grammarhierarchy

OverviewGrammar is no doubt very critical in learning a language. However, it is not only about a set of rules,but I would rather say, is governed by a set of rules. Grammar is systematic, organized and dynamic at the same time. As language is a living fluid entity that changes in response to changes in society, grammar is not absolute and fixed. Be ware of the different styles of language, regional differences and changing nature of grammar when we start to study it.Before digging into the complicated structure of grammar, first have an overview of what is required of us English majors to learn for grammar, what is grammar, how it is structured and make clear some most commonly refered concepts and terms appearing afterwards.Grammar HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English languages is organized in to five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents—the morphemes.1. Morphemes(词素)The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes (自由词素) and bound morphemes (粘附词素).Free morphemes: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech.本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素Examples: boy girl deskkind give takeBound morphemes: bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an inflectional(曲折变化的) or derivational(派生的) affix.本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。

Examples : anti-war Marxist unluckypostwar movement co-existenceAllomorphs(词素变体): the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological(语音的) or orthographical(拼写的) forms. The variants of the same morpheme are called “allomorphs”.表示相同意义的词素在不同的环境中可有不同的变体，这叫做词素变体。

Example: in- im- il- ir-inactive immature illegal irrationalIncoherent immortal illogical irregular2. wordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways: 1) Classified in terms of word-formationIn terms of word-formation, words can be divided intoa) simple words(简单词)又叫“单词素词”（morpheme word), 由单一自由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如：at, by, foot, take, make 等b) derivatives(派生词)由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀可表示不同的意义或不同的词性。

如：unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international, belittle 等c) compounds(复合词).通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。

如：deadline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall 等2) Classified in terms of grammatical functionIn terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups: closed words(封闭词类)and open-class words(开放词类).a) Closed-class words-refer to those sets of words whose items are “closed” or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members, such as prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc.封闭词类指所有的功能词，包括:介词(Preposition), 如：in, of, on, without 代词(Pronoun), 如：you, he, one, which限定词(Determiner), 如：a, the, this连词(Conjunction), 如：and, or, but助动词(Auxiliary), 如：do，can, mayb)Open-class words-refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, main verbs(主动词).开放词类指各种实义词，包括：名词(Noun)，如：man, Paris, drama形容词(Adjective), 如：old, big, cheap副词(Adverb), 如：here, there, late主动词(Main Verb),如：work, give, makec) There is another class existing between the two, which includes cardinal numeral, ordinal numeral, interjection, etc.此外还有基数词(Cardinal Numeral)，序数词(Ordinal Numeral)，感叹词(Interjection)是介乎“封闭”与“开放”之间的词类3. PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head(中心词). The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1) The noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner +) (premodifier +) noun(+postmodifier)e.g. all the college studentshis new book on phonologythe tall boy sitting in the cornerthe author’s new novel that will soon come out2) The verb PhraseThe verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex.A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier+main verb”.e.g. She looks pale.We utterly detested him.A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary(or auxiliaries)(+modifier).e.g. She ought to have told him about it.In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or nonfinite. A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to tense or subject. A nonfinite verb phrase is a phrase initiated by a nonfinite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to tense or subject. [see examples on Pages 7-8]We went there to see a film.3) The adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/complementation)e.g. The weather is fine today.The course is pretty difficult.You’re not careful enough.4) The adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier)e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly.Be a man. Do not act so slowly.She spoke very clearly indeed.5) The prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:(modifier+) preposition + complementatione.g. We’re collecting money for the benefit of some orphans.The student consulted his adviser about the two courses.4. ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged(完整的) clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1) Independent and dependent clause独立分句和从属分句In terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from dependent clause that forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.e.g. ①He knows everything about it.That hat does not fit; you may try another.②A dependent clause forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.e.g. I don’t think he knows everything about it.If that hat does not fit, try another.2) Simple and complex clauses简单分句和复杂分句a) When a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence.e.g. It is not true. (独立简单分句)He said that it was not true. (从属简单分句)b) When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.e.g. What you said is not true. (独立复杂分句)He complained that what you said was not true. (从属复杂分句)3) Main and subordinate clauses主句和从句In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.4) Finite and nonfinite clauses限定分句和非限定分句A clause can be finite or nonfinite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a nonfinite clause is a clause with a nonfinite verb phrase as its predicator. e.g. I don’t remember which of your answers were correct.(限定分句)I signed the paper to get the license.(非限定分句)5) Verbless clausesWhen a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” withou t any form of verb element.e.g. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned.Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.5. SentenceThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function.1) Full and minor sentences①A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing.e.g. I signed the paper to get the license.②A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situation canstand by itself and perform a communicate function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informational discourses.e.g. No smoking!Help!2) simple, compound, Complex and compound-complex sentences 简单句、并列句、复杂句和并列复杂句①A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause.e.g. The students have made better grades in the past few weeks.The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks.②Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentencee.g. The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard.③When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes a complex sentence.e.g. Miss Linda came to the party, but Mr. And Mrs. Wood did not.④Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.e.g. They watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldn’t see the program because our television was broken.Sentence StructureSentenceThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function.1) Full and minor sentences①A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing.e.g. I signed the paper to get the license.②A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situation can stand by itself and perform a communicate function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informational discourses.e.g. No smoking!Help!2) simple, compound, Complex and compound-complex sentences 简单句、并列句、复杂句和并列复杂句①A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause.e.g. The students have made better grades in the past few weeks.The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks.②Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentencee.g. The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard.③When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes a complex sentence.e.g. Miss Linda came to the party, but Mr. And Mrs. Wood did not.④Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.e.g. They watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldn’t see the program because our television was broken.Sentence Structure句子（Sentence）是最高一层的语法结构，也是人们进行交际、表达思想的最小语言单位。