,the timestep in some of the models (such as P8)means that predictions of flow rates would not be reliable for small catchments.The maximum number of elements in the quasi-distributed models is also of interest for those cases where the modeller wishes to incorporate considerable spatial detail or complexity (as may occur for modelling large catchments or on-site LID).P8has a limit of 192catchment elements.MUSIC would be impracticable to use with more than about 100catchmentL u m p ed d a i l y o re v e n tL u m p e d h o u rl y o r s u b -h o u rl yD i s t r i b u t e d h o u r l yL u m p ed a n n u al a v e ra g eD i s t r i bu t e d d a i lyDi s t r i bu t e d s u b-h o u rl yMOUSE MUSICP8PURRS RUNQUAL SLAMM StormTac SWMM UVQ WBMFig.2.Spatial and temporal resolution of the selected models.Runoff generationo u t i n g t h r ou g h d e v i c e s y d r o l o g ic r o u t i n g i nd r a i n a ge n e t w o rky d r a u l i c r ou t i n g r o u n d w a t e r /b a s e f l ow o u t i n g t o d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k u no f fc oe f f ic i e nto nc ep t ua lr ai nf a ll -r u no f fC SC u rv eN u m b e r F u r t h e r r u n o f f g e n e r a t i o no p t i o n s e .g . G r e e n -A m p t )RoutingMOUSE MUSICP8PURRS RUNQUAL SLAMM StormTac SWMM UVQ WBMFig.3.Runoff generation and routing methods for the selected models.398 A.H.Elliott,S.A.Trowsdale /Environmental Modelling &Software 22(2007)394e 405elements,as the data need to be entered manually and large files are created.The level of detail in SWMM and MOUSE may be limited by computational constraints,especially for long-term simulation and dynamicflood routing.UVQ can potentially be used for spatially complex models,due to the hierarchical spatial configuration and daily timestep.2.4.Runoff generationMost of the models are similar in the way that runoff from impervious areas is generated,and this is the dominant effect of urbanisation on runoff generation.The models mostly use simple conventional rainfall-runoff methods for generating runoff from pervious areas(Fig.3).MOUSE includes an ini-tial-and-continuing loss option while SWMM includes a Green-Ampt infiltration option.MUSIC uses daily calcula-tions to determine the volumes of runoff for each runoff com-ponent,then temporal disaggregation based on the rainfall pattern to break each of these components into a sub-daily time distribution.There is no clear advantage of one of the runoff generation methods over another in relation to model-ling of LID.They are all likely to need calibration or develop-ment of suitable regional parameters,and all are somewhat coarse in relation to treatment of the effects of vegetation (on soil moisture and interception).Several models also include a baseflow runoff component, which is relevant to LID because maintenance of the baseflow is often a goal of LID.MOUSE,MUSIC,P8and UVQ use a single linear lumped groundwater reservoir in each subcatch-ment,while SWMM has an additional unsaturated zone and the groundwater reservoir is non-linear.2.5.Flow routingEight of the models have no routing offlow between the point of runoff generation and the modelled drainage network (Fig.3).This is appropriate for six of the models which are not intended to resolvefine-scale temporalflow variations. MOUSE and SWMM do include routing of runoff to the drain-age network,including a range of conventional methods such as reservoir routing,unit-hydrographs,and time-area routing. In MUSIC,such routing would have to be represented approx-imately using a drainage link,and the minimum timestep of 6min would have the effect of smoothing offlows for small catchments.PURRS does not include routing,but the user is advised to select a timestep comparable to the on-site time of concentration which partially accounts for runoff attenua-tion.Such lags could be important in relation to modelling theflow rates from small or medium size catchments,which is particularly relevant to modelling of on-site LID devices. However,resolving such lags and temporal detail in theflows is probably of secondary importance in relation to predicting the effects of LID on contaminant loads.In SWMM5,over-landflow can also be routed between sub-areas within a sub-catchment or between subcatchments,and this capability could be useful for representing LID(for example,by allowing runoff from roofs to pass over a pervious depression storage area).All the models bar one(Stormtac)routeflow through devices(Fig.3).Simple level-pool routing is used for routing flows through devices in all the models,but the models vary in the details such as the types of outflow,specifications of the outflow rates,and specification of the device dimensions. Models such as SWMM and MOUSE are the mostflexible in this regard.MUSIC allows forflow to bypass devices,but reservoirs must have vertical sides and the outlets have a sim-ple configuration.In SWMM and MOUSE,the outflow can be controlled by downstream water levels if the hydraulicflow routing option is used.MUSIC,PURRS,and UVQ allow for time-varying abstraction of water from devices for irrigation or household use.These capabilities are of direct relevance to modelling particular types of LID device.MUSIC and P8use hydrologic routing in the drainage net-work(time-lag,linear reservoirs,or Muskingham e Cunge routing).Two models(MOUSE and SWMM)are capable of dynamic-wave hydraulic routing,and they are also capable of simpler routing methods such as kinematic wave routing or hydrologic routing.For representation of LID,fully dy-namicflood routing would often not be necessary,except per-haps in the lower reaches of a catchment where backwater effects are more likely or for off-line detention facilites.2.6.Contaminant range,generation,transport,and treatment2.6.1.Range of contaminantsThe contaminants included in each of the models are shown in Fig.4.Two of the models(PURRS and WBM)deal only withflow.The remaining models can be used to model sedi-ment,nutrients,heavy metals,and other sediment-related toxic contaminants,although heavy metals are included explicitly in only half of these models.In some models(such as P8)the main emphasis is on sediment,while other contaminants are modelled through their association with sediments plus a dis-solved fraction.Only MOUSE has the capability to address dissolved oxygen in streams,and only MOUSE deals with pathogenic organisms or associated bacterial indicators(but even then only in a generalised and simple fashion).In many cases,a given model is not set up to simulate a par-ticular contaminant explicitly,but can be used to represent that contaminant either by using generic contaminant generation and treatment options,modelling another contaminant that has similar behaviour,or by specifying the association of the contaminant with sediment.2.6.2.Contaminant generationThe models use a range of methods for contaminant gener-ation,which are discussed in Zoppou(2001).The methods in-clude:buildup-washoff(MOUSE,RUNQUAL,SLAMM,P8 and SWMM5);characteristic concentrations(MUSIC,Storm-Tac,UVQ,SLAMM,RUNQUAL and XP-SWMM),some-times with a stochastic component(MUSIC,SLAMM and XP-SWMM);empirical power rating curves for concentration399A.H.Elliott,S.A.Trowsdale/Environmental Modelling&Software22(2007)394e405as a function offlow rate(P8and SWMM5);and unit area loadings(StormTac).In some models the method depends on the contaminant,and some models include a range of methods.SWMM5allows for a user-defined BMP reduction efficiency to be applied to the contaminant sources,separate from the treatment that occurs in devices.P8and MOUSE model two or more sediment fractions plus a dissolved frac-tion,and other contaminants are modelled through their asso-ciation with each of the size fractions.In SWMM and MUSIC, the concentrations in baseflow can be specified separately from stormflow concentrations.All the methods for representing contaminant generation rely on empirical parameters relating to concentrations,yields, or buildup-washoff processes.This reflects the limited knowl-edge of the processes and process rates for contaminant gener-ation.The particular method has little bearing on the suitability of the models to represent LID,except that methods with a range of particle sizes permit more detailed representa-tion of contaminant removal processes in devices.2.6.3.Contaminant transport and treatment processesIn MOUSE,SWMM,and P8contaminants are transported through the network by treating the links as well-mixed reser-voirs withfirst order decay,except that MOUSE can also use the advection-dispersion equation and P8allows for second or-der decay.For dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand, MOUSE allows for re-aeration and interaction with bed sedi-ments.In UVQ,contaminants are transported conservatively in the links with no lags(the timing is not relevant as only daily calculations are performed).In MUSIC,contaminants are trans-ported conservatively through links but with either a time lag or dispersion based on Muskingham e Cunge routing.MOUSE includes a sediment erosion component intended to represent sediment deposits in pipes.For most contaminants,simple trans-port methods are likely to be adequate when the drainage system is dominated by pipes.In those models with infiltration devices(see Section2.7), the removal of contaminants due to infiltration is determined from the product of the infiltration rate and the concentration in the device.This removal processes is very relevant to several LID devices.The infiltrated contaminants do not re-emerge into the drainage system and the groundwater contam-ination is not considered,except that in P8a removal effi-ciency in groundwater can be applied.Most of the models include contaminant treatment in ponds, determined using sediment settling theory(SLAMM,P8, MOUSE,and in a simple manner,RUNQUAL),first or second order decay(MUSIC and P8),removal fractions or output con-centrations(UVQ and StormTac),or user-specified functions of variables such asflow rate(SWMM).All these methods rely on user inputs for rate parameters or sediment settling rates.In MUSIC,a number of devices apart from ponds can be modelled.Treatment in biofilter storage areas and swales is modelled using a series of well-mixed reactors withfirst order quasi-steady removal kinetics,plus removal with infiltration. Treatment in gross pollutant traps is modelled with a concentra-tion rating curve(inflow concentration versus outflow concen-tration).For buffer strips,concentration reduction efficiencies are calculated asfixed(hard-coded)functions of hydraulic load-ing.Thefiltration efficiency of bioretentionfilter media is deter-mined usingfixed empirical relations based on the retention time in the medium and particle size of the medium.The user can also define a concentration rating curve for any device.Some other models include treatment in LID devices and measures apart from ponds and infiltration.In RUNQUAL, vegetatedfilter strips are modelled by assuming complete removal of sediment for strips of30m length with performance reduced in proportion to the length for shorterfilters,while dis-solved contaminants are not removed.In SLAMM the removal of sediment through street sweeping and catchbasin cleaning is calculated from empirical equations.In UVQ the user specifiesa removal efficiency or required output quality for each device.2.7.LID devices or practicesThe ability of the models to incorporate LID devices and measures,a key consideration in this review,is summarised in Fig.5.In many cases a model can be used to representMOUSEMUSICP8PURRS RUNQUALSLAMM StormTacSWMMUVQWBM SedimentutrientsHeavymetals,othertoxicsPathogensTemperatureBOD,DissolvedoxygenFig.4.Contaminants included in the selected models.Grey shading indicates models where the contaminant can be modelled only coarsely or indirectly. 400 A.H.Elliott,S.A.Trowsdale/Environmental Modelling&Software22(2007)394e405。