工程管理专业毕业设计中英文翻译
工程管理专业外语英汉翻译
AA bill of quantities allows each contractor tendering for a project to price the work using the same information.一个账单量允许每个承包商为项目投标价格A bill of quantities is a list of item are entered in the next column followed by the rate ($/meter,$/meter2,$meter3,etc).比尔的数量是一个列表项进入下一列由率（美元/米，美元/平方米，美元/ 立方米，等）A construction manager can provide such coordination and the leadership necessary to produce the work. 一个项目经理提供必要的生产等工作的协调和领导。
A contract can be a ‘simple contract’: specialty contracts are also commonly referred to as ‘contracts under seal’.合同可以是一个简单的合同”：专业合同通常也被称为“盖印契约A contract is agreement between two or more than two parties(individuals or organizations) to perform or not to perform certain acts.合同协议的两个或更多的比之间的两方（个人或组织）执行或不执行某些行为。
A contract may be written or oral, but is only formed when there has an offer to do or provide something that is accepted by another party and is supported by consideration.合同可以是书面的或口头的，但只有当有一个形成作出或提供的东西是由另一方的接受和支持的思考。
工程管理专业英语全文翻译
工程管理专业英语全文翻译Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点1.2 Major Types of Construction 1.2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only aspecific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look forshort term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2]. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.由于大多数业主通常只对获得特定类型的建筑设施感兴趣，所以他们应该了解与他们有关的建筑类型的常见工业实践[1]。
工程管理毕业外文翻译
Building engineering biddingYang Cao a,*, Shuhua Wang b, Heng Li aaDepartment of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, HongKong, ChinabState Key Laboratory of Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing210093, ChinaAbstractNowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively. bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is the improtment to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the biddingwork.Becasue the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.[key] : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasuresBidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism. Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender. Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills. All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding. The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding. Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents. If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation. The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme .In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instuments. Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding. Bidding documents are the legal instuments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents -making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of leagal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice. However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks. This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding(project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy. This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation. Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures. In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved. The spirit of "the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price" principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity. Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity. Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects. The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the workConstruction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender. I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for TenderThe meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives, according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention. Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits; construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significanceConstruction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs. In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing. Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model. With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative. Therefore, "the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder" My future is the most important evaluation methods. At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China at this stage " in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost. This article is a scientific and fast set "reasonable cost" to study the key. First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates. Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through "close-degree," the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a "framework structure," the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the "open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market. In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process,adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and lev建筑项目招投标杨曹*,王建民,b, 李亨a建筑部门和房地产、香港理工大学、香港、中国b国家重点实验室的小说软件技术、南京大学、南京210093,中国摘要目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必须严格控制成本，加强成本控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。
土木工程和工程管理专业毕业设计外文翻译
土木工程和工程管理专业外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectBy: Paul Stanford KupakuwanaCost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009ABSTRACT：This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS: Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Presold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months.The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof.At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dol lars (US $1.2m).After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defenda nts’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential.The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgment, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely to be sufficient onits own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history. Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This will increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination.Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art.According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require a multi-disciplinary approach.Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions.It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making. Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks. This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants.The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appear justified forthe plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.References[1]Madan L.Arora, “Project Management: One Step Beyond”[M], Civli Engineering, October 1996,pp67-68[2]Matthys Levy and Mario Salvadori, Why Buildings Fall Down, New York:[J] W.W.Norton, 1992[3]Louis Berger, “Emerging Role of Management in Civil Engineering"[M], Journal of Managementin Engineering, Vol.12, No.4, July 1996[4] Hagerty D J, Peck R B. H eave and Lateral Movements Du e to Pile Driving [J]. Journal of the SoilMechanics and Foun dations Division, 1997国际建设工程风险分析保罗斯坦福库帕库娃娜工程造价卷第五十一期2009年9月9日摘要：此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
土木工程、工程管理专业毕业设计英文文献翻译
Unit Eight The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land(10～20percent),finance and interest(100～200 percent),taxes and maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion of these so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs. This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refersto the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cut back. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost of materials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10～15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent(or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, as will as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings(5～10 stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15～20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services (i.e., 30～50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-span buildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structural costs (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs), with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and no monumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’ slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricators wherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percen t is the “standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system should cost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average” efficientdesign estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.If the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards” for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard” per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. More-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal” and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion of structural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50～75 psf) loads(i.e., similar to those for apartment and office structures).Where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual” standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf(i.e., two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, the more that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But it is possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capability for making such estimates.V olume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to ﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50 per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and welding(such as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩0.70 per pound and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20 stories), there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steel bars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, in a developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.One important exception to the above cost picture is that of concrete work in foundations. Here the cost of forming and casting simple foundations (i.e., for spread foundations with very little steel, such as subgrade bearing walls and mat foundations) should be considered at about $90 per cu yd. But in case pile can cost $12 per ft or more in place, of course depending on soil conditions.It is enlightening to pay some attention to the makeup of these in-place concrete estimates. The cost of concrete alone for ordinary reinforced concrete work is about $40 per cu yd delivered. For special concrete, such as lightweight and/or high-strengthquick-setting concrete, the cost can go to $50 or even $60 per cu yd. Mild reinforcing steel, depending on the cutting and fabricating complexity of the required reinforcing design, can rang from 30￠to46￠per lb in place. For an average of about 150 lb of steel per cubic yard of ordinary reinforced concrete, the steel cost would range from about $45 to $60 per sq yd. Labor, including placing of reinforcing and concrete, cost about $20 to $40 per cu yd depending on the complexity of placing and working the concrete.Form work represents the largest single cost factor for most concrete work. The cost can be stated as per square feet of contact area, with slabs requiring single-side and walls double-side forming. In either case, efficiency depends on reusability and the simplicity of form design. For the simplest reusable plywood forms, such as for a flat slab, the costs will run a minimum of $1 psf of contact area. This amounts to some $80 of forming cost per cu yd of concrete for an ordinary 8-in wall. When beams are introduced, cutting and erection costs are much affected by high labor cost, and the forming costs can easily go to $2.50or $3.00 psf of contact area. Special designs for very complicated forming, such as for nonstandard waffle systems, or for shell and suspension design, will often contribute a large portion to cast-in –place concrete cost, unless the forms are reused.The mass of concrete per square foot of plan area affects the form/cost ratio. This is pronounced in the case of, say, a simple 3-in shell as compared with an 8-in flat slab. At $1 psf form cost, one cubic yard of concrete placed for a 3-in shell will require 108 sq ft of form, at a cost of $108.Thus, the thinner the system, the greater the influence of form costs on total costs.Prestressing costs can now be compared with nonprestressed concrete work. The material and labor for prestressing steel cost about $40 to $60 per cu yd for pretensioned precast concrete and $60 to $80 per cu yd for post tensioned in-place concrete. But with competent design, prestresse structural members are designed thinner in comparison with reinforced concrete design, and the overall cost of prestressed concrete construction could often be cheaper than ordinary reinforced concrete work. The other advantages of weight reduction and minimum deflection are additional.Often where prestressing is not found to be less expensive in term of immediate construction cost, the ability to design for longer spans and lighter elements with less wall, column and foundation loading, as well as the increased architectural freedom, determine the desirability of going to prestressed elements. The point for the designer to remember is that good design in either material will be competitive and frequently one’s decision is in a context of many important building design determinants, only one of which is the structural system.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!中文翻译：建筑结构的成本1．导言建筑艺术设计被描绘成了作为一个既包含处理很多物质因素，又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素的复杂形式。
工程管理专业英语全文翻译
Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点1。
2 Major Types of Construction 1。
2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them ［1]. Likewise，the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products。
Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages。
However ，many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities。
It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive。
Collectively，the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because，by their individual actions，they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2］。
工程管理专业2013届毕业设计材料6-外文翻译(英译汉)
学 生 毕 业 设 计（论 文）英 文 翻 译课题名称 施工项目的成本控制姓 名 XXXX学 号 XXXXXXX院、系、部 XXXXXXXX专业班级 XXXX指导教师XXX2013 年 5月※※※※※※※※※※※ ※※ ※※ ※※※※※※※※※ 2013届学生毕业设计(论文)材料（六）The construction project cost control1 IntroductionProject is a corporate image window and effectiveness of the source. With increasingly fierce market competition, the quality of work and the construction of civilizations rising material prices fluctuations. uncertainties and other factors, make the project operational in a relatively tough environment. So the cost of control is through the building of the project since the bidding phase of acceptance until the completion of the entire process, It is a comprehensive enterprise cost management an important part, we must organize and control measures in height to the attention witha view to improving the economic efficiency of enterprises to achieve the purpose.2 Outlining the construction project cost controlThe cost of the project refers to the cost and process of formation occurred, on the production and operation of the amount of human resources, material resources and expenses, guidance, supervision, regulation and restrictions, in a timely manner to prevent, detect and correct errors in order to control costs in all project costs within the intended target. to guarantee the production and operation of enterprises benefits.3 The cost of the construction enterprise principles of construction enterprises controlThe cost of control is based on cost control of construction project for the center, Construction of the project cost control principle is the enterprise cost management infrastructure and the core, Construction Project Manager in the Ministry of Construction of the project cost control process, we must adhere to the following basic principles.1）Principles lowest cost. Construction of the project cost control, the basic purpose is to cost management through various means, promote construction projects continue to reduce costs, to achieve the lowest possible cost of the objective requirements. The implementation of the principle of minimum cost, attention should be given to the possibility of reducing costs and reasonable cost of the minimum.While various mining capacity to reduce costs so that possibility into reality; The other must proceed from actual conditions, enacted subjective efforts could achieve a reasonable level of the minimum cost.2）Overall cost control principles. Cost Management is a comprehensive enterprise-wide, and full management of the entire process, also known as the "three" of management. The full project cost control is a system of substantive content, including the departments, the responsibility for the network and team economic accounting, and so on, to prevent the cost control is everybody's responsibility, regardless of everyone. Project cost of the entire process control requirements to control its costs with the progress of construction projects in various stages of continuous, neither overlooked nor time when, should enable construction projects throughout costs under effective control.3）Dynamic Control principle. Construction of the project is a one-time, cost control should emphasize control of the project in the middle, that is, dynamic control. Construction preparation stage because the cost is under the control of construction design to determine the specific content of the cost, prepare cost plans, the development of a cost-control program for the future cost control ready. And the completion of phase cost control, as a result of cost financing has been basically a foregone conclusion, even if the deviation has been too late to rectify.4）Principle of management by objectives. Management objectives include : setting goals and decomposition, the goal of responsibility and implementation of the aims of the inspection results of the implementation, evaluation of the goals and objectives that form the management objectives of the planning, implementation, inspection, processing cycle, PDCA.5）Responsibility, authority, in light of the profit principle. Construction of the project, project manager of the department, the team shouldering the responsibility for cost control at the same time, enjoy the power of cost control, project manager for the department, Teams cost control in the performance of regular examination andappraisal of implementation of a crossword punishment. Only to do a good job duties, rights, and interests combining cost control, in order to achieve the desired results.4 The construction cost control measuresProject Manager of the project cost management responsibility for the first, comprehensive organization of the project cost management, timely understand and analyze profit and loss situation and take prompt and effective measures; engineering technology department should ensure the quality, Regular tasks to complete as much as possible under the premise adopt advanced technology in order to reduce costs; Ministry of Economic Affairs should strengthen budget management contract, the project to create the budget revenue; Finance Ministry in charge of the project's financial, Analysis of the project should keep the financial accounts of reasonable scheduling of funds.Develop advanced economies reasonable construction program, which can shorten the period, and improve quality, reduce costs purpose; paid attention to quality control to eliminate redone, shorten the acceptance and reduce expenses; control labor costs, material costs, Machinery and other indirect costs.5 Strengthen project cost control practical significance1）Strengthen project cost control railway construction enterprises out of their predicament, the need to increase revenue. At present, the railway construction enterprises just into the market, to participate in market competition, will face a tough test of the market. Now the construction market liberalization, implement bidding system, and the strike has very low weight, To create efficiency is the only way to strengthen internal management and improve their internal conditions, internal efficiency potentials. Therefore, the strengthening of project cost control is a very realistic way.2）Strengthening Project Cost control is adapt to the market competition, and strengthening internal management to the needs of their work. With the railway enterprise's rapid development, construction increasingly fierce market competition.For a period of time, the railway construction enterprises will face the increasingly fierce market challenges Construction of the business environment difficult to be improved. Efficiency increases, effective cost control and claims will be strengthened in the future management focus. This requires the railway construction enterprises should respect the unity of the work to reduce costs and enhance efficiency objectives.6 Currently construction enterprise project cost control analysis of the current project cost6.1 Problems and the causes of the current project implementationIn summary, the current project of cost management, accounting only after the accounting, rather than advance the prevention and control things. The reasons are : lack of cost awareness. simply that the cost of management is the financial sector or the superior leadership, have nothing to do with them. only focused on the "production tasks are completed" and "contracting profit and loss," the groups have a "negative effect." Therefore, project to mobilize the full participation of the Ministry of cost control, deepening of the project cost management imperative.6.2 Project Department analysis of the reasons for the losses as a project of building productsCommodities direct producers, both under the contract and construction drawings, self-regulating organizations of the construction authority, but also by contracting, design, Enterprises and other projects related to the construction of the units affected and constrained. In addition, geological and climate changes, Design changes, but on objective factors of the construction projects have a significant impact, and all of the above factors will affect the cost of project expenditures.6.2.1 Lost control of the cost of the so-called subjective reasons,Subjective reasons refer to the project, can not dispose of any external influence on the control of the costs, As mentioned above the project with the Ministry of Construction for the autonomy of the cost. mainly include the following aspects :1）No strict cost control of the overall goal or no cost control goals. Most of the loss items Department head, there is no cost control goals. Although some but not strictly enforced, thus the cost of the project is out of control.2）Materials, spare parts planning, procurement, inspection, custody, out of the reservoir, consumption of the system is not sound. the loss of the item, the purchase of materials and accessories unplanned phenomenon abound. procurement lies in the number of project managers even material, the result is bound to lead to a backlog of material, cost overruns.3）Serious quality problems. serious losses Project Department, almost all relatively serious quality problems, resulting in rework, repair, It seems a repetition of construction, increase the costs of construction. For example, in the bridge construction, there is the basis sank, Pier deflect such phenomena.4）Unreasonable arrangements. During the construction process, the project was not in a reasonable allocation of manpower, materials, equipment and other resources. lead to a waste of sabotage work; Construction of the manufacturing arrangements unreasonable to step in to complete the actual conduct of the second, three complete, the resulting redone, and so on.5）More accidents. the loss of the item, Most of the projects have occurred in the Department of varying degrees of security incidents and minor injuries affected employees work injuries have affected staff work, Also the cost of medical expenses, but can also enable the staff of physical and skills decline, reduced labor and labor efficiency; fatal accidents resulting in huge pension costs to be incurred, directly increasing costs, and may also affect sentiment reduce production efficiency.6）Contract management confusion. the loss of the item, Most of the projects the Ministry failed contract management awareness, knowledge of the contract, and have little do not understand the basic elements of the contract, contract management led to confusion, enterprises suffered huge economic losses.6.2.2 The influence of objective factors of the project is to increase the total cost of a connection so-called objective factorsProject Department is unable to control its own and must take place or because there are things or phenomena, such as contracting, design, enterprises in terms of the contract for the project outside the Ministry of Construction issued the directive, geological and climate changes, Design changes such. These factors for the emergence of the cost incurred, Project Department is not the objective to control costs. These factors are :1）Costs. Some enterprises in order to gain access to a particular market in the qualifications, thereby meeting the quality of construction projects built on the premise that right to take the tender bid price is lower than the cost of bidding strategy for the final bidding process, in the operating strategy is bound to happen, but projects are concerned, no matter what steps are taken it will be difficult to make these projects profitable.2）Geological and Climate changes. the geological conditions are inconsistent with the design, Projects will be forced to change the construction method, thus affecting the construction period, so that the total project costs. the same time will also cost breakdown of a larger change. Winter, Construction of the rainy season and the number of days of sandstorms construction increase, the Ministry will allow the project to increase various fees.3）Design changes. various engineering design changes so that the project will cost changes affect the total project cost. For example, contracting unit to increase the number of extend or shorten the construction period. changes in construction plans and projects to improve the quality of grading, etc..4）Construction design less reasonable. As a construction site with the actual difference individual projects in construction design at the time of the existence of irrational phenomena, such as the personnel, materials, equipment arrangements and plans for the accuracy of individual projects or processes of the time, the lack of quality considerations. Projects can make the cost increase.5）Sabotage work of the project. As work on the link between tasks or for other reasons, Projects have some sabotage work, in this period sabotage work needed to meet various costs, such as wages or basic living expenses. fixed asset depreciation charges, indirect costs of the project. Projects6.3 Containment measures for the lossContainment measures for the loss of containment for a variety of reasons over the project losses, in accordance with the requirements of clear responsibilities, Projects should control the cost of the project is able to cost control measures were taken. for a project to control the cost of the project by the Ministry of control; and the project beyond the control of the costs or losses, by the enterprises should take measures to control it.6.3.1 Construction projects to the Ministry of the so-called cost control measures to the Ministry of Construction of the project.Construction projects to the Ministry of the so-called cost control measures to the Ministry of Construction of the project.refer to enterprises directly organized by the staff and farmers contract workers, temporary workers and the labor force composed of the internal construction team, mixed construction team and construction services sub-teams composed of Construction Projects.1）Determine the total project cost targets and the profit and loss targets. Every one of the successful projects, in a formal pre-construction, identify the project and sub-project for the dates, materials, equipment and identify the project and sub-project of the labor, materials, machinery and indirect costs. On this basis, The project will determine the profit or loss targets.2）Implemented material bidding procurement. Projects must thoroughly change the past, piecemeal purchase goods, the enterprises of all projects, including the main material to build on all the tender for the procurement, Obviously choice of material suppliers. Meanwhile, we should fully consider the time value of money. choose a suitable form of payment.3）Controllable according to the principle of cost control. The Ministry of Construction of the project team and staff, In accordance with the principle of cost control and distinguish the project department, the construction team and the staff of the costs of monovalent responsibility, including dates Price, Materials Unit, select the unit and units, or fixed rates. We must strictly enforce the internal inspection system for pricing, timely construction team and staff honored economic interests.4）Enhance safety, and quality management. Projects must establish security, Quality is the major benefits of efficiency. actively prevent and avoid possible security, quality accidents, for the accident-prone regions of constant surveillance. to strictly implement the responsibility for the accident the penalty system so that all staff clearly establish the safety, quality consciousness.5）Strengthen contract management. All of the projects, In particular, the main sub-projects of the need for a designated person responsible for contract management, In addition to the timely settlement or deal with the things, with the other units or individuals from the economic, technical, labor matters, must sign the formal contract, not with the verbal agreement. at the contract process, should act in strict accordance with the relevant provisions of the contract for disposal.6）Improve the management system, establish a cost-control mechanism. Projects must connect with reality, the development and control of the cost to draw up rules and regulations, such as material procurement, custody, inspection, warehousing, consumption system, the labor remuneration management systems, equipment management, financial management, accounting, security, quality management approach, the post-mortem valuation methods, and to establish the cost of the project department of internal control and supervision mechanisms.6.3.2 Construction of the sub-item of cost control measures in the so-called sub-Construction Projects1）Determined in accordance with the assembly The objectives of the sub-projects to determine the price.2）Allocated in strict accordance with the requirements of the project and the clearing. Projects must be in accordance with the provisions of the contract settlement price of the project, completion of the sub-units of qualified engineering post-mortem will be conducted on a monthly basis for the valuation and then clearing projects, sub-units will not be allowed to advance baiting, and for projects.3）Strictly prohibited construction of external units link . Projects must be in accordance with the requirements of enterprises, prohibit external units linked to various forms of external construction enterprises. Any item shall not allow the Ministry of External units to enterprises in the name of contractor carry out projects, the post-mortem pricing and settlement payments.7 On how to conduct effective cost control7.1 Segmentation project costOptimal allocation of project resources project allocation of resources is directly related to cost control methods and extent of For many of the ongoing state-controlled construction of large enterprises, Basically, the cost of the project is a subcontractor costs and cost of the construction team, and the enterprises is the main source of economic control subcontractor costs. Team Construction costs are often difficult to create cost-effective. both how the mix, the cost of the project into how, This enterprise is the key to cost control problems.7.2 The development of a cost planA cost of the complete dynamic control costs and responsibilities of sub-division and the initial cost of the two identified some of the costs, To work out the total cost of the scheme, the total cost of the scheme is in addition to covering the costs and responsibilities of sub-cost, should also consider funding the project site, the higher management fees, taxes and other factors. The total cost will be divided into two parts :1）Uncontrollable cost of the project : it refers to taxes, the higher management fees can not be subjective project management control;2）Controllable cost of the project : the total cost of the scheme, apart from the uncontrollable costs other than the full cost, such as subcontracting costs, responsibility for the cost, on-site expenses.Controllable costs are focused on cost control, controllable cost of the project is planned prior to the commencement of the construction time, construction, construction design based on. Along with the progress of works and that will happen if the construction program improvement works to change, to build factors such as rising price changes. So for the cost of plans to conduct timely adjustment, the cost of the scheme is to ensure that the guidance and control, in the adjustment should pay more attention to analysis of the different factors changes to the original cost of the scheme is the extent of the effect.7.4 Conduct a cost analysis, improve enterprise cost management level after the end of constructionAccording to the total cost of the scheme and controllable cost plan and the final actual cost comparison analysis, cost analysis charts available in various forms, such as comparative analysis not only to the total cost, but also to process cost analysis, but mainly to process analysis, process reached higher or lower cost reasons.1）First analyze the conditions for the construction, Construction programs, materials price changes caused by changes in the unit price for the process, collecting the introduction of new technology, new techniques, and new materials processes cost information;2）Followed by the subjective determination of the cost comparison part of the process the price analysis by the enactment of the unreasonable result of the high or low price processes, while accumulation of written information, for the future development of similar projects the cost of the scheme;3）Sub-units of information collection and evaluation of sub-contractors, prepared, "the roster of qualified sub-contractors" for future similar projects to choose subcontractors and sub-development costs;4）Summary subcontracting costs and responsibility cost data, after screening analysis for enterprise Bidding reference.8. Summary of the construction project cost controlSummary of the construction project cost control is a complicated systematic project. the application needed to be applied with flexibility the actual operation be adapted to local conditions, different sizes, different construction firms and different management systems have differences, But in any case are the construction of the production and operation of enterprises in the amount of human resources, material resources and expenses, guidance, supervision, regulation and restriction. Therefore, "increases production and economize, to increase revenues and reduce expenditures" is a common construction enterprises, This requires constant practice in the review and improve cost control, ways and means to ensure that the project cost goals.施工项目的成本控制1 引言项目是企业的形象窗口和效益源泉。
工程管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译BIM Beyond Boundaries
工程管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译BIM BeyondBoundaries外文文献:BIM Beyond BoundariesSeptember 10, 2012 ? by Randy DeutschAbstract: Opting for depth over breadth of expertise is a false choice that will lead individuals, organizations, the profession, and industry in the wrong direction.Keywords: BIM, expertise, anti-learning, master builderSeveral forces are converging to create an unprecedented and timely opportunity for organizations that have embraced building information modeling (BIM). These forces —including the rise of the expert, the growing complexity and speedof projects, and BIM’sincreasing recognition as an enabler, catalyst, and facilitator of team collaboration — also presentsignificant challenges that can be overcome with the right approach and mindset.At one time, being an expert meant knowing more than one’s competitors in a particularfield. Firms that reinforced their expert culture hoarded information, which resulted in silos of expertise. Today, many firms are looking to hire people perceived as building and software technologyexperts, shortsightedly addressing today’s needs at the expense of tomorrow’s. While architects have always been trees with many branches, our current economic climate has discouraged them from being anythingbut palm trees: all trunk, no branches.And yet things change so quickly that those who went to bed experts are unlikely to wake up experts in the morning. Due to the speed and complexity of projects, we do not have time to acquire knowledge the old way — slowly, over time, through traditional means. Even when we supplement our book learning with conferences, webinars, and continuing education, it is impossible to keep up with the flow of new information in our industry.Expertise today is a much more social, fluid, and iterative process than it used to be. Being an expert is no longer about telling people what you know so much as understanding what questions to ask, who to ask, and applying knowledge flexibly and contextually to the specificsituation at hand. Expertise has often been associated with teaching and mentoring. Today it’smore concerned with learning than knowing: less to do withcontinuing education and more with practicing and engaging in continuous education.Social media presents the would-be expert with both opportunitiesand challenges. Working- 1 -with the understanding that somebody somewhere has already done what you are trying to do, design professionals, like agile technology experts, can find what they’re looking for by tapping into their networks and aggregating the responses. Conversely, due to the rise of social media, virtually all anyone has to do today to be considered a technology expert is to call themselves one. Because social networks allow people to proclaim themselves experts, it can be hard to know who to turn to, resulting in the rise of otherwise unnecessary certifications.An expert today is someone whose network, community, or team deems him or her so. Such acknowledgment from one’s community can be considered a form of social certification. To grow one’s professional reputation, expertise in BIM counter-intuitively requires unlearning, detachment, collaboration, and developing both deep skills and broad interests.BIM EXPERTISE REQUIRES UNLEARNINGAs we grow in our careers, we tend to focus more on people issues and less on technology. We also tend to cooperate conditionally, responding to the behavior of others. This has huge implications for design and construction professionals who might be naturally collaborative —through sharing knowledge, learning, mentoring, and teaching — but are otherwise conditionedand tempered by the culture of the firm where they work.Working in BIM provides an unprecedented opportunity to learn: how buildings go together, how projects are scheduled, cost implications of decisions, and impact on the environment. At the same time, there is a great deal we still need to unlearn with BIM. We can start by asking some questions: Which aspects of the traditional design process change with BIM and which stay the same? What knowledge, methods and strategies must be abandoned due to BIM and what is critical to keep? And perhaps most important: What, while learning to work in BIM, needs to be unlearned?While unlearning habits we picked up working in CAD would seem like a good place to start, there’s also a great deal we need to unlearn in order to return to our original sharing attitude and cooperative ways. These include bad habits we’ve acquired since we left the cocoon of school and embarked on the hard knocks of a career in architecture and construction, where we may have learned to be mistrustful, skeptical, competitive, secretive, and working independently in silos. In doing so, we’ve unlearned many of the critical natural habits, attitu des, and mindsets necessary to work effectively and collaboratively on integrated teams.- 2 -BIM EXPERTISE REQUIRES DETACHMENTFrom Japanese martial arts there’s the concept of shuhari: First learn, then detach, and finally transcend. As consultant Ian Rusk has explained, shu, ha, and ri are considered three phases of knowledge thatone passes through in the study of an art. They can be described as the phases of traditional knowledge, breaking with tradition, and transcending it.Working in BIM, we need to address all three steps to meet our goals. Of the steps, the second (detachment, or breaking with tradition) is the most important. Detachment requires that we remain flexible and agile while learning, not holding on tightly to our ideas, agendas, or prejudices, so that we can move beyond them.BIM EXPERTISE REQUIRES COLLABORATIONWhile we as an industry have now lived with BIM for more than two decades, most firms have acquired and implemented the technologyprimarily as a visualization and coordination tool in the past several years. We appear to have reached a standstill in the software’s use, with manyfirm leaders wondering how to make the leap to more advanced uses. Further mastery of the application through traditional means won’t help us get there. If we are to achieve our personal, organizational, professional, and industry-wide goals of fully participating in public, community, creative, and economic life, something more needs to happen.Achieving higher levels of BIM use — including analysis, computation, and fabrication —requires skills and a mindset that allow us to work productively and effectively in a collaborative setting. Working with BIM enables but doesn’t necessarily lead to collaboration. We each have to decidewhether or not to look beyond BIM as a tool and embrace it as a process. When recognized as a process, BIM can be a powerful catalyst and facilitator of team collaboration.BIM EXPERTISE REQUIRES DEPTH AND BREADTHIt would be a mistake to assume that expertise in BIM as a technology alone will lead to greater leadership opportunities on integrated teams. In this capacity, BIM requires attention to acquiring skills that, while easy to attain, can be overlooked if we focus primarily on the software tools.With BIM, technical expertise should not be considered moreimportant than increasing one’s social intelligence, empathy, or the ability to relate well with others. Additionally, the conventional window for achieving technological expertise is too long. Better that one achieves a- 3 -high level of BIM competency motivated by passion and curiosity. Having competency in one subject doesn’t preclude you from addressing others. In fact, it can be a determinant for doing so.Being versatile flies in the face of current thinking that to succeed we should bolster our strengths over our weaknesses. The answer to Should I be a specialist or generalist? is yes. There must be people who can see the details as well as those who can see the big picture. One gift of the design professional is the rare (and underappreciated)ability to do both simultaneously. As with any hybrid — generalizing specialist or specializing generalist —one’s strength provides the confidence to contribute openly from many vantage points and perspectives.It is critical for “T-shaped” experts to reach out and make connections (the horizontal arm ofthe T) in all the areas they know little or nothing about from their base of technical competence (the vertical arm of the T). T-shaped experts have confidence because of their assurance that they know or do one thing well. Their confidence allows them to see as others see by means of — notthrough —what they know. Their expertise doesn’t color their perception so much as provide a home base to venture from and return to with some assurance that they’ll maintain their bearings when venturing out across the table.Broad-minded design professionals often find themselves in the roleof “anti-experts,”approaching challenges from the perspective of the outsider. To this Paula Scher of Pentagram said, “When I’m totally unqualified for a job, that’s when I do my best work.” Once we balance,own, and ultimately realize our expert and anti-expert selves, we(as a community, profession, and industry) will do our best work.WHAT DO WE DO NOW?Firms want to know how to optimize their work processes to become more efficient at what they do best, to remain competitive by leveraging the competitive advantage of BIM and integrated design. One of the ironies facing the in dustry is that in order to master BIM, don’t learn more BIM. Instead, do other things.What will bring about greater efficiencies and effectiveness, increase productivity and deliver value, is not additional technology knowledge but our ability to communicate, relate, work together, think like one another, have empathy, understand, and listen. If design professionals want to lead they will do so not by increasing their depth but by benefit of broader capabilities involving their reach.- 4 -What do we do now? Go wide and deep. Go against common wisdom and fortify your soft skills, your reach and wingspan. To master BIM you have to transcend BIM.We need to develop both sides of ourselves in order to move beyond our own and others’ biases and anticipate consequences for courses of action before they are acted upon. We need to develop the ability to put the project first, navigate iRooms and packed conference tables to get our ideas and points across, be able to read people for overt and subliminal responses, have the confidence to ask questions without feeling threatened and be asked questions without becoming defensive. It is as though we have placed so much emphasis on the bricks we’veforgotten the mortar that allows us to communicate genuinely, to relate well with one another and integrate.Having to choose between depth and breadth is a false choice that heads our profession and industry in the wrong direction. Rather than focusing on one over the other, we need to develop simultaneously vertical deep skills and horizontal soft skills, to work on our strengths and weaknesses, to be expert and anti-expert, specialist and generalist, to design from evidence and from intuition, to be task- and people-oriented, to have mastery over one thing and be a jack-of-all-trades.As one blog commenter recently asserted, “In order to practice architecture well, you need tounderstand a lot of things that aren’t architecture.” BIM technology experts know one thing. To flourish and persevere, we need to know and do many things.Often overlooked in mutual mentoring of computer technology and building technology by senior and junior staff are basic people skills: listening, questioning, negotiating, collaborating, communicating. The concern is that the emerging design professional — adept at BIM tools while learning how buildings come together —won’t learn the necessary communication andpeople management skills to negotiate a table full of teammates onan integrated team. These skills need to be nurtured, mentored, and acquired as assuredly as computer and building technology skills. Theseskills require the same amount of deliberate practice and feedback as the mastery of technology skills. Developing complementary,collaborative skills is as critical as becoming competent with the technology. As Ernest Boyer anticipated, “The future belongs to the integrators.” And that future has arrived.Succeeding in practice today is a both/and, not an either/or, proposition. Design professionals must be both BIM technologist and building technologist. Those who accept this- 5 -model will lead, persevere, and flourish in our new economy.Last year in Design Intelligence, Stephen Fiskum wrote, “One thing is certain: The solution to the current malaise in our profession is not for us to go broader but to go deeper” (“Preparing for a New Practice Paradigm,” January/February 2010). This is a new world: By going wider anddeeper we provide owners and our organizations with the most value and increased productivity. Working effectively and collaboratively in BIM will help us transcend our current state, bridge the gap, and cross over to more advanced uses.THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY MINDSETIt is not just that the integrated team is now multidisciplinary,but we each must become multidisciplinary. Doing so requires a multidisciplinary mindset. This entails empathy, a genuine appreciationfor others’ ideas, seeing from many perspectives, and anticipating possibleconsequences to any course of action. An industry representative recently stated in a public forum, “I don’t want the architect tothink like a structural engineer. I need for him to think like an architect!” To leverage our technology tools and work processes, being an architect today means that we think like a structural engineer aswell as a contractor and owner. Doing so doesn’t take away from architects’ role but increases their credibility by making them more effective andinfluential at what they do well.Working in BIM — inward focused, object-oriented, filling-in dialog boxes — discouragesthis mindset. It is a mistake to think that those who work in BIMare technicians and that a firm principal or senior designer who seesthe big picture will mediate between the model and the world in whichthe model operates. Leaders must see to it that their teams look outward, keeping an eye on the model while seeing the horizon.THE TECHNOLOGY/SOCIAL CONTINUUMWorking in CAD, there are those who focus on drafting and those more adept at communication, negotiation, and persuasion. With BIM, technical understanding and people know-how must exist in each and every design professional.The majority of BIM-related literature has been focused on the technology, not on the people who use it. People issues and attitudes are the main impediment to the collaborative work processes enabled by the technology. Human issues, issues of communication and collaboration, firm culture, motivation, and workflow — all exacerbated by the advent of BIM into the- 6 -workplace — are an even greater challenge than the admittedly considerable software application and technical problems associated with BIM’s use.LEADING FROM THE MODELWorking in CAD, a senior team member would redline an emerging employee’s work. Leadership was decidedly top-down: Someone senior designed or detailed, and someone less senior drew it up. The problem was that the senior team member never knew whether the emerging employee understood what was being drawn.Working in BIM provides a completely different work flow — one we have yet to leveragefully. Because those on the front lines are not only the first to discover clashes and inconsistencies but also to visualize what something looks like and how it might function, BIM allows our emerging talent to lead the process — to learn on the job while recognizingtheirpower from their privileged position of the first look in the model.The new leadership mandate in this process is for architects to lead from their involvement in the BIM environment. Leading from the modelcan be likened to leading from the middle in that BIM requires and even enables followership, and servant- and situational-leadership, as opposed to top-down or command-and-control. While leadershiphistorically has been top-down, working in BIM and on integrated teams changes that. Leading in BIM and integrated design is more similar to followership, in which middle managers lead from within the organization. Thus with BIM, the top-down and bottom-up approaches converge, where leading from the middle becomes leading from the model.BIM AND THE MASTER BUILDER TEAMArchitects who find themselves on increasingly large teams must find a way to lead and regain their voice in the design and construction process. If architects learn how to design buildings that are optimized to give owners, contractors, and other team members what they need — of high quality, low cost, sooner, with less waste, while acquiring the mindsets, attitudes, and skills necessary to collaborate with others —then architects will be trusted, newly esteemed, andreturn to their desired leadership role. What is critical is notthat we linearly help emerging professionals move from technical experts to leaders but to be technical experts and project, team, and process leaders at the same time. Expertise is cultivated by creating the right conditions for experts to flourish; people cannot be forced to learn and grow.- 7 -Many A/E/C professionals are stressing the role of the team over the role of any one individual mastering any one subject or technology in advancing practice. The general consensus is that appointing any one individual as master of the project is largely irrelevant. Instead, the architect who works in BIM serves as master facilitator or strategic orchestrator on integrated teams. By working with as well as through others, we get the most out of fellow teammates.The concept of the composite master builder is the brainchild of visionary environmentalist Bill Reed. The term recasts the historical single master builder (or virtual master builder) as a diverse group of professionals working together toward a common end: the master builder team. The intention is to bring all specialists together, allowing them to function as if they were one mind. A better prescription for what ails our industry would be hard to find.- 8 -中文译文:超越边界的BIM2012年9月10，兰迪•多伊奇摘要: 在BIM 应用中，对于专业的深度要求超过了广度是一个错误的选择，这将使个人、组织，以及这个职业和整个产业走向错误的方向。
工程管理外文翻译(原文+译文)
Concrete Construction matterT. Pauly, M. J. N. PriestleyAbstractViewed in terms of accepted practices, concrete construction operations leave much to be desired with respect to the quality, serviceability, and safety of completed structures. The shortcomings of these operations became abundantly clear when a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck northern Paki-stan on October 8, 2005, destroying thousands of buildings, damaging bridges, and killing an esti-mated 79,000 people. The unusually low quality of construction operations prevalent was a major cause of the immense devastation.Keywords: Concrete Placing Curing Construction TechnologyPlacing ConcreteIf concrete is placed in the surface, the sur-face should be filled with water sufficiently to prevent it from absorbing the concrete of its water. If fresh concrete is to be placed on or nearby to concrete that has solidified, the surface of the placed concrete should be cleaned absolutely, preferably with a high-pressure air or water jet or steel-wire brushes. The surface should be wet, but there should be no much water. A little quantity of cement grout should be brushed over the whole area, and then followed immediately with the application of a 1/2-in Layer of mortar. The fresh concrete should be placed on or against the mortar.In order to decrease the disintegration re-sulting from carriage after it is placed. The con-crete should be placed as nearly as probably in itsfinal point. It should be placed in layers to permit uniform compaction. The time interval between the placing of layers should be limited to assure perfect bond between the fresh and previously placed concrete.In placing concrete in deeper patters, a ves-sel should be used to limit the free fall to not over 3 or 4 ft, in order to prevent concrete disintegra-tion. The vessel is a pipe made of lightweight metal, having adjustable lengths and attached to the bottom of a hopper into which the concrete is deposited. As the patters are filled, sections of the pipe may be removed.Immediately after the concrete is placed, it should be compacted by hand pudding or a me-chanical vibrator to eliminate voids. The vibrator should be left in one position only long enough to reduce the concrete around it to a plastic mass; then the vibrator should be moved, or disintegra-tion of the aggregate will occur. In general, the vibrator should not be permitted to penetrate concrete in the prior lift.The mainly advantage of vibrating is that it permits the use of a drier concrete, which has a higher strength because of the reduced water content. Among the advantages of vibrating con-crete are the following:1.The decreased water permits a reduction in the cement and fine aggregate because less cement paste is needed.2.The lower water content decreases shrinkage and voids.3.The drier concrete decreases the cost of finishing the surface.4.Mechanical vibration may replace three to eight hand puddles.5.The lower water content increases the strength of the concrete.6.The drier mixture permits theremoval of some patters more quickly, which may reduce the cost of patters.Curing ConcreteIf concrete is to gain its maximum strength and other desirable properties, it should be cured with adequate moisture and at a favorable tem-perature. Failure to provide these conditions may result in an inferior concrete.The initial moisture in concrete is adequate to hydrate all the cement, provided it is not should replace the moisture that does evaporate. This may be accomplished by many methods, such as leaving the patters in place, keeping the surface wet, or covering the surface with a liquid curing compound, which comes being to a water-tight membrane that prevents the escape of the initial water. Curing compounds may be applied by brushes or pressure sprayers. A gallon will cover 200 to 300 sq ft.Concrete should be placed at a temperature not less than 40 or more than 80°F.A lower tem-perature will decrease the rate of setting, while ahigher temperature will decrease the ultimate strength.Placing Concrete in Cold WeatherWhen the concrete is placed during cold weather, it is usually necessary to preheat the water, the aggregate, or both in order that the ini-tial temperature will assure an initial set and gain in strength .Preheating the water is the most ef-fective method of providing the necessary tem-perature. For this purpose a water reservoir should be equipped with pipe coils through which steam can be passed, or steam may bedischarged directly into the water, several outlets being used to given better distribution of the heat.When the temperatures of the mixtures are known, some specific charts may be used to cal-culate the temperature of concrete. A straight line pass all three scales, passing through every two known temperatures, will assure the determina-tion of the third temperature. If the surface of sand isdry, the fact lines of the scales giving the temperature of concrete should be used. However, if the sand contains about 3 percent moisture, the dotted lines should be used.Specifications usually demand that freshly placed concrete shall be kept at a temperature of not less than 70°F for 3 days or 50°F for 5 days after it is placed. Some proper method must be provided to keep the demanded temperature when the cold weather is estimated.Reinforcing steels for concreteCompared with concrete, steel is a high strength material. The useful strength of ordinary reinforcing steels in tension as well as compres-sion, i.e., the yield strength, is about 15 times the compressive strength of common structural con-crete, and well over 100 times its tensile strength. On the other hand, steel is a high-cost material compared with concrete. It follow that the two materials are the best used in combination if theconcrete is made to resist the compressive stresses and the compressive force, longitudinal steel reinforcing bars are located close to the ten-sion face to resist the tension force., and usually additional steel bars are so disposed that they re-sist the inclined tension stresses that are caused by the shear force in the beams. However, rein-forcement is also used for resisting compressive forces primarily where it is desired to reduce the cross-sectional dimensions of compression members, as in the lower-floor columns of multi-story buildings. Even if no such necessity exits , a minimum amount of reinforce- ment is placed in all compression members to safeguard them against the effects of small accidental bending moments that might crack and even fail an unre-inforced member.For most effective reinforcing action, it is essential that steel and concrete deform together, i. e., that there be a sufficiently strong bond be-tween the two materials to ensure that no relative movements of the steel bars and the surrounding concrete occur. This bond is provided by the rela-tively large chemical adhesion which develops at the steel-concrete interface, by the natural roughness of the mill scale of hot-rolled rein-forcing bars , and by the closely spaced rib-shap-ed surface deformations with which reinforcing bars are furnished in order to provide a high de-gree of interlocking of the two materials.Steel is used in two different ways in con-crete structures: as reinforcing steel and as prestressing steel .reinforcing steel is placed in the forms prior to casting of the concrete. Stresses in the steel, as in the hardened concrete, are caused only by the loads on the structure, except for possible parasitic stresses from shrinkage or similar causes. In contrast, in priestesses concrete structures large tension forces are applied to the reinforcement prior to letting it act jointly with the concrete in resistingexternal.The most common type of reinforcing steel is in the form of round bars, sometimes called rebars, available in a large range of diameters,from 10 to 35 mm for ordinary applications and in two heavy bar sizes off 44 and 57 mm these bars are furnished with surface deformations for the purpose of increasing resistance to slip be-tween steel and concrete minimum requirements for these deformations have been developed in experimental research. Different bar producers use different patterns, all of which satisfy these requirements.Welding of rebars in making splices, or for convenience in fabricating reinforcing cages for placement in the forms, may result in metal-lurgical changes that reduce both strength and ductility, and special restrictions must be placed both strength and ductility, and special restric-tions must be placed both on the type of steel used and the welding procedures the provisions of ASTM A706 relatespecifically to welding.In reinforced concrete a long-time trend is evident toward the use of higher strength materi-als, both steel and concrete.Reinforcing bars with 40ksi yield stress , almost standard 20 years ago , have largely been replaced by bars with 60ksi yield stress , both because they are more economical and because their use tends to reduce congestion of steel in the forms .The ACI Code permits reinforcing steels up to Fy=80ksi. Such high strength steels usually yield gradually but have no yield plateau in this situation the ACI Code requires that at the speci-fied minimum yield strength the total strain shall not exceed 0.0035 this is necessary to make cur-rent design methods, which were developed for sharp-yielding steels with a yield plateau, appli-cable to such higher strength steels. there is no ASTM specification for deformed bars may be used , according to the ACI Code , providing they meet the requirements stated under special circumstances steel in this higher strength range has its place, e.g., in lower-story columns of high-rise buildings.In order to minimize corrosion of rein-forcement and consequent spelling of concrete under sever exposure conditions such as in bridge decks subjected to deicing chemicals , galvanized or epoxy-coated rebars may be specified.Repair of Concrete StructuresReinforced concrete is generally a very du-rable structural material and very little repair work is usually needed. However, its durability can be affected by a variety of causes, including those of design and construction faults, use of inferior materials and exposure to aggressive en-vironment. The need for a repair is primarily dic-tated by the severity of the deterioration as de-termined from the diagnosis. Good workmanship is essential if any thing more than just a cosmetic treatment to the creation is required.1. performance requirements of repair systemHaving established the causes of the defect by carefully diagnosing the distress, the next step should be to consider the requirements of the re-pair method that will offer an effective solution to the problem (see fig.).①DurabilityIt is important to select repair materials that provide adequate durability. Materials used for the repair job should be at least as durable as the substrate concrete to which it is applied.②Protection of steelThe mechanism of protection provided to the reinforcing depends on the type of repair ma-terials used. For example, cementations materials can protect the steel from further corrosion by their inhibitive effect of increasing the alkalinity of the concrete, whereas epoxy resin mortars can give protection against the ingress of oxygen,moisture and other harmful agents.③Bond with substrateThe bond with the substrate must produce an integral repair to prevent entry of moisture and atmospheric gases at the interface. With most re-pair materials, the bond is greatly enhanced with the use of a suitable bonding aid such as an un-filled epoxy resin systems and slurry of Portland cement, plus any latex additives for a Portland cement-based repair system. Precautions should also be takento remove all loose and friable ma-terials from the surfaces to be bonded.④Dimensional StabilityShrinkage of materials during curing should be kept to a minimum. Subsequent dimensional change should be very close in the substrate in order to prevent failure⑤Initial Resistance to Environmentally In-duced DamageSome initial exposure conditions may lead to premature damage lo repairs. For example, partially cured Portland cement repairs can dete-riorate from hot weather preventing full hydration of the cement. To prevent this from happening extra protection during curing time may be nec-essary.⑥Ease of ApplicationMaterials should be easily mixed and ap-plied so that they can be worked readily into small crevices and voids. Ideally, the material should not stick to tools, and should not shear while being trowel led nor slump after placement.⑦AppearanceThe degree to which the repair material should match the existing concrete will depend on the use of the structure and the client' s re-quirements. A surface coating may be required when appearance is important or when cover to reinforcement is small.2. Selection of Repair MethodsA suitable repair counteracts all the defi-ciencies which are relevant to the use of the structure.The selection of tile correct method and material for a particular, application requires careful consideration, whether to meet special requirements for placing strength, durability or other short-or long-term properties. These con-siderations include:1. Nature of the DistressIf alive crack is filled with a rigid material, then either the repair material will eventually fail or some new cracking will occur adjacent to the original crack. Repairs to live cracks must either use flexible materials to accommodate move-ments or else steps must be taken prior to the re-pair to eliminate the movement.2. Position of the CrackTechniques which rely on gravity to intro-duce the material into the crack are more suc-cessfully carried out on horizontal surfaces but are rarely effective on vertical ones.3. EnvironmentIf moisture, water or contaminants are found in the crack, then it is necessary to rectify the leaks Repair to slop leaks may be further com-plicated by the need to make the repairs while the structure is in service and the environment is damp.4. WorkmanshipThe skill the operatives available to carry put the repairs is another relevant factors. Some-times this can mean the difference between a permanent repair and premature failure of the re-pair material.5. CostThe cost of repair materials is usually small compared with the costs of providing access, preparation and actual labor.6. AppearanceThe repair surface may be unsightly, par-ticularly when it appears on a prominent part of the building. In this case, the repair system will include some form of treatment over the entire surface.Reference[1]Philip Jodidio, Contemporary European Architecture, Taschen, Koln, pp.148-153[2]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, Waterfronts, McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, 1994, pp.297-300[3]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, The New Waterfront, Thames and Hudson, London, 1996, pp.118-120[4]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, The New Waterfront, Thames and Hudson, London, 1996, pp.52-55[5]Robert Holden, International Landscape Design, Laurence King Publishing, London, 1996, pp.10-27[6] A new concept in refrigerant control for heat pumps ,J.R.Harnish,IIR Conference Pa-per,Cleveland,Ohio.May,1996[7]Carrier Corporation-Catalog 523 848,1997[8]Waste Heat Management Handbook, Na-tional Bureau of Standardc Handbook 121, Pub-lica-tion PB 264959, February,1997Ten design principles for air to air heat pumps,Allen Trask,ASHRAE Journal,July,1997重庆科技学院学生毕业设计（论文）外文译文学院建建筑工程学院专业班级工管103学生姓名李学号201044241附件1：外文资料翻译译文混凝土施工事项T.Pauly, M.J.N.Priestley摘要：根据一般承认的惯例看,巴基斯坦的混凝土结构建筑物在结构上的质量，效用和安全需要上都留下了很多值得关注的问题。
工程管理中英文外文翻译
Construction Project Management——Value Engineering By:Fredrick E.Gould.Nancy.E.JoyceABSTRACTValue engineering is a kind of in the world proved very fruitful way of project management. In our country, with the improvement of socialist market economy, value engineering, whether in theoretical research or practical application aspects, obtained greater progress, and is gradually applied to engineering project management. Due to the construction of the project design stage investment is less, the owners often ignored this phase of the application of value engineering, but the practice proof, design phase is the possibility of managing investment the biggest stage. Therefore, this paper based on the design stage of a construction project, study the application of value engineering.Key Words:construction project; value engineering; design stageV alue engineering and cost reduction are often confused, so that the value engineering in the designer had a bad reputation, however, it is important that value engineering is a process, is to consider the cost of other factors, such as: life cycle cost, quality, durability and maintainability. On the other hand, reduce cost, think only reduced. At the same time they are in rely on a given standard role, we consider in the larger context of the standard, while the other reaction activity is only for budget problem. The project team should be very clear in their processes are involved in. Despite the tight budget reduces life cost, the owners need to know exactly what he or she buys. Value engineering in the process, should the owner to another system reference to buy items or equivalent value system to reduce the cost. In reducing cost in order to save money, he or she is of little value or range less.Value engineering is all designed products in the active part. Value engineering isnot done enough time, reduce cost becomes necessary. Value engineering provides a" better reduction mode", and reduce the cost can be reduced by engineering quality or quantity, save money.Value engineering is not limited to the construction industry, but in the business world to help analysis is to minimize the cost of the optimal value of object technology and products. The best value is not an intrinsic property of. For each project, it takes on a different meaning, often in other similar product comparison. In the construction which is comparable to many products, it is a complicated job. Therefore, value engineering is as one of the best team in good operation. Value engineering is one of the reasons for negative take designers sometimes feel, architecture is a measure of their work and suggestions, damage the item aesthetic quality. In the process if the designer is an equal partner, this feeling will be reduced. At the same time, the owners need to fully understand the design ideas to make the choice, when the time came, to a specific recommendations for proper balance, to accept or reject.Owners of professional designers and construction with the help of setting standards. In general, these standards are divided into several categories: best cost, the best optimal function and aesthetic value. Determining the optimal cost for life cycle cost analysis to the building, using the most effective play a role definition. The best aesthetic value, can be difficult to determine, but as with other important criteria. As an important emergency generator case, the team focused on cost and function, but they do not concern for aesthetic values, because the generator will be hidden from view. It takes the first consider the cost, durability, and reliability. Its role will be in accordance with safety requirements and the buildings within the residents needs to decide. In a curtain wall system, the owners pay attention to the cost, function and aesthetic value. Because the system will be the main architectural image, aesthetic value may cost more than the weight, exceeding even function. These are only the owner can decide to make the final.Including value engineering, all items are redundant. After all, is not a design team to put together the best solution, it finds the optimal solution will satisfy theowner's cost, functional, aesthetic standards. Of course, a good design team is doing. However, every design company established culture also needs to be questioned standard practice. In the value engineering in the process, he could do it. In addition, some teams may be dealt with as soon as possible in the design of the case. For example, the owner should accelerate the job to get the project started construction. Its purpose is to return to the previous fact and is not easy to make a decision before the state. Value engineering to ensure that such errors do not occur. Another possibility is that, the owners have vision, but does not fully explain to the designer. Designer response more complexity, to meet the needs of the owners. Value engineering process, this complexity will be questioned and clarification.Building professionals in their occupation career into contact with many design company. Specific design company may not know they brought other products and processes form information. In value engineering, these ideas will be checked, and where appropriate, set down. Building professionals can easily acquire about certain product availability information. If a product needs a very long distance transport, which can increase the cost of. Maybe there are local products, can also achieve the same standard.Although the value engineering in the project construction and even in the construction industry as a whole is pale, the maximum value is obtained in the earlier process: from one system to another, in the schedule have hardly any effect, and the amount of redesign and redraw is minimized. However, in the early stages of design, to produce any saving document is one of the most difficult, because there are usually no formal drawings or plan. The most recognizable effects occur in the schematic diagram of the final and the design and development stage of early. There is enough information on the idea of rational judgment system. Of course, most of these savings can be achieved. In construction drawing, macroscopical idea is already in place, and most of the ideas embodied in the file details.During the construction process, value engineering efforts continue. Because making changes to the project, design development should follow in the design phase to assess changes in the procedure. Contractors can also in the field of application ofvalue engineering principle, save money method, equipment or sequence of operations. Who achieve these fields generated by saving depends on the form of contract.Some value engineering operation is informal, though the team members in favor of the arrangements and procedures, the others follow a more formal by another person established standards, the following is a good value engineering project is the main component of:(1) Review the field identification. He could be performed separately, as each team member critically reviews the design drawings and specifications.The idea was conceived, concern in the design field in this period of time, can use the new product or process, material the use of different strengths, simplify the system, or to processing details.(2) Brain storm team members sitting together with idea list and tossing ideas let others to accept, the idea is to get as many ideas as possible on the desktop. As discussed in the context of members should be thought from the others and many have special ideas inspired.(3) Each of the proposed analysis. The Group determines the standards to evaluate each idea. Discussion of alternatives in the brainstorming sessions with standard test. Here the brainstorming session, costs are usually not considered first. Once a proposal in the functional requirements based on the merits, and then calculate the cost, involves a considerable amount of time and energy. It is a keeping brainstorming focus on functional outcome and reduce costs.(4) Report to management. The team will be all the idea of putting it all together. When presented with more and more information is available, some may be in other phases of the project carried out a detailed analysis. Some have been team provides a rationale for rejected, some instant recommendation. All the topics for discussion, whether to reject or approve, should keep some for later reference.When the cost of computing work begins, the team can have a look simple first cost, but also can view the life cycle cost proposal. If the proposal in first cost on the basis of sound words, life cycle cost, may not be complete, but the danger is, first costmay not be incorporated into the overall savings work during the life of structures. Therefore, it is best to consider the life cycle cost, figure 6.5 shows the first cost and life cycle cost differences between.Life cycle cost in building or construction system in the initial study life, operation and maintenance costs, and future interests. Prior to this analysis can be applied, assumptions are made about the under construction quality expectations, limitations of the procedure, as well as prospective predictors of cost of capital. Life cycle cost can help the design team decided to set system design, site, materials used in construction, and the investment of money. It can be used to build or rebuild project. In the project, the first problem is, whether the buildings were removed or retained. If you have decided to keep the building, the next question is how to scale renovation to meet expectations. These analyses can go through a life cycle cost analysis.The goal is to find, give some to meet the needs of customers alternatives, which cost at least over the life of the building. For example, a specific non traditional heating system can have a higher cost base. Basic cost includes direct related design, procurement costs, as well as system installation. However, such a system might be a longer life expectancy than traditional systems, can burn the fuel more efficiently, and may not require so much of the repair, and can use the cheap fuel source.建设项目管理——价值工程Fredrick E.Gould.Nancy.E.Joyce摘要价值工程是一种在世界各国被证明卓有成效的工程管理方法。
工程管理专业毕业设计外文翻译(外文+翻译)
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction EnterprisesBy: R. Max WidemanAbstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system.Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost controlAfter joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control.1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control MethodsCost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of foreign projects)and company's cost-sharing.At present the main method for domestic construction enterprises to control project cost is to analyze cost, naming economic accounting, which is the major components of cost management and the analysis of economic activities. In accordance with its scope of target and deep-level of content, GM project cost analysis method can be divided into two categories, namely, comprehensive analysis of project cost and cost analysis of unit project Comprehensive analysis of project cost. It is carried in terms of budget and final accounts, cost reduction programs and construction installation costs. The methods used are as follows: (1) comparing the estimated cost and actual cost. Check the result to reduce cost, lower cost index and budget status. (2) comparing actual cost and project cost. Check cost reduction programs as well as the windage between the actual cost and plan cost. Inspect the rationality and implementation of techniques organizational measures and management plans.(3) comparing lower cost of the same period last year. Aanalyze causes and propose the improving direction. (4) Comparison between engineering units in cost-cutting. Identify the units cost-reducing, which finishes projects, with a view to further cost analysis.Cost analysis of unit project. Comprehensive analysis only understand project cost overruns or lower. If we want to get more detailed information, each cost item analysis of unit project is needed. Analysis mainly from the following aspects:(1) Materials cost analysis. From the view of material stock, production, transportation, inventory and management, we can analyze the discrepancy impact of material price and quantity, the cost-reducing effectiveness resulting from various technical measures, the loss from poor management.(2) Labor cost analysis . From the number of employment, hours of use, ergonomics, as well as wage situation, we can identify the savings and waste during labor use and fixed management.(3) Construction machinery cost analysis. From the construction options, mechanization degree, mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, mechanical maintenance, good rates and utilization, we can analyze the yield and cost discrepancy of fixed-class ergonomics, the cost of poor classes, focused on improving mechanical utilization efficiency and waste caused by poor management.(4) Management cost analysis. From construction task and organizational staffing changes,non-production personnel changes, as well as other expenditure savings and waste, we can analyze management fees and justify the rationality of expenditure.(5) Technology organization measures implementing analysis. It can increase experience for future establishment and implementation of technical organization projects.(6) Other direct costs analysis. Focus on the analysis of second removal and water, electricity, wind, gas and other expenses situation during construction.2. The shortcomings of cost-control methodsAt present, domestic construction projects cost-control methods have played a significant role for Chinese construction industry and construction enterprises to reduce cost and gain sustainable development. However, we should be aware that these methods exist some shortcomings as follows:2.1 Lack of systemization.Presently, the cost control of construction enterprises is a simple control on cost. In fact, project cost control is closely related with project plans and progress, quality and safety. Therefore, cost control should include above-mentioned elements.2.2 Lack of real timeModern project management is increasingly tending real-time management and forward-looking management, paying more attention to "promptly identify and solve problems", emphasizing as much as possible to identify and solve problems before problems occur. The current control system is to control after problems occur, which can't avoid loss.In addition, current cost-control method is static. It can't monitor and reflect timely costs change, therefore, this method can't provide the support of decision-making for projects management under construction.2.3 Lack of error-checking and error-correcting mechanismThe current cost-control method is the single-class without error-checking and error-correcting mechanism. If mistakes occur in the future, we can't discover timely, or even impossible found. 2.4 Lack of compatibilityThere is lack of compatibility between project cost-control and project finance and corporate management system. The project budget is built on ration, but project financial item subjects are based on current financial general regulation. This is not consistent betweenmethods. Specific to the software, financial sector of domestic construction enterprises is generally adopting some general financial software, such as UF, IBM. The software is not specifically for the development of construction enterprise, not reflecting the special nature of construction enterprises. However, the budget software is also not considered financial aspect. The lack of compatibility leads to void labor and low management efficiency. At the same time, it increases the probability of error information and error decision2.5 Limitation on notions and quality of personnelThese days, most of construction enterprises are faced with the shortage of qualified personnel during improving cost-control system. It is difficult to find a suitable person with budget and financial knowledge and practical experience in project management.3. Suggestions for improving domestic cost-control methodsFrom the view of enterprises and projects, project cost control is a system engineering. It needs standardization and systematization, closely related to many factors. If current domestic construction enterprises want to establish a practical and efficient cost control systems, the cost-control methods must be improved as follows:3.1 Establish systemic cost-control systemAccording to the specific situation of enterprises, company's cost-control guiding documents should be developed. Based on current fixed budget, enterprises develop work breakdown structure of specific conditions. And on these base, along with progress, quality and safety factors, cost control system will be established ultimately, including the establishment of project cost real-time control (the first class by full-time staff in the execution of project cost control, reporting cycle for one week or fortnight), project cost integrated control (the second class, by financial officers in the execution of projects, reporting cycle for fortnight or a month) and corporate cost control (the third class, by company's financial sector, reporting cycle for a month or a quarter). Such three class cost control system resolve the problems of real-time and error-correcting mechanism.3.2 Develop specific control processesAccording to enterprises' specific circumstances, we should formulate specific control processes, identify levels for controlling reporting periods, and arrange specific persons to monitor. Throughout reporting period, two kinds of data or information need to be collected: (1)the actual execution of data, including the actual time for beginning or end, and the actual cost.(2) the project scope, progress plan and budget change information. These changes may result from the clients or project teams, or from some unforeseen things such as natural disasters, labor strikes or key project team members to resign. These changes should be included in project plan and obtained the consent of customers, then new baseline plan need to establish. The scope, progress and budget of new plan may be different from initial plan.Above-discussed data or information must be timely collected, so that it can become the base to update project progress and budget. For example, if the project reporting period is a month, data and information should be collected at the end of month as far as possible, which can guarantee progress in the updated plan and budget.3.3 Improve project financial subjectBased on work breakdown structure, enpterpries should improve project financial subjects so that projects match with real-time cost control, company's financial and cost control systems, which can solve the compatibility between cost control and finance. At the same time, financial system and cost control system using the same data format, similar forms and data-sharing can improve effectively. In the short term, construction enterprise can transform the existing software and statements to achieve cost savings and reduce the impact of system transformation. In the long-term, enterprises can adopt suitable management software and build company's integrated management system.3.4 Balance precision control and cost controlWhen improving project control system, we should pay attention to balance precision control and cost control. Cost control is through the whole process of project. Under normal circumstances, enterprises can take a fixed period report. If new problems will be detected, then enterprises should increase the reporting frequency until problems are resolved.3.5 Train current staffEnterprises should gradually train the existing staff for the future reserves. In any system, human element is always the first one. No matter how perfect and advanced a management system is, and it ultimately relies on people.3.6 Identify core contentsThe core contents for cost control are team spirit, technology and work process consistency,standard management methods, foreseeing difficulties and contradictions, fostering a challenging work environment and continuing improvement.研究建筑施工企业的项目成本控制马克斯.怀德曼摘要：随着建筑市场的日趋成熟,建筑施工企业之间的竞争变得激烈。
中英文翻译
武汉工程大学毕业设计外文翻译Construction project management sub-contracting 建筑工程项目分承包管理方式的探讨班级：工程管理01班学号：0890070111姓名：向宏庭Construction project management sub-contractingKeywords: project, project management, general contractor (general contractor), sub-contractors (subcontractors), the construction market sub-system, matrix organizational structure, contract management , the target managementAbstract: With the construction projects in greater depth of management, project management of more extensive application of scientific methods, the construction industry to a higher level of development, set up a sound system of construction specialist sub-contractors will be building market development in China are the inevitable trend, I think in the current environment, the use of centralized contract-style company, authorized the implementation of the project management, to take the matrix-style organization and management structure, focused on contract management and production process management by objectives approach is a more effective management of subcontractors form.1. The concept and characteristics of the project, project management, construction project management features (1) project concept "project" was the origin of a morning, the building industry and the military field, the earliest use of project management tools and methods. The definition of the project has a wide range, but they all revolve around the basic concept of the project and summarized. ISO10006 in the project as "a unique process that has the beginning and end of time, by a series of coordinated and controlled the activities of the composition. The process of implementation are in order to achieve the objectives set, including the needs of time, cost and resource binding conditions. "American Project Management Institute PMI at PMBOOK (2000 version) give the definition as:" projects are completed for a unique product or service for a one-time effort. "German National Standard DIN69901 and should project as a" project are refers to the following conditions are met on a unique mission. (with the intended target, a specific time, financial and other restrictions on human conditions, with specific organizations). "(b) thecharacteristics of the project 1. a unique and uniqueness any item in which the timing, location, environment, participation of people, the aim should vary, they are linked to project the Second Provisional. As "people do not have the same two people", is unique and unique. In addition the project during the course of events, conflicts and contradictions are not the same, so for example people or things involved in the project, each project is unique. At the development and changes on its uniqueness, the project is also unique. 2. The life cycle of projects have specific start and end times. In general, and in this one of any of the items are available in four phases, namely, the concept, planning, implementation, ending four stage of life such as breeding, birth, growth, maturity, like the demise of the project cycle, each stage has a corresponding different characteristics. Modern, will be extended to four stages of five stages: "the concept, planning, implementation, end of operation and maintenance." 3. Specific objectives of the project activities are "for the completion of a unique product or service," so the project with a clear goal, such as construction quality, duration and cost goals of civilized construction. Between the objectives may be contradictory and constraints, but are united in the project, the target of a binding nature, the project activity is to much suffering and limit the conditions, the completion of the many contradictions in conflict with each other, but had to be completed task. The results of project management is to achieve a balance between the objectives of results. Goals can be decomposed, the overall target from multi-layered composition of the sub-goals. 4. System project is a whole organization, project the various components of the mutual influence, mutual constraints, form a complete system, and projects are organized at the background, such as construction projects are at a construction company organizations are organized and managed, so the project is an organized system as a whole. 5. Uncertainty projects are unique, and is the only project the development of no fixed precedent.建筑工程项目分承包管理方式的探讨关键词：项目、项目管理、总承包商（总包商）、分承包商（分包商）、建筑市场分包体系、矩阵式组织结构、合同管理、目标管理提要：随着建筑工程项目化管理更加深入，项目管理的科学方法应用更加广泛，建筑业向更高层次发展，建立完善的建筑业专业分包体系，将是我国建筑市场发展的必然趋势，我认为在目前的环境中，采用集权式的公司发包，授权项目的实施管理，采取矩阵式的组织管理结构，着重于合同管理和生产过程目标管理的方式，是较为有效的分包管理形式。
工程管理毕业设计外文翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：URBAN RENEWAL POLICY IN CHICAGO 文献、资料来源：期刊Journal of Urban Affairs 第31期文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.8院（部）：管理工程学院专业：工程管理班级：工管081姓名：李洪砚学号：2008021014指导教师：亓霞翻译日期：2012.6.3外文文献：Advanced Encryption StandardREGIME BUILDING, INSTITUTION BUILDING:URBAN RENEWAL POLICY IN CHICAGO,1946–1962JOEL RASTUniversity of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeABSTRACT:Urban regime analysis emphasizes the role of coalition building in creating a capacity to govern in cities. Through a case study of urban renewal policy in postwar Chicago, this articleconsiders the role played by political institutions. Conceptualizing this historical period as oneof regime building, I show how e xisting political institutions were out of sync with the city’s newgoverning agenda of urban renewal and redevelopment following World War II. Creating a capacityto govern in urban renewal policy required both coalition building and a fundamental reworking offormal governing institutions.I t was spring 1964, and Chicago was in the midst of its greatest construction boom since therebuilding effort following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. In the third of a series of articles on Chicago‘s postwar revit alization, the Chicago Tribune celebrated the accomplishments of the past 10 years: more than six million square feet of new office space constructed downtown; nearly 1,000 acres of ―blighted‖ land cleared for new development; a total of 27 urban renewal projects completed, under way, or approved for construction; a new convention center built on the lakefront; and the emergence of O‘Hare International Airport as ―the world‘s finest jet terminal‖ (Gowran, 1964). Under the leadership of Richard J. Daley, elected mayor in 1955, Chicago‘s massive urban renewal program would eventually rank first among U.S. cities in total federal dollars received (Chicago Tribune, 1968).The accomplishments of Chicago‘s urban renewal program during Mayor Daley‘s first decadein office are all the more remarkable when examined alongside the record of his predecessor as mayor, Martin H. Kennelly. Plans for urban renewal in Chicago, orchestrated largely by business leaders, were under way when Kennelly was elected mayor in 1947. Kennelly enthusiasticallyembraced the business community‘s redevelopment agenda and eagerly sought federal funding forslum clearance and public housing. However, urban renewal quickly became mired in controversy,stalling progress on numerous fronts. Of a total of eight slum clearance and redevelopment projectsinitiated during the Kennelly administration, none had been completed by the time Kennelly leftoffice in 1955. Downtown redevelopment was still largely at a standstill,with only one new officetower under construction..How was Chicago‘s urban renewal program transformed from its origins as a weak andconflict-ridden initiative into the political and economic steamroller it ultimately became underthe leadership of Richard J. Daley? Scholars of urban political development have identified thepost-World War II era as a period of regime building (Cummings, 1988; DeLeon, 1992; Ferman,1996; Levine, 1989; Mollenkopf, 1983; Spragia, 1989; Stone, 1989). In what Robert Salisbury(1964) called ―the new convergence of power,‖ city officials across the country formed sustained, multiissue alliances with local business leaders around urban renewal and redevelopment.Ac-cording to urban regime theorists, the success of postwar redevelopment efforts was determinedmore by the strength and cohesiveness of such coalitions—or ―regimes‖—than by the formalpowers of local government (Stone, 1989; Stone & Sanders, 1987). Effective governance in de-velopment policy was achieved when resources controlled by government and nongovernmentalactors (mainly business) were deployed around a shared agenda. What mattered most, in otherwords, was not the formal machinery of local government or local political institutions but theability of public and private actors to unite around a governing agenda commensurate with theresources at their disposal (Elkin, 1987; Stoker, 1995; Stone, 1989, 1993). Prospects were partic-ularly good when a resourceful and cohesive business elite was paired with a politically powerfulmayor such as Daley of Chicago.While a focus on informal governing arrangements—in particular, the mobilization of resourcesthrough regime building—explains much about how governing capacity was created in postwarcities, informal arrangements are not the whole story. As Skocpol (1992) has argued, policyoutcomes are determined in part by the ―fit‖ between the goals of politically active groups and existing political institutions. Governing institutions serve as ―staging grounds‖ or ―rules of thegame‖ for political action, favoring certain political actors and courses of action over others (Bridges, 1997, p. 14). According to Skocpol (1992, p. 54),The overall structure of political institutions provides access and leverage to some groupsand alliances, thus encouraging and rewarding their efforts to shape government policies,while simultaneously denying access and leverage to other groups and alliances . . . . Thismeans that the degree of success that any politically active group or movement achievesisinfluenced not just by the self-consciousness and ―resource mobilization‖ of that social forceitself.In general, the governing institutions of cities immediately following World War II wereill-suited to the task of large-scale redevelopment. Urban renewal and redevelopment required strongexecutive leadership and centralized planning and development authority. In many cases, however,the powers of city government were highly fragmented. Political machines, while typically indecline, were still a significant presence in many cities, dispersing power among ward bosses(Teaford, 1990). Even in nonmachine cities, the predominance of weak-mayor,strong-council citycharters left many mayors with little executive authority (Peterson, 1961). In both machine andnonmachine cities alike, planning and development functions were often carried out by numerousagencies with little coordination among them (Gottehrer, 1967; Mantel, 1970;O‘Connor, 1993;Salisbury, 1961).Urban regime theorists examining development politics in postwar cities have paid scant atten-tion to such institutional shortcomings. However, the architects of postwar urban redevelopmentwere clearly aware of them. In cities across the country, regime building was accompanied byefforts to reorganize city government and create new governing institutions more conducive tothe new redevelopment agenda. In Philadelphia, New York, St. Louis, Boston, Chicago, and else-where, new city charters, charter revisions, and other administrative reforms were proposed tostrengthen and centralize the administrative powers of city government.1Such reforms, frequently initiated or championed by business leaders and other proponents of redevelopment, were op-posed by machine politicians, certain city bureaucrats, and other political actors who stood tobenefit from the status quo.The political contests that surfaced over the institutional structures of postwar cities are con-sistent with Skowronek‘s (1982) observation that new or reformed governing institutions do not materialize simply because new governing demands produce a need for them. In Chicago andother cities, redevelopment efforts were mediated through institutional arrangements that becameobjects of struggle in their own right. The success of postwar regime builders was determined inpart by their ability to craft and successfully advance new institutional arrangements that favoredtheir objectives over those of their political rivals.In Chicago, the ―fit‖ between the city‘s governing institutions and politically active groupsin urban renewal policy initially favored neighborhood organizations, civil rightsgroups, wardpoliticians, and other opponents of urban renewal policy, allowing such groups to successfully playan obstructionist role. During the Richard J. Daley administration, however, changing political conditions created opportunities for institution building. Reworked governing institutions werecombined with Daley‘s informal powers as machine ―boss‖ to produce a new set of governingarrangements that favored proponents of redevelopment. The effectiveness of urban renewalpolicy was greatly enhanced.While the focus of this study is on regime building in postwar Chicago, Chicago‘s urbanre-newal experience provides lessons for modern-day reformers as well. Episodes of regime buildingare conceptualized here as politically contingent periods in which the breakdown of old alliancesand governing agendas has yet to be followed by the consolidation of new governing arrange-ments. The evidence from Chicago suggests that proponents of regime change in contemporarycities should consider more carefully the role of governing institutions in regime building, sinceproblems of fit between governing agendas and political institutions may surface with increasedfrequency during such episodes. If the fit between the goals of change-oriented groups and po-litical institutions is a poor one, as was initially the case in Chicago, then the mobilization ofresources accomplished through regime building may need to be accompanied by parallel effortsto bring institutions in line with new governing demands.REGIME BUILDING FOR URBAN RENEWALFollowing World War II, Chicago faced challenges similar to those of other cities around thecountry. Middle-class residents were moving to the suburbs in growing numbers, leaving behinda population that was increasingly poor and non-white. A semicircle of substandard housing and businesses covering roughly 15,000 acres extended outward several miles from the centralbusiness district (MHPC, 1946a). Property values were falling in many areas of the city, includingdowntown Chicago.From 1939 to 1947, the assessed valuation of property in the central businessdistrict fell from $552 million to $481 million, a drop of 13% (Teaford, 1990, p. 19).Downtown business leaders, alarmed about the implications of these trends for their corporateproperty holdings, took the lead in developing an action plan to address the growing crisis. Themost influential business organization at the time was the Metropolitan Housing and PlanningCouncil (MHPC), anorganization founded in 1934 to provide civic leadership in planning anddevelopment policy. Although officially governed by a board of 38 directors representing arange of interests, MHPC was dominated by a small group of downtown business executives(Meyerson & Banfield, 1955). The organization‘s president, Ferd Kramer, was also presidentof one of Chicago‘s largest real estate firms. Other prominent board members included MiltonMumford, an assistant vice-president of Marshall Field and Company, and Holman Pettibone,president of Chicago Title and Trust Company.In 1946, MHPC released a report containing a strategy for urban renewal that would ultimatelybe embraced by both city and state policymakers (MHPC, 1946a).2According to the report,Chicago‘s problems stemmed, above all, from the unchecked growth of blight. To reverse the tide,government would have to take steps to make inner-city locations attractive once again to privatenvestors. MHPC proposed that a public agency with eminent domain powers be charged withassembling parcels of land in inner-city locations and demolishing existing structures (Hirsch,1998). The cleared land would be sold to private developers at a reduced cost, while residentsdisplaced through ―slum clearance‖ would be rehoused in new public hou sing developments.MHPC announced its plans at an October 1946 luncheon whose guests included the publishersof the city‘s major newspapers, the presidents of the city‘s largest banks, and top real estateexecutives (Neil, 1952).During the following months, Milton Mumford, Holman Pettibone, and other members ofMHPC‘s inner circle worked with Republican Governor Dwight Green and Democratic MayorMartin Kennelly to secure bipartisan support for state urban renewal legislation (Hirsch, 1998).These efforts culminated in the passage of two bills, the Blighted Areas Redevelopment Actand the Relocation Act, in July 1947. The bills, which extended eminent domain powers toslum clearance projects and provided state funding for slum clearance and public housing,substantially embodied the program for urban renewal unveiled by MHPC less than a yearearlier.MHPC‘s efforts received a boost with the election of Martin Kennelly as mayor in 1947.Chicago had been governed since the early 1930s by a powerful Democratic Party machine. Bythe end of World War II, however, a series of scandals implicating current mayor Edward Kellyproduced growing support for reform (Biles, 1984; O‘Malley, 1980).In the national electionsof 1946, half of the Chicago area‘s congressional seats were won by Republicans (O‘Malley,1980). To preempt the growing reform wave, leaders of the city‘s Democratic organization choseKennelly as the party‘s nominee for mayor. A successful business executive with no previous ties to the machine, Kennelly was appealing to reformers. However, as the machine‘s candidate formayor with no political base of his own, he had little political leverage to assert his independencefrom the party organization (Biles, 1995).Kennelly was well known in business circles, serving as vice-president of the Chicago Asso-ciation of Commerce and Industry, chairman of the Red Cross fund drive, a trustee of DePaulUniversity, and a member of the Federal Reserve Bank‘s industrial advisory committee (Biles,1995). After assuming office in April 1947, he quickly made urban renewal a priority, appointing a 15-member Committee for Housing Action to develop proposals for housing and slum clear-ance. The committee, chaired by Holman Pettibone and including fellow MHPC board membersFerd Kramer and Milton Mumford, played a key role in the passage of the state‘s 1947 urban re-newal legislation (Hirsch, 1998). In July 1948, Governor Green announced Chicago‘s first urbanrenewal project to be carried out under the new law (Chicago Tribune, 1948). Groundbreakingfor the construction of new public housing units followed several years later.While progress on urban redevelopment during the early postwar years was heartening tocivic leaders and other proponents of urban renewal, problems soon began to surface. Landassembly, slum clearance, and public housing construction were all taking much longer thanoriginally expected, in some cases placing the completion of projects in jeopardy. The crux of theproblem, most civic leaders agreed, was the fragmentation of the city‘s a dministrative powers,which posed a barrier to quick, decisive action. Urban renewal policy was administered by severaldifferent agencies, with responsibilities for slum clearance, redevelopment, public housing, andother activities divided among them.3By the early 1950s, this structure had becomeunwieldy.Coordination was increasingly difficult to achieve, creating ―many points at which success [could]be blocked; but none at which it [could] be assured‖ (MHPC, 1956a, p. 3).A second and related problem was posed by the weakness of the executive branch of citygovernment. Formally speaking, Chicago was a council-governed city. City council held thepower of approval over mayoral appointments, it prescribed the duties and powers of most city officers, and it could create new city departments and agencies at will. It also exercisedvariousadministrative powers, including preparation of the city budget, awarding of city contracts, andapproval of zoning variances. For urban renewal projects, council approval was required fordesignation of project areas, site plans, the terms of sale of city-owned land todevelopers,rezonings, and street closings (Chicago City Council, 1953). A council majority could blockvirtually any action by the mayor (Banfield, 1961; Chicago Home Rule Commission, 1954).As a comprehensive program for urban redevelopment, urban renewal policy required acity-wide perspective on the part of local government officials. However, aldermen were frequentlyindifferent to planning and development issues that did not directly concern their wards.4In situ-ations where their wards were affected, the needs of ward constituents typically came first. If anurban renewal or public housing project was opposed by a substantial number of ward residents,the alderman representing that district was likely to oppose it as well (Meyerson & Banfield,1955). Without strong executive leadership, an uncooperative alderman or bloc of aldermencould derail plans for new development.In the past, the office of the mayor was strengthened informally through the fusion of politicaland administrative power (Chicago Home Rule Commission, 1972). Previous mayors such asEdward Kelly had dominated city council by forming alliances with party leaders or by servingjointly as mayor and machine boss. Mayor Kennelly, however, distanced himself from machineleaders and made no effort to bring city council under his control. As he put it early in his term,―Chicago is a council-governed city . . . . I don‘t think it‘s a function of the mayor to boss thealdermen‖ (quoted in Simpson, 2001, p. 107). With control over urban renewal policy lodged, bydefault, in city council, coordinated action was extremely difficult to achieve.Under these conditions, questions of ―fit‖ between the city‘s governing institutions and the goalsof urban renewal stakeholders became paramount, as illustrated by the following two examples.Chicago‘s first urban renewal project, announced by Governor Green in July 1948, was a proposed100-acre development in a black neighborhood on the ci ty‘s South Side (Hirsch, 1998).Planscalled for the construction of 1,400 new housing units on the site. While the project received the endorsement of Mayor Kennelly and strong backing from the city‘s business leadership, it wascontroversial. More than 2,000 families currently living in the area would have to be relocated(Buck, 1949). In addition, the developer, New York Life Insurance Co., insisted on the closureof a four-block stretch of Cottage Grove Avenue, a major South Side arterial that bisectedtheproject footprint.The project quickly encountered organized opposition. Residents of the area perceived thedevelopment as an effort to remove blacks from the South Side (Neil, 1952). A group of 23property owners filed suit in federal court to prevent the Chicago Land Clearance Commission,the agency charged with land assembly for urban renewal, from taking their homes (ChicagoDefender, 1950). When that effort failed, the Property Conservation and Human Rights Committeeof Chicago petitioned the federal government to withhold funding for the project (ChicagoDefender, 1951).5Residents of nearby white neighborhoods, fearing an influx of displaced blacks, also opposed the project (Hirsch, 1998). Finally, the Chicago Motor Club organized acampaign against the closing of Cottage Grove Avenue, arguing that the street was essential tomaintaining an adequate flow of traffic on the South Side (Neil, 1952).To the dismay of New York Life officials, the various city agencies and governing bodies witha stake in the project could not come to an agreement on how to proceed. The Land ClearanceCommission initiated efforts to gain control over the 100-acre site. However, the Chicago PlanCommission was ―unceasingly difficult,‖ debating the closure of Cottage Grove Avenue for more than a year before finally making a weak recommendation that the street be vacated (MHPC,1949; Sturdy, 1950).6Several other city agencies—including the Chicago Transit Authority,the Department of Streets and Electricity, and the Park District—registered their opposition to the street closure (Neil, 1952). Meanwhile, a group of South Side aldermen opposed theproject altogether, arguing it would create unacceptable hardships for current residents of the area(Chicago Tribune, 1950b).By spring 1950, New York Life had begun to lose patience. In a letter to Mayor Kennelly,company vice-president Otto Nelson warned that ―fatal delay and eventual failure will result if thevarious agencies of the city who are involved yield to the temptation to compromise and placateat every point where some individual or small group is affected adversely‖ (Nelson, 1950). Withthe fate of the city‘s first urban renewal project hanging in the balance, Kennelly made a rareappearance before city council to express his support for the development (Buck, 1950a). The following month, the council voted 31–12 to approve the project (Buck, 1950b). In February1952, nearly four years after the development was first announced, ground was finally broken onthe city‘s first renewal project. Although urb an renewal proponents celebrated this milestone, thelengthy delays experienced by New York Life sent a strong message to private investors that urbanrenewal in Chicago under the present political conditions would require tremendous patience.In another well-publicized case also illustrating theproblems of administrative decentralizationfor urban renewal policy, a West Side alderman persuaded the Plan Commission to reclassify hisward from a ―blighted‖ area to a ―rehabilitation‖ area over the objections of the Land Clearance Commission (New York Times, 1950). The change meant that renewal efforts would have to takeplace through rehabilitation of existing structures—a method preferred by ward residents—ratherthan through slum clearance. The Plan Commission‘s decision preempted the efforts of the Land Clearance Commission, which was in the process of surveying the West Side to determine itsselection of slum clearance sites. Commission Chairman John McKinlay urged the mayor todelay action on the matter until the survey was completed (McKinlay, 1950). MHPC PresidentFerd Kramer warned the mayor of the ―devastating effects of [the Plan Commission‘s] actionon the entire redevelopment program‖ (MHPC, 1950a). However, this time Kennelly declined tointervene, and the city council planning committee approved the Plan Commission‘s decision by a25-2 vote. According to a 1950 MHPC report, such actions by the Plan Commission to ―sabotage‖the city‘s slum clearance program ―have discouraged some of thetop-ranking planners who were persuaded to come to Chicago on the promise that ‗things were going to happen here.‘ Duringthe past two years, nine professionals have called it quits and gone elsewhere‖ (MHPC, 1950b,p. 3).GOVERNMENT REORGANIZATION: PHASE IBy the early 1950s, urban renewal advocates in Chicago had identified the fragmentation ofthe city‘s urban renewal powers as a principal cause of Chicago‘s sluggish redevelopment efforts.As one civic group put it, ―It is obvious that Chicago has too many agencies working on differentsegments of its housing problem, and that this creates pointless rivalries, overall administrativeinefficiency, excessive costs and public confusion‖ (Citizens Committee to Fight Slums, 1954,p. 23).In 1951, the city council Committee on Housing commissioned a study of the organization andadministration of the city‘s urban redevelopment program. The study was initiated by committeechairman Robert Merriam, a reform alderman from Hyde Park who had served as MHPC‘sdirector from 1946 to 1947. Released in July 1952, the study reaffirmed what MHPC andother urban renewal proponents had been arguing for several years: Chicago‘s―bewildering‖administrative organizational structure had created a situation in which ―all agencieslocally involved in redevelopment and housing occupy compromised positions‖ (Public AdministrationService, 1952, p. 10).The study‘s principal recommendation was the creation of a new cityDepartment of Redevelopment and Housing, which would assume the duties of the HousingAuthority, the Land Clearance Commission, and several other existing urban renewal agencies,all of which would be abolished.7Response to the report was less than enthusiastic. During the housing committee‘s first day ofhearings on the report, representatives from the Housing Authority and other affected agenciesrepeatedly criticized the study findings, prompting one committee staff member to suggest thatnongovernmental groups be invited to testify at subsequent hearings (Siegel, 1952). As thisindividual observed, ―As lo ng as the recommendation of the report involves the doing away withexisting agencies and the transfer of power from others, we can anticipate that there will beconsiderable opposition.‖Yet civic groups responded cautiously to the report as well. In a lett er to the council‘s housingcommittee, the chair of MHPC‘s newly formed committee on administrative reorganization rec-ommended a gradual approach to administrative change (Pois, 1953). The proposal was ―a fineplan in theory, but utterly dangerous to attemp t at this time‖ because of the control city councilwould exercise over the proposed new department (MHPC, 1952a). To be successful, adminis-trative reorganization would have to be accompanied by a parallel reform effort to strengthen the executive branch of city government.Such an effort was, in fact, under way and gaining momentum at the time. In 1952, a reformgroup calling itself the Citizens of Greater Chicago launched an initiative to produce a new citycharter for Chicago (Chicago Tribune, 1953a). Unde r the organization‘s proposed charter reformbill, administrative functions exercised by city council, such as preparation of the city budget,would be transferred to the mayor‘s office (Chicago Tribune, 1953b). In addition, the size ofcity council would be reduced from 50 to 15 members, including five members elected at large.Aldermen were largely dismissive of the initiative. As one council member put it, ―This is justa reform group. They don‘t know what an alderman‘s job is all about. They all come fromri chwards where they never have to go to an alderman to get anything done‖ (ChicagoTribune,1953c).Business leaders were largely supportive of the Citizens of Greater Chicago. MHPC, whichviewed charter reform as a necessary prerequisite for consolidation of the city‘s urban renewalagencies, quickly developed a partnership with the organization (MHPC, 1952a,b).8In June 1953,the MHPC Board of Governors voted to endorse the organization‘s charter reform bill (MHPC,1953). Despite the backing of the city‘s busine ss leadership, however, charter reform faced anuphill battle in the state legislature. Opposition to the bill from Chicago Democratic legislatorswould have to be offset by strong support from downstate Republicans.9Republican supportfailed to materialize, however, and the bill was defeated in the state senate by a vote of 18 to 12.Chicago Democrats reportedly voted for a number of downstate bills in exchange for promisesfrom Republican legislators to oppose charter reform. By one account, roughly half thed ownstateRepublican delegation ―either sat silent or walked out of the senate chamber just before the rollcall‖ (Howard, 1953).While charter reform was being debated, Mayor Kennelly took steps of his own to reorganizecity government. Concerned that the Cit izens of Greater Chicago was ―moving too rapidly‖ in itsefforts to obtain a new charter for the city, Kennelly appointed a 15-member Home Rule Com-mission to study the organization of city government and provide recommendations for reform(Chicago Tribune, 1953f).10The commission, chaired by Chicago Association of Commerce andIndustry director Leverett Lyon, issued its findings in a 415-page report released in September1954 (Chicago Home Rule Commission, 1954). The report‘s recommendations for governmentreorganization were similar to those of the Citizens of Greater Chicago charter reform bill,advocating a ―strong mayor‖ system of government and a downsized city council.11Moreover,as a body with official standing, the Home Rule Commission commanded a degree of legitimacyand respect that the Citizens of Greater Chicago did not enjoy.The recommendations of the Home Rule Commission were enthusiastically endorsed by thecity‘s major newspapers and top businessorganizations (Chicago Tribune, 1954, 1955a).How-ever, as the city‘s experience with charter reform a year earlier had shown,assembling legislativemajorities around government reorganization in Chicago would be difficult without the cooper-ation of the city‘s Democratic Party regulars. Initiatives that served to strengthen the powers ofthe mayor seemed unlikely to attract the support of machine politicians as long as themayor‘soffice was occupied by a reformer. Implementing a strong mayor system would simply。
工程管理毕业外文翻译
外文文献：Building engineering biddingYang Cao a,*, Shuhua Wang b, Heng Li aaDepartment of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic University,Hong Kong, ChinabState Key Laboratory of Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing210093, ChinaAbstractNowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively. bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is the improtment to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.[key] : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasuresBidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism. Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender. Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills. All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidd ing documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding. The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding. Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents. If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation. The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme .In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instuments. Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding. Bidding documents are the legal instuments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents -making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of leagal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementingexist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice. However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks. This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding (project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy. This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation. Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures. In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved. The spirit of "the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market willprice" principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity. Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity. Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects. The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the workConstruction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender. I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for TenderThe meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives, according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention. Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits; construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of thecontrol and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significanceConstruction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs. In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing. Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model. With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative. Therefore, "the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder" My future is the most important evaluation methods. At this stage due to the implementation ofprojects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China at this stage " in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost. This article is a scientific and fast set "reasonable cost" to study the key. First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates. Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through "close-degree," the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a "framework structure," the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the "open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market. In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.References[1] . Casey, . Ferguson, Intelligent forms processing, IBMSystem Journal 29 (3) (1990) 435– 450.[2] T. Watanabe, Q. Luo, N. Sugie, Layout recognition of multikindsof table-form documents, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 17 (4) (1995) 422–445.[3] . Chen, . Lee, An efficient algorithm for form structureExtr ction using strip projection, Pattern Recognition 31 (9)Fig. 9. Table with no obvious separating symbol between records. (1998) 1353– . Cao et al. / Automation in Construction 11 (2002) 573–584 583[4] . Tseng, . Chen, Recognition and data extraction of form documents based on three types of line segments, Pattern Recognition 31 (10) (1998) 1525– 1540.[5] . Fan, . Lu, . Chen, A feature point clustering approach to the recognition of form documents, Pattern Recognition 31 (9) (1998) 1205–1220.[6] S. Chandran, R. Kasturi, Structure recognition of tabulated data,Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Tsukuba Science City, Jap20– 22, 1993, pp. 516– 519.[7] K. Itonori, Table structure recognition based on textblock arrangement and ruled line position, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, Oct. 20– 22, 1993, pp. 765– 768.[8] . Shamilian, . Baird, . Wood, A retargetable table reader, Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Ulm, Germany, Aug.18– 20,1997, pp. 158–163.[9] . Chiang, . Tue, . Leu, A new algorithm for line image vectorization, Pattern Recognition 31 (10) (1998) 1541–1549.建筑项目招投标杨曹*,王建民,b, 李亨a建筑部门和房地产、香港理工大学、香港、中国b国家重点实验室的小说软件技术、南京大学、南京210093,中国摘要目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必需严格控制本钱，增强本钱控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。
工程管理专业英语全文翻译
Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点1.2 Major Types of Construction 1。
2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility，they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them ［1］. Likewise，the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ，many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities。
It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively，the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because，by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction ［2］。
工程管理专业英语全文翻译
Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点1.2 Major Types of Construction 1.2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2]. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.由于大多数业主通常只对获得特定类型的建筑设施感兴趣，所以他们应该了解与他们有关的建筑类型的常见工业实践[1]。
工程管理相关中英文翻译(毕业设计专用)
第 2 章项目生命周期与组织项目与项目管理都是在比项目本身更大的环境中进行的。
理解这个大环境，有助于确保项目的执行符合企业目标，项目的管理符合组织既有的实践方法论。
本章将介绍项目的基本结构和其他重要的宏观事项，包括项目如何影响持续性的运营，直接项目团队以外的干系人如何影响项目，以及组织结构如何影响项目的人员配备、管理和执行。
本章包括以下主要部分：2.1 项目生命周期——概述2.2 项目与运营2.3 项目干系人2.4 组织对项目管理的影响2.1 项目生命周期——概述项目生命周期是通常按顺序排列而有时又相互交叉的各项目阶段的集合。
阶段名称和数量取决于参与项目的一个或多个组织的管理与控制需要、项目本身的特征及其所在的应用领域。
生命周期可以用某种方法加以确定和记录。
可以根据所在组织或行业的特性，或者所用技术的特性，来确定或调整项目生命周期。
虽然每个项目都有明确的起点和终点，但其具体的可交付成果以及项目期间的活动会因项目的不同而有很大差异。
无论项目涉及什么具体工作，生命周期都能为管理项目提供基本框架。
2.1.1 项目生命周期的特征项目的规模和复杂性各不相同，但不论其大小繁简，所有项目都呈现下列生命周期结构（见图 2-1）：图 2-1 项目生命周期中典型的成本与人力投入水平通用的生命周期结构通常具有以下特征：成本与人力投入在开始时较低，在工作执行期间达到最高，并在项目快要结束时迅速回落。
这种典型的走势如图 2-1 中的虚线所示。
干系人的影响力、项目的风险与不确定性在项目开始时最大，并在项目的整个生命周期中随时间推移而递减（见图 2-2）。
在不显著影响成本的前提下，改变项目产品最终特性的能力在项目开始时最大，并随项目进展而减弱。
图 2-2 表明，变更和纠正错误的代价在项目接近完成时通常会显著增高。
在通用生命周期结构的指导下，项目经理可以决定对某些可交付成果施加更有力的控制。
大型复杂项目尤其需要这种特别的控制。
外文翻译工程管理毕业设计.
Hierarchy probability cost analysis model incorporate MAIMS principle for EPC project cost estimation4. Hierarchy integrated probability cost analysis (HIPCA models for EPC cost estimation.In this section we introduce hierarchy probability cost analysis (HIPCA methodology, which incorporates all aforementioned concepts for determining the total project cost (TPC of EPC projects. Our objective is to develop an optimal but realistic TPC for a given probability of success (PoS that we assume has been specified by allocating the baseline budgets, and managing contingency, based on the desire to win the project and risk tolerance.4.1. Correlation coefficient and its feasible verificationOnce historical data is available, two different measures are used to reflect the degree of relation between cost elements in literature. The first one is an ordinary product-moment (Pearson correlation coefficient and the second is a rank (Spearman correlation coefficient. A non-parametric (distribution-free rank statistic proposed by Spearman in 1904 as a measure of the strength of the associations between two variables ( Lehmann & D’Abrera,1998. The Spearman rank correlation coefficient can be used to give a real estimate, and is a measure of monotone association that is used when the distribution of the data make Pearson’s correlation coefficient undesirable or misleading.While it may be difficult to justify use of a specific numeric value to represent the correlation between two cost elements, it is important to avoid the temptation to omit the correlation altogether when a precise value for it cannot be established. Such an omission will set the correlation in question to the exact value of zero; whereas positive values of the correlation coefficient tend to widen the total-cost probability distribution and thus increase the gap between a specific cost percentile (e.g., 70% and the best-estimate cost. That is to say, the contingency could be larger. Therefore, using reasonable non-zerovalues, such as 0.2 or 0.3, generally leads to a more realistic representation of total-cost uncertainty.Subjective judgment also finds application in specifying the cor-relations between cost elements qualitatively. To this respect, researchers can subjectively choose two groups of correlations to assess strong, moderate, and weak relations: {0.8,0.45,0.15} ( Touran, 1993 and {0.85,0.55,0.25} ( Chau, 1995. Other more recent scholars explain, simply, ‘‘as a rule of thumb, we can saythat correlations of less than 0.30 indicate little if any relationship between the variables.’’Reasonable correlation values in the range 0.3–0.6 should lead to more realistic cost estimates than the overly optimistic values assuming independence or the overly pessimistic values assuming perfect correlation ( Kujawski et al., 2004.Matrix theory implies that a correlation matrix will not have any negative determinants in real life. When a correlation matrix is used in simulation, an important requirement is to ensure its feasibility, which restricts the matrix to be positive semi-definite regardless of its type (product-moment or rank or the way it is estimated (historical or subjective ( Lurie & Goldberg, 1998. Being positive semi-definite means the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix must be non-negative.That is to say, internal consistency checking between cost elements is necessary for cost estimation. In the literature, it has frequently occurred that the correlation matrix is not positive definite as indicated by Ranasinghe (2000. This is particularly an issue when the number of dimensions increases because the possibility of having an infeasible correlation matrix will grow rapidly as the dimension increases ( Kurowicka & Cooke, 2001.Touran’s approach was to reduce all the correlations slightly (say 0.01 and repeat until the correlation matrix becomes feasible ( Touran, 1993. This approach overlooks the possibility of increasing some correlations while reducing others. Ranasinghe (2000 developed a computer program to iteratively calculate and list the bounds of each correlation to make the matrix positive semi-definite. The program then asks the estimator to change the original values and wait until the program re-checks the feasibility and new bounds. This process continues until reaching the feasibility. This approach, however, may be time consuming due to its iterativenature. Yang (2005developed an automatic procedure to check the feasibility of the correlation matrix and adjust it if necessary. It is complicated and difficult to understand due to decomposing the correlation matrix into a diagonal vector of the eigenvalues, and normalization of the diagonal elements to ensure unit diagonals.Here, we advocate that Crystal Ball can be adopted to conduct the eigenvalue test, on the correlation matrix to uncover this problem. The program warns the user of the inconsistent correlations as Fig. 2.Adjusting the coefficients allows the user to ensure that the correlation matrix is at least not demonstrably impossible. A simple approach to using the correlation algorithm in the program is to adjust the coefficients permanently after writing down what they were originally. In this way the analyst will find out after the simulation what Crystal Ball had to do to the coefficients to make them possible. This is a minimal test and does not ensure that the correlation coefficients are ‘‘right’’ in any sense. After examining what the program needed to do, the risk analyst still must take responsibility for the coefficients actually used.4.2. Dilemma for PCA methodologyThe only point value from independent constituent distributions that can be added to obtain the corresponding statistical point value from the sum of the constituentdistributions is the mean value. Therefore, task-level contingencies derived from individual task distributions cannot be added to obtain the project total contingency.Traditional contingency calculations that add an arbitrary factor to task-level costs and then sum these amounts to a project total, which can produce very conservative project budgets that would be completely outside the calculated distribution of expected results.We review some statistical notations in order to discover the potential problem for typical PCA. For the two random variables x and y, we can have following notations on the basis of probability and statistical theory.4.3. Hierarchy PCA modelDuring the bidding stage, the EPC project must be structured into a limitednumber of cost items. This does not mean that we will forgive existing detail valuable cost data sets. The reason is that neglecting reliable and valuable cost data sets will influence the efficiency and effect of cost information. Hierarchy probability cost analysis model can be separated into different hierarchies for lower WBS levels.To focus on EPC projects, we assign two hierarchies for hierarchy PCA. The formula (4 is selected for the first hierarchy. We choose WBS level-3 and 4 cost elements for EPC project cost estimation to construct the second hierarchy.4.4. Hierarchy PCA model including MAIMS-PDFsThe MAIMS principle accounts for the fact that project rarely under-run original allocated budgets. This has important implications for PCA. Once a cost element is allocated a budget x⁄, it be-comes a random variable with minimum value x⁄rather than the lower range C min of the original PDF. We refer to these PDFs as the MAIMS-modified PDFs. They are proper PDFs with a delta-like function at x⁄ that accounts for allrandom values less than or equal to x⁄. We stress the MAIMS modified PDFs with truncated values. Applying the MAIMS principle to a PDF increases its mean value and reduces its standard deviation. The impact increases with increasing values of x⁄. The MAIMS principle is likely to play a significant role in PCA. We further investigate this in Section 5 for an actual bidding EPC project.For the hierarchy PCA model including MAIMS-PDFs, we pro-pose all cost elements belonging to the first hierarchy in Section 4.3 will adopt the MAIMS principle, that is to say the budget of baseline will substitute the minimum value of all PDFs of cost elements. The second hierarchy will be same as it is in Section 4.3.4.5. Hierarchy PCA model including hierarchical MAIMS-PDFsIt is easy to find that a baseline budget is necessary for all cost elements located in first hierarchy, for the hierarchy PCA model including MAIMS-PDFs. As we depict in Section 4.2, to focus on a few vital cost elements and overall influence could be more benefit for cost risk analysis. We present a hierarchy PCA model including hierarchy MAIMS-PDFs to approach this purpose.All PDFs of cost elements in first hierarchy will not have changed in Section 4.3 for hierarchy PCA model including hierarchy MAIMS-PDFs. MAIMS principle isnot used for all cost elements5. Practical applicationThe proposed method is applied to the real EPC project to demonstrate its practical use. The Beta Pert and Weibull distribution are selected, respectively, for WBS-item cost element based on Section 3. The PDF and relative calibration for WBS level 4 (as Section 3have done at the beginning of bidding stage with an applicable data set derived from historical cost and expert’s experience.Subjective correlation coefficient method is recommended, and correlation group will be divided based on WBS level 2. The correlation coefficient of pair-wise between cost elements within same group will be assigned as 0.6 as initial coefficients. The correlation coefficient of pair-wise between cost elements in a different group will be assigned as 0.3 as initial coefficients. The consistency and feasibility of the correlation will be judged and adjusted permanently by Crystal Ball automatically as we point out in Section 4.5.1. Results for four kinds of cost estimation models for a real bidding EPC project.A simulation experiment is designed to implement the pro-posed method and to evaluate the effects of the hierarchy integrated probability cost analysis model. In the experiment, five kinds of cost analysis models are adopted for assessment. The out-put statistics can then be used to assess the behavior of the true project cost and the effectiveness of the hierarchy integrated PCA model.5.1.1. Typical PCA modelAll the cost elements and their margin/percentile distributions are shown in Table 1 for typical PCA. The value of each WBS level 3 cost elements is expressed as kilo euro. This level of granularity is suitable for typical PCA model. Moreover, the WBS level 3 can be changed to reflect the actual situation based on the size of the project and accuracy of the estimation, if the proposed method is applied to other construction projects.After 5000 simulation trials, the 6th column in Table 2lists the descriptive statistics for the total cost of the project. To assess the impact of correlations, wecompare two scenarios: including and excluding correlations. 5th column in Table 2 is the result of total project cost including correlations. The first observation is that both distributions are skewed to the right because the mean is larger than the median. The second observation is that the scenario of ‘‘including correlations’’ has a largervariability (uncertainty than ‘‘excluding correlation’’. This conclusion is unsurprising because the former has a much greater standard deviation that the latter (76687.07 vs. 46474.58, a 35% difference.To select typical down WBS level, the sensitivity analysis is executed and shown in Fig. 4. It is apparent that the unit 13 is more sensitive for the total cost of the project than other units. Unit 13 is selected as the 2nd hierarchy for the HPCA cost model.5.1.2. Hierarchy PCA model excluding MAIMS principleAll the cost elements and their margin/percentile distributions for the unit 13 are shown in Table 3.The second hierarchy probability distribution will be generated after 5000 simulation trials, and listed in Table 4for details. The new distributions will substitute the corresponding distribution in Table 1. The descriptive statistics for the total cost of the project based on the hierarchy PCA model excluding MAIMS principle, are indicated in the 4th column in Table 2after 5000 simulation trials. The standard deviation of the hierarchy model is not smaller than typical PCA, that is to say, the presented hierarchy model has over-come the impact of increasing cost elements for cost risk analysis.5.1.3. Hierarchy PCA model including MAIMS-PDFsThe descriptive statistics to estimate the total cost of the project are based on the hierarchy PCA model integrating MAIMS PDF is shown in the 3rd column in Table 2 after 5000 simulation trials.5.1.4. Hierarchy PCA model including hierarchy MAIMS-PDFsThe descriptive statistics for the total cost of the project are based on the hierarchy PCA model integrating MAIMS hierarchy is shown in the 2nd column in Table 2 after 5000 simulation trials.5.2. Comparison and validationIn this section, we validate whether the proposed methods can solve the dilemma to appropriate cost elements and maximize the efficiency of cost information for EPC project. Probability of success (PoS and confidence internal will be adopted to verify the quality of the estimation.The Monte Carlo simulation result of hierarchy PCA model integrating MAIMS-PDFs is expressed in Fig. 5. The 10% and 90% points of the total cost of the project are based on hierarchy PCA model integrating MAIMS-PDFs that establish a 80% confidence interval, and the PoS is generally expressed in percentages of +20.01%/ 14.15%.The Monte Carlo simulation result of hierarchy PCA model integrating MAIMS hierarchy can be expressed as Fig. 6. The 10% and 90% points of the total cost of the project are based on hierarchy PCA model integrating MAIMS hierarchy that established a 80% confidence interval, and the PoS is generally expressed in percent-ages of+20.86%/ 14.61%.The PoS of all models for confidence interval (10%, 90% is summarized in Table 5. That is to say HIPCA-hierarchy MAIMS-PDFs and HPCA-MAIMS-PDFs can get more realistic cost estimation than typical PCA. The hierarchy PCA model integrated Hierarchy MAIMS-PDFs can achieve more accurate estimation than hierarchy PCA model integrated MAIMS hierarchy.The project baseline cost (PBC can be concluded as 836 million euro from Table 1. The contingency has been summarized in Table5 based on recommended Practice No. 18R-97 by AACE.All results depict that the HIPCA-hierarchy MAIMS-PDFs and HPCA-MAIMS-PDFs have more realistic and executable estimates. And the proposed methods can solve the dilemma to appropriatecost elements and maximize the efficiency of cost information for EPC project.Finally, cost estimate based on HIPCA-hierarchy MAIMS-PDFs method help us win the bid. The actual reason is such cost estimate is realistic lower, and accompanies with higher PoS. Meanwhile, it provides not only maintain currentknowledge of cost overruns, but also estimates cost at completion from inside the project itself rather than by statistical inference from historical information on other projects.6. ConclusionThe practical and theoretically valid hierarchy PCA-hierarchy MAIMS models among WBS-item cost elements have been developed to solve skillfully the dilemma of typical PCA. The key elements include:1.The use of an appropriate WBS for cost hierarchical structure. Subdividing the project costs into too many bite-size pieces is likely lead to erroneous results and a false sense of confidence. Analysts should be wary of the pitfalls of performing a probabilistic cost analysis that consists of hundreds of cost elements that are subordinate to WBS-level 3.2.Macroscopic and microscope risk analysis of project cost elements in order to obtain accurate model input and maximize efficiency of information. Monte Carlo simulation method is recommended for historical data of WBS level 4 (discipline level in order to obtain percentile of preliminary PDF. Real estimate of C min; C m; C max and reasonable budget will be approached via discipline experts’ calibration.3.Incorporation of the ‘‘money allocated is money spent’’ (MAIMS principle with budget management practices and hierarchy. The assessment of the cost elements, correlation effects, bud-get allocation, and project management consideration items all influence each other and have a significant impact on the total project cost and/or probability of success. For enhanced credibility and realism, HIPCA-hierarchy MAIMS considers these influences simultaneously rather than individually.4.The proposed approach provides a cost estimation and analysis framework for EPC project. It avoids the impact of high number of cost elements and maximizes efficiency of historical data and expe rts’ judgme nt. And it not only makes demands upon the cost estimator, but also provides benefits to project management, particularly when it comes to recommending a prudent managementreserve. Having in hand a probability distribution of total WBS-item cost, rather than just a single best estimate, project management can propose, for example, that the basic cost estimate can be budgeted at the 50% confidence level, but that sufficient management reserve can be included to bring the success probability up to 70%. Project managers can develop more viable plans and make better decisions during bidding stage and execution stage, so that projects are delivered for a lower cost and higher probability of success. The magnitude of the cost overrun problem is no excuse for accepting the status quo; the benefits from proposed approaches are likely to be significant.Our experience is that the single greatest challenge to the development and use of hierarchy probabilistic cost analysis is the implementation of systems thinking. Further development of a tracking system that identifies the assumptions for the high, medium, and low (or percentiles three points estimate and tracks their evolution are necessary, so as to develop and implement more re-fined cost models substantially.This research was funded by the Sinopec Science and Technology Developing Project (Project No. 205073 and the Beijing Municipal Education Commission of China(Project No. XK100100542. Many thanks are also due to the anonymous reviewers of this paper for useful comments.层次概率成本分析模型纳入MAIMS原则EPC工程总承包项目的成本估算4综合成本的层次概率分析(HIPCAEPC工程总造价估算模型在本节中,我们引入层次概率(HIPCA成本分析的方法,其中包括确定项目总成本的EPC项目(TPC。
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工程造价管理前言：项目施工阶段实施单位建筑成本管理来控制项目成本，在项目中是合理的，以此来满足假定的的质量目标，在投资决定阶段和项目设计阶段把项目的通过决议发生在可控范围之内，力求在各种建设项目中合理利用人力、材料、资金资源来实现良好的投资回报和社会效益。
项目成本控制和管理是一个动态的过程。
动态的市场经济,使投资在确定与控制变得更为复杂,这将要求施工单位对工程造价管理的项目贯穿整个过程中,它必须有一个全面的焦点。
执行阶段的项目。
实施阶段的工程造价管理是实施全过程项目管理。
项目实施阶段的工程造价管理可分为三个部分：投标管理、施工管理和结算管理。
1 招标施工阶段的施工单位招标制度控制工程造价的有效手段,申办组织,可以提高成本效益的工程,并确保工程质量, 缩短建设周期,投资回报, 施工单位可充分利用招标的手段,有效控制成本。
施工编号10月7部令发布了“合同与施工合同定价管理” 明确指出,在工程招标使用库存。
这就要求建设单位进行招标, 在招标文件中,不仅包括通常的内容如债券投标前附表,招标债券合同的条件、合同协议条款、合同格式、技术规格、图纸、招标文件及其他参考格式,还必须提供工程清单招标作为参考文件的重要组成部分。
建设单位在招标文件中的工程量清单, 按照国家或地方颁布的规则的计算方法,统一的项目划分, 统一计量单位,统一的工程计算规则按设计图纸加以计算和统计安排,取得名单。
数量应遵循的筹备工作客观,公正,科学,合理的原则。
编写者必须有一定的知识的工程设计和施工经验, 以及材料与机械施工技术全面的科学知识,为了计算容积的工程无重大遗漏。
此基础上,必须符合国家规定的工程计算规则与分包工程处工程单位,并按照设计图纸,设计必不可少的爱情招标文件规定计算量的项目应该有一个综合测试,作品必须简单,虽然不露出现错误定价项目,要保证正确的工程。
应该要求的不同等级分开工程部,情况则有所不同, 我们可能有不同的价格,为项目分开。
这就要求编写清单编制人员,认真研究设计图纸, 分析招标文件中包括的工作内容及不同的技术要求, 大家熟悉的过程,并到现场认真调查,预计,以使施工的情况下,会对价格项目得以打破。
此外, 因为项目清单计算数额的项目是不完整的工程,并考虑利益施工单位,显然付出代价相同的总体价格该工程量清单的数量,实际建设是一个具有实际意义。
在评价和审查的投标应做的单位,个人总报价和综合评估价格不符合要求的个体显示物价符合要求, 与最低总价不能解释单一,价低。
投标人往往知道总成本,以维持相同的情况下, 该计划很可能会改变较小的项目,以降低价格。
变化可能较大项目的价格上升,以达到竣工结算工程,将增加为目的。
我们也做价格和相应数量的工程技术综合评估的大批量项目注重价格分析。
价格会做与工作内容,施工计划,是一个全面的技术评价过程中, 因而倾向于选择施工单位。
建设施工阶段的合同成本控制基础。
签订严密的施工合同,同时加强施工合同管理,可以保证合同价是合理的, 合法性,减少履行合同的纠纷,维护双方利益的合同,有效地控制了工程投资费用。
在签约前,做好管理合同文件, 合同及补充合同协议。
工作往来等单一内容提出了延长合同,并解释完整必须得到维护, 除了建立了技术档案,执行合同的动态分析分析结果采取积极主动的措施。
2施工阶段施工阶段的施工方案,是基于预算或建安工程合同价的目标,控制工程造价。
现阶段养护余地小,但可能性是浪费很大。
从而控制成本的项目给予足够的重视。
2.1 建筑计划加强技术经济比较施工方案是施工组织设计进行了重新的工作内容,合理的施工方案,缩短建设工期,确保三峡工程质量, 提高经济效率,施工方案正确,从技术和经济评价进行了比较, 通过定性和定量分析,质量,时间,成本三项技术和经济指标,是理智的, 并有效地使用人力,物力和财力,取得较好的经济效益,良好的施工管理人员之间的关系, 全面成本管理是一个重要途径。
2.2 严格涉及更改项目预算控制在概算内施工造成的变化,原因有很多,包括工程设计不良,使工程合同与图纸不符规定；当前市场供应的材料不符合标准规格的设计要求。
这些问题已离开初级工程造价的因素。
因此,在施工过程中,我们必须加紧海关变化通过任何更改设计,扩大建设规模,提高设计标准,增加建设内容, 最好实行“分级控制,限额签证”制度。
有权变更设计,尤其是涉及到成本的设计变更,必须经设计单位, 建设单位现场代表,监理工程师共同签字,并应提前这种变化,减少损失, 因为已完成或部分完成的项目将进行拆除工作的内容, 这势必造成重大变更损失。
因此,建设单位应指派工程造价管理专业人员常驻施工现场,掌握在任何时候控制工程造价的变化。
2.3 工程现场签证手续通过严格控制建设项目的监督制度, 建立专门的部门, 专业人员使用的专业项目管理,以避免项目管理人员只是签证不是经济帐的现象。
投资失控造成严重后果，严重改变签证程序,要采取建设,监理方、工地代表共同签名的方式,以确保变更,签证的真实性,合法性, 经济和避免欺诈的现象,由此产生的纠纷。
在施工过程中,建设单位要加强现场施工管理, 督促施工方按图施工,严格控制变更的谈判,代用材料, 现场签证,以及各种预算外额外劳动力成本的必要修改,应做一次后发生变化的及时变化,计算的工作量和费用的情况发生了巨大变化,以把握在任何时候项目的费用水平,以避免积压的工作,真正的工程造价。
施工单位代表到现场监督,做好记录,特别是隐蔽记录和签证, 减少结算及格现象。
不少工程现场签证是没有这么严重,给工程带来了非常大的麻烦, 导致相当大的经济损失, 现场签证的严格管理,施工阶段的工程成本控制的关键。
2.4 工程量清单,严格审查对项目的审查清单监理工程师名单的措施来控制工程。
工程量清单提供的措施清单,是为了完成建设项目, 发生在施工前和工程施工过程中技术,生活,安全等方面的非工程实体。
在这个阶段,因为许多项目都是在施工图及施工现场不完善的招标等到施工招标的工程设计和现场实况,有更好的机会。
监理工程师地址收集第一手资料,逐项考核鉴定,不作修改。
2.5 控制材料消耗,合理确定材料价格工程造价控制材料价格的控制是主要的, 材料费在工程中往往占有很大的比重,一般占预算费用的70% 。
占直接成本的80%。
有必要在施工阶段严格按照合同金额材料控制, 材料订定合理价格,以有效地控制工程造价。
市场经济物资供应各种渠道,品种及价格范围的材料, 施工单位预算管理和外勤人员应密切注意市场行情随着工程进度的现场,市场, 另一方面,在信息化建设和物资竣工决算提供了有力依据。
2.6 科技与经济一体化,加强投资控制有效地控制了投资,从组织,技术,经济,合同,并采取其他措施。
因此,施工单位必须加强管理工程和技术人员的“经济”的理念、教育质量, 培养务实的工作作风,施工方以帮助改善建筑设计,合理的安全,财政和物质资源。
加快工作进度,提高工程质量。
施工遇到问题,及时与设计师联系,选择既经济和科学潜力的解决方案, 克服所造成的浪费指挥,给予应有的重视投资保护, 负责工程技术相结合的经济官员,从招标,合同谈判, 成本预算,签订支付工程进度的竣工决算,成本分析, 整个过程管理,严格控制工程造价。
2.7 做好结算价格的评估完成项目竣工结算施工企业按照与合同规定的内容完成,由承办单位, 经验收质量标准,并符合合同要求, 对建设单位,最后结算价的工程。
竣工后的结算审核批准建设项目工程造价的基础。
结算完成第一阶段的工程造价控制。
一段很长的时间,完成了施工图纸结算预算,是成本管理的问题得以解决。
因此,审计工作的完成解决是一项非常重要的工作,应着重做好以下几个方面的工作：1）审计的准确输出。
这个项目的竣工审计决算审计中,最重要和最复杂的, 其中最细致的工作,要计划完成的项目, 更改设计和施工工地为基础, 固定的,严格按照规定的工程计算规则逐项审核, 为防止建设工程竣工结算故意夸大产量,以增加项目的成本。
2）检查正确性。
审查中列出的价格与固定价格一致,其名称、规格、计量单位,其内容与单位估价表的价格换算。
3）审查费标准与固定成本施工期间及工程造价的政策。
3 结论：总之,工程造价控制是一个全过程控制, 应该说,每个环节都不能自满,而且每一个环节也很重要。
随着中国加入世贸组织,是中国的投资主体多元化,投资方对降低成本,控制成本, 提高投资效益日益重视。
因此,改变原有工程造价估算，概算，预算，合同价格，结算价，决算完成搬迁的。
缺乏连续性的情况下, 以完善的控制水平，发展控制系统的投资项目, 投资建设项目,可以促进我国社会主义市场经济发展,适应全球经济一体化进程。
Construction Cost ManagementPreface：Construction phase of the project implementation unit construction cost management to control the cost of the project is reasonable in the project to meet quality standards premise, in the investment decision-making stage, the design phase and construction phase of the project put the project approval occurred in the control limits, strive in various construction projects rational use of human, material and financial resources to achieve good investment returns and social benefits.The project cost control and management is a dynamic process. The dynamic market economy, to make the investment in the identification and control become more complex, this will require the construction units to the management of project cost to the project runs through the entire process, it is necessary to have a comprehensive focus. The construction management is the implementation of the entire process of project management. Project implementation phase of the project cost management can be divided into three parts: the tender management, construction management and settlement management.1 bid organization system of biding and construction phaseBidding for the construction phase of the construction units Bidding system control engineering cost effective means, bid organization can improve the cost-effectiveness of construction projects and ensure the quality of construction projects, shortening the construction cycle and return on the investment, construction units can take full advantage of bidding for the effective means of cost control.Construction No. 10 on the 7th ministerial decree issued a "contract with the Construction Contract Pricing Management." clearly pointed out in bidding for projects using inventories. This requires the building of units conducting the tender exercise, in the tender document to include not only the usual content, like tender notes before schedule, tender notes, the conditions of the contract, the contract terms of the agreement, contract format, technical specifications, drawings, tender documents and other reference format, it is also necessary to provide the engineering inventory, Bidding as a reference document of the important components.Construction units in the tender document for the project inventory, in accordance with state or local rules promulgated by the calculation that the reunification of the divided projects, unified measurement units and the reunification of the engineering calculation rules, according to design drawings to be calculated and statistical arranged, obtain the list. Quantities to be followed in the preparation of an objective, impartial, scientific, and rational principle. Compilers must have strong manly budget, and should have certain knowledge of the engineering design and construction experience, and the material and mechanical construction technology for comprehensive scientific knowledge, in order to calculate the volume of the works without heavy missed. The basis of which must be in accordance with state regulations engineering calculation rules, and the sub-projects division engineering units, and in accordance with design drawings, design essential Love tender documentation requirements are calculated.Quantities of the project should have a testing general, the entries must be simple, while not appear Lousing wrong items Pricing should guarantee the correctness of the project. Should the requirements of the different grades separate engineering division, the situation was different; we may have different prices for the items separately. This requires the preparation of the list compilers, seriously study design drawings, Analysis of thetender documents include the elements of the work and the different technical requirements, all familiar with the process, and to the scene of serious investigation, is forecast to make possible the construction of the case, right will have an impact on the Price of projects to be broken down. In addition, because the project inventories to calculate the amount of the project is not complete engineering and consider the interests of the construction units, clearly paying the price for the same overall price, the quantity list by the number of actual construction is a practical terms.In the evaluation and review of the tender offer should do the units total individual Price quotations and the comprehensive assessment. Price does not meet the requirements of individual shows Price meets the requirements, and the lowest total Price could not explain the single lowest bidder. Bidders often know the total cost to maintain the same circumstances; the project is likely to change smaller projects to lower the price.Changes may be larger projects price increases to achieve the completion of clearing works will be added for the purpose. We would also do price and the corresponding quantity of comprehensive engineering assessment of the large volume of projects to focus on the price analysis. Price will do with the contents of the work, construction program, a comprehensive technical evaluation process, thereby preferred choice of a construction unit. Construction of the construction phase of the contract cost control basis. Signed tight construction contract, while strengthening the construction contract management can guarantee that the contract price is reasonable, legitimacy and reduce the performance of the contract A, B in disputes and safeguard the interests of both the contract, effective control of the works investment costs.After the signing of the contract, to do the management contract documentation, contract and the supplementary contract agreement until the regular meeting site in minutes. Work contacts such as a single content of a contract extension and explained that the integrity must be preserved, in addition to establishing a technical files, Implementation of the contract for dynamic analysis, results of the analysis to take proactive measures.2 construction phaseConstruction phase in the construction phase construction plan is based on the budget or Ken works contract price of the target, Ken control the cost of the project. At this stage of conservation has room for a small, but the possibility of waste is great. Thereby to control the cost of the project to give sufficient attention.2.1 building planConstruction program to strengthen the comparative technical and economic construction program is construction design of a re - to the contents of the work, a reasonable construction plan, shorten the construction period and ensure the quality of the project, improving economic efficiency, Construction of the program right from the technical and economic evaluation were compared, through qualitative and quantitative analysis, the quality, time, Cost three technical and economic indicators, be rational, and effective use of manpower, material and financial resources, achieve better economic efficiency, good construction management relations, a comprehensive cost management is an important way.2.2 Strictly related changes to the project budget control in the proposed budgetConstruction of the changes caused by many reasons, including works poorly designed, so that the engineering contract with the drawings provided inconsistent; the current market supply of materials do not meet the standard specifications of the design requirements. These issues have to leave breadwinner project cost factors. Therefore, in the construction process, we must tighten customs change, through no design changes to expand the scale and improve the design standards; increase the construction and contents, the best implementation of the "grade control, visa quota" system. Right to change the design, particularly as it relates to the cost of the design changes must be approved by the design units, construction units scene representatives, supervision engineers common signature, and should be ahead of this type of change, reduce losses, because it has been completed or partially completed project will entail the demolition of the contents, it isbound to cause major changes to the loss. Therefore, the construction units should be assigned to the project cost management professionals Permanent construction site, to grasp at any time. Control project cost of the changes.2.3 Works on the scene visa formalities through strict control of the construction projectsupervision system, the establishment of specialized departments, Professional use of the professional management of projects and to avoid project management personnel just visas, not economic account of the phenomenon. Investment out of control caused serious consequences. To serious change visa procedures to be taken to the building, Supervisor, the construction site together representatives signed the way to ensure that change, visa authenticity, legitimacy, economic and avoid fraud and the resulting phenomena arising from the dispute.In the course of construction, the construction units to enhance on-site construction management, supervision and construction side according to the drawings, and strictly control the change of the negotiations, materials substitution, the scene visas, and various additional extra budgetary labor costs for the necessary changes should be done first afterwards, after money, Change event on the timely change in the calculation of the workload and the cost of change occurred to grasp at any time cost of the project level, things to avoid a backlog of work that the true cost of the project.Construction unit representatives to the scene to supervise doing a good job record, particularly concealed records and visas, reduce clearing the passing phenomenon. Many works visa scene is not as serious, works to bring a very large settlement of the trouble, lead to considerable economic losses, the scene strict visa management of the construction phase of the project cost control key.2.4 Of project list rigorous review of the project on the review of inventories, Engineers’ monitor list of measures to control the project.BOQ to provide the list of measures is to complete construction projects, occurred in the pre-construction engineering and construction process technology, life and safetyaspects of non-engineering projects entities. At this stage because many projects are in construction plans and the construction site of the imperfections on the tender wait until the construction tender of the project design and actual scene have better access. Management Engineer addresses the gathering first-hand information on the original, itemized checking identification, inconsistent make revisions.2.5 Control material consumption, rationally define material prices.Cost of the project control materials price control is the main, the cost of materials in engineering often holds substantial proportion, usually accounts for the estimated costs of 70%, representing the direct costs of 80%. It is necessary in the construction phase in strict accordance with the contract amount of material control; material set reasonable prices, so as to effectively control the cost of the project. Market economy material supply a variety of channels, variety and price range materials, construction unit budget management and field personnel should pay close attention to market rates, with the progress of the scene, the market, hand in the construction of the information and materials for the completion of the accounts provide a strong basis.2.6 Technology and economic integration, strengthening investment control.Effective control of the investment, from organizational, technical, economic, contracts, and other measures. Therefore, the construction units must strengthen management, engineering and technical personnel of the "economy" concept, the quality of education, Training pragmatic working style, the construction side to help improve construction design, reasonable security, financial, and material resources. Accelerate the pace of work to improve the quality of the projects. Construction should encounter problems in a timely manner with the designer linked to choose both economic and scientific potential solutions, overcome the waste caused by command, to give due attention to the importance of investment in conservation, is responsible for the engineering technician with the combination of economic officers from the tender, contract negotiations, costing the budget, signed paid to the progress of the completion of theaccounts, a cost analysis, the whole process management and strictly control the cost of the project.2.7 Do a good job clearing price completion of the assessment project is the completion of settlement constructionEnterprises in accordance with the provisions of the contract internal completed by the contractor, experience resumption quality standards and comply with contract requirements, to the building of units of the final settlement price of the project. After the completion of the audit settlement is approved construction project cost basis. Clearing the completion phase project cost control. For a long time, the completion of construction drawings-clearing budget is the cost management problems to be solved. Therefore, the completion of the audit settlement is a very important task, should focus on accomplishing the following aspects:To audit the accuracy of output. The project is the completion of audit settlement audit, the most important and most complex, one of the most meticulous work, must plan to the completion of the project, design changes and construction site as the basis, fixed in strict accordance with the provisions of engineering calculation rules itemized audit, to prevent the construction of the project completed clearing inflated output to increase the cost of the project.Review of fixed quote is correct. Review included a breakdown of the price with a fixed price in line, their names, specifications, Measurement units and the contents contained units with the valuation; for the price of conversion, First review of whether the conversion price is fixed allowed, followed by review of the conversion price is correct. Review fee standards with fixed costs during the construction and engineering cost of the policy.3 summary,Totally project cost control is a whole process of control, it should be said that every link is no room for complacency, and each one links are also important. With China's entry into the WTO, China was the main investment diversification, investment side of costreduction, cost control, improves returns on investment increasing attention. Therefore, changes to the original construction cost estimate, budget, budget, contract prices, and the settlement price accounts for the completion of the move. Lack of continuity of the situation, the launch control system investment projects, investment in construction projects to improve the level of control. Can promote the country's socialist market economic development, adapt to the global economic integration process.。