Chapter+4+Syntax
《语言学》Chapter 4 Syntax 习题兼答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
Chapter 4 语言学-Syntax
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2. The structural approach
The origin: the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, “father/founder of modern linguistics” The structural approach regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system.
9
The
relations between classes and functions: Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions. A function can be fulfilled by several classes.
2
Teaching Focus
Four
representative approaches to syntax: 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
Please
show some examples.
10
1.3
Grammatical categories: a class or group of items which fulfills the same or similar functions in a language. e.g.: Number, gender, case: for nouns and pronouns. Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.3.1 The linear(线性) word order of a sentence When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that structure of a sentence is linear as in the following examples:
Visiting professors can be interesting.
a. Professor who are visiting can be interesting.
b. To visit profess can be interesting. Such cases of ambiguity can be dealt with by use of tree diagrams:
Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接 成分分析法) (IC analysis for short)
Definition of IC Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (最终成分) are reached. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents (UCs)
Chapter_4_syntax
Syntax
Here we deal with Syntax that studies how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, etc. As we know, every language has its particular ways to form correct clauses, phrases and other syntactic units. Therefore we can define syntax as the ‘study of the structure of phrases, clauses and sentences’. By defining Grammar we may say that it is the overall pattern of a language that clearly includes the basic subfield of linguistics such as Morphology, Syntax and certainly other features.
Brazil defeated Germany.
Germany defeated Brazil.
However, sometimes a change of word order has no effect on meaning:
The Chief Justice swore in the new President.
The little young red cat.
The red little young cat
Joseph gave a rose to Edith.
Edith a rose Joseph gave.
chapter 4 syntax 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
3.3 IC Analysis (直接成分分析法) immediate constituent（直接成分）
Constituent (构成成分) ultimate constituent （最终成分）
IC（直接成分）: Can be further segmented until we obtain the smallest grammatical units. UC（最终成分）: The smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation.
2.2.1 Concord/agreement(一致关系)
A verb is to agree with the subject in person and in number. In English, this rule only affects the verb according to the number of the subject.
This principle refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion. e.g The government have asked the country to decide by a vote The new military government does not have popular support.
subject subject
Chapter 4syntax语言学.
Chapter IV. Syntax1 . Traditional approachnumber(singular and plural), gender( masculine, feminine, neuter) and case(in English, 3 cases: nominative/I,he,she, accusative/me, him, her, genitive/my, his, her)tense and aspecttense is time-related, it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance(the time of utterance being “now”).-past and presentaspect:has to do with whether an action was completed or not, whether it happened once or frequently, whether it occupied a point in time or a stretch of time. English has two co-existent choices of aspect, namely (1).continous denoted by the presence of –ing, I’m writing, and non-continuous, I write. (2). Perfect denoted by the presence of –en. I have written, and noe-perfect, I write.concord and governmentConcord: (agreement) or requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.This man. These men. He speaks. They speakGovernment: a type of control over the form of some words byother words in certain syntactic constructions. She gave him the book. She gave the book to him.2. the structural approach: started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the 20th century. They regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationssyntagmatic/horizontal, chain relation组合关系：is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. The words in a syntagmatic relation must meet some syntactic and semantic conditions. (see P120)Structure: the sequence which a sign forms with those it is in a syntagmatic relationparadigmatic relation / vertical, choice(聚合关系/associative): is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. .system: the class of signs which are in a paradigmatic relation.the ____ is smilingConstraints:: noun, animate noun, human, in singular(singular human nouns), such as boy, girl, man, woman, student, which are in a paradigmatic relation. They can replace each other without violating syntactic rules.Notes: the constraints are only syntactic, not semantic. immediate constituent analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. (stop at the level of word).construction/construct: (in gerneral sense), it refers to the overall process of internal organization of a grammatical unit – how a phrase, a clause or a sentence is constructed out of a set of morphemes by following a set of rules. It can further refer to the syntagmatic result of such a process. (a relationship between constituents: endocentric construction & exocentric construction) In the analysis of a text, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The girl is giggling is recognized as sub. + Pred. Type, which is realized in a string “ the + girl + is + giggling”. Since construction is composed of several parts (single words, groups of words. Etc.), the small units are know as its immediate constituents. Even the small units themselves can be constructuions of specific types. The girl = nominal phrase (the girl is construction of nominalphrase), whereas the + girl are its constituent.endocentric and exocentric constructionsA construction is a relationship between constituents, whichare divided into two types: endocentric constructions and exocentric constructions.Endocentric construction (headed constucution):is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalent, to that of one or more of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head of the whole. (If the total construction [head + modification or modification + head] has the same distributuonal characteristics as the head constituent, it is usually called endocentric construction).For example: they left because they were tired. They left = head. Because…=modifier.Subordinate construction: those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependant.e.g. the student at the back.A subordinating construction contains a subordinator, which is a prep. Particle, or a subordination conjunction such as in, over, to, after, because, and a dependent unit.Coordinate construction: there are more than one head, which are of equal syntactic status, no one is dependant on the other:e.g. boys and girls / John sings but Jack dancesA coordinate construction contains a marker or coordinator andtwo or more independent units (word, phrases or even whole sentences)Exocentric construction: /3. The generative approachIn 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed the transformational-generative grammar(TG), thus providing a model for the description of human languages. The goal of TG is to find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences. It is called TG because it it attempts to do two things:to provide the rules that can be used to generate grammatical sentencesto show how basic sentences can be transformed into either synonymous phrases or more complex sentences4.3.1 deep and surface structuresTG 产生的背景：Because of its insistence on binary divisions and failure to reveal structural ambiguities, certain problems arise in immediate constituent analysis. It is in this context that TG comes into existence.TG 的内容：According to TG, human beings possess twogrammars as part of their linguistic competence.⏹ A phrase structure grammar which consists of the rulesgoverning idealized sentence formation⏹ A transformational grammar, which enables us tomanipulate(use) sentences to produce the full range ofsentence types . TG grammarAs a result , every sentence has a surface structure (post-transformational stage) and deep structure ( a pre-transformational stage).Deep structure:Text book: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.Tragott(1980:141): deep structure shows the basic form of a sentence with all necessary information to derive a well-formed sentence, and to give it a phonological representation and a semantic interpretation. It reveals the underlying structure of a linguistic utterance and specifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements, as well as the linguistic meaning of the constituents.Surface structure:Text book: The final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.Tragott(1980:141): actually produced structure .Bussman (1996:465-466): it is the directly observable actual form of sentences as they are used in communication, and from the perspective of transformational grammar, surface structure is a relatively abstract sentence structure resulting from the application of base rules and transformational rules.Relationship between SS and DS: is that of transformation (Wardhaugh’s, 1997: 118-119) cf: p113-114(杨信彰)4.3.2 the standard theory and after （cf. P135）In 1965, Chomsky published his second important book Aspects of the Theroy of Syntax, in which he introduced some modifications to his 1st model, that is, he added a semantic component to it.Now the language is seen as consisting of three major parts: syntax, semantics and phonology.The base component categories and lexiconContains rules with feature specification for the words to be inserted (cf.P136)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax: more comprehensive and maturecompared with the 1st model, thus is known as the standard theory.4.3.3 government, binding, etc.In 1979: Lectures on Government and Binding.A grammar is now said to have 2 systems.: a rule system(lexicon, syntax, phonetic form component, logical form component), a principle system ( bounding theory, government theory, .θ-theory, binding theory; case theory, control theory) (see figure 6, P140) C-command:refers to the relation between an element and another of the same level and under the same node in a tree diagram, and any others under the latter element as well. (see P142).Condition: An element governs another if the two are under the same node directly, and the former is the head of the construction.Binding theory: (see P144)4.4 The functional approach1. functional sentence perspective (FSP)FSP is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. It is created to describe how information is distributed in sentences, it deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information is discourseTheme:that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds. （the point ofdeparture话语的出发点）Rheme: What the speaker states about , or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance”(the goal of discourse话语的核心).Mathesius thought that it is natural for the speaker to start from the known to the unknown, and the theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration (objective order), in emotional narration, it may be possible to reverse the order rheme-theme order (subjective order).Communicative Dynamism(another version of the same analysis, in short CD): The extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.This notion is based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one. CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.2.systemic-functional grammar (has been developed byHalliday)Systemic part (comes from Firth): language elements form into systems.Functional part (comes from Malinowski who attached great importance to the social function of language).Classification of language functions:Karl Buhler: representative, expressive, appellativeRoman Jakobson: referential, emotive, conative, metalinguistic, poetic, phaticHalliday: ideational, interpersonal,textual, which are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.。
语言学Chapter 4 Syntax参考答案
Chapter 4 Syntax（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（蓝色为名词的修饰语，褐色为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （褐色为深层结构，蓝色为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.以下不用彩色而用斜体和划底线表示区别：Chapter 4 Syntax《教程》p.64（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.。
chapter 4句法学 (Syntax)
2. do insertion
C
CP
S NP Infl N birds Pst VP V fly
CP
C S
NP
N birds
Infl
VP
V
do
fly
CP
C
Infl do
S NP
N birds e
Infl
VP
V fly
3. Wh movement
1.yes-no question
C
CP
S NP Det N Infl will VP V
the
train
arrive
Head movement
the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another
N you
t
V speak
NP t
4. relative clause (P62) Constraints on transformations 1.inversion can move an aux from the infl to
the nearest c position, but not to a more distant C position. 2.no element may be removed from a coordinate structure
句法学研究的范围
句法学：研究组词造句的规则或规律。 他很喜欢吃肉。 肉他很喜欢吃。 *吃肉很他喜欢。 形态学 (词) 句法学 (句子) 篇章分析 (篇章)
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析
degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
2. What are the criteria to determine a word’s categories? ① meaning; ② inflection; ③distribution. Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 3. What are major/minor lexical categories?
3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派). American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)
Category (P42) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
chapter4 syntax
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sen-tences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.48. Explain and exemplify the following PS rules.(1) NP {(D)N / Pron }(s)(2) Aux—t(M)(have-en)(be-ing)49. What is the nature of Transformational-generative grammar? What are its main aspects?50. Which of the following sentences are ambiguous? For those you find ambiguous, paraphrase them so as to illustrate why they are ambiguous?(1) This is my colleague, Frank.(2) Are you tired of cleaning yourself? Let us do it.(3) In the film, Pat was a witch.(4) He promised me to come next week.(5) Patent medicines are sold by frightening people.(6) Dog for sale; eats anything and is fond of children.(7) I found something interesting on the Internet.51. Some grammar books say there are three tenses in English—the present, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses—the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.52. On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.(1) John walked slowly.(2) Tom talked with Jack very quietly.(3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early.Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, asentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence ?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures ?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.48. (1) The rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun or a pronoun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, (a) the man who came to see me last night, and (b) He who had never been there before.(2) The rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect form (have-en), or be plus an –ing form of a verb, e.g.: Aux—t(M): May I read your paper? Aux—t(have-en): Have you finished your paper? Aux—t(be-ing): Are you reading your paper?49. Transformational-generative grammar linguistic theory is associated with Noam Chomsky, particularly with his Syntactic Structures(1957). Generative grammar attempts to define rules that can generate the infinite number of grammatical(well-formed) sentences possible in a language. It starts not from a behaviorist analysis of minimal sounds but from a rationalst assumption that a deepstructure underlies a language, and that a similar deep underlies all languages. Transformational grammar seeks to identify rules (transformations) that govern relations between parts of a sentence, on the assumption that beneath such aspects as word order a fundamental structure exists. Transformational and generative grammar together were the starting point for the tremendous growth in linguistic studies since 1950s.TG Grammar has the following features. First, it seews language as a set of rules or principles. Second, the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the linguistic competence of the native speaker. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, grammarians are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker‟s knowledge instead of what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth, the methodology used is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure—a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars of particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, the reaearchers follow rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.50. (1) This sentence is ambiguous, since it can be interpreted in two ways; first, it could be interpreted as that “I” was introducing my colleague Frank to someone else. Second, it could also means “I” was introducing my colleague to Frank.(2) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “Are you tired of cleaning all by yourself?”Second, “Are you tired of taking bath yourself?”(3) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “In the film, there is a character called “Pat”, who is a witch”. Second, “ Pat is an actor, and he plays the role of witch in the film.”(4) This sentence is unambiguous.(5) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “it is frightening people who sell patent medicines‟. Second, “ The way of selling patent medicines is by frightening people.”(6) This sentence is ambiguous. First, this dog is not particular about food, and is friendly to children; Second, this dog eats anything, especially children.(7) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “on the internet there was something interesting‟ (I found/something interesting on the internet). Second, “ I have surfed the internet for …the interesting thing‟” (I found something interesting/ on the internet). 51. Tense is primarily used to indicate the thime at which an event took place(but also has secondary uses, as in I wish I took you seriously). Tense and aspect are two imporant categories of the verb, and they were not separated in traditional grammar. Based on the tense system in Latin grammar, English used to be said to have 16 tenses. Nowadays, linguists make two distinctions: one between time andt ense, and the other between tense and aspect. Time is a universal concept, which every language is capable of expressing; while tense is a linguistic concept, which varies from language to language. The difference between tense and aspect is that the former is deictic, i.e. indication time relative to the timeo of utterance; while the latter is not deictic, the time indicated is not relative to the time of utterance, but relative to the time of another event described, or implied, in te narrative. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present. The so-called future tense is not expressed inthe same way as these two. That is , it is not expressed by morphology, not by the different forms of the verb, but by various other means, such as “will/shall +infinitive”, “be going to + infinitive”, “present progressive aspect”“simple presnet tense” and “will/shall +progressive infinitive”. And will and shall are basically modal verbs like can and may.52. Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP→(Deg) Adv(Deg stands for degree words)VP→V(NP)(PP)( AdvP)。
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Sy
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---SyntaxChapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
（把单词凑在一起形成句子）二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relativelysmall number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaningthat words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type ofstructures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：（1）包括单词所表达的意义的类别，（2）它们所带词缀的类别，（3）它们所能出现的结构的类别。
4.2.1 word level category词层面类型（对于句法学而言最核心的类型）1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型（词性）：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj,Adv（open开放性词类,can add new words）P43图（在句子构成中起重要作用）1）主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词（N）：student linguistics lecture动词（V）： like red go形容词（adj）： tall lovely red副词（adv）： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型（词性）：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int （close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词）P43图2）次要词类又称闭合词类。
《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter-4-Syntax
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 2) Types
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 3) Three criteria are used to determine a
word’s category.
➢ distribution: what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. n.: determiner v.: auxiliary adj.: degree word
➢ Major lexical category: (heads) Noun, Verb, Adjective, Preposition
➢ Minor lexical category: Determiner, Degree words, Qualifier, Auxiliary, Conjunction
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories Exercise: Indicate the category of each
word in the following sentences. ➢ The old lady suddenly left.
Det A N Qual V
➢ The car stopped at the end of the road.
《语言学教程》--chapter-4-Syntax
– English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
Constructions
Endocentric
Exocentric
Coordination
Subordination
Endocentric Constructions
Endocentric Constructions
• Definition:
• Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
Representative: Saussure •Syntactic relations •Immediate constituent analysis •Endocentric and exocentric constructions
Generative Representative: Chomsky
but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
chapter 4_Syntax
Phrase-level: NP: a real friend VP: make up PP: at home AP: very beautiful Phrases usually contain three elements:
2.4 Categories at different levels
Word-level: N, V, adj, prep Determiner (Det): the, a , that, these Degree word(Deg): very, quite Qualifier(Qual): often, always, seldom. Almost Auxiliary(Aux): must, should, can Conjunction: and, but, or
1 The traditional approach A sentence is a sequence of words emphasis is on the study of individual words. 1.1 Number/gender/case(Ns, Vs) Number: sing. or pl Gender: actor/actress Case: Nominative (I, he, she) genitive(my, his, her) accusative (me, him, her) I gave a book to him.
Immediate Constituent Structure using Tree Diagram
S NP ADJ N V NP PRON N VP
Poor
John
lost
his
w- the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly. -help to avoid ambiguity e.g more expensive clothes
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the
ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences. 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
Chapter 4 Syntax
Chapter 4 Syntax1. Definition of SyntaxSyntax is the study of how sentences are structured or how words are combined with others to form sentences and in what order.2. Sentence2.1Traditional definitionEarly scholars often depended on the use of punctuation or a semantic criterion---the expression ofa complete thought2.2 Structuralist DefinitionAn independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form---it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form. It is structurally independent linguistic form.3. Constituent StructureTraditionally, sentences are assumed to be made of individual words in a linear direction. Structuralists believe sentences are not composed of sequences of words in a simple linear, additive fashion. Instead, they are composed of hierarchies of constructions.3.1 Immediate Constituent AnalysisIC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes.3.2 ConstituentAny linguistic form or group of linguistic forms that appears at the bottom of one of the lines 3.3 Immediate constituentThis refers to the two parts that are yielded after each cut. An immediate constituent can be further segmented until we obtain the smallest grammatical unit.3.4 Ultimate Constituent3.5 Advantages and Problems of IC Analysis3.5.1 AdvantagesThrough IC analysis, we can also see that a sentence is not only linear but also hierarchical. In the phrase a pretty young woman, we can clearly see its hierarchical nature: there are three levels involved.Different ways of analysis show different communicative value which the sentence may have.3.5.2 ProblemsHowever, there are also problems with IC analysis. First, constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. It is technically impossible to analyze the following sentence by IC analysis.The more serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.IC analysis can not analyze why the following structures are recognized as similar by speakers of English4. Transformational And Generative grammar4.1Why Do We Need TG grammar?1) While IC analysis was capable of demonstrating some of the relationships in English sentence patterns, it provided no basis for analysis of the differences between sentences whose patterns were the same but the relationships different.2) This problem comes into even sharper focus when ambiguous sentences are considered.3) Similar problems must be dealt with in explaining synonymy---that is, sentences having the same meaning but different structures.4) Still other structures are recognized as similar by speakers of English.1) Transformationalists hoped to meet these challenges2) They insist on the absolute precision of description.3)They insisted on simplicity of description. That is, all evaluation of proposed rules would be based on deciding which rules accounted for observable facts in the least complicated manner 4) The ultimate goal of the grammar would be to account for the syntactic structure of all of the sentences possible in English.4.2 Two concepts to UnderstandCompetence Vs performanceA set of rules that have been internalized in a person’s mindAny actual utterances a speaker makes in a particular situation4.3.2 Deep StructureThe structure that contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentenceDeep Structure:The terminal string that we get after we apply the PS rules4.4 Two Aspects of TG GrammarGenerative Aspect:This means that a grammar must generate all and only grammatical sentences of a languageTransformational Aspect:Chomsky proposes the idea of transformation which refers to a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another.4.5 Components of a TGA. Syntactic Componentthe base the Transformational RulesThe base contains rules for the formation of deep structuresIt is concerned with the generation of deep structuresA set of phrase structure rules The lexicon:a full list of vocabulary itemsPhrase Structure RulesPS rule 1 S--->NP VPPs rule 2 VP---> Vt NPPS rule 3 NP ---> Det NPS rule 4 Det --->the, a ,etc.PS rule 5 N --->boy,man,etc.PS rule 6 V --->hit,sleep, etc.The lexicon is a full list of vocabulary items. Attached to each item is information about its word class, and the syntactic slot into which it can be placed.Selectional restrictionsThese are the restrictions on the type of noun that can be selected with each verb.Selectional restrictions can prevent many figurative usagesTransformationsTransformations are done according to transformational rules.Transformations cannot change meaning. They can do four things: delete, copy, add and reorder. DeletionReorderingM ove the infinitive after the “tough” words to the position immediately before the subject.4.5.2 Phonological ComponentThe task of the phonological component is to convert each surface structure into a phonetic representation.4.5.3 Semantic componentThe task of the semantic component is to analyze the deep structure of a sentence into basic semantic features and then to derive the semantic interpretation from the deep structure through the operation of some projection rules.。
chapter4Syntax
chapter4SyntaxChapter 4 Syntax4.1 What is syntax?SYNTAX, derived from Greek, is made up of two morphemes / syn/(together) and / tax/(arrangement).Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Note: 1. Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of words and morphemes. Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguity, our knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other, and our knowledge of the grammatical function of each It is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences. The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar, and therefore that the purpose of a grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary (rules, categories, etc).part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations.在语⾔学上，句法是指研究语⾔中词组合成句⼦的⽀配规则，或者简单的说，是研究句⼦的构造。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax
Since Sentence is regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study. Different linguistics theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure. 1. the traditional approach (传统学派)； 2. the structure approach (结构主义学派)；
Chapter 4 Syntax
The word Syntax, derived from Greek, is made up of 2 morphemes: {syn} and {tax}. together ”, and the The former means “_________ to arrange ”. latter “___________
structures ---the
(并列规则)
Coordination has four important properties: There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction. A category at any level can be coordinated. Coordinated categories must be of the same type. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 1. sing, dance, read…or watch TV 2. sing sweet songs or draw beautiful pictures 3. apples, bananas, oranges / singing, dancing 4. optimistic and passionate