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hybrid-hvdc-breaker---an-innovation-breakthrough-for-reliable-hvdc-gridsnov2012

The Hybrid HVDC BreakerAn innovation breakthrough enabling reliable HVDC gridsMagnus Callavik, Anders Blomberg, Jürgen Häfner, Björn JacobsonABB Grid SystemsSUMMARYExisting mechanical HVDC breakers are capable of interrupting HVDC currents within several tens of milliseconds, but this is too slow to fulfill the requirements of a reliable HVDC grid. HVDC breakers based on semiconductors can easily overcome the limitations of operating speed, but generate large transfer losses, typically in the range of 30 percent of the losses of a voltage source converter station. To overcome these obstacles, ABB has developed a hybrid HVDC breaker. The hybrid design has negligible conduction losses, while preserving ultra-fast current interruption capability.This paper will present a detailed description of the hybrid HVDC breaker, its design principles and test results. The modular design of the hybrid breaker for HVDC applications is described. Furthermore, the application of the hybrid breaker associated with the design of a HVDC switchyard will be discussed.KEYWORDS: HVDC grid; HVDC breaker - hybrid; Semiconductor breaker_______________________________________________________________________________ 1. INTRODUCTIONThe advance of voltage source converter-based (VSC) high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems makes it possible to build an HVDC grid with many terminals. Compared with high-voltage alternating current (AC) grids, active power conduction losses are relatively low and reactive power conduction losses are zero in an HVDC grid. This advantage makes an HVDC grid more attractive [1]. However, the relatively low impedance in HVDC grids is a challenge when a short circuit fault occurs, because the fault penetration is much faster and deeper. Consequently, fast and reliable HVDC breakers are needed to isolate faults and avoid a collapse of the common HVDC grid voltage. Furthermore, maintaining a reasonable level of HVDC voltage is a precondition for the converter station to operate normally. In order to minimize disturbances in converter operation, particularly the operation of stations not connected to the faulty line or cable, it is necessary to clear the fault within a few milliseconds.Recently, plans for large scale use of embedded VSC-HVDC transmission in point-to-point overhead lines have been proposed, e.g. Germany, in the so-called Netzentwicklungsplan (NEP - Network Development Plan). New generation from remote sites such as renewable sources, are driving the case for VSC-HVDC systems in the areas of active power transmission and reactive power compensation. Here a the hybrid HVDC breaker can provide the additional benefit of interrupting HVDC line faults.Fast fault handling would enable the converter stations to operate as stand-alone static compensation units (STATCOMs) to stabilize voltage and increase transmission capacity in the AC grid during fault clearance.Existing mechanical HVDC breakers are capable of interrupting HVDC currents within several tens of milliseconds, [2] but are too slow to fulfill the requirements of a reliable HVDC grid. Furthermore, building mechanical HVDC breakers is in itself challenging and requires the installation of additional passive components to create the resonance circuit, and generate the current zero crossing so the breaker will succeed in breaking the current once it opens. Existing HVDC switches have been used for more than 30 years in the neutral switchyard of bipolar HVDC installations. Here they perform various functions, such as rerouting HVDC current during reconfiguration of the main circuit, or helping to extinguish fault currents. For example, the Metallic Return Transfer Breaker (MRTB) is used to commutate the current from the ground path to a metal conductor, when there are restrictions on how long an HVDC current can be routed through the ground. Other examples include the Ground Return Transfer Switch (GRTS), Neutral Bus Switch (NBS) and Neutral Bus Grounding Switch (NBGS). The two main differences between these transfer breakers and the hybrid HVDC breaker is that the transfer breakers operate considerably slower than the hybrid breaker, and that part of the current is transferred, rather than interrupted. These high-voltage switches or breaker systems use an AC-type of high-voltage breaker; the zero crossing of the HVDC fault current is imposed by discharge of a capacitor bank to generate a current opposite to the fault current, in order to extinguish the arc. These are large outdoor pieces of equipment, situated partly on air-insulated platforms in the HVDC converter station neutral switchyard. The direct voltage for these applications is usually only a few tens of kilovolts (kV).Developing a very fast mechanical HVDC breaker is a demanding task [3]. Semiconductor-based HVDC breakers easily overcome the limitations of operational speed and voltage, but generate large transfer losses - typically in the range of 30 percent of the losses of a voltage source converter station. The hybrid HVDC breaker has been developed to overcome these obstacles,This paper is structured as follows. First, the performance requirement of HVDC breakers as the main apparatus determining the system performance of an HVDC grid is highlighted. Next, a detailed description including the design principle is illustrated for the proposed hybrid HVDC breaker. Finally, some test results from a prototype of the main switch branch and the complete hybrid HVDC breaker are presented.2. SYSTEM DESIGN REQUIREMENTSAn HVDC grid is formed when more than two converter stations are interconnected on the HVDC side via HVDC cables or overhead lines. Each converter station or each terminal of the HVDC grid couples the HVDC grid to an AC grid. In order to maintain the converter`s active and reactive power control capability, it is normally requested that the HVDC voltage be above at least 80 percent of the nominal HVDC voltage. If the converters lose control capability due to low HVDC voltage, the consequences can be voltage collapse in the HVDC grid and high current or voltage stresses for the converter. This can also affect the coupled AC grid voltage. An HVDC short-circuit fault can, in the worst case, make HVDC voltage suddenly drop from nominal level to near zero at the fault location. The voltage reduction in other places of the HVDC grid depends mainly on the electrical distance to the fault location and HVDC reactors installed near the converter stations. For an HVDC grid connected by HVDC cables, a short-circuit fault typically has to be cleared within 5 milliseconds (ms), in order not to disturb converter stations as far away as 200 km, a - significantly different challenge compared to AC fault clearing times.HVDC grid system performance is not the only reason fast HVDC switches are necessary. From the point of view of HVDC breaker design, fast fault current breaking is crucial, as is shown in the following examples.Due to the voltage source converters and the capacitive nature of HVDC grids with interconnecting cables, an HVDC grid independent of the actual configuration has been depicted in the simplified equivalent shown in Figure 1(a) during the short time period representing the occurrence of an HVDC fault. The equivalent circuit includes an infinitely strong HVDC source, an HVDC reactor and the HVDC switch in parallel with an arrester.Figure 1(b) shows the electromagnetic transients when the current is broken. The current starts to rise when the fault occurs. When the switch opens, the current starts to decrease as it is commutated to the arrester. The fault current in the arrester bank establishes a counter voltage, which reduces the fault current to zero by dissipating the fault energy stored in the HVDC reactor and fault current path of the HVDC grid. The protective level of the arrester bank must exceed the HVDC voltage in the HVDC grid.Figure 1: Representation of an HVDC breaker in an HVDC gridTotal fault clearing time consists of two parts: breaking time corresponds to a period of rising current, and fault clearing corresponds to a period of decreasing current. Both time intervals are important considerations in the design and cost of the HVDC breaker, as well as the reactor.In practice, breaking time is governed by the response time of the protection, and the action time of the HVDC switch. A longer breaking time requires the HVDC switch to have an increased maximum current breaking capability. This increases the energy handled by the arrester and correspondingly leads to a higher cost for the HVDC breaker. Therefore it is important to keep breaking time as short as possible. When the breaking time and the maximum breaking current capability is given, the only adjustable parameter is the inductance of the HVDC reactor, which decides the rate of current rise. The HVDC reactor therefore needs to be selected in such a way, that within the breaking time, current does should not reach a level higher than the maximum breaking current capability of the HVDC breaker. However, the size of the HVDC reactor may be limited by factors like cost, and the stabilityof the HVDC grid system. Fault clearance Breaking current Breaking timeVSC HVDC Yard Fault (a) (b)The time duration for fault clearance will affect voltage dimensioning of the arrester as well as the pole voltage protection. A shorter fault clearance implies reduced power dissipation in the arrester bank, but it requires a higher voltage dimensioning of the arrester. On the other hand, an increase of the protective level of the arrester will result in a higher pole-to-pole voltage rating, and thus adds to the costs of the HVDC breaker.The following example provides a general impression of the relationship between the parameters mentioned above. Assuming a breaking time of 2 ms, which is possible for semiconductor-based HVDC switches, and an HVDC line fault close to the HVDC switchyard, the maximum rise of the fault current will be 3.5 kA/ms for a HVDC reactor of 100 mH in a 320 kV HVDC grid with 10 percent maximum overvoltage. For a given rated line current of 2 kA, the minimum required breaking capability of the HVDC breaker is 9 kA.3. HYBRID HVDC BREAKERAs presented in Figure 2, the hybrid HVDC breaker consists of an additional branch, a bypass formed by a semiconductor-based load commutation switch in series with a fast mechanical disconnector. The main semiconductor-based HVDC breaker is separated into several sections with individual arrester banks dimensioned for full voltage and current breaking capability, whereas the load commutation switch matches lower voltage and energy capability. After fault clearance, a disconnecting circuit breaker interrupts the residual current and isolates the faulty line from the HVDC grid to protect the arrester banks of the hybrid HVDC breaker from thermal overload.Figure 2: Hybrid HVDC breakerDuring normal operation the current will only flow through the bypass, and the current in the main breaker is zero. When an HVDC fault occurs, the load commutation switch immediately commutates the current to the main HVDC breaker and the fast disconnector opens. With the mechanical switch in open position, the main HVDC breaker breaks the current.The mechanical switch isolates the load commutation switch from the primary voltage across the main HVDC breaker during current breaking. Thus, the required voltage rating of the load commutation switch is significantly reduced. A successful commutation of the line current into the main HVDC breaker path requires a voltage rating of the load commutation switch exceeding the on-state voltage of the main HVDC breaker, which is typically in the kV range for a 320 kV HVDC breaker. This result in typical on-state voltages of the load commutation switch is in the range of several volts only. The transfer losses of the hybrid HVDC breaker concept are thus significantly reduced to a percentage of the losses incurred by a pure semiconductor breaker.The mechanical switch opens at zero current with low voltage stress, and can thus be realized as a disconnector with a lightweight contact system. The fast disconnector will be exposed to the maximum pole-to-pole voltage defined by the protective level of the arrester banks after first being in open position while the main HVDC breaker opens. Thomson drives [4] result in fast opening times and compact disconnector design using SF6 as insulating media.Proactive control of the hybrid HVDC breaker allows it to compensate for the time delay of the fast disconnector, if the opening time of the disconnector is less than the time required for selective protection. As shown in Figure 3, proactive current commutation is initiated by the hybrid HVDC breaker`s built-in overcurrent protection as soon as the HVDC line current exceeds a certainovercurrent level. The main HVDC breaker delays current breaking until a trip signal of the selected protection is received or the faulty line current is close to the maximum breaking current capability of the main HVDC breaker.To extend the time before the self-protection function of the main HVDC breaker trips the hybrid HVDC breaker, the main HVDC breaker may operate in current limitation mode prior to current breaking. The main HVDC breaker controls the voltage drop across the HVDC reactor to zero to prevent a further rise in the line current. Pulse mode operation of the main HVDC breaker orsectionalizing the main HVDC breaker as shown in Figure 3 will allow adapting the voltage across the main HVDC breaker to the instantaneous HVDC voltage level of the HVDC grid. The maximum duration of the current limiting mode depends on the energy dissipation capability of the arrester banks. Figure 3: Proactive control of hybrid HVDC breaker. LCS denotes load commutation switchOn-line supervision allowing maintenance on demand is achieved by scheduled current transfer of the line current from the bypass into the main HVDC current breaker during normal operation, without disturbing or interrupting the power transfer in the HVDC grid.Fast backup protection similar to pure semiconductor breakers is possible for hybrid HVDC breakers applied to HVDC switchyards. Due to the proactive mode, over-currents in the line or superiorswitchyard protection will activate the current transfer from the bypass into the main HVDC breaker or possible backup breakers prior to the trip signal of the backup protection. In the case of a breaker failure, the backup breakers are activated almost instantaneously, typically within less than 0.2 ms. This will avoid major disturbances in the HVDC grid, and keep the required current-breakingcapability of the backup breaker at reasonable values. If not utilized for backup protection, the hybrid HVDC breakers automatically return to normal operation mode after the fault is cleared.PROTOTYPE DESIGN OF THE HYBRID HVDC BREAKERThe hybrid HVDC breaker is designed to achieve a current breaking capability of 9.0 kA in an HVDC grid with rated voltage of 320 kV and rated HVDC transmission current of 2 kA. The maximumcurrent breaking capability is independent of the current rating and depends on the design of the main Main HVDC BreakerMax. Current ProtectionMax. Breaking CurrentProactiveSwitchingLCS opens Current LimitingFast Disconnectorin open positiont (ms) Selective Protection FaultMain HVDC Breaker Max. Temperature ProtectionExternal trip signal ofSelective Protection toMain HVDC Breaker I (A) DelayHVDC breaker only. The fast disconnector and main HVDC breaker are designed for switching voltages exceeding 1.5 p.u. in consideration of fast voltage transients during current breaking.The main HVDC breaker consists of several HVDC breaker cells with individual arrester banks limiting the maximum voltage across each cell to a specific level during current breaking. Each HVDC breaker cell contains four HVDC breaker stacks as shown in Figure 4. Two stacks are required to break the current in either current direction.IGBT HVDC Breaker PositionHVDC Breaker CellFigure 4: Design of 80kV main HVDC breaker cellEach stack is composed of up to 20 series connected IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) HVDC breaker positions. Due to the large di/dt stress during current breaking, a mechanical design with low stray inductance is required. Application of press pack IGBTs with 4.5 kV voltage rating [6] enables a compact stack design and ensures a stable short circuit failure mode in case of individual component failure. Individual RCD snubbers across each IGBT position ensure equal voltage distribution during current breaking. Optically powered gate units enable operation of the IGBT HVDC breaker independent of current and voltage conditions in the HVDC grid. A cooling system is not required for the IGBT stacks, since the main HVDC breaker cells are not exposed to the line current during normal operation.For the design of the auxiliary HVDC breaker, one IGBT HVDC breaker position for each current direction is sufficient to fulfill the requirements of the voltage rating. Parallel connection of IGBT modules increases the rated current of the hybrid HVDC breaker. Series connected, redundant IGBT HVDC breaker positions improve the reliability of the auxiliary HVDC breaker. A matrix of 3x3 IGBT positions for each current direction is chosen for the present design. Since the auxiliary HVDC breaker is continuously exposed to the line current, a cooling system is required. Besides water cooling, air-forced cooling can be applied, due to relatively low losses in the range of several tens of kW only.5. TEST RESULTS MAIN BREAKERDuring the design of the hybrid HVDC breaker prototype, different tests were performed in order to verify expected performance. The first test setup reported earlier focuses mainly on the control of semiconductor devices and their current breaking capability. The second test setup verifies both the voltage and current capability of one cell of the main HVDC breaker. The ongoing extension of this test setup will focus on the overall performance of the hybrid HVDC breaker. Due to big differences in voltage levels in the test setup, construction of the test circuits is quite different but the test procedure is similar.A scaled-down prototype of the main breaker cell with three series connected IGBT modules and a common arrester bank was used to verify the current-breaking capability of 4.5 kV StakPak IGBTs [6]in the first test circuit as shown in Figure 5. A fourth IGBT module was connected in opposite primary current direction to verify the functionality of the incorporated anti-parallel diode. Discharge of a capacitor bank by a thyristor switch, limited only by a minor DC reactor, represents pole-to-ground faults in the HVDC grid. The HVDC voltage level prior to the fault and after fault clearance is less critical, since the voltage stress across the IGBT HVDC breaker positions during current breaking depends on the applied arrester bank only.Figure 5: HVDC breaker component test circuitAs shown in Figure 6, the maximum current breaking capability of the IGBT HVDC breaker cell is determined by the saturation current of the applied IGBT modules rather than the safe operation area (SOA) as is typical in voltage source converter applications. The series connected HVDC breaker IGBT positions commutate the line current within 2 μs (microseconds) into the RCD snubber circuits, which limits the rate of rise in voltage across the positions to 300 V/μs. Zero voltage switching reduces the instantaneous switching losses and ensures equal voltage distribution independent of the tolerances in the switching characteristics of the applied IGBT modules.Figure 6: Maximum stress tests on IGBT HVDC breaker positions (left: Zoom)The line current commutates from the RCD snubber circuit into the arrester path after the commonvoltage across the IGBT HVDC breaker positions reaches the protective level of the arrester bank.n t-224681012-1000-800-600-400-2000200400600V o l a t g e (k V ) o r C u r r e n t (k A)-100102030405060No Saturation -224681012V o l t a g e (k V ) o r C u r r e n t (k A )Voltage Increase Position Failure ProperThe IGBT HVDC breaker positions passed the stress tests for breaking currents below 10 kA. For higher currents, the IGBT saturation current level is reached by the internal current limitation in the breaker, causing an immediate voltage drop across the IGBT modules. During a purposely destructive test, the resulting internal heat dissipation within the IGBT module destroys the encapsulated IGBT chips. Due to the use of presspack IGBTs, a reliable short circuit without mechanical destruction of the failed IGBT module is enabled. Since only one of the IGBT modules failed during the test, the fault can still be cleared by the two other modules.The nominal HVDC voltage per IGBT HVDC breaker cell is 80 kV. Due to the high voltage level, the second test setup requires a significantly larger space. In Figure 7, the test circuit for the hybrid HVDC breaker concept is shown. A ±150 kV HVDC switchyard supplies the containerized test equipment to verify the functionality of the main IGBT HVDC breaker represented by two series connected IGBT HVDC breaker stacks and a common arrester bank. The desired HVDC voltage level is built up by charging the capacitor bank C1. The reactor L1 is selected to give the expected current derivative(di/dt) during a short-circuit fault. The short-circuit fault is initiated by the triggered spark gap Q5.Figure 7: ABB’s c ontainerized HVDC breaker test circuitFigure 8 shows a typical test result. A maximum breaking current of over 9 kA is verified. The voltage across the HVDC breaker cell exceeds 120 kV during current commutation. The breaking capability of one 80 kV HVDC breaker cell thus exceeds 1 GVA. Furthermore, equal voltage distribution with a maximum voltage drop of 3.3 kV and a spread of less than 10 percent was only observed for the individual IGBT HVDC breaker positions in the HVDC breaker cell.Figure 8: Verification of modular IGBT HVDC breaker cell6. TEST RESULTS HYBRID HVDC BREAKERThe main breaker test setup described in Section 5 and reported earlier [8] was expanded to verify the complete hybrid HVDC breaker concept. A second capacitor bank and large reactors were installed to limit the rate of line current rise to typical HVDC grid values. The ultra-fast disconnector and load commutation switch are included in the system configuration.Successful verification testing at device and component level has proven the performance of the components. The complete hybrid HVDC breaker has now been verified in a demonstrator setup at ABB facilities. The diagram in Figure 9 shows a breaking event with peak current 8.5 kA and 2 ms delay time for opening the ultra-fast disconnector in the branch parallel to the main breaker. The maximum rated fault current of 8.5 kA is the limit for the existing generation of semiconductors. The next generation of semiconductor devices will allow breaking performance of up to 16 kA. The purpose of the tests was to verify switching performance of the power electronic parts, and the opening speed of the mechanical ultra-fast disconnector. The test object consisted of one 80 kV unidirectional main breaker cell, along with the ultra-fast disconnector and load commutation switch. The higher voltage rating is accomplished by connecting in series, several main breaker cells, but the switching stress per cell is the same as in the demonstrator. This series connection approach is also used to test conventional HVDC Light and HVDC Classic valves. Tests have not only been carried out for normal breaking events, but also for situations with failed components in the breaker, in order to verify reliable detection and safe operation in such cases.Figure 9: Verification of the hybrid HVDC breaker system7. OUTLOOK AND CONCLUSIONSFor onshore installations and typical HVDC grid switchyards, the HVDC reactor and disconnecting residual current breakers are installed outdoors, which significantly reduces the size of the valve hall required for the hybrid HVDC breaker. Sharing the HVDC reactors with other HVDC breakers installed in the switchyard can further reduce the size of the installation.Introduction of Bi-mode Insulated Gate Transistor (BiGT) technologies [7] incorporating the functionality of the reverse conducting diode on the IGBT chips will double the current breakingcapability of existing presspack modules. With maximum breaking currents of up to 16 kA and operating times within 2 ms including the time delay of the protection system, proactive hybrid HVDC breakers are well suited for use in HVDC switchyards to prevent the collapse of multi-terminal HVDC systems due to HVDC line faults.Fast, reliable and nearly zero loss HVDC breakers and current limiters based on the hybrid HVDC breaker concept have been verified at component and system levels at ABB’s high power laboratories in Sweden and Switzerland, for HVDC voltages up to 320 kV and rated currents of 2.6 kA. Thus HVDC grids can now be planned. The next step is to deploy the breaker in a real HVDC transmission line to test under continuous full load conditions.BIBLIOGRAPHY[1] E. Koldby, M. Hyttinen “Challenges on the Road to an Offshore HVDC Grid,” (Nordic WindPower Conference, Bornholm, Sept. 2009)[2]Å. Ekström, H. Härtel, H.P. Lips, W. Schultz “Design and testing of an HVDC circuit breaker,”(Cigré session 1976, paper 13-06)[3] C.M. Franck “HVDC Circu it Breakers: A Review Identifying Future Research Needs,” (IEEETrans. on Power Delivery, vol. 26, pp. 998-1007, April 2011)[4]J. Magnusson, O. Hammar, G. Engdahl “Modelling and Experimental Assessment of ThomsonCoil Actuator System for Ultra Fast Mechanical Switches for Commutation of Load Currents,”(International Conference on New Actuators and Drive Systems, Bremen, 14-16 Juni 2010) [5]G. Asplund “HVDC switch for current limitation in a HVDC transmission with voltage sourceconverters,” (European Patent EP0867998B1)[6]S. Eicher, M. Rahimo, E. Tsyplakov, D. Schneider, A. Kopta, U. Schlapbach, E. Caroll “4.5kVPress Pack IGBT Designed for Ruggedness and Reliability,” (IAS, Seattle, October 2004) [7]M. Rahimo, A. Kopta, U. Schlapbach, J. Vobecky, R. Schnell, S. Klaka “The Bi-mode InsulatedGate Transistor (BiGT) A potential technology for higher power applications,” (Proc. ISPSD09, p. 283, 2009)[8]J. Häfner, B. Jacobson, ” Proactive Hybrid HVDC Breakers - A key innovation for reliableHVDC grids,” (Cigré Bologna, P aper 0264, 2011)。

飞机常用缩略语EFG上悬→海nbsp20

飞机常用缩略语 E F G上悬→海nbsp 20飞机常用缩略语 E F G000EEADI Electronic Attitude Director Indicator 电子姿态指引仪EAROM Electrically Alterable Read-only Memory 电可变只读存储器EAS Equivalent Airspeed 相应空速，等效空速EBS Engine Bleed System 发动机引气系统EBU Engine Build-up 发动机组装ECON，econ Economy 经济ECP EICAS Control Panel EICAS控制面板ECS Environmental Control System 环境控制系统ECU Electronic Control Unit 电子控制组件E/D End of Descent 下降结束，下降终点ED EICAS Display EICAS显示器ED1 EICAS Primary Display EICAS主显示器ED2 EICAS Secondary Display EICAS副显示器EDP Engine Driven Pump 发动机驱动泵EDU Electronic Display Unit 电子显示组件E/E Electrical/Electronic 电气/电子（设备）EEC Electronic Engine Control 电子发动机控制装置EED Engine Exceedance Data 发动机超限数据EFD Electronic Flight Display 电子飞行显示器EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory 电气可抹除可编程只读存储器EFH Engine Flight Hours 发动机飞行小时EFI Electronic Flight Instrument 电子飞行仪表EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System 电子飞行仪表系统EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature 排气温度EHSI Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator 电子水平状态指示仪EHSV Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve 电子液压伺服活门EICAS Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System 发动机指示和机组警告系统EIS Entry into Service 投入使用EIU Engine Interface Unit 发动机接口组件EL Elevation 标高ELCU Electrical Load Control Unit 电气负荷控制组件Elec elec Electrical 电电气Elev elev Elevator 升降舵Elex elex Electronics 电子设备ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter 应急定位发射机ELEC Electrical 电气的，电的ELVE Elevator 升降舵EMER, EMG Emergency 应急EMF/emf Electromotive Force 电动势EMI Electromagnetic Interference 电磁干扰EMU Engine Maintenance Unit 发动机维护组件Enbl enbl Enable 接通, 导通，使。

GRID Systems

Optimization Techniques for Implementing Parallel Skeletonsin Distributed EnvironmentsM.Aldinucci,M.Danelutto {aldinuc,marcod }@di.unipi.it UNIPI Dept.of Computer Science –University of Pisa Largo B.Pontecorvo 3,Pisa,Italy J.D¨u nnweber,S.Gorlatch {duennweb,gorlatch }@math.uni-muenster.de WWU MuensterDept.of Computer Science –University of M¨u nsterEinsteinstr.62,M¨u nster,Germany CoreGRID Technical Report Number TR-0001January 21,2005Institute on Programming ModelCoreGRID -Network of ExcellenceURL:Legacy Code Support for Production GridsT.Kiss*,G.Terstyanszky*,G.Kecskemeti*,Sz.Illes*,T.Delaittre*,S.Winter*,P .Kacsuk**,G.Sipos***Centre of Parallel Computing,University of Westminster,115New Cavendish Street,London W1W 6UW United Kingdom e-mail:gemlca-discuss@ **MTA SZTAKI1111Kende u.13Budapest,Hungary CoreGRID Technical Report Number TR-00116th June 2005Institute on Problem Solving Environment,Tools and GRID Systems CoreGRID -Network of ExcellenceURL: CoreGRID is a Network of Excellence funded by the European Commission under the Sixth Framework ProgrammeProject no.FP6-004265Legacy Code Support for Production GridsT.Kiss*,G.Terstyanszky*,G.Kecskemeti*,Sz.Illes*,T.Delaittre*,S.Winter*,P.Kacsuk**,G.Sipos***Centre of Parallel Computing,University of Westminster,115New Cavendish Street,London W1W6UW United Kingdome-mail:gemlca-discuss@**MTA SZTAKI1111Kende u.13Budapest,HungaryCoreGRID TR-00116th June2005AbstractIn order to improve reliability and to deal with the high complexity of existing middleware solutions,todays production Grid systems restrict the services to be deployed on their resources.On the other hand end-users requirea wide range of value added services to fully utilize these resources.This paper describes a solution how legacy codesupport is offered as third party service for production Grids.The introduced solution,based on the Grid ExecutionManagement for Legacy Code Architecture(GEMLCA),do not require the deployment of additional applications onthe Grid resources,or any extra effort from Grid system administrators.The implemented solution was successfullyconnected to and demonstrated on the UK National Grid Service.1IntroductionThe vision of Grid computing is to enable anyone to offer resources to be utilised by others via the network.This orig-inal aim,however,has not been fulﬁlled so far.Todays production Grid systems,like the EGEE Grid,the NorduGrid or the UK National Grid Service(NGS)apply very strict rules towards service providers,hence restricting the number of sites and resources in the Grid.The reason for this is the very high complexity to install and maintain existing Grid middleware solutions.In a production Grid environment strong guarantees are needed that system administrators keep the resources up and running.In order to offer reliable service only a limited range of software is allowed to be deployed on the resources.On the other hand these Grid systems aim to serve a large and diverse user community with different needs and goals.These users require a wide range of tools in order to make it easier to create and run Grid-enabled applications. As system administrators are reluctant to install any software on the production Grid that could compromise reliability, the only way to make these utilities available for users is to offer them as third-party services.These services are running on external resources,maintained by external organisations,and they are not integral part of the production Grid system.However,users can freely select and utilise these additional services based on their requirements and experience with the service.This previously described scenario was utilised to connect GEMLCA(Grid Execution Management for Legacy Code Architecture)[11]to the UK National Grid Service.GEMLCA enables legacy code programs written in any source language(Fortran,C,Java,etc.)to be easily deployed as a Grid Service without signiﬁcant user effort.A This research work is carried out under the FP6Network of Excellence CoreGRID funded by the European Commission(Contract IST-2002-004265).user-level understanding,describing the necessary input and output parameters and environmental values such as the number of processors or the job manager used,is all that is required to port the legacy application binary onto the Grid.GEMLCA does not require any modiﬁcation of,or even access to,the original source code.The architecture is also integrated with the P-GRADE portal and workﬂow[13]solutions to offer a user friendly interface,and create complex applications including legacy and non-legacy components.In order to connect GEMLCA to the NGS two main tasks have been completed:•First,a portal server has been set up at University of Westminster running the P-GRADE Grid portal and offering access to the NGS resources for authenticated and authorised users.With the help of their Grid certiﬁcates and NGS accounts portal users can utilise NGS resources in a much more convenient and user-friendly way than previously.•Second,the GEMLCA architecture has been redesigned in order to support the third-party service provider scenario.There is no need to install GEMLCA on any NGS resource.The architecture is deployed centrally on the portal server but still offers the same legacy code functionally as the original solution:users can easily deploy legacy applications as Grid services,can access these services from the portal interface,and can create, execute and visualise complex Grid workﬂows.This paper describes two different scenarios how GEMLCA is redesigned in order to support a production Grid system.Theﬁrst scenario supports the traditional job submission like task execution,and the second offers the legacy codes as pre-deployed services on the appropriate resources.In both cases GEMLCA runs on an external server, and neither compromise the reliability of the production Grid system,nor requires extra effort from the Grid system administrators.The service is transparent from the Grid operators point of view but offers essential functionality for the end-users.2The UK National Grid ServiceThe National Grid Service(NGS)is the UK production Grid operated by the Grid Operation Support Centre(GOSC). It offers a stable highly-available production quality Grid service to the UK research community providing compute and storage resources for users.The core NGS infrastructure consists of four cluster nodes at Cambridge,CCLRC-RAL,Leeds and Manchester,and two national High Performance Computing(HPC)services:HPCx and CSAR.NGS provides compute resources for compute Grid through compute clusters at Leeds and Oxford,and storage resources for data Grid through data clusters at CCLRC-RAL and Manchester.This core NGS infrastructure has recently been extended with two further Grid nodes at Bristol and Cardiff,and will be further extended by incorporating UK e-Science Centres through separate Service Level Agreements(SLA).NGS is based on GT2middleware.Its security is built on Globus Grid Security Infrastructure(GSI)[14],which supports authentication,authorization and single sign-on.NGS uses GridFTP to transfer input and outputﬁles to and from nodes,and Storage Resource Broker(RSB)[6]with OGSA-DAI[3]to provide access to data on NGS nodes. It uses the Globus Monitoring and Discovery Service(MDS)[7]to handle information of NGS nodes.Ganglia[12], Grid Integration Test Script(GITS)[4]and Nagios[2]are used to monitor both the NGS and its nodes.Nagios checks nodes and services while GITS monitors communication among NGS nodes.Ganglia collects and processes information provided by Nagios and GITS in order to generate NGS-level view.NGS uses a centralised user registration ers have to obtain certiﬁcates and open accounts to be able to use any NGS service.The certiﬁcates are issued by the UK Core Programme Certiﬁcation Authority(e-Science certiﬁcate)or by other CAs.NGS accounts are allocated from a central pool of generic user accounts to enable users to register with all NGS nodes at the same er management is based on Virtual Organisation Membership Service (VOMS)[1].VOMS supports central management of user registration and authorisation taking into consideration local policies on resource access and usage.3Grid Execution Management for Legacy Code ArchitectureThe Grid computing environment requires special Grid enabled applications capable of utilising the underlying Grid middleware and infrastructure.Most Grid projects so far have either developed new applications from scratch,orsigniﬁcantly re-engineered existing ones in order to be run on their platforms.However,as the Grid becomes com-monplace in both scientiﬁc and industrial settings,the demand for porting a vast legacy of applications onto the new platform will panies and institutions can ill afford to throw such applications away for the sake of a new technology,and there is a clear business imperative for them to be migrated onto the Grid with the least possible effort and cost.The Grid Execution Management for Legacy Code Architecture(GEMLCA)enables legacy code programs written in any source language(Fortran,C,Java,etc.)to be easily deployed as a Grid Service without signiﬁcant user effort.In this chapter the original GEMLCA architecture is outlined.This architecture has been modiﬁed,as described in chapters4and5,in order to create a centralised version for production Grids.GEMLCA represents a general architecture for deploying legacy applications as Grid services without re-engineering the code or even requiring access to the sourceﬁles.The high-level GEMLCA conceptual architecture is represented on Figure1.As shown in theﬁgure,there are four basic components in the architecture:1.The Compute Server is a single or multiple processor computing system on which several legacy codes arealready implemented and available.The goal of GEMLCA is to turn these legacy codes into Grid services that can be accessed by Grid users.2.The Grid Host Environment implements a service-oriented OGSA-based Grid layer,such as GT3or GT4.Thislayer is a pre-requisite for connecting the Compute Server into an OGSA-built Grid.3.The GEMLCA Resource layer provides a set of Grid services which expose legacy codes as Grid services.4.The fourth component is the GEMLCA Client that can be installed on any client machine through which a userwould like to access the GEMLCA resources.Figure1:GEMLCA Conceptual ArchitectureThe novelty of the GEMLCA concept compared to other similar solutions like[10]or[5]is that it requires minimal effort from both Compute Server administrators and end-users of the Grid.The Compute Server administrator should install the GEMLCA Resource layer on top of an available OGSA layer(GT3/GT4).It is also their task to deploy existing legacy applications on the Compute Servers as Grid services,and to make them accessible for the whole Grid community.End-users do not have to do any installation or deployment work if a GEMLCA portal is available for the Grid and they only need those legacy code services that were previously deployed by the Compute Server administrators.In such a case end-users can immediately use all these legacy code services-provided they have access to the GEMLCA Grid resources.If they would like to deploy legacy code services on GEMLCA Grid resources they can do so,but these services cannot be accessed by other Grid users.As a last resort,if no GEMLCA portal is available for the Grid,a user must install the GEMLCA Client on their client machine.However,since it requires some IT skills to do this,it is recommended that a GEMLCA portal is installed on every Grid where GEMLCA Grid resources are deployed.The deployment of a GEMLCA legacy code service assumes that the legacy application runs in its native environ-ment on a Compute Server.It is the task of the GEMLCA Resource layer to present the legacy application as a Grid service to the user,to communicate with the Grid client and to hide the legacy nature of the application.The deploy-ment process of a GEMLCA legacy code service requires only a user-level understanding of the legacy application, i.e.,to know what the parameters of the legacy code are and what kind of environment is needed to run the code(e.g. multiprocessor environment with n processors).The deployment deﬁnes the execution environment and the parameter set for the legacy application in an XML-based Legacy Code Interface Description(LCID)ﬁle that should be stored in a pre-deﬁned location.Thisﬁle is used by the GEMLCA Resource layer to handle the legacy application as a Grid service.GEMLCA provides the capability to convert legacy codes into Grid services just by describing the legacy param-eters and environment values in the XML-based LCIDﬁle.However,an end-user without specialist computing skills still requires a user-friendly Web interface(portal)to access the GEMLCA functionalities:to deploy,execute and retrieve results from legacy applications.Instead of developing a new custom Grid portal,GEMLCA was integrated with the workﬂow-oriented P-GRADE Grid portal extending its functionalities with new portlets.Following this integration,end-users can easily construct workﬂow applications built from legacy code services running on different GEMLCA Grid resources.The workﬂow manager of the portal contacts the selected GEMLCA Resources,passes them the actual parameter values of the legacy code,and then it is the task of the GEMLCA Resource to execute the legacy code with the actual parameter values.The other important task of the GEMLCA Resource is to deliver the results of the legacy code service back to the portal.The overall structure of the GEMLCA Grid with the Grid portal is shown in Figure2.Figure2:GEMLCA with Grid Portal4Connecting GEMLCA to the NGSTwo different scenarios were identiﬁed in order to execute legacy code applications on NGS sites.In each scenario both GEMLCA and the P-GRADE portal are installed on the Parsifal cluster of the University of Westminster.As a result,there is no need to deploy any GEMLCA or P-GRADE portal code on the NGS resources.scenario1:legacy codes are stored in a central repository and GEMLCA submits these codes as jobs to NGS sites, scenario2:legacy codes are installed on NGS sites and executed through GEMLCA.The two scenarios are supporting different user needs,and each of them increases the usability of the NGS in different ways for end-users.The GEMLCA research team has implemented theﬁrst scenario in May2005,and currently working on the implementation of the second scenario.This chapter brieﬂy describes these two different scenarios,and the next chapter explains in detail the design and implementation aspects of theﬁrst already implemented solution.As the design and implementation of the second scenario is currently work is progress,its detailed description will be the subject of a future publication.4.1Scenario1:Legacy Code Repository for NGSThere are several legacy applications that would be useful for users within the NGS community.These applications were developed by different institutions and currently not available for other members of the community.According to this scenario legacy codes can be uploaded into a central repository and made available for authorised users through a Grid portal.The solution extends the usability of NGS as users can submit not only their own applications but can also utilise other legacy codes stored in the repository.Users can access the central repository,managed by GEMLCA,through the P-GRADE portal and upload their applications into this repository.After uploading legacy applications users with valid certiﬁcates and existing NGS accounts can select and execute legacy codes through the P-GRADE portal on different NGS sites.In this scenario the binary codes of legacy applications are transferred from the GEMLCA server to the NGS sites,and executed as jobs.Figure3:Scenario1-Legacy Code Repository for NGS4.2Scenario2:Pre-deployed Legacy Code ServicesThis solution extends the NGS Grid towards the service-oriented Grid ers cannot only submit and execute jobs on the resources but can also access legacy applications deployed on NGS and include these in their workﬂows. This scenario is the logical extension of the original GEMLCA concept in order to use it with NGS.In this scenario the legacy codes are already deployed on the NGS sites and only parameters(input or output)are submitted.Users contact the central GEMLCA resource through the P-GRADE portal,and can access the legacy codes that are deployed on the NGS sites.In this scenario the NGS system administrators have full control of legacy codes that they deploy on their own resources.Figure4:Scenario2Pre-Deployed Legacy Code on NGS Sites5Legacy Code Repository for the NGS5.1Design objectivesThe currently implemented solution that enables users to deploy,browse and execute legacy code applications on the NGS sites is based on scenario1,as described in the previous chapter.This solution utilises the original GEMLCA architecture with the necessary modiﬁcations in order to execute the tasks on the NGS resources.The primary aims of the solution are the following:•The owners of legacy applications can publish their codes in the central repository making it available for other authorised users within the UK e-Science community.The publication is not different from the original method used in GEMLCA,and it is supported by the administration Grid portlet of the P-GRADE portal,as described in[9].After publication the code is available for other non-computer specialist end-users.•Authorised users can browse the repository,select the necessary legacy codes,set their input parameters,and can even create workﬂows from compatible components.These workﬂows can then be mapped onto the NGS resources,submitted and the execution visualised.•The deployment of a new legacy application requires some high level understanding of the code(like name and types input and output parameters)and its execution environment(e.g.supported job managers,maximum number of processors).However,once the code is deployed end-users with no Grid speciﬁc knowledge can easily execute it,and analyse the results using the portal interface.As GEMLCA is integrated with the P-GRADE Grid portal,NGS users have two different options in order to execute their applications.They can submit their own code directly,without the described publication process,using the original facilities offered by the portal.This solution is suggested if the execution is only on an ad-hoc basis when the publication puts too much overhead on the process.However,if they would like to make their code available for a larger community,and would like make the execution simple enough for any end-user,they can publish the code with GEMLCA in the repository.In order to execute a legacy code on an NGS site,users should have a valid user certiﬁcate,for example an e-Science certiﬁcate,an NGS account and also an account for the P-GRADE portal running at Westminster.After logging in the portal they download their user certiﬁcate from an appropriate myProxy server.The legacy code,submitted to the NGS site,utilise this certiﬁcate to authenticate users.Portal Legacy code deployer Legacy code executor Placeand input Portal Legacy code deployer Legacy code executor script”filesOriginal GEMLCAGEMLCA NGS Figure 5:Comparison of the Original and the NGS GEMLCA Concept5.2Implementation of the SolutionTo fulﬁl these objectives some modiﬁcations and extensions of the original GEMLCA architecture were necessary.Figure 5compares the original and the extended GEMLCA architectures.As it is shown in the ﬁgure,an additional layer,representing the remote NGS resource where the code is executed,appears.The deployment of a legacy code is not different from the original GEMLCA concept;however,the execution has changed signiﬁcantly in the NGS version.To transfer the executable and the input parameters to the NGS site,and to instruct the remote GT2GRAM to execute the jobs,required the modiﬁcation of the GEMLCA architecture,including the development of a special script that interfaces with Condor G.The major challenge when connecting GEMLCA to the NGS was that NGS sites use Globus Toolkit version 2(GT2),however the current GEMLCA implementations are based on service-oriented Grid middleware,namely GT3and GT4.The interfacing between the different middleware platforms is supported by a script,called NGS script,that provides additional functionality required for executing legacy codes on NGS sites.Legacy codes and input ﬁles are stored in the central repository but executed on the remote NGS sites.To execute the code on a remote site ﬁrst the NGS script,executed as a GEMLCA legacy code,instructs the portal to copy the binary and input ﬁles from the central repository to the NGS site.Next,the NGS script,using Condor-G,submits the legacy code as a job to the remote site.The other major part of the architecture where modiﬁcations were required is the conﬁg.xml ﬁle and its relatedJava classes.GEMLCA uses an XML-based descriptionﬁle,called conﬁg.xml,in order to describe the environmental parameters of the legacy code.Thisﬁle had to be extended and modiﬁed in order to take into consideration a second-level job manager,namely the job manager used on the remote NGS site.The conﬁg.xml should also notify the GEMLCA resource that it has to submit the NGS script instead of a legacy code to GT4MMJFS(Master Managed Job Factory Service)when the user wants to execute the code on an NGS site.The implementation of these changes also required the modiﬁcation of the GEMLCA core layer.In order to utilise the new GEMLCA NGS solution:1.The owner of the legacy application deploys the code as a GEMLCA legacy code in the central repository.2.The end-user selects and executes the appropriate legacy applications on the NGS sites.As the deployment process is virtually identical to the one used by the original GEMLCA solution here we con-centrate on the second step,the code execution.The following steps are performed by GEMLCA when executing a legacy code on the NGS sites(Fig.6):1.The user selects the appropriate legacy codes from the portal,deﬁnes inputﬁles and parameters,and submits an“execute a legacy code on an NGS site”request.2.The GEMLCA portal transfers the inputﬁles to the NGS site.3.The GEMLCA portal forwards the users request to a GEMLCA Resource.4.The GEMLCA resource creates and submits the NGS script as a GEMLCA job to the MMJFS.5.The MMJFS starts the NGS script.6.Condor-G contacts the remote GT2GRAM,sends the binary of the legacy code and its parameters to the NGSsite,and submits the legacy code as a job to the NGS site job manager.Figure6:Execution of Legacy Codes on an NGS SiteWhen the job has been completed on the NGS site the results are transferred from the NGS site to the user in the same way.6Results-Trafﬁc simulation on the NGSA working prototype of the described solution has been implemented and tested creating and executing a trafﬁc simu-lation workﬂow on the different NGS resources.The workﬂow consists of three types of components:1.The Manhattan legacy code is an application to generate inputs for the MadCity simulator:a road networkﬁleand a turnﬁle.The MadCity road networkﬁle is a sequence of numbers,representing a road topology of a road network.The MadCity turnﬁle describes the junction manoeuvres available in a given road network.Trafﬁc light details are also included in thisﬁle.2.MadCity[8]is a discrete-time microscopic trafﬁc simulator that simulates trafﬁc on a road network at the levelof individual vehicles behaviour on roads and at junctions.After completing the simulation,a macroscopic trace ﬁle,representing the total dynamic behaviour of vehicles throughout the simulation run,is created.3.Finally a trafﬁc density analyser compares the trafﬁc congestion of several runs of the simulator on a givennetwork,with different initial road trafﬁc conditions speciﬁed as input parameters.The component presents the results of the analysis graphically.Each of these applications was published in the central repository at Westminster as GEMLCA legacy code.The publication was done using the administration portlet of the GEMLCA P-GRADE portal.During this process the type of input and output parameters,and environmental values,like job managers and maximum number of processors used for parallel execution,were set.Once published the codes are ready to be used by end-users even with very limited computing knowledge.Figure7shows the workﬂow graph and the execution of the different components on NGS resources:•Job0is a road network generator mapped at Leeds,•jobs1and2are trafﬁc simulators running parallel at Leeds and Oxford,respectively,•ﬁnally,job3is a trafﬁc density analyser executed at Leeds.Figure7:Workﬂow Graph and Visualisation of its Execution on NGS ResourcesWhen creating the workﬂow the end-user selected the appropriate application from the repository,set input param-eters and mapped the execution to the available NGS resources.During execution the NGS script run,contacted the remote GT2GRAM,and instructed the portal to pass executa-bles and input parameters to the remote site.Whenﬁnishing the execution the outputﬁles were transferred back to Westminster and were made available for the user.7Conclusion and Future WorkThe implemented solution successfully demonstrated that additional services,like legacy code support,run and main-tained by third party service providers can be added to production Grid systems.The major advantage of this solution is that the reliability of the core Grid infrastructure is not compromised,and no additional effort is required from Grid system administrators.On the other hand,utilizing these services the usability of these Grids can be signiﬁcantly improved.Utilising and re-engineering the GEMLCA legacy code solution two different scenarios were identiﬁed to provide legacy code support for the UK NGS.Theﬁrst,providing a legacy code repository functionality,and allowing the submission of legacy applications as jobs to NGS resources was successfully implemented and demonstrated.The ﬁnal production version of this architecture and its ofﬁcial release for NGS users is scheduled for June2005.The second scenario,that extends the NGS with pre-deployed legacy code services,is currently in the design phase.Challenges are identiﬁed concerning its implementation,especially the creation and management of virtual organizations that could utilize these pre-deployed services.References[1]R.Alﬁeri,R.Cecchini,V.Ciaschini,L.dellAgnello,A.Frohner,A.Gianoli,K.Lorentey,,and F.Spata.V oms,an authorization system for virtual organizations.af.infn.it/voms/VOMS-Santiago.pdf. [2]S.Andreozzi,S.Fantinel,D.Rebatto,L.Vaccarossa,and G.Tortone.A monitoring tool for a grid operationcenter.In CHEP2003,La Jolla,California,March2003.[3]Mario Antonioletti,Malcolm Atkinson,Rob Baxter,Andrew Borley,Neil P Chue,Hong,Brian Collins,NeilHardman,Ally Hume,Alan Knox,Mike Jackson,Amy Krause,Simon Laws,James Magowan,Norman W Paton,Dave Pearson,Tom Sugden,Paul Watson,and Martin Westhead.The design and implementation of grid database services in ogsa-dai.Concurrency and Computation:Practice and Experience,17:357–376,2005. [4]David Baker,Mark Baker,Hong Ong,and Helen Xiang.Integration and operational monitoring tools for theemerging uk e-science grid infrastructure.In Proceedings of the UK e-Science All Hands Meeting(AHM2004), East Midlands Conference Centre,Nottingham,2004.[5]B.Balis,M.Bubak,and M.Wegiel.A solution for adapting legacy code as web services.In V.Getov andT.Kiellmann,editors,Component Models and Systems for Grid Applications,pages57–75.Springer,2005.ISBN0-387-23351-2.[6]C.Baru,Moore R,A.Rajasekar,and M.Wan.The sdsc storage resource broker.In Proc.CASCON’98Confer-ence,November1998.[7]Karl Czajkowski,Steven Fitzgerald,Ian Foster,and Carl Kesselman.Grid information services for distributedresource sharing.In Proceedings of the Tenth IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Distributed Computing(HPDC-10),/research/papers/MDS-HPDC.pdf.[8]A.Gourgoulis,G.Terstyansky,P.Kacsuk,and S.C.Winter.Creating scalable trafﬁc simulation on clusters.In PDP2004.Conference Proceedings of the12th Euromicro Conference on Parallel,Distributed and Network based Processing,La Coruna,Spain,February2004.[9]A.Goyeneche,T.Kiss,G.Terstyanszky,G.Kecskemeti,T.Delaitre,P.Kacsuk,and S.C.Winter.Experienceswith deploying legacy code applications as grid services using gemlca.In P.M.A.Sloot,A.G.Hoekstra,T.Priol,。

IRENA--Design of Grid Connect PV Systems

Design of Grid Connect PV systemsPalau Workshop th-12th April 8INTRODUCTIONGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES• The document provides the minimum knowledge required when designing a PV Grid connect system. • The actual design criteria could include: specifying a specific size (in kWp) for an array; available budget; available roof space; wanting to zero their annual electrical usage or a number of other specific customer related criteria.DESIGNING A SYSTEM SUMMARYGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESWhatever the final design criteria a designer shall be capable of: • Determining the energy yield, specific yield and performance ratio of the grid connect PV system. • Determining the inverter size based on the size of the array. • Matching the array configuration to the selected inverter maximum voltage and voltage operating windows.SITE VISITGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESPrior to designing any Grid Connected PV system a designer shall either visit the site or arrange for a work colleague to visit the site and undertake/determine/obtain the following: • Discuss energy efficient initiatives that could be implemented by the site owner. These could include: • replacing inefficient electrical appliances with new energy efficient electrical appliances • replacing tank type electric hot water heaters with a solar water heater either gas or electric boosted.(If applicable) • replacing incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescents and/or efficient LED lights • Assess the occupational safety and health risks when working on that particular site.SITE VISIT 2GRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES• Determine the solar access for the site. • Determine whether any shading will occur and estimate its effect on the system. • Determine the orientation and tilt angle of the roof if the solar array is to be roof mounted. • Determine the available area for the solar array. • Determine whether the roof is suitable for mounting the array. • Determine how the modules will be mounted on the roof. • Determine where the inverter will be located. • Determine the cabling route and therefore estimate the lengths of the cable runs. • Determine whether monitoring panels or screens are required and determine a suitable location with the ownerGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESQUOTATION DOCUMENTATIONWhen providing a quotation to a potential customer, the certified designer should provide (as a minimum) the following information: • Full Specifications of the system including quantity, make (manufacturer) and model number of the solar modules and inverter. • An estimate of the yearly energy output of the system. This should be based on the available solar irradiation for the tilt angle and orientation of the array. If the array will be shaded at any time the effect of the shadows must be taken into account when determining the yearly energy output. • The dollar savings this represents based on existing electrical energy pricing • A firm quotation which includes all equipment and installation charges • Warranty information relating to each of the items of equipment If possible the savings in CO2 (either tonnes or kg) could also be provided.GRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESSTANDARDS for DESIGNIn Australia and New Zealand the following standards are applicable: … In Australia and New Zealand the relevant standards include: AS/NZ 3000 Wiring Rules AS 3008 Selection of Cables AS /NZS4777 Grid Connection of energy systems by inverters AS/NZS 5033 Installation of PV Arrays AS 4509 Stand-alone power systems (note some aspects of these standards are relevant to grid connect systems) AS 3595 Energy management programs AS 1768 Lightning ProtectionGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESSTANDARDS for DESIGN 2In USA the relevant codes and standards include: • Electrical Codes-National Electrical Code Article 690: Solar Photovoltaic Systems and NFPA 70 • Uniform Solar Energy Code • Building Codes- ICC, ASCE 7 • UL Standard 1701; Flat Plat Photovoltaic Modules and Panels • IEEE 1547, Standards for Interconnecting distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems • UL Standard 1741, Standard for Inverter, converters, Controllers and Interconnection System Equipment for use with Distributed Energy Resources •AC ENERGY OUTPUT OF PV ARRAYGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESThe AC energy output of a solar array is the electrical AC energy delivered to the grid at the point of connection of the grid connect inverter to the grid. The output of the solar array is affected by: • Average solar radiation data for selected tilt angle and orientation; • Manufacturing tolerance of modules; • Temperature effects on the modules; • Effects of dirt on the modules; • System losses (eg power loss in cable); and • Inverter efficiencyENERGY YIELDGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESFor a specified peak power rating (kWp) for a solar array a designer can determine the systems energy output over the whole year. The system energy output over a whole year is known as the systems “Energy Yield” The average yearly energy yield can be determined as follows:Esys = P _ STC × ftemp× fmm × fdirt × Htilt ×ηpv_inv ×ηinvxηinv−sb arrayGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESP array -stc =rated output power of the array under standard test conditions, in watts f temp =temperature de-rating factor, dimensionless (refer next section)f man =de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance, dimensionless (refer next section)f dirt =de-rating factor for dirt, dimensionless (refer next section)H tilt =yearly irradiation value (kWh/m 2) for the selected site (allowing for tilt, orientation and shading)Array Losses/OutputGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESH tilt =yearly irradiation value (kWh/m 2) for the selected site (allowing for tilt, orientation and shading)n inv =efficiency of the inverter dimensionless n pv_inv =efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the PV array and the inverter n inv-sb =efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the inverter and the switchboardSYSTEM LOSSESGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESSolar irradiation is typically provided as kWh/m 2 .However it can be stated as daily peak Sunhrs (PSH). This is the equivalent number of hours of solar irradiance of 1kW/m 2.SOLAR RADIATION•Suva, Fiji (Latitude 18°08′S Longitude 178°25′E)•Apia, Samoa (Latitude13o50' S' Longitude171o44' W)•Port Vila, Vanuatu (Latitude17°44' S Longitude168°19' E)•Tarawa, Kiribati (Latitude1°28'N, Longitude173°2'E)•Raratonga, Cook islands( Latitude21°30'S, Longitude 160°0'W)•Nuku’alofa, Tonga (Latitude21º14'S Longitude 175º22'W)•Honiara, Solomon Islands (Latitude 09°27'S, Longitude 159°57'E)•Koror, Palau ( Latitude 7°20’N Longitude 134°28'E)•Palikir, Pohnpei FSM (Latitude: 6°54'N, Longitude: 158°13'E)•Majuro, Marshall Islands (Latitude: 7º 12N, Longitude 171º 06E)•Alofi, Niue (Latitude19°04' S. Longitude169°55' W)•Nauru (Latitude0º55’S, Longitude166º 91’E)•Tuvalu (Latitude8°31′S, Longitude179°13′E)•Hagåtña, Guam (Latitude 13°28′N Longitude: 144°45′E)•Noumea, New Caledonia (Latitude 22°16′S Longitude: 166°27′E)•Pago Pago, American Samoa (Latitude 14°16′ S Longitude: 170°42′W)Location Peak Sunlight Hours (kWh/m²/day)Suva, Fiji Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual AverageLatitude: 18°08′ South 0°Tilt¹ 6.29 6.2 5.54 4.67 4.05 3.72 3.89 4.44 5.08 6.04 6.32 6.38 5.21 Longitude: 178°25′ Ea st18°Tilt² 6.27 5.88 5.55 4.99 4.61 4.38 4.51 4.88 5.22 5.83 6.1 6.41 5.38 33°Tilt² 5.95 5.4 5.33 5.03 4.85 4.7 4.85 5.1 5.43 5.71 6.12 5.29Apia, Samoa Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual AverageLatitude: 13°50′ South 0°Tilt¹ 5.39 5.47 5.16 5.09 4.63 4.46 4.71 5.25 5.77 5.91 5.76 5.51 5.25 Longitude: 171°46′ West13°Tilt² 5.31 5.24 5.12 5.32 5.075 5.24 5.61 5.85 5.72 5.67 5.45 5.38 28°Tilt² 5.13 4.86 4.93 5.38 5.36 5.42 5.64 5.81 5.75 5.36 5.45 5.3 5.37Port Vila, Vanuatu Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual AverageLatitude: 17°44′ South 0°Tilt¹ 6.68 6.2 5.76 4.98 4.2 3.79 4.04 4.75 5.65 6.47 6.67 6.93 5.5 Longitude: 168°19′ East17°Tilt² 6.69 5.9 5.78 5.33 4.76 4.42 4.66 5.22 5.82 6.26 6.467.01 5.69 32°Tilt² 6.38 5.43 5.56 5.39 5.02 4.75 4.98 5.39 5.72 5.83 6.07 6.73 5.61GRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESORIENTATION and TILTANNUAL DAILY IRRADIATION ON AN INCLINED PLANE EXPRESSED AS % OF MAXIMUM VALUE FORCAIRNS Latitude: 16 degrees 52 minutes South Longitude: 145 degrees 44 minutes EastPlane Azimuth (degrees)Plane Inclination (degrees)0102030405060708090095%99%100%99%96%90%82%73%62%52%1095%99%100%99%95%90%82%73%62%52%2095%98%100%98%95%90%82%73%63%53%3095%98%99%98%94%89%82%73%64%54%4095%98%99%97%94%88%81%73%64%55%5095%97%98%96%93%87%80%73%64%56%6095%97%97%95%91%86%79%72%64%56%7095%96%96%94%90%84%78%71%63%55%8095%96%95%92%88%82%76%69%62%54%9095%95%94%90%85%80%74%67%60%53%10095%95%92%89%83%78%71%64%58%51%11095%94%91%87%81%75%68%61%54%48%GRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES1. Derating due to Manufacturers OutputTolerance2. Derating due to dirt3. Derating due to TemperatureDERATING MODULES OUTPUT•The output of a PV module is specified in watts and with a manufacturing tolerance based on a cell temperature of 25 degrees C. •Historically ±5%•recent years typical figures have been ±3% •System design must incorporate this tolerance.As a worked example , assuming the tolerance is ±5% the “worst case” adjusted output of a 160W PV module is therefore around 152W (0.95 x 160W), or 5% loss from the rated 160W.Manufacturers•The output of a PV module can be reduced as a result of a build-up of dirt on the surface of the module.•If in doubt, an acceptable derating would be 5% from the already derated figure that includes manufacturers’ tolerances.Worked example continues : Assuming power loss due to dirt of 5% then the already derated 152 W module would now be derated further to 144.4W (0.95 x 152W).Dirt. A solar modules output power decreases with temperature above 25°C and increases with temperatures below 25°CMinimum Effective Cell Temp= Ambient Temperature + 25°CTemperatureMonocrystalline ModulesMonocrystalline Modules typically have a temperature coefficient of –0.45%/o C.That is for every degree above 25o C the output power is derated by 0.45%.Polycrystalline ModulesPolycrystalline Modules typically have a temperature coefficient of –0.5%/o C.Thin Film ModulesThin film Modules have a different temperature characteristic resulting in a lower co-efficient typically around 0%/°C to -0.25%/°C, but remember to check with the manufacturerTemperature ContFor the worked example , assume the ambient temperature is 30o C.Therefore the effective cell temperature is30o C +25o C = 55o CTherefore this is 30o C above the STC temperature of 25o C Assume the 160W p module used in the example is a polycrystalline module with a derating of -0.5%/o CTherefore the output power losses due to temperature would be:Temperature loss = 30o C x 0.5%/o C = 15% lossTemperature ExampleGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESAssuming power loss due to temperature of 15% then the already derated 144.4 W module would now be derated further to 122.7W (0.85 x 144.4W).DERATING MODULES ExampleContGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESA solar module has an derated outputpower = Module power @ STC x Derating due to manufacturers tolerances x derating due to dirt x derating due to temperature.For the worked example :Derated output power = 160 x 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.85 = 122.7WDERATING MODULES SUMMARYGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES The actual DC energy from the solar array = the derated output power of the module x number of modules x irradiation for the tilt and azimuth angle of the array.For the worked example assume that the average daily PSH is 5 and that there are 16 modules in the array. Therefore the DC energy output of the array = 122.7 x 16 x 5 = 9816WhDC ENERGY OUTPUT FROMARRAYDC SYSTEM LOSSESThe DC energy output of the solar array will be further reduced by the power loss (voltage drop) in the DC cable connecting the solar array to the grid connect inverter. For the worked example assume that the cable losses for the DC cables is 3%. This is a DC subsystem efficiency of 97%. Therefore the DC energy from the array that will be delivered to the input of the inverter will be = 9816 x0.97 = 9521 WhThe DC energy delivered to the input of theinverter will be further reduced by thepower/energy loss in the inverter.For the worked example assume that the inverter efficiency is 96%. Therefore the AC energydelivered from the output of the inverter will be = 9521 x 0.96 = 9140 WhINVERTER EFFICIENCYThe AC energy output of the inverter will befurther reduced by the power loss in the AC cable connecting the inverter to the grid, sayswitchboard where it is connected.For the worked example assume that the cable losses for the AC cables is 1%.the AC energy from the inverter (and originally from the array) that will be delivered to the grid will be = 9140 x 0.99 = 9048 WhAC SYSTEM LOSSESThe worked example included an array of 16 modules each with a STC rating of 160Wp. Therefore the array is rated 2560W p .The average daily AC energy that was delivered by the array to the grid was 9048Wh or 9.05kWh.Therefore over a typical year of 365 days then Energy Yield of the solar array is = 365 days x 9.05kWh/day = 3303kWh/year Energy Yield of exampleGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESWhereH tilt =yearly average daily irradiation, in kWh/m 2for the specified tilt angleP array..STC =rated output power of the arrayunder standard test conditions, in wattsIdeal EnergytiltSTC array ideal H P E ×=_=rated output power of the array under standard test conditions, in wattsPerformance Ratio ExampleThe average daily PSH was 5. Therefore the yearly irradiation (or PSH) would be 5 x 365= 1825 kWh/m2 (that is 1825 PSH).The rated power of the array at STC is 2560Wp(@kWh/m2)Therefore the ideal energy from the array per year would be: 2.56kW x 1825h = 4672kWhThe AC energy from the solar array was 3303 Kwh per year.Therefore the performance ratio is 3303/4672 = 0.71The selection of the inverter for the installation will depend on:•The energy output of the array•The matching of the allowable inverter stringconfigurations with the size of the array in kW and the size of the individual modules within that array•Whether the system will have one central inverter ormultiple (smaller) invertersINVERTER SELECTIONInverters currently available are typically rated for:•Maximum DC input power. i.e. the size of thearray in peak watts;•Maximum DC input current; and•Maximum specified output power. i.e. the ACpower they can provide to the grid;INVERTER SIZINGThe array comprises 16 of the 160W p crystalline modules.Therefore the array peak power = 16 x 160= 2.56kWShould the inverter be rated 2.56kW?Inverter Sizing ExampleBased on figures of :•0.95 for manufacturer,•0.95 for dirt and•0.85 for temperature (Based on ambienttemperature of 30o C)The derating of the array is: 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.85 = 0.77Inverter with Crystalline Module. MATCHING ARRAY VOLTAGE TO THE MAXIMUM ANDMINIMUM INVERTEROPERATING VOLTAGESGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESThe output power of a solar module is affected by the temperature of the solar cells.This variation in power due to temperature is also reflected in a variation in the open circuit voltage and maximum power point voltage.TEMPERATURE EFFECT ONARRAY VOLTAGEGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES•With the odd exception grid interactive inverters include Maximum Power Point (MPP) trackers.•Many of the inverters available will have a voltage operating window.•If the solar voltage is outside this window the inverter might not operate or the output of the solar array might be greatly reduced.•In the case where a maximum input voltage is specified and the array voltage is above the maximum specified then the inverter could be damaged.VOLTAGE WINDOWS OFINVERTERSGRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES•When the temperature is at a maximum then theMaximum Power Point (MPP) voltage (V mp ) of thearray should never fall below the minimum operating voltage of the inverter.•It is recommended that maximum effectivecell temperature of 70°C is used.Minimum Voltage of InverterThe module selected has a rated MPP voltage of 35.4V and a voltage (V mp )co-efficient of-0.177V /°C.An effective cell temperature of 70°C is 45°above the STC temperature of 25°C.Therefore the V mp voltage would be reduced by 45 x 0.177= 7.97VThe V mp @ 70°C would be 35.4-7.97 = 27.4VExampleIf we assume a maximum voltage drop in the cables of 3% then the voltage at the inverter for each module would be0.97 x 27.4 = 26.6 VThis is the effective minimum MPP voltage input at the inverter for each module in the array.Example ContAssume that the minimum voltage window for an inverter is 140V.Recommended that a safety margin of 10% is used.Minimum inverter voltage of 1.1 x 140V = 154V should be used.The minimum number of modules in a string is = 154 / 26.6 = 5.79 rounded up to 6 modulesExample Cont 2GRID-CONNECTED POWER SYSTEMSSYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINESAt the coldest daytime temperature the open circuit voltage of the array shall never be greater than the maximum allowed input voltage for the inverter. .Therefore the lowest daytime temperature for the area where the system is installed shall be used to determine the maximum V oc .Maximum Voltage of Inverterassume the minimum effective cell temperature is 15°C,with the open circuit voltage ( Voc ) of 43.2 V and avoltage (Voc)co-efficient of-0.14V /°C.An effective cell temperature of 15°C is 10°below the STC temperature of 25°C.Therefore the Voc voltage would be increased by 10 x0.14= 1.4VThe Voc @ 15°C would be 43.2+1.4 = 44.6V. ExampleAssume the maximum voltage allowed by the inverter is 400V.The maximum number of modules in the string, is = 400 / 44.6 = 8.96rounded down to 8 modules.Example Contwe required 16 modules. Therefore we could have two parallel strings of 8 modules.Array Solution for ExampleIn towns and cities where grid connect systems will be predominant the roof of the house orbuilding will not always be free of shadows during parts of the day.Care should therefore be taken when selecting the number of modules in a string because theshadow could result in the maximum power point voltage at high temperatures being below the minimum operating voltage of the inverter.Effect of Shadows。

家庭式可再生能源发电系统

目前，很多人考虑用可再生能源系统为自己的家庭供电。可再生能源系统可以用来提供你部分或全部的电力需求
小型混合发电系统（太阳能和风能）
小型太阳能发电系统
U.S.Department of Energy
Home energy systems
Grid-tied or Off Grid?
家庭式可再生能源发电系统并网还是离网？
离网发电系统完全独立于公用电网除了能够直接使用的系统的如水泵抽水和光伏供电的通风系统，离网再生能源发电系统在低输入和高使用率时需要用电池提供电力
Home energy systems
Grid-tied or Off Grid?
家庭式可再生能源发电系统并网还是离网？
Location
Cost
Power outages
Grid-tied PV System
并网光伏发电系统
太阳能电池组件
光伏逆变器
住宅
双向电表
多余的电力
When a home or business is using energy, but the solar panels aren‘t producing enough energy (at night, or on a stormy day), electricity from the grid supplements or replaces electricity from the panels. 当一个家庭或企业的用电量超过太阳能电池板的供电量时，电网供电可以作为补充
Grid-tied PV System
并网光伏发电系统
太阳能电池组件
光伏逆变器
住宅
双向电表
多余的电力
Grid-tied PV systems are the most common type of solar PV system. They rely on moving energy to

Geodesic discrete global grid system

AbstractA new class of spatial data structures called discrete global grid systems (DGGS’s) is introduced and the general appli-cation classes for it are discussed. DGGS’s based on subdivi-sions of the platonic solids, called Geodesic DGGS’s, are then introduced. A number of existing and proposed Geode-sic DGGS’s are examined by looking at four design choices that must be made in constructing a Geodesic DGGS: the base platonic solid, the orientation of that solid relative to the earth’s surface, the method of subdivision defined on a face of that solid, and a method for relating that planar subdivi-sion to the corresponding spherical surface. Finally, an examination of these design choices leads us to the construc-tion of the ISEA3H DGGS.Key Words: discrete global grid systems, spatial data struc-tures.IntroductionThe use of spatial data structures based upon regular hierar-chical partitions of subsets of the plane has become increas-ingly common. Such data structures exhibit a high degree of regularity that makes it possible to develop very efficient algorithms for common spatial database and geometric oper-ations (Nievergelt, 1989; Samet, 1990).One of the more important spatial domains is the surface of the earth. This domain is of course topologically equivalent to the surface of a sphere and not to a subset of the cartesian plane. However, traditionally the earth’s surface has been transformed into a subset of the cartesian plane using mapprojections, and spatial data structures have been built refer-enced to these planar spaces. This approach has proven satis-factory for many applications, particularly those that deal with only a portion of the earth’s surface. But as truly global data sets of high resolution have become increasingly avail-able, along with the computing power necessary to manipu-late them on a global scale, there have been increasing efforts to develop data structures which more closely retain the topology of the earth’s surface. In this paper we will dis-cuss some of the more promising attempts to extend the con-cept of data structures based on regular hierarchical partitions to global data sets. We will begin by defining the class of spatial data structures under consideration, which we call discrete global grid systems (DGGS’s), and discussing the major classes of applications for which they have been proposed. We will then look at some of the design choices which have been made in developing various existing and proposed DGGS’s.Discrete Global Grid SystemsLet a discrete grid be a set of areal cells that form a partition of the spatial domain of interest, with each cell having a point associated with it. Depending on the application, vec-tors of data values may be assigned to either the cells, the points, or to the point/cell combinations. Let a discrete grid system be a (possibly infinite) series of discrete grids on the same spatial domain. A discrete global grid system (DGGS)is a discrete grid system in which the domain of interest is the earth’s surface, usually represented by some form of topologically equivalent approximation such as a sphere, a spheroid, or a geoid.Usually the series of discrete grids which constitute the dis-crete grid system are a series of increasing resolution grids.If the resolution increases in a regular fashion we can define the aperture of the system as the number of resolution k+1cells that correspond to a single resolution k cell, where the resolution k+1 discrete grid is one resolution finer than the resolution k grid. (This definition is a generalization of the one given in Bell et al., 1983). Later we shall discuss some DGGS’s which have more than one type of cell. In these cases there is always one cell type which clearly predomi-*The information in this article has been funded in part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, under cooperative agreement CR821672 with Oregon State University. It has been subjected to Agency review and approved for publication. The con-clusions and opinions are solely those of the authors and are not necessarily the views of the Agency. Additional funding has been provided by the Biodiversity Research Consortium under coopera-tive agreement PNW-92-0283 with the USDA Forest Service.Discrete Global Grid Systems*Kevin Sahr 1 and Denis White 21Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA2US EPA NHEERL Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Oregon, USA(to appear in: (1998) Computing Science and Statistics , 30, ed. S. Weisberg, Interface Foundation of North America, Inc.,Farfax Station, VA.)nates, and the aperture of the system is defined using the dominant cell type.The types of data objects that are stored in spatial data struc-tures are often considered as falling into two classes (e.g.,Chrisman, 1997). These have been referred to — though sometimes with subtle distinctions — under a variety of terms in different contexts:The first class of objects, as represented in the first column,are those where vectors of data values are associated with 2-dimensional areal cells. Often the data of interest is some function defined over the spatial domain, and each cell rep-resents a region over which the function takes on a uniform or nearly uniform value, that value being the primary data attribute of the cell.Representations in the second column are classified as dimensionless point or location data and objects with distinct boundaries, in particular ones that can be defined as a series of 1-dimensional line segments referenced in terms of their end-points. Under this representation vectors of data values are associated with points, or with entities defined in terms of points.Resolution and GraticuleThe familiar latitude/longitude graticule is the most common basis for DGGS’s in use today. In the case of DGGS’s for storing field data, lines spaced at regular latitude and longi-tude increments form the boundaries of areal cells. Figure 1shows such a grid with a 100 spacing between lines of lati-tude and longitude.Figure 1. Field discrete grid induced by latitude/longitudegraticule with 100 resolution.A DGGS may be formed by creating additional resolution discrete grids by grouping (or subdividing) squares to form squares of coarser (or finer) resolution. A square can be divided into n 2 smaller squares by breaking each edge of the original square into n pieces and connecting the break points with lines parallel to the original edges. The most common such structure is the quadtree (where n = 2), which has seen use in a variety of computer science applications (as summa-rized in Samet, 1990). In a quadtree each square at a given resolution is subdivided into four squares to form the next finer resolution grid. The quadtree is a specific instance of an r d -tree (Nievergelt, 1989) with dimension d = 2 and radix r =2. That is, it has a two-dimensional domain, and it is divided by a factor of two in each dimension at each level in the tree.r d -trees have also been applied to grids based on the latitude/longitude graticule. For example, we might define an r d -tree with d = 2 and r = 10 to form successive grid resolutions cor-responding to the digits of a decimal degree representation.Figure 2 shows a portion of the next resolution (10) of such a structure formed on the grid depicted in Figure 1. Each of the 100 cells divides evenly into 100 10 cells (10 in each of the two dimensions of latitude and longitude), and this subdivi-sion can be continued to an arbitrarily fine resolution, corre-sponding to an arbitrary precision in decimal degrees. This system has an aperture of 100.Figure 2. Portion of two resolutions (100 and 10)of a field r d -tree (d = 2, r = 10) defined by thelatitude/longitude graticule.While not illustrated above, field grids usually associate with each of the cells a point location that can be used to facilitate spatial access to, and spatial operations on, the areal cells.For example, the distance between two cells might be defined as the distance between their associated points. Usu-ally these points are placed consistently at the center or at an essentially arbitrary vertex of the cell.entities/objectsvector space bounding points/locationsbordersfields raster space filler regionsinteriorsDiscrete grid systems based on r d-trees have a number of useful properties. For example, one of the most fundamental problems in spatial database theory is that the two-dimen-sional spatial problem domain must be stored in a linear address space in memory or on disk. This means that not all of the spatial locality information in the actual domain can survive the transformation to computer storage. R d-trees have proven convenient for developing linearizing space-ordering methods that preserve a high degree of spatial local-ity, such as Morton ordering (a discussion of a number of these methods is given in Goodchild and Grandfield, 1983). Also, r d-trees can be used to induce hierarchical 1-dimen-sional addresses upon which can be defined tesseral arith-metics. Tesseral arithmetics (see, for example, Diaz, 1984)provide for extremely efficient computation of many geo-metric operations directly on the addresses themselves. Finally, homogeneous regions of the domain, where the data value of concern remains uniform over a wide region, may be represented by a coarser resolution grid than areas where the value changes more abruptly. Thus the subdivision need not be performed uniformly across the domain, saving on overall storage requirements.DGGS’s have also been used for storing locational data. As pointed out by Dutton (1996), the traditional latitude/longi-tude locational system can be thought of as a DGGS, with each digit of precision constituting a discrete grid resolution, and the resolution of a location being determined by the number of significant digits (though he also notes that such a device is rarely used in practice; usually only a single resolu-tion cartesian locational grid is used in a given application). In such systems point grids are formed by taking the inter-sections of regularly spaced lines of latitude and longitude (these lines formed the boundaries of the areal cells in the field grid described above). Locations in the original spatial domain are then mapped to the nearest point. The square voronoi regions associated with each of the points form cells that determine which locational regions are mapped to which points. Such a grid is in effect a field grid where the data value of concern is location; points of “nearly uniform” loca-tion are mapped to the same cell in the grid. Figure 3 illus-trates a portion of a 100 resolution location discrete grid induced by the latitude/longitude graticule.Changing resolution induces another discrete grid; Figure 4 shows a portion of the 10 resolution grid corresponding to the 100 resolution grid depicted in Figure 3. It should be noted that this location grid is not the same as the field grid system depicted earlier. The latitude/longitude lines play aFigure 3. Portion of 100 resolution location discretegrid induced by the latitude/longitude graticule. Herethe actual location of Minneapolis, MN is assigneda 100 resolution grid location as shown.Figure 4. Portion of two resolutions (100 and 10)of a location DGGS defined by thelatitude /longitude graticule.different role in each (in the field grid they form the cell boundaries, while in the locational grid their intersections form the point grid). Also, in the field grid the boundaries of the 10 cells coincide with the boundaries of the 100 grid cells; each of the coarser resolution cells can be thought of as an aggregate of 100 finer resolution cells. This is not the case in the locational grid; in this grid the coarse boundaries are straddled by finer resolution cells.We formalize this distinction as follows. Let G be an aper-ture n discrete grid system where each resolution k cell is the union of n resolution k+1 cells. We say that G has the prop-erty of being congruent. If G does not have this property, then we say that G is incongruent. Thus the graticule-basedfield grid is congruent, as are all r d-tree structures such as quadtrees. The graticule-based location grid is incongruent. Both data structures are, however, discrete global grid sys-tems with an aperture of 100.In addition to their use as static data structures for field and location data, two specific applications have been proposed for DGGS’s. These systems have been used to develop sta-tistically sound survey sampling designs on the earth’s sur-face. A discussion of this application is given in Olsen et al. (1998) and will not be further discussed here. DGGS’s have also been proposed as the basis for spatially discrete dynamic simulations such as those used in global climate modeling (Williamson, 1968; Sadournay et al., 1968; Heikes and Randall, 1995a, 1995b; Thuburn, 1997).DGGS’s based on the latitude/longitude graticule have numerous practical advantages. They are based on a 2-dimensional cartesian coordinate system; such systems have long been a foundation of scientific inquiry on spatial domains. Such square-based grids also map easily to com-mon display devices. The latitude/longitude system itself has been used extensively since well before the computer era and is therefore the basis for a wide array of existing data sets, processing algorithms, and software.But such grids also have limitations. Square grids in general do not exhibit uniform adjacency. Each square grid cell has four neighbors with which it shares an edge, and whose cen-ters are equidistant from it’s center. But each cell also has four neighbors with which it shares only a vertex, and whose centers are a different distance from its center than the dis-tance to the centers of the edge neighbors. This is particu-larly a problem when we attempt to use such grids for discrete simulations.DGGS’s based on the latitude/longitude graticule become increasingly distorted in area and shape as one moves north and south from the equator. The north and south poles, both points on the surface of the globe, map to lines in the lati-tude/longitude system; the top and bottom row of grid cells in Figure 1 are in fact triangles, and not squares as they appear on the plane. These polar singularities have forced applications such as global climate modeling to make use of special grids for the polar regions. Finally, DGGS’s induced by the latitude/longitude graticule do not have equal area cells, which is important for many applications.Geodesic DGGS’sThe inadequacies of DGGS’s based on the latitude/longitude graticule has led a number of researchers to explore alterna-tive approaches. As has been widely observed (e.g., White et al., 1992) the spherical versions of the five platonic solids represent the only ways in which the sphere can be parti-tioned into cells each consisting of the same regular spheri-cal polygon, with the same number of polygons meeting at each vertex. A number of researchers have used the platonic solids as a starting point for further recursive subdivisions to build finer resolution discrete grids, and in our opinion these attempts have led to the most promising known options for DGGS’s. A number of these researchers have been inspired directly or indirectly by R. Buckminster Fuller’s work in descretizing the sphere that led to his development of the geodesic dome, and for this reason we will refer to this class of DGGS’s as Geodesic DGGS’s.It would be premature to conclude that any one proposed Geodesic DGGS is the ideal DGGS. Indeed, it may well be the case that no single DGGS will ever prove optimal for all applications. Many of the proposed systems include design innovations in particular areas, though their construction may have involved other, less desirable design choices. Therefore, rather than surveying individual Geodesic DGGS’s as monolithic, closed systems, we will take the approach here of viewing the construction of a Geodesic DGGS as a series of design choices which are, for the most part, independent.The following design choices must be made to fully specifya Geodesic DGGS:1.The base platonic solid.2.The orientation of the base platonic solid relative to theearth.3.The hierarchical spatial partitioning method defined sym-metrically on a face (or set of faces) of the base platonic solid.4.The transformation between each face and the corre-sponding spherical surface.We will now look at each of these design choices in turn, dis-cussing the choices made in the development of a number of Geodesic DGGS’s.Choice of Base Platonic SolidThe five platonic solids are shown in Figure 5. In general, the greater the number of faces in the base platonic solid chosen, the less the distortion introduced when projecting between a face of the polyhedron and the corresponding spherical surface. The icosahedron has the greatest number of faces (20) and therefore projections defined on it tend to have relatively small distortion. Thus the icosahedron is themost common choice for base platonic solid. Geodesic DGGS’s based on the icosahedron include those of William-son (1968), Sadournay et al. (1968), Fekete and Treinish (1990), Thuburn (1997), and (with a slight adjustment as dis-cussed below) Heikes and Randall (1995a, 1995b).Figure 5. The platonic solids: the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron.The tetrahedron and cube have the smallest number of faces (4 and 6 respectively) and are thus relatively poor base approximations for the sphere.The octahedron was chosen as the base platonic solid for what is arguably the most currently well-developed Geode-sic DGGS, the Quaternary Triangular Mesh (QTM) system of Dutton (1988, 1996). The octahedron has the advantage that it can be oriented with vertices at the north and south poles, and at the intersection of the prime meridian and the equator. In this orientation the faces of the octahedron align with the spherical octants formed by the equator and the prime meridian. Given a point in latitude/longitude coordi-nates it is thus trivial to determine which octahedron face the point lies on. As noted above, though, because it has fewer faces than the icosahedron projections defined on the faces of the octahedron tend to have higher distortion (White et al., in press).Finally, Wickman et al. (1974) observe that if a point is placed in the center of each of the faces of a dodecahedron and then raised perpendicularly out to the surface of the sphere (“stellated”), each of the 12 pentagonal faces becomes 5 isosceles triangles. The stellated dodecahedron thus has 60 triangular faces compared to the 20 faces of the icosahedron, and thus a projection can be defined on the stel-lated dodecahedron with lower distortion than on the icosa-hedron (e.g., Snyder, 1992). However, there is a trade-off in that the base triangles are no longer equilateral and the act of stellation complicates the base polyhedral structure. Choice of Polyhedron OrientationOnce a base platonic solid is chosen, an orientation relative to the actual surface of the earth must be specified. One com-pact way of specifying this is by giving the geodetic coordi-nates of one of the polyhedron’s vertices and the azimuth from that vertex to an adjacent vertex. For regular platonic solids this information will completely specify the position of all the other vertices.As mentioned above, Dutton (1988, 1996) orients the octa-hedron so that its faces align with the octants formed by the equator and prime meridian.Wickman et al. (1974) orient the dodecahedron by placing the center of a face at the north pole and a vertex of that face on the prime meridian, thus aligning with the prime meridian an edge of one of the triangles created by stellating the dodecahedron.In the case of the icosahedron, the most common orientation is to place a vertex at each of the poles and then align one of the edges emanating from the vertex at the north pole with the prime meridian. This orientation is used in the systems of Williamson (1968), Sadournay et al. (1968), Fekete and Treinish (1990), and Thuburn (1997). Figure 6a illustrates this orientation.Figure 6a. Spherical icosahedron orientation with vertices at poles and edge aligned with prime meridian. Fuller (1975) developed an icosahedron orientation for his Dymaxion icosahedral map projection. He placed all 12 of the icosahedron vertices in the ocean so that the icosahedron could be unfolded onto the plane without breaks in any land mass. This is the only known placement with this property. Figure 6b shows Fuller’s orientation.Figure 6b. Fuller’s spherical icosahedron orientation withall vertices in oceans.The icosahedron-based system of Heikes and Randall(1995a, 1995b) was developed specifically for performingfluid flow simulations of global climate. They noted that in the most common icosahedron placement (figure 6a) the icosahedron is not symmetrical about the equator. When a simulation on a DGGS with this orientation is initialized to a state symmetrical about the equator, and then allowed to run, it evolves into a state which is asymmetrical about the equa-tor, presumably due to the asymmetry in the underlying icosahedron orientation. To counter this they rotated the southern hemisphere of the icosahedron 360, and the result-ing “twisted icosahedron” is symmetrical about the equator. We have noted that if the icosahedron is oriented so that the north and south poles lie on the midpoints of edges rather than at vertices then it is symmetrical about the equator with-out further adjustment. Since under some subdivision schemes there are special-case cells at the vertices (see below), following Fuller’s lead we attempted to minimize the number of vertices which fall on land, so that at least land-based applications might be able to avoid the special case handling of vertex cells. We discovered an orientation which has only one vertex on land, in China’s Sichuan Prov-ince. This orientation is shown in Figure 6c.Figure 6c. Spherical icosahedron oriented for symmetry about equator by placing poles at edge midpoints. Choice of Spatial Partitioning MethodBeginning with the chosen base platonic solid, we must now choose a method of subdividing this polyhedron to create finer resolution discrete grids. It is only necessary to define the subdivision methodology on a single face of the polyhe-dron, or some set of faces which constitute a unit which tiles the polyhedron, provided that the subdivision is symmetrical with respect to the face or tiling unit.We have seen that the preferred choices of base platonic solid are the icosahedron, the octahedron, and the stellated dodecahedron, each of which has a triangular face. Begin-ning with a triangle, the obvious choice for further subdivi-sion is to divide the triangle into smaller triangles. Like the square, an equilateral triangle can be divided into n2 smaller equilateral triangles by breaking each edge into n pieces and connecting the break points with lines parallel to the triangle edges. In the literature of geodesic domes this is referred to as a Class I or alternate breakdown (Kenner, 1976). Recur-sively subdividing the triangles thus obtained in the same manner yields an aperture n2 discrete grid system. Small apertures have the advantage of allowing more potential grid resolutions so that applications can choose a resolution which best meets their needs. In the case of triangle subdivi-sion the smallest possible aperture is 4 (n = 2). This aperture is also convenient because it parallels the breakdown of the square grid quadtree, and many of the algorithms developed on the square grid quadtree are transferable to the triangle grid quadtree with only minor modifications (Fekete and Treinish, 1990). Figure 7 shows this subdivision approach, which is used in the DGGS’s of Wickman et al. (1974), Dut-ton (1988, 1996), and Fekete and Treinish (1990).Figure 7. Three levels of a Class I/Alternate aperture 4triangle subdivision.It should be noted that another aperture 4 triangle subdivi-sion is possible. In this approach, referred to as the Class II or triacon breakdown (Kenner, 1976), each triangle edge is broken into n = 2m pieces (where m is some positive integer). Lines are then drawn perpendicular to the triangle edges to form the new triangle grid. This breakdown is illustrated in Figure 8. Note that while the Class I/alternate breakdown is congruent, the Class II/triacon breakdown is incongruent.Figure 8. Three levels of a Class II/Triacon aperture 4triangle subdivision.Triangles have a number of disadvantages as the basis for a discrete grid system. First, they are not squares; they are thus a foreign alternative for many potential users, and they do not display well on common output display devices that are based on square lattices of pixels. Like square grids, they do not display uniform adjacency, each cell having three edgeand nine vertex neighbors. Unlike squares, the cells of trian-gle-based discrete grids do not have uniform orientation; as can be seen in Figure 7, some triangles point up while others point down. Many algorithms defined on triangle grids must therefore keep track of triangle orientation.The hexagon has received a great deal of recent interest as a potential basis for discrete grid systems. Hexagons are the most compact regular polygon which can tile the plane, and hexagonal grids provide the greatest angular resolution when compared to square and triangular grids (Golay, 1969). Unlike square and triangle grids, hexagon grids do have uni-form adjacency; each hexagon cell has six neighbors, all of whose centers are exactly the same distance away from its center. This fact alone has made them increasingly popular as bases for discrete spatial simulations. The case for their superiority for this purpose was greatly strengthened when Frisch et al. (1986) discovered that a discrete hexagonal lat-tice-gas model of incompressible hydrodynamics asymptoti-cally goes over to the continuous two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations of incompressible hydrodynamics. This is a surprising and not at all intuitive result; the six discrete velocity vectors of the hexagonal lattice are necessary and sufficient to simulate continuous, isotropic, fluid flow. A recent textbook (Rothman and Zaleski, 1997) on fluid flow cellular automata is based entirely on hexagonal meshes, with discussions of square meshes included “only for peda-gogical calculations.” Triangle grids, which are even more insufficient for this purpose, are not mentioned.While single resolution hexagon-based discrete grids are becoming increasingly popular, the use of multi-resolution hexagon-based discrete grid systems has been hampered by the fact that congruent discrete grid systems cannot be built using hexagons; it is impossible to exactly decompose a hexagon into smaller hexagons (or, conversely, to aggregate small hexagons to form a larger one). Hexagons can be aggregated in groups of seven to form coarser resolution objects which are almost hexagons, as illustrated in Figure 9, and these can again be aggregated into pseudo-hexagons of even coarser resolution, and so forth. This structure has a very efficient tesseral arithmetic defined on it called general-ized balanced ternary (Gibson and Lucas, 1982), and because of this it has become the most widely used multi-resolution hexagon-based grid system. However, it has sev-eral problems as a general purpose basis for spatial data structures. The first is that the cells are hexagons only at the finest resolution. Secondly, the finest resolution grid must be determined prior to creating the system, and once deter-mined it is impossible to extend the system to finer resolu-tion grids. Thirdly, the orientation of the tessellation rotates by about 19 degrees at each level of resolution. Finally, it does not appear to be possible to symmetrically tile a trian-gular face with such a hierarchy, which makes it unusable as a subdivision choice for a Geodesic DGGS.Figure 9. Seven-fold hexagon aggregation intocoarser pseudo-hexagons.There are however an infinite series of apertures that pro-duce regular hierarchies of incongruent hexagon discrete grids. Figure 10 shows three levels of an aperture 3 hexagon subdivision, the smallest such subdivision possible.Figure 10. Three levels of an aperture 3 hexagon subdivi-sion.Aperture 4 hexagon subdivisions are also possible. Figures 11 and 12 illustrate aperture 4 hexagon subdivisions corre-sponding to the Class I/alternate and Class II/triacon symme-try axes respectively. The DGGS’s of Heikes and Randall (1995a) and Thuburn (1997) are aperture 4 Class I/alternate hexagon grids, while Williamson (1968) uses an aperture 4 Class II/triacon hexagon grid. Sadournay et al. (1968) use a Class I/alternate hexagon grid of arbitrary aperture.It should be noted that it is impossible to completely tile a sphere with hexagons. When a base polyhedron is tiled with hexagon-subdivided triangle faces a non-hexagon polygon will be formed at each of the polyhedron’s vertices. The number of such polygons, corresponding to the number of polyhedron vertices, will remain constant regardless of grid resolution. In the case of an octahedron these polygons will。

LCL Filter Design and Performance Analysis for Grid Interconnected Systems

Index Terms--filter; harmonics; inverter; power quality; pulse width-modulated (PWM) inverters;
I. INTRODUCTION
Voltage source inverters (VSI) are used for energy conversion from a DC source to an AC output, both in a standalone mode or when connected to the utility grid. A filter is required between a VSI and the grid, imposing a current-like performance for feedback control and reducing harmonics of the output current. A simple series inductor can be used, but the harmonic attenuation is not very pronounced. In addition, a high voltage drop is produced and the inductor required in the design is very bulky [1].
ቃ
0
(2)
‫ݔ‬ሶ ൌ ‫ ݔܣ‬൅ ‫ݑܤ‬
(3)
C. Delta Connected Capacitors
A LCL filter with delta connected capacitors can be analyzed in the ܾܽܿstationary frame with the circuit in Fig.3. The voltages and currents can be formulated as given by equations (4) and (5).

GE Grid Solutions 全面能源感知系统说明书

Grid SolutionsComprehensive Energy AwarenessEconomical Power and Energy MeasurementThe Multilin™ EPM 2200 meter is an economical, multifunction power meter providing accurate energy measurements to baseline, support and implement an effective energy management strategy. Its flexible communications options provides easy integration into both electrical monitoring and Building Management systems (BMS). The EPM 2200 provides energy visibility, allowing owners and operators to quickly, accurately and centrally verify system uptime, measure power and energy usage to reduce operating expenses as well as support reporting to qualify for environmental standards (LEED) or various incentive programs.The EPM 2200 empowers users with greater energy and operational awareness providing opportunities to lower energy costs, improve tenant attraction and retention and ensure standards compliance throughout facilities. Furthermore, the EPM 2200’s compact size provides easy panel or enclosure mounting for energy monitoring for generator, substation automation, and industrial applications.Key Benefits• Easy integration to both electrical monitoring systems or Building Management (BMS) through optional Modbus Serial or optional simultaneous BACnet MS/TP and Modbus Ethernet communications • 0.5% Class revenue accuracy to support detailed reporting requirements • Reliable, compact, industrial rated design with easy ANSI/DIN installation • Ultra compact, easy to install, program and use• Highly visible, long life, large 3 line 0.56” bright LED display to easily read measured values • Application flexibility with user programmability for different system voltages and current measurement requirements• Available pre-wired meter enclosure option enabling easy new installations or extension of existing metering capabilities without operational downtime or expensive engineering effortsApplications• Low and medium voltage applications including circuit/operational monitoring for main feeders, branch circuits, and gensets • Building Management Systems (BMS)/HVAC Monitoring • Energy metering for LEED Projects and Green/Smart Buildings• Industrial/Commercial Energy Management and Data Center Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE)• Tenant sub-metering and cost allocation • Load management and load curtailmentMultilin EPM 2200WARRANTYYEARFeaturesThe EPM 2200 meter measures more than 40 electrical power parameters providing a low-cost, multifunction monitoring solution for industrial and power generation applications. EPM 2200 can easily be mounted in a panel for generator monitoring, substation automation and more. The meter can also provide data to RTUs, PLCs and other control devices.MeteringThe following electrical parameters are measured and displayed locally on the LED display and can be remotely accessed from the EPM 2200.Universal Voltage and CurrentThis meter allows voltage input measurements up to 416 Volts Line to Neutral and 721 volts Line to Line. This insures proper meter safety when wiring directly to high voltage systems. The unit will perform to specification on 69 Volt, 120 Volt, 230 Volt, 277 Volt and 347 Volt power systems.Universal Voltage and Current InputsThe meter allows voltage inputs measurements up to 416 Volts Line to Neutral and 721 Volts Line to Line. This insures proper meter safety when wiring directly to high voltage systems. The unit will perform to specification on 69 Volt, 120 Volt, 230 Volt, 277 Volt and 347 Volt power systems.Unique Current Input ConnectionsEPM 2200 meter uses two current input wiring methods.• Method One - CT pass through. Directly pass the CT through the meter without any physical termination on the meter. This insures that the meter cannot be a point of failure on the CT circuit. This is preferable to utility users when sharing relay class CTs. No Burden is added to the secondary CT circuit.• Method Two - Current “Gills.” The meteradditionally provides ultra-rugged termination pass through bars allowing the CT leads to be terminated on the meter. This also eliminates any possible point of failure at the meter. This method is also a preferred technique for ensuring relay class CT integrity does not get compromised. No terminal blocks are required and this stud based design ensures that CTs will not open under a fault condition.CommunicationsThrough an optional serial Modbus communications interface, the EPM 2200 can also provide data to RTUs, PLCs and other control devices at baud rates ranging from 9600 baud to 57.6 kbaud.The EPM 2200 meter also supports optional, simultaneous BACnet MS/TP and Modbus Ethernet communications for easy integrationinto BMS and electrical monitoring systems.Method TwoNickel Plated Brass Current “Gill”CT wires terminate to meterMethod OneCT wirespass through meter (dia. 0.77” / 4.5mm)Inherently Safe DesignCurrent Input ConnectionsSolid Construction with Mounting VersatilityThe EPM 2200 has a rugged design for harsh environment. This is especially important in power generation, utility substation, and critical user applications. The structural and electrical design of this meter was developed based on the recommendations and approvals of many of our utility customers.EPM 2200 can easily be mounted in a panel for generator monitoring, substation automation and more. The unique dual design combines ANSI and DIN mounting structure and allows easy installation for both new metering applications and retrofit of existing analog meters.The unit mounts directly in an ANSI C39.1 (4” Round form) or an IEC 92 mm DIN square form.Simple Installation and ProgrammingEPM 2200 is intuitive so that a new user can easily program and set-up the meter. All wiring inputs are color coded with clear labeling to avoid cross wiring mistakes by installers. The meter has built in programmable auto scroll features to display multiple values without having to press keys.Web Server for Configuration and Data VisualizationThe EPM 2200 with BACnet is field configurable and easy to use, with a built-in web server that provides both meter configuration of BACnet structure and data visualization of real-time meter data.In addition, the EPM 2200 with BACnet provides users with communications and system integration flexibility through serial BACnet MS/TP protocol aswell as a web enabled meter simultaneously.View and obtain BACnet MS/TP data to use with Building Management Systems through standard web browsers.Communications WiringDimensions and MountingEPM 2200 with Serial (RS485) and KYZ pulse outputEPM2200 (BN) with Serial BACnet MS/TP & Ethernet Modbus TCP/IP communications optionUniversal Voltage InputsCurrent “Gills”Tx Rx Indicator LEDs% Load Vh PulseReading Type DesignatorScreen SelectorsAuto Scale Indicator• EPM 2200: Optional RS485 Communications Port - Through Backplate- Protocol Modbus RTU or ASCII- Com Port Baud Rate: 9600 to 57.6K - Com Port Addresses: 001-247 - 8 Bit, No Parity• EPM 2200 BACnet (BN)- BACnet Serial MS/TP (RS485)- Modbus Ethernet TCP/IP (10/100 BaseT)Technical SpecificationsDIMENSIONS & SHIPPING • Weight: 2 lbs• Basic Unit: H4.85 x W4.82 x L4.25 inches • Mounts in Either 92mm Square DIN or ANSI C39.1 4” Round Cut-outs• Shipping Container Dimensions: 6” cube • 90-265 VAC @50/60Hz • Consumption 5VA • All Inputs and Outputs are galvanically isolated to 2500 Volts AC.Universal Voltage Input• 0-416 Volts Line To Neutral, 0-721 Volts Line To Line • I nput withstand capability – Meets IEEE C37.90.1 (surge withstand Capability) • P rogrammable voltage range to any PT ratio • S upports: 3 element WYE, 2.5 element WYE, 2 Element Delta, 4 Wire Delta Systems • B urden: 0.0144VA/Phase at 120 Volts• I nput wire gauge max (AWG 12 / 2.5mm2 ) • Class 10: 5 Amps Nominal / 10Amps Max • Fault Current Withstand: 100 Amps for 10 Seconds 300 Amps for 3 Seconds 500 Amps for 1 Second• Programmable Current to Any CT Ratio • Burden 0.005VA per phase Max at 11Amps • 5mA Pickup Current• Frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz+/- 3Hz above and below nominal range• Pass through wire gauge dimension: 0.177” / 4.5mmENVIRONMENTAL Storage: -20° C to +70° C Operating: -10° C to +60° C Humidity: to 95% RH Non-CondensingFaceplate Rating: NEMA12 (Water Resistant) Mounting Gasket Included• True RMS• Sampling at 400+ Samples per Cycle on all channels measured readings simultaneously • All parameters up to 1 secondCOMPLIANCE• IEC 62053-22 (0.5% Accuracy) • ANSI C12.20 (0.5% Accuracy)• ANSI (IEEE) C37.90.1 Surge Withstand • ANSI C62.41 (Burst)• EN/IEC 61000-4-2 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) • EN/IEC 61000-4-3 Radiated Immunity• EN/IEC 61000-4-4 Electrical Fast Transient/Burst • EN/IEC 61000-4-5 Surge• EN/IEC 61000-4-6 Conducted• EN/IEC 61000-4-11 Voltage Dips and InterruptsAPPROVALSISO: Manufactured to an ISO9001 registered program UL: Recognized under UL USA (E200431) cUL: Recognized under UL CanadaCE: Conforms to European CE standards BACNET OBJECTS • Volts A-N • Volts B-N • Volts C-N • Volts A-B • Volts B-C • Volts C-A • Amps A • Amps B • Amps C • Total Watts • Total VARs • Total VA • Total PF • Total VAh • Total VARh • VARh Net • Frequency • Neutral Current • Whr Received The EPM2200 BACnet MS/TP supports 34 pre-defined BACnet objects• Whr Delivered • Whr Net • Total Whr • Positive VARh • Negative VARh • Positive Watts, 3-Phase, Average Demand • Positive VARS 3-Phase, Average Demand • Negative Watts, 3-Phase, Average Demand • Negative VARs, 3-Phase, Average Demand • Positive VARS 3-Phase, Max Average Demand • Negative Watts, 3-Phase, Max Average Demand • Negative VARs, 3-Phase, Max Average Demand • Positive Watts 3-Phase, Max Average Demand• VAs, 3-Phase, Average Demand• VAs, 3-Phase, Max Average DemandPULSE OUTPUT• Optional KYZ pulse on back plateNote: Typical results are more accurate. Applies to 3 Element WYE and 2 Element Delta Connections. Add 0.1% of Full Scale plus 1 digit to Accuracy specs for 2.5 Element connections.OrderingS RS485 + PulseBBACnet MS/TP Serial and Modbus TCP/IP EthernetNote: If Metering Option “BN: BACnet Volts, Amps, Power, Frequency and Energy Counters meter” is chosen only the EPM 2200 Communications ‘B’ option is available.AccessoriesIEC is a registered trademark of Commission Electrotechnique Internationale. IEEE is a registered trademark of the Institute of Electrical Electronics Engineers, Inc. Modbus is a registered trademark of Schneider Automation. NERC is a registered trademark of North American Electric Reliability Council. NIST is a registered trademark of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.GE, the GE monogram, Multilin, FlexLogic, EnerVista and CyberSentry are trademarks of General Electric Company.GE reserves the right to make changes to specifications of products described at any time without notice and without obligation to notify any person of such changes.Copyright 2015, General Electric Company. All Rights Reserved.GEA-12819A(E)。

智能电网英文原文

Three problems that should be stressed for China to constructsmart grids1.The smart grid with Chinese characteristics isboth strong and smart.China’s grids, as an important part in the national energy strategy and a vital link in energy sector and the important component of the national comprehensive transportation system, are in the phase of rapid development. The country has to stick to the road of constructing large grids and UHV transmission systems because of the basic conditions of the country on energy resources. However, the requirement on the level to which the grids are smart is very high, which can be ascribed to the diversification of energy sources and electricitydemandsand p eople’s concerns about environmental protection and sustainable development. On one hand, a strong property of grid is the base of safe and reliable operation of the grid and immune to natural disasters and even attacks from outside. And on the other hand, the introduction of advanced technology and equipment, scientific managerial philosophy enables flexible operation and controllable flows of power. Therefore, the grid, both strong and smart, is the direction for China’s future grids. The construction and planning of China’s smart grids should be fully considered with the construction and planning of its UHV grids.2. Scientifically planning the temporal orders ofmaking T&D systems smartAs the US and Europe have evolved into a relatively mature phase which has limited room left for electricity demands to grow, their smart grids start with distribution systems and emphasize the importance of electricity users. Power balance is usually maintained in local regions. But in China, at the beginning of constructing smart grids, more importance should be attached to making large-capacity trans-area power delivery more efficient, more reliable and more cost-effective. In middle stage, with the maturity of electricity market, the function of DSM will become more prominent. More enthusiasm will be displayed by users to participate the market. Meanwhile, the smart transmission systems willaccelerate the installing of advanced metering systems that will enable the two-way flow of data. Therefore, the whole system can be made smart under the condition of electricity market. By that time, electricity users will have enjoyed more options and decision-making power and electricity will have taken up more part of terminal energy consumptions, which display the flexibility, interactivity and environmentally friendly quality of smart grids. So, the flexibility and openness of smart grid planning and the temporal orders of making T&D systems smart should be stressed. A network with rational structure, flexible operation and high adaptability will guarantee the security, flexibility and efficiency of the grids.3.The integration of smart grid and informationproject should be considered in advanceWith introducing advanced managerialphilosophies into system management, smart gridsneed an ocean of data from all sections of the system(power generation, power T&D, power consumptions)and should process them in smart ways. From theviewpoint of information, constructing smart grids isequal to building a communication platform, aframework, and a decision-making system, ahierarchical system of agreements, which will makean efficient managerial platform to realize automationof production, modernization of management andscientification of decision making process.For instance, currently the State GridCorporation of China (SGCC) is devoted to realizingthe whole-process information project that covers itsstaff, money and materials and business. Therefore,when SGCC constructs its smart grids, advanceconsideration should be made on the consistence oftheir information structures, decision-making process,communication frameworks and the system ofagreement to settle the mutual integration of theto-be-used and obtained information and data, withoutproducing contradictory data, congestion or mutuallyrejected data. Only this way can smart grids promotefurther development of the information projects andintegrate all kinds of databases scientifically,rationally, and efficiently.。

Spontaneous synchrony in power-grid networks

T
˙1 = δ ˙2 = ··· = δ ˙n δ
(1)
where δi = δi (t ) represents the rotational phase of the ith generator and the dot represents the time derivative. This synchronization frequency is assumed to be close (albeit not necessarily equal) to a reference frequency. That coupled power generators can synchronize spontaneously is well known, as popularized in ref. 19, and this has generated recent interest in the physics community20,21 . However, the governing factors and hence the extent to which this phenomenon may occur in real power grids remain essentially unaddressed. Among the other studies that have
An imperative condition for the functioning of a power-grid network is that its power generators remain synchronized. Disturbances can prompt desynchronization, which is a process that has been involved in large power outages. Here we derive a condition under which the desired synchronous state of a power grid is stable, and use this condition to identify tunable parameters of the generators that are determinants of spontaneous synchronization. Our analysis gives rise to an approach to specify parameter assignments that can enhance synchronization of any given network, which we demonstrate for a selection of both test systems and real power grids. These ﬁndings may be used to optimize stability and help devise new control schemes, thus offering an additional layer of protection and contributing to the development of smart grids that can recover from failures in real time.

(完整版)给排水专业英语汇总,推荐文档

UNIT 1给水工程water supply engineering 排水工程sewetage engineering市政工程civil engineering市政工程师civil engineer环境工程environmental engineering 水文学hydrology水力学hydranlies水环境natural aquatic environment 流域watershed水体waterbody地表水surface water新鲜水freshwater地下水groundwater含水层aquifer天然含水层natural aquifer地下含水层underground aquifer水文循环natural hydrologic cycle 渗滤infiltration降水precipitation渗入precolation蒸发evaporation蒸腾transpiration城市水文循环urban hydrologic cycle 水源water source水资源water resource取水water withdrawal水处理water treatment配水water distribution用水water use污水wastewater废水abwasser废水收集wastewater collection废水处理wastewater disposal受纳水体receiving waters污染pollution pollute污染物pollntant玷污、污染contamination致污物contaminant未污染uncontaminated水污染water pollution水污染控制water pollution control水污染防治water pollution prevention污水回用wastewater reuseUNIT 2水短缺water scarcity地表水资源surface water resource管网Pipe Network供水系统water supply system市政配水系统municipal distribution system建筑给水系统house water supply system分区供水系统dual distribution system小区micro district小社区small community冷水供水系统cold water supply system热水供水系统hot water supply system消防系统fire protection system喷淋系统fire protection sprinkler system自动水幕系统automatic drencher system半自动水幕系统semi automatic drencher system消火栓hydrant排水系统drainage system生活排水系统sanitary system工业排水系统industrial system雨水排水系统stormwater system合流制combined sewers分流制separate sewers建筑排水系统building drainage system卫生洁具plumbing fixtures卫浴设备bathroom fixtures输水系统water transmission system漏水率leakage rate配水系统water distribution system环状管网grid system支状管网branching system下水管道sanitary sewer污水节流管intercepting sewer污水节流系统intercepting sewer system污水节流井sewage intercepting cell支管collection sewer collector sewer生活污水sanitary sewagedomestic sewagedomestic wastewater工业污水industrial wastewater工业污水/液/物industrial wastes农业用水agricultural wastewater/wastes雨水rainwater stormwater水位waterlevel海拔、标高elevation坡度grade倾斜度slope明渠Open channel建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天开挖excavation深度excavation depth水力分析hydraulic analysis水头pressure head总水头total headUnit 3水头损失Head loss速度头动压头Velocity head静压Static head摩擦水头Friction head水力坡度线Hydranlic grade line 重力流Gravity flow水塔Water castle贮水箱Cistern泵站Pump station给水泵站Water pump station污水泵站Sewage station提升泵站Lift pumping plant增压泵Booster pump离心泵Centrifugal pump潜水泵Submer sible pump潜水艇Submerine深井泵Well pump虹吸虹吸管Siphon人孔Manhole法兰Flange阀门Valve闸阀Gate valve泵送系统Pumping system流量Flow rate流速Fluid velocity 层流Laminar flow滞流粘性流viscous flow过渡流Transitional flow湍流Turbulent flow紊流Turbulence flow涡流Eddying flow雷诺数Teynolds number水质Water guality水源Water sources供水水源Water supples原水Raw water未处理水Untreated water出水Finished water原水水质Raw-water quality水质标准Water quality standards水质要求Water quality requirements饮用水Drink water\potable water自来水Tap water纯水Pure water饮用水标准Drinking water standards饮用水一级标Primary drinking water standards最大允许浓度Maxmum permissible levelsmaxmum allowable levels最大污染物浓度Maxmum contaminant levels主要污染物Primary contaminants有机化合物Organic chemicals合成有机化合物Synthetic organic chemicals挥发性有机化合物Volatile organic ohemicals无机化合物Inorganic chemical微生物Micro organisms\microbes微生物污染Microbial contaminants病原微生物Pathogenic micro organisms病原体Pathogenic病毒Pathogenic bacterin细菌Bacteria大肠杆菌Coliform bacteria病毒Viruses藻类Algae浊度Turbidity放射性Radionuclide感官性状Esthetic qualities审美Esthetic味Taste嗅Odo色Colour变色Discolouration变色Discolor水质物理参数Physical parameters of water quality水的物理性质Physical quality of water浊度值Turbidity values浊度单位Turdidity unit浑浊单位Turdid嗅阈值Threshold odor number化学性质Chemical quality水质化学参数Chemical parameters of water quality溶解氧Dissolved oxygen (DO)溶解氧浓度Do level溶解氧平衡Do balance氧损Oxygen depletion有机污染物Organic pollutant生化需氧量Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)总氮Total nitrogen (TN)建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天总凯式氮Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)悬浮固体Suspended solids (SS)总悬浮固体Total suspended solids (TSS)溶解Dissolved (DS)总溶解Total dissolved (TDS)Unit 4溶解的铁和锰Dissolved iron and manganese硬度Hardness碱度Alkalinity盐度Salinity有害物质Toxic and hazardous materials氰化物Cyanides急性毒性Acute toxity慢性毒性Chronic toxity基因毒性Genetic toxicity基因Gene难降解有机化合物Refractory organic chemicals 永久性有机污染物Persistent organic pollutants 致癌化学性Carcinogenic chemicals三卤甲烷Trihalo methanes卤素Halogen甲基Methyl氯仿Trichloromethane三氯甲烷Chloroform杀虫剂农药Pesticide害虫Pest杀虫剂Insecticide除草剂Herbicide杀菌剂Germicide细菌Germ防腐剂Preservative 保证Preserve清洗剂Cleaning agent洗涤剂Detergent发泡剂Foaming agent泡沫Foam化肥Fertilizer肥沃的Fertile富营养化Eutrophication营养的Trophic营养水平Trophic level生态位NicheUnit 5原污水Raw sewage原废水Raw wastes处理水Treated wastes回用水Redaimed water水处理过程Water processing收集Collect处置Dispose处理方法Treatment method处理费用Treatment costs处理单元Treatment process运行模式Operational mode间歇处理方式Batch treatment approach均匀均化Equalization均匀Equalize调蓄水池Equalization storage调节池Equalization tank蓄水池Storage tank降解Degrade分解Decompose分离Separate隔离Separation物理法Physical process物理处理Physical treatment物理处理过程Physical treatment process一级处理Primary treatment初步处理Preliminary treatment格栅筛滤Screening格栅Screen格栅Bar screen栅条Bars钢栅条Steel bars渣耙Cleaning rakes圆形破碎机Circular grinder破碎Grind除砂Degritting砂Grit沙Sand除砂Grit removal沉砂池Grit chamber沉淀Settling沉淀池Settling tank澄清池Clarifier初澄清池Primary clarifier初沉池Primary settling tank一级出水Primary effluent二级处理Secondary treatment二级处理工艺Secondary treatment process生物处理Biological treatment二澄清池Secondary clarifier二沉池Secondary settling tank建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天最终澄清池Final clarifier最终沉淀池Final settling tank二级出水Secondary effluent三级处理Tertiary treatment深度处理Advanced treatment废水消毒Waste disinfection出流出水Effluent flow允许浓度Allowable levels优异出水High-quality polished effluent废水处理厂Wastewater treatment plant污水处理厂Sewage treatment plant二级处理厂Secondary treatment plant城市污水处理Municipal wastewater treatment市政工程Municipal engineering土木工程Civil engineering城市污水处理厂Municipal wastewater treatment plant 污水处理能力Sewage treatment capacity电容Capacitance污水处理设施Municipal treatment facilities 多反应器设施Multi-reactor facility处理池Treatment tank负荷Load负荷Loadings水力负荷Hydrautic loading污染负荷Pollutant load有机负荷Organic load无机负荷Inorganic load不含化肥、农药无机的Unorganic周期性负荷Periodic(intermitlent) loading 第五部分：物化处理1．混凝n. coagulation混凝过程coagulation process化学混凝chemical coagulation凝聚n. aggregation絮凝n. flocculationv. flocculate异向絮凝perikinetic flocculation同向絮凝orthokinetic flocculation混凝剂n. coagulant混凝剂投量coagulant dosage烧杯实验jar test最佳混凝剂投量optimum coagulant dosage助凝剂coagulant aid助凝剂flocculation aid聚电解质n. polyelectrolytes快速混合flash-mix ,rapid-mix快速混合器flash mixer ,rapid mixer混合池mixer tank快速混合池flash-mix tank絮凝器n. flocculator絮凝池flocculation tank固体接触池solids-contact tank澄清n. clarificationv. clarify澄清池n. clarifier高负荷澄清池high rate clarifier澄清水clarifying water2．沉淀n. sedimentation沉降n. sedimentation自由沉降plain settling拥挤沉降hindered settling重力沉降gravity settling沉淀池settling tank沉淀池，沉降池sedimentation tank矩形沉淀池rectangular settling tank圆形沉淀池circular settling tank管式沉淀池tube settler斜管沉淀池steeply inclined tube settler板式沉淀池parallel-plate settler板式沉淀池plate separator气浮n. floatation泡沫分离foam separation溶气气浮dissolved-air floatation气浮池floatation tank表面撇渣装置surface-skimming device撇去v. skim浮渣n. scum浮渣槽scum trough刮泥机sludge scraper排泥sludge drawoffsludge withdrawal预沉淀n. presedimentation预沉淀池presedimentation basin3．过滤n. filtration滤池n. filter慢滤池slow filter建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天快滤池rapid filter高速（负荷）滤池high rate filter 砂滤池sand filter慢砂滤池slow sand filter快砂滤池rapid sand filter重力滤池gravity filter压力滤池pressure filter过滤介质，滤料filter medium石英砂silica sand无烟煤n. anthracite硅藻土diatomaceous earth煤—砂滤床coal-sand beds多层滤料multilayered media混合滤料mixed media双层滤料滤池dual media filter双层滤池two-layer filter粗滤料coarse media细滤料fine media助滤剂filter aid滤后水，滤出水filtered water滤后水，滤池出水filter effluent 滤前水，滤池进水filter influent 浊度穿透turbidity breakthrough 过滤周期filter cycle清洗周期cleaning cycle刮砂法scraping method表面刮砂surface scraping反冲洗backwashing水力反冲洗hydraulic backwashing 水力反冲洗hydraulic backwash水力分级hydraulic grading 4．消毒n. disinfectionv. disinfect消毒剂n. disinfectantdisinfection agent杀菌剂n. germicide消毒过程disinfection process消毒副产物disinfection by-products氯化n. chlorinationv. chlorinate氯化水chlorinated water预氯化n. prechlorination氯化消毒副产物by-products of chlorination化学消毒剂chemical disinfectants液氯liquid chlorine ,liquefied chlorine氯胺n. chloramines次氯酸盐hypochlorites次氯酸钠sodium hypochlorite二氧化氯chlorine dioxide臭氧n. ozone臭氧化，臭氧消毒n. ozonation臭氧化v. ozonate紫外线(UV) ultraviolet radiation (UV)伽马射线gamma radiation灭活n. inactivationv. inactivate接触时间contact time需氯量chlorine demand加氯量，投氯量chlorine dosage ,applied chlorine自由氯，游离氯free chlorine ,free available chlorine化合氯combined chlorine剩余保护residual protection余氯residual chlorine余氯量chlorine residual自由余氯free residual chlorine自由氯余量free chlorine residual化合余氯combined residual chlorine化合氯余量combined chlorine residuals折点氯化（法）breakpoint chlorination折点氯化曲线breakpoint chlorination curve折点加氯量breakpoint dosage氯折点chlorine breakpoint压力钢瓶pressured steel cylinder臭氧发生器ozone generator需臭氧量ozone demand剩余臭氧量ozone residual剩余臭氧residual ozone致病微生物，病源微生物pathogenic microorganisms病原体n. pathogens致病细菌或病毒pathogenic bacteria or viruses细菌n. bacteria大肠杆菌coliform bacteria阿米巴氏菌amoebic cysts孢子，芽孢n. spores病毒n. viruses藻类n. algae原生动物n. protozoa建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天5．氧化n. oxidation还原n. reduction氧化剂n. oxidant强氧化剂strong oxidizing agent高级氧化法(AOP) advanced oxidation process 高级氧化工艺(AOP) advanced oxidation process 高级氧化过程(AOP) advanced oxidation process 高级氧化技术(AOT)advanced oxidation technology6．吸附n. adsorption活性炭(AC) activated carbon粉末炭(PAC) powdered activated carbon粒状炭(GAC) granular activated carbon颗粒活性炭(GAC) granular activated carbon活性炭纤维(ACF) activated carbon fiber再生n. regenerationv. regenerate吸附剂n. adsorbent吸附质n. adsorbate吸附塔，吸附柱adsorption column吸附床adsorption bed空床接触时间empty bed contact time吸附带mass transfer zone快速小柱试验rapid small scale column test生物活性炭(BAC) biological activated carbon7．离子交换n. ion exchange离子交换树脂ion exchange resin离子交换器ion exchanger离子交换柱ion exchange column硬度n. hardness除硬hardness removal软化n. softeningv. soften化学软化chemical softening沉淀软化precipitation softening除盐，脱盐n. desaltinationv. desalt去矿化n. demineralizationv. demineralize离子交换软化法ion exchange softening process离子交换除盐法ion exchange desalting process复床combined bed混合床mixed bed8．膜分离membrane separation微滤n. microfiltration超滤n. hyperfiltration纳滤n. nanofiltration反渗透reverse osmosis渗透n. osmosis半透膜semipermeable membrane电渗析n. electrodialysis渗析n. dialysis9．其它处理方法中和n. neutralizationv. neutralize酸性废水acidic wastes化学沉淀chemical precipitation沉淀软化precipitation softening电解n. electrolysis电除盐(EDI) n. electrodeionization吹脱、汽提法n. stripping冷却n. cooling冷却水cooling water冷却塔cooling tower第六部分生物处理生物反应器n. bioreactor微生物n.microorganismsn.microbes微生物种群microbial population混合群落mixed communities细菌n. bacteria原生动物n. protozoa真菌n. fungi轮虫n. rotifers生长n. growth繁殖n. reproduction世代时间generation time生长速率growth rates环境因子environmental factors生态因子ecological factors微生物生长动力学microbial growth kinetics1.迟滞期lag phase2.对数生长期exponential-growth phase3.减速生长期decling growth phase稳定期stationary phase4. 内源呼吸阶段endogenous stage内源生长期endogenous growth phase建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天内源呼吸endogenous respiration底物，基质n. substrate底物（基质）利用substrate utilization生物量n. biomass生物反应biological reaction生物氧化biological oxidation生物降解n. biodegradation生物降解性n. biodegradability生物可降解的，可生物降解的 a. biodegradable不可生物降解的 a. nonbiodegradable生物处理biological treatment废水生物处理biological wastewater treatment废水生物处理系统biological wastewater treatment system污水生物处理系统biological sewage treatment system生物处理法biological treatment process生物处理装置biological treatment unit串联in series悬浮生长处理法suspended-growth treatment processes 生物固体biological solids活性污泥activated sludge附着生长处理法attached-growth treatment processes 附着的微生物attached microbes微生物附着生长attached microbial growth生物膜n. biofilm代谢n. metabolismv. metabolize稳定，稳定化n. stabilizationv. stabilize生物代谢biological metabolism微生物代谢microbial metabolism好氧的 a. aerobic好氧菌aerobic bacteria好氧微生物aerobic microorganisms好氧氧化aerobic oxidation厌氧的 a. anaerobic厌氧菌anaerobic bacteria厌氧氧化anaerobic oxidation兼性的 a. facultative兼性菌facultative bacteria好氧环境aerobic environment厌氧环境anaerobic environment营养物n. nutrients无机营养物inorganic nutrients营养物去除nutrient removal营养物生物去除biological nutrient removal脱氮除磷nitrogen and phosphorus removal生物硝化biological nitrification硝化菌nitrifying bacteria生物反硝化，生物脱氮biological denitrification生物除磷biological phosphorus removal1．活性污泥法activated sludge process微生物n. microorganisms n. microbes细菌n. bacteria生物絮体biological floc微生物絮体microbial floc活性污泥activated sludge絮状活性污泥flocculate-bacterial sludge回流活性污泥(RAS)returned activated sludge回流污泥returned sludge回流污泥recycled sludge剩余污泥excess sludge废活性污泥(WAS)waste activated sludge废污泥waste sludge曝气池aeration tank曝气池aeration basin曝气池aeration chamber完全混合曝气池completely mixed aeration basin活性污泥池activated sludge tank曝气n. aeration混合n. mixing曝气系统aeration system曝气器n. aerator压缩空气compressed air空气压缩机，空压机air compressor鼓风机，风机n. blower循环/切换n. cycling/switchover扩散装置，扩散器n. diffuser空气扩散装置，空气扩散器air diffuser鼓泡空气扩散装置（扩散器）bubble air diffuser微气泡扩散装置（扩散器）fine-bubble diffuser扩散板plate diffuser扩散管tube diffuser扩散罩dome diffuser微气泡扩散曝气fine-bubble diffused aeration微气泡fine-bubble大气泡coarse-bubble静态混合器static mixer机械曝气系统mechanical aeration systems建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天机械曝气mechanical aeration表面曝气surface aeration表面曝气器surface aerator需氧量oxygen demand供气量air supply氧转移效率oxygen tansfer efficiency可沉降固体settleable solids挥发性固体volatile solids非挥发性固体nonvolatile solids挥发性悬浮固体(VSS) volatile suspended solids混合液mixed liquor混合液悬浮固体(MLSS) mixed liquor suspended solids混合液挥发性悬浮固体(MLVSS) mixed liquor volatile suspended solids污泥沉降比(SV) settling velocity污泥容积指数(SVI) sludge volume index比耗氧速率(SOUR) specific oxygen uptake rate污泥龄sludge age曝气池容积aeration tank volume曝气时间aeration period曝气时间aeration time水力停留时间(HRT) hydraulic residence time水力负荷hydraulic loadingBOD负荷BOD loading普通活性污泥法conventional activated sludge process 传统活性污泥法conventional activated sludge process 标准活性污泥法standard activated sludge process传统活性污泥厂conventional activated sludge plant阶段曝气活性污泥step aeration activated sludge process分段v. step进水负荷influent load分段进水step loading渐减v. taper渐减曝气tapered aeration接触稳定活性污泥法contact stabilization activated sludge process再曝气n. reaeration曝气—沉淀—再曝气aeration-sedimentation-reaeration完全好氧处理法complete aerobic treatment process高负荷（完全混合）活性污泥法high-rate (completely mixed) activated sludge process延时曝气活性污泥法extended aeration activated sludge process延时曝气法extended aeration process延时曝气extended aeration氧化沟oxidation ditch水平转刷horizontal rotor转刷曝气rotor aeration笼型转刷caged rotor吸附—生物降解工艺(AB法)adsorption-biodegradation process序批式活性污泥法(SBR法) sequencing batch reactor(SBR) process、序批式活性污泥法(SBR法) sequential batch reactor(SBR) processSBR法SBR process序批式反应器(SBR) sequencing batch reactor (SBR)序批式反应器(SBR) sequential batch reactor初沉primary clarification曝气n. aeration二沉secondary clarification初沉池primary clarifier二沉池secondary clarifier泵送系统pumping system活性污泥法activated sludge process变体n. variantSBR运行周期SBR cycle处理周期process cycle进水阶段fill phase进水阀influent valve反应阶段react phase沉淀阶段settle phase清水，上清液clear water上清液n. supernatant排水阶段draw phase滗水阶段decant phase滗水装置decant mechanism闲置阶段，待机阶段idle phase营养物去除nutrient removal营养物生物去除biological nutrient removal碳源carbon source硝化n. nitrificationv. nitrify硝化菌nitrifying bacteria反硝化n. denitrificationv. denitrify建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天脱氮n. denitrification生物反硝化，生物脱氮biological denitrification缺氧—好氧脱氮工艺(A/O法)anoxic-oxic process厌氧—缺氧—好氧法(A2/O法) anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic processA-A-O法同步脱氮除磷工艺anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic process脱氮除磷nitrogen and phosphorus removal厌氧氨氧化(ANAMMOX)anaerobic ammonium oxidation生物除磷biological phosphorus removal膜生物反应器(MBR)membrane biological reactor2．生物膜法生物膜n. biofilm生物膜反应器biofilm reactor生物滤池n. biofilter生物过滤n. biofiltration旋转布水器rotary sprinkler填料n. packings塑料管状或蜂窝状填料plastic tubular or honeycomb-shaped packings滴滤池trickling filter普通生物滤池trickling filter高负荷生物滤池high-rate filter塔式生物滤池tower biofilter曝气生物滤池(BAF) biological aerated filter生物转盘法biodisc process生物转盘rotating biological contactor生物转盘n. biodisc塑料盘片plastic discs轻质盘片lightweight discs水平轴horizontal shaft生物粘液biological slime粘液层slime layer生物流化床biological fluidized bedbiological fluidised bed生物流化床反应器fluidized-bed bioreactor移动床生物膜反应器(MBBR)moving-bed biofilm reactor3．厌氧生物处理发酵n. fermentationv. fermentate产酸细菌n. acidogens产甲烷细菌n. methanogens产酸阶段acidogenic phase产甲烷阶段methanogenic phase水解n. hydrolysisv. hydrolysis产酸发酵acidogenic fermentation产氢产乙酸H2-producing acetogenesis产甲烷methanogenesis产酸菌acid formers产甲烷菌methane formers ,methane-forming bacteria有机酸organic acids挥发性脂肪酸(VFAs) volatile fatty acids硫酸盐还原sulfate reduction硫酸盐还原菌sulfate-reducing bacteria上流式厌氧污泥床(UASB)upflow anaerobic sludge blanket上升流速upflow velocity厌氧折流板反应器(ABR)anaerobic baffled reactor两段或两级厌氧生物处理two-stage anaerobicbiotreatment两相厌氧生物处理two-phase anaerobic biotreatment产酸相acidogenic phase产甲烷相methanogenic phase消化n. digestionv. digest消化池n. digestor厌氧消化anaerobic digestion污泥消化sludge digestion厌氧消化池anaerobic digestor厌氧接触法anaerobic contact process厌氧膨胀床反应器anaerobic expanded-bed reactor厌氧流化床反应器anaerobic fluidized-bed reactor建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天厌氧生物转盘anaerobic rotating biological contactor 4．自然生物处理系统自然净化系统natural purification system 稳定塘stabilization pondsstabilization lagoons氧化塘oxidation ponds土地处理系统land treatment systems废水土地处理land treatment of wastewater净化过程purification process自然净化natural purification污水塘sewage lagoon稳定塘stabilization pondsstabilization lagoons氧化塘oxidation ponds好氧塘aerobic pond兼性塘facultative pond好氧生化反应aerobic biochemical reaction厌氧生化反应anaerobic biochemical reaction 厌氧分解anaerobic decomposition厌氧分解decompose anaerobically好氧稳定aerobic stabilization细菌n. bacteria藻类n. algae微型植物microscopic plants出流，出水effluent flow光合作用n. photosynthesis厌氧塘anaerobic pond曝气塘aerated pond修饰塘polishing pond熟化塘maturation lagoon深度处理塘advanced treatment pond三级处理塘tertiary treatment pond土地处理工艺（过程）land treatment processes关键因素critical factors土壤类型soil type气候n. climate土地处理系统land treatment systems慢速土地处理系统slow rate land treatment system低负荷土地处理系统low-rate land treatment system三级处理水平tertiary treatment level灌溉n. irrigationv. irrigate土壤的天然过滤和吸附性质natural filtration and adsorption properties of soil投配的废水applied wastewater垄—沟表面布水ridge-and-furrow surface spreading喷洒布水系统，喷灌布水系统sprinkler systems快速渗滤土地处理系统rapid infiltration landtreatment system渗滤—渗透土地处理infiltration-percolation landtreatment快速渗滤rapid infiltration快速渗滤法rapid infiltration method过滤作用filtering action吸附作用adsorption action地表漫流土地处理系统overland flow land treatment system地表漫流overland flow径流集水沟runoff collection ditch物理、化学和生物过程physical , chemical , and biological processes湿地n. wetland天然湿地natural wetland人工湿地constructed wetlandman-made wetland第七部分：污泥处理、处置与利用污泥n. sludge生活污水污泥sewage sludge污泥体积，污泥量sludge volume原污泥，生污泥raw sludge新鲜污泥，生污泥fresh sludge消化污泥，熟污泥digested sludge混合污泥mixed sludge污泥处理sludge treatment污泥处置sludge disposal最终处置ultimate disposal填埋n. landfill污泥减量sludge volume reduction污泥稳定化sludge stabilization（污泥）浓缩n. thickening污泥浓缩sludge thickening建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天稳定，稳定化n. stabilizationv. stabilize稳定了的污泥stabilized sludge调理（调节）n. conditioningv. condition脱水n. dewateringv. dewater干化n. drying污泥干化场sludge drying bed污泥干燥heat drying干燥器n. dryer污泥焚烧，污泥焚化n. incineration焚烧炉，焚化炉n. incinerator污泥浓缩sludge thickening物理过程physical process含水过多的污泥watery sludge稀污泥thin sludge处理装置treatment unit浓缩池n. thickener重力浓缩gravity thickening重力浓缩池gravity thickener圆形污水沉淀池circular sewage sedimentation tank 刮泥机sludge scraper搅拌作用stirring action底流n. underflow浓缩的底流thickened underflow浓缩污泥thickened sludge出水n. effluent上清液n. supernatant溢流v. overflow堰n. weir气浮浓缩floatation thickening溶气气浮dissolved-air floatation气浮池floatation tank入流污泥influent sludge污泥絮体sludge flocs撇去v. skim漂浮污泥层floating sludge layer污泥消化sludge digestion消化池n. digester消化池装置digester unit消化n. digestionv. digest有机固体organic solids生化分解biochemical decomposition好氧消化aerobic digestion好氧污泥消化aerobic sludge digestion好氧消化过程aerobic digestion process活性污泥池activated sludge tank预制的（成套）活性污泥处理系统prefabricated (package) activated sludge treatmentsystems预制的接触稳定或prefabricated contact stabilization or延时曝气处理系统extended aeration treatment systemsBOD负荷BOD loading细胞物质cellular mass内源衰亡endogenous decay厌氧消化anaerobic digestion厌氧污泥消化anaerobic sludge digestion有盖的圆形池covered circular tank消化过程digestion process厌氧消化过程anaerobic digestion process生化反应biochemical reactions有机酸organic acids挥发性脂肪酸(VFAs) volatile fatty acids甲烷气methane gas末端产物end product指示剂n. indicator污泥消化池气体sludge digester gas污泥沉淀sludge settling污泥储存sludge storage消化污泥digested sludge充分消化的污泥well-digested sludge消化池上清液digester supernatant中温消化mesophilic digestion高温消化thermophilic degestion污泥脱水sludge dewatering混合堆肥co-composting污泥处理总成本overall sludge-handling costs第八部分：废水回用地表水资源surface water resource地下水资源groundwater resource水短缺water scarcity回用n. , v. reuse建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天废水回用wastewater reuse直接回用direct reuse直接废水回用direct wastewater reuse间接回用indirect reuse间接废水回用indirect wastewater reuse 出水处理effluent treatment回用水reclaimed water排放n. , v. discharge保留n. retention循环n. recyclingv. recycle部分处理n. partial treatment最终用途end use城市污水回用municipal wastewater reuse 灌溉n. irrigation景观灌溉landscape irrigation地下水回灌groundwater recharge市政回用municipal reuse直接市政回用direct municipal reuse深度处理，高级处理advanced treatment 分质供水系统dual-distribution system间接市政回用indirect municipal reuse供水系统，给水系统water supply system 取水口n. intake天然同化能力natural assimilative capacity 人工回灌artificial recharge深井注射deep-well injection浅表布水shallow surface spreading渗透n. percolation工业回用industrial reuse工艺废水，过程废水process wastewaters工艺补充水，过程补充水plant process makeup water冷却塔水cooling tower water选择性处理optional treatment水费water costs回用的城市污水reclaimed municipal wastewater工业过程industrial processes冷却水cooling water锅炉给水boiler feedwater灌溉回用irrigation reuse废水直接灌溉direct irrigation with wastewater低负荷土地处理系统low-rate land treatment system 间接灌溉回用indirect reuse for irrigation废水排放wastewater discharge雨水回用storm water reuse可回用水reusable waterPartⅨ:第九部分：投资成本，投资费（用）capital costs建设成本，建设费（用）construction costs运行成本，运行费（用）operating costs能耗成本energy costs运行维护operation and maintenance运行控制operational control控制系统control system仪表/控制系统instrumentation/control system自动控制系统，自控系统automatic control system建议收藏下载本文，以便随时学习！我去人也就有人！为UR扼腕入站内信不存在向你偶同意调剖沙龙课反倒是龙卷风前一天。

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Hybrid Petri Nets for Modeling and Analysis of Microgrid Systems

Hybrid Petri Nets for Modeling and Analysis ofMicrogrid SystemsXiaoyu Lu,Student Member,IEEE,MengChu Zhou,Fellow,IEEE,Ahmed Chiheb Ammari,Senior Member,IEEE,and Jingchu JiAbstract—Hybrid Petri nets(HPNs)are widely used to describe and analyze various industrial hybrid systems that have both discrete-event and continuous discrete-time behaviors.Recently, many researchers attempt to utilize them to characterize power and energy systems.This work proposes to adopt an HPN to model and analyze a microgrid that consists of green energy sources.A reachability graph for such a model is generated and used to analyze the system properties.Index Terms—Hybrid Petri nets(HPNs),microgrid,reachabil-ity graph,system simulation.I.I NTRODUCTIOND UE to the constraint of fossil fuels and rising environ-mental pollution,the world is witnessing an increasing demand for affordable sustainable energy systems.Their wide range of uses can improve the structure of energy supply with clean and renewable energy resources.Since the depletion of non-renewable energy resources such as oil,coal and natural gas are inevitable,more and more nations are now investing in renewable energy sources(RES)such as solar, wind,hydropower and geothermal energy which are clean and sustainable.The last few decades witnessed a rapid develop-ment of renewable energy devices and received a signiﬁcant amount of attention around the world.With economic growth, accelerating urbanization,and increasing energy needs from residential and commercial sectors,global energy demand is expected to double by2050[1].Microgrids are proposed for the effective integration of RES into power and energy systems.They include distributed generators(DGs),energy storage systems and loads on the utility grid to provide high quality and high reliability electric power for the end-users[2].Normally,a microgrid is connected to the main grid via the point of common coupling(PCC).It Manuscript received September17,2015,accepted December12,2015. This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientiﬁc Research(DSR),King Abdulaziz University,Jeddah(23-135-35-HiCi).Recommended by Associate Editor Fei-Yue Wang.Citation:Xiaoyu Lu,MengChu Zhou,Ahmed Chiheb Ammari,Jingchu Ji. Hybrid Petri nets for modeling and analysis of microgrid systems.IEEE/CAA Journal of Automatica Sinica,2016,3(4):349−356Xiaoyu Lu,MengChu Zhou,and Jingchu Ji are with Helen and John C. Hartmann Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,New Jersey Institute of Technology,Newark,NJ07102,USA(email:xl267@; zhou@;jingchuji@).Mengchu Zhou is also with the Re-newable Energy Research Group,King Abdulaziz University,Jeddah21589, Saudi Arabia.Ahmed Chiheb Ammari is with the Renewable Energy Research Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,King Abdulaziz Uni-versity,Jeddah21589,Saudi Arabia,and is also with the MMA Labo-ratory,INSAT Institute,Carthage University,1080Tunis,Tunisia(email: ac.ammari@yahoo.fr).has two operating modes.One is a grid connected mode,while the other is an islanded mode.The ideal microgrid can supply reliable power whether the microgrid is operated in a grid connected or islanded mode[3].The research on microgrids has been paid much attention as a means to improve the performance of electrical power since the2003northeast blackout.Normally,electrical circuits can be described as a dynamic system by state-space methods[4].Since power systems can be thought of as huge electrical circuits,from this perspective, we can describe it via state-space matrices[4].Meanwhile, some power system problems,such as powerﬂow problems etc.,can be solved by state-space matrices as well.For example,[5]ﬁnds powerﬂow solutions from Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson by adopting these state-space matrices. Even though they can describe the system and solve some related problems,following issues are still being faced.They only describe the dynamic variables but they cannot deal with discrete events,such as the tap changing in transformers etc.[6]. The current studies ignore the possible impacts of discrete events on continuous variables in a power system.Since a microgrid is treated as a small scale power system,pursuing a proper method to model a microgrid comprehensively is the primary motivation of this study.Petri nets(PN)and their extended ones,such as HPN and controlled colored timed Petri nets(CCTPN),are widely used in the industrial and manufacturingﬁelds.A well designed process of wafer fabrication is presented in[7]and[8].In[9],the reﬁning processes of crude oil operations are described by a CCTPN model.Partial power systems have been modeled by extended PN.Reference[10]describes an HPN model to simulate an on-load tap changing(OLTC)transformer.Tap changing is a discrete event that changes the tap of a transformer from the current tap to another one while this operation impacts some dynamic variables instantly at random time slots,such as system voltages and currents.In[6],a load sharing model based on a PN is given which has shown a way to model the processes of the load sharing.Models of the separated wind turbine,photovoltaic cell,diesel generator and battery are presented in[11]which propose the possibility of using an HPN method for modeling electrical devices.Because PN and its extensions can handle both discrete and dynamic behaviors as in[6,10−11],this work combines the previous works and presents an HPN model for modeling and analysis of microgrid systems.A method of generating a reachability graph is adopted to analyze such a microgrid system as well. The rest of this paper is organized as follows.The descrip-tion of microgrid system is presented in Section II.The con-cepts of HPN are given with explanation of an example case in Section III.Section IV models a4-DGs microgrid system by implementation of HPN.Meanwhile,the application states the HPN modeling method and analyzes the properties of a hybrid system by generating a reachability graph.Section V gives the experimental results.Section VI concludes this work by indicating the advantages of an HPN model and its reachability graph.II.D ESCRIPTION OF A M ICROGRID S YSTEMLet us consider a microgrid,where a4-DGs system is oper-ated in the islanded mode.In this circumstance,the microgrid is disconnected from the upstream distribution network due to occurrence of some fault or high disturbance in the main grid.Then,it operates autonomously,in a similar way to a physical island[3].A microgrid is often composed of a load,a battery system and multiple DGs.In Fig.1,there is a4-DGs microgrid.There is a wind turbine,photovoltaic cells,diesel generator,battery and load.All of them are connected to a busdirectly.Fig.1.A4-DGs microgrid.In this system,the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell modules contain inverters that convert the direct current(DC) to alternating current(AC).The battery is a storage device that can be charged when surplus energy is available from renewable sources and will supply this energy during the shortage of renewable energy.In order to make full use of renewable energy sources,when the energy produced from the renewable sources can meet the load,the non-renewable sources remain off-mode.Thus,in this4-DGs system,if the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell can satisfy the requirements of the load,the diesel generator remains off.Otherwise,the diesel generator and the battery need to generate power to satisfy the stability and reliability of the microgrid.In this situation,the power utilization from the diesel generator and the battery is a decision making problem.The system shall be able to share the load demand[2]between the battery and the diesel generator.Thus,we can determine the amount of power generation from the battery and the diesel generator, respectively.III.C ONCEPTS OF H YBRID P ETRI N ETSAn HPN is an extension of the PN by introducing continu-ous transitions,places and markings containing real numbers.Following[12−14],H=(P N,S)that satisﬁes the following conditions:P N={P,T,I,O,M}is a Petri net including:1)P=P d∪P c is the set of discrete and continuous places with P d∩P c=∅.p d∈P d represents a discrete place and p c ∈P c represents a continuous one;2)T=T d∪T c is the set of discrete and continuous transitions with T d∩T c=∅.t d∈T d represents a discrete transition and t c∈T c represents a continuous one;3)I:P×T→R+is a mapping that assigns a weight to the arcs from place to transitions and R+is the set of positive real numbers;4)O:T×P→R+is a mapping that assigns a weight to the arcs from transitions to places;and5)M:P→R+is a marking representing the number of tokens in places with M0denoting the initial marking.S is the set ofﬁring speeds and enabled time durations associated with continuous transitions;for t j∈T c,S(t j)= (v j,h),where v j,h∈R+,v j is theﬁring speed associated with transition t j and h is an enabled time duration.Note that j and i denote the index of a transition and place,respectively. According to[15]and[16],an HPN marking M can be divided into two components:discrete and continuous ones. The former describes the values in the discrete places while the latter shows the values in the continuous places at M. Reference[16]gives an algorithm to obtain the reachability graph of an HPN with delays on its continuous transitions. Instead,this paper aims at generating a reachability graph when there are no explicit delays on both continuous and discrete places.Meanwhile,it is used to describe a dynamic system and the time points are labeled in the graph to show the variations of marking in the time domain.According to [9],the post continuous component of a marking is obtained from its previous continuous component and the constant ﬁring rates associated with the continuous transitions during a constant time duration.This deﬁnition requires theﬁring rates to be invariant in a given time duration.Reference[13] presents a general expression for the reachable marking of HPN.However,it aims at describing the variations of discrete and continuous components separately.Thus,it ignores the connections between the continuous transitions(places)and discrete places(transitions).The preset of transition t j is the set of all input places to t j,i.e.,•t j={p:p i∈P and I(p i,t j)>0}.The postset of t j is the set of all output places from t j,i.e.,t•j={p:p i∈P and O(p i,t j)>0}.In order to describe a hybrid system,the deﬁnition is given as follows:Deﬁnition1.A discrete transition t j∈T d is enabled if∀p i ∈•t j,M(p i)≥I(p i,t j).For discrete transition t j∈T d,at the beginning of itsﬁring, the marking becomes:∀p i∈•t j∩P,M (p i)=M(p i)−I(p i,t j).(1) After delay d jﬁring,the marking becomes:∀p i∈t•j∩P,M (p i)=M(p i)+O(p i,t j),(2)LU et al.:HYBRID PETRI NETS FOR MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF MICROGRID SYSTEMS351 where d j denotes the time delay for a timed transition t j.Animmediate transition t j can be seen as timed transition withd j=0.Note that if p i is an input and output place of t j,itsmarking afterﬁring t j at M should be M(p i)−I(p i,t j)+O(p i,t j).Deﬁnition2.A continuous transition t j∈T c is enabled if∀p i∈P satisfying:1)if p i∈•t j∩P d,M(p i)≥I(p i,t j);and2)if p i∈•t j∩P c,M(p i)>0.The marking of a discrete place is a natural number,whilethe marking of a continuous place is a positive real number.For continuous transition t j∈T c,we assume that theﬁringbegins at timeτs,and ends at timeτd,where h denotes aﬁring time duration and equalsτd−τs.At any time pointτ∈[τs,τd]the marking becomes:∀p i∈•t j∩P c:M (p i)=M(p i)−I(p i,t j)ττs ν(µ)dµ,(3)∀p i∈t•j∩P c:M (p i)=M(p i)+O(p i,t j)ττs ν(µ)dµ,(4)∀p i∈•t j∩P d:M (p i)=M(p i)−I(p i,t j)(5)∀p i∈t•j∩P d:M (p i)=M(p i)+O(p i,t j)(6) Note that1)If p i is an input and output place of t j,its marking after ﬁring t j at M isM(p i)−I(p i,t j)ττs ν(µ)dµ+O(p i,t j)ττsν(µ)dµ.2)The discrete transitions must be immediate ones.A simple example is given in Fig.2.It is an HPN model of a photovoltaic cell-battery system.In this model,there are two discrete places(p1-p2),one continuous place(p3),two discrete transitions(t1-t2)and two continuous transitions(t3-t4).The photovoltaic cell has two modes.One is ON by marking p1with a token.The other is OFF by marking p2 with a token.When the intensity of sunlight is strong enough, t2is enabled.Otherwise,t1is enabled.t3is associated with a ﬁring speed rate v3which denotes the power generation from the photovoltaic cell.The value of tokens in p3represents the energy stored in a battery.It reveals the accumulated energy produced by a photovoltaic cell or the amount of stored energy that has not been used yet.Transition t4denotes the energy demand.Theﬁring speed of t4has three values(0kW,1kW, 2kW)in this example.The initial marking is(010),meaning that the photovoltaic cell remains off(M(p2)=1)and if no energy is produced by it(M(p3)=0).When the intensity of sunlight is strong enough,t2ﬁres.Meanwhile,the token moves from p2to p1.The marking is changed to(100).Then the continuous transition t3is enabled.The energy is produced with theﬁring speed rate v3.As an assumption,the curve of daily energy produced by the photovoltaic cell is given in Fig.3.During the time interval from8-10am,ﬁring speed v3 is2kW.Since v4has three values,there are three branches being derived from the initial marking.Thus,at10am,the three reachable markings are(104),(102)and(100).Similarly,the reachability graph is generated by[15−16]and shown in Fig.4.Fig.2.An HPN model of a photovoltaic cell-batterysystem.Fig.3.An example curve of daily energy produced by the photo-voltaiccell.Fig.4.The reachability graph of the photovoltaic cell-battery sys-tem model.From the reachability graph,at8am the photovoltaic cell switches its mode from OFF to ON(M(p1)=1).Then, because v4has three choices,it leads the system into3 different states which can be described by three markings at10am.For the same reason,each of these three markings generates three new markings.At12pm,the reachability graph has nine branches,but some of them can reach the same markings.IV.H PN M ODELINGIn Fig.5,an HPN model of the4-DGs microgrid is shown. Table I gives the explanation of its places and transitions.The separated models of the wind turbine,battery,photovoltaic cell,and diesel generator are presented in[11]and are highlighted by four dotted boxes in Fig.5.Normally,if the energy produced from the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell352IEEE/CAA JOURNAL OF AUTOMATICA SINICA,VOL.3,NO.4,OCTOBER 2016is enough to meet the load,the battery and diesel generator are operated in the off-mode.Otherwise,the battery and the diesel generator need to be turned on and work as the backup sources to support theload.Fig.5.An HPN model of a 4-DGs microgrid.The wind turbine has places,p 1-p 3,and transitions,t 1-t 6and t 11-t 12.According to the wind speed V ,the wind turbine has three operating modes.It is operated under the ﬁrst mode if V is greater than the start-up speed V a but smaller than the rated speed V n .At this mode continuous transition t 11is enabled with the ﬁring speed v 11(v 11=E w =f (V )),where E w is a function of wind speed V which represents the energy produced from the wind turbine at this moment.However,if the wind speed is greater than V n ,t 12is enabled with the ﬁring speed v 12(v 12=E w =E max )and the system runs at the second mode.E max denotes the maximum capacity of the wind turbine.The third one aims at the case when the wind speed is less than the start-up wind speed V a .In this case,the power output of the wind turbine is 0(E w =0).The photovoltaic cell has places,p 4-p 5,and transitions,t 7-t 8and t 13.It has two operating modes,either on or off.The ﬁring speed of t 13is v 13,depending on the intensity of sunlight when the photovoltaic cell is on.The power output of this photovoltaic cell is zero when it is off.The ﬁring speed v wp represents the rate of energy produced by both wind turbine and photovoltaic cell.Clearly,v wp =v 11+v 13or v wp =v 12+v 13,when the wind turbine is operated at the ﬁrst or second mode.The battery model is composed of places,p 9-p 10,and transitions,t 14-t 15.It has three operating modes,charging,storing and discharging.The ﬁring speed v 14is associated with t 14,when it is operated in the charging mode.On the contrary,the ﬁring speed v 15is associated with t 15,when it is in the discharging one.For the diesel generator,its HPN module consists of places,p 6-p 7,and transitions,t 9-t 10and t 16,with two operating modes,energy production andnon-production mode.When it is on,p 6holds a token.Then t 16is triggered with the ﬁring speed v 16.p 8denotes the energy produced by both wind turbine and photovoltaic cell.When the system has surplus energy and can meet the load,M (p 8)>0;otherwise M (p 8)=0.p 11represents the shortage of energy.When the system does not have enough energy,M (p 11)>0;otherwise M (p 11)=0.Meanwhile,t 17represents the load demand with the ﬁring speed v 17.t 18means that the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell respond to the load demand with the ﬁring speed v 18and v 18=min(v wp ,v 17).In Fig.5,εis a small quantity set to be the minimum energy unit.This arc with εas its weight is required in order to detect if its connected continuous place has any energy in it.TABLE IMEANINGS OF PLACES AND TRANSITIONS OF THE HPNMODEL OF A 4-DGs MICROGRIDType LabelMeaningP dp 1the ﬁrst mode of wind turbine p 2the second mode of wind turbine p 3the third mode of wind turbinep 4the photovoltaic cell on p 5the photovoltaic cell off p 6the diesel generator on p 7the diesel generator offP cp 8the energy produced by both wind turbine and photovoltaic cell p 9the storage capacity of the battery p 10the amount of energy stored in the battery p 11the shortage of energy supply T dt 1the wind turbine switches from the ﬁrst mode to the third one t 2the wind turbine switches from the third mode to the ﬁrst one t 3the wind turbine switches from the ﬁrst mode to the second one t 4the wind turbine switches from the second mode to the ﬁrst one t 5the wind turbine switches from the third mode to the second one t 6the wind turbine switches from the second mode to the third onet 7the photovoltaic cell off t 8the photovoltaic cell on t 9the diesel generator off t 10the diesel generator on T ct 11the energy produced by the wind turbine in the ﬁrst mode t 12the energy produced by the wind turbine in the second modet 13the energy produced by the photovoltaic cellt 14the charging of the battery t 15the discharging of the batteryt 16the energy produced by the diesel generatort 17load demandt 18both wind turbine and photovoltaic cell respond tothe load demandThere are three circumstances for this 4-DGs microgrid.For the ﬁrst circumstance,the energy produced by the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell cannot meet the load demand (v 17>v wp ).Then M (p 8)=0and M (p 11)>0.In order to compensate the shortage of load demand,the diesel generator is operated in its production mode by having a token in p 6.Meanwhile,the battery is switched to the discharging mode to release its energy.For the second circumstance,the energy produced by the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell is equal toLU et al.:HYBRID PETRI NETS FOR MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF MICROGRID SYSTEMS353the load demand(v17=v wp).Thus M(p8)=0and M(p11)= 0.In this case,the battery is in the storing mode and the diesel generator generates power with its minimum capacity.When the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell can generate enough energy and the microgrid has surplus energy,the system is at the third circumstance.v17<v wp,and thus M(p8)>0and M(p11)=0.t9is enabled,and the token goes to p7from p6,which means that the diesel generator is turned off.The battery is switched to the charging mode by triggering t14, and charged with theﬁring speed v14.In a real microgrid,an example curve of daily load demand is shown in Fig.6.The curve of daily energy produced by the wind turbine is shown as an example in Fig.7.The maximum capacity of the wind turbine is2kW.v w represents the rate of daily energy produced by the wind turbine.Obviously,v w= v11,or v w=v12,when the wind turbine is operated at the ﬁrst or second mode.The curve of daily energy produced by the photovoltaic cell is described as an example in Fig.3.All example curves are approximated as being piecewise constant and may be more complex in real cases.A reachability graph is shown in Fig.8.∆τis a short time interval that is a short period of time when the battery and the diesel generator are required to start or to generate power or stop.εis a minimum energy unit that is the amount of the shortage of energy or the stored energy in a short time interval∆τ.Meanwhile,τ+∆τrepresents a short time after time pointτ.For example,8+∆τdenotes a moment right after8am.Theﬁring speed vector v =(v11,v12,v13,v14,v15,v16,v17,v18)is associated with the continuous transitions and is constant during theﬁring timeduration.Fig.6.An example curve of daily loaddemand.Fig.7.An example curve of daily energy produced by the wind turbine.The order of each marking is described by(p1,p2,p3,p4, p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11).The initial marking is(00101 010280),which means that the wind turbine is operated at the third mode(M(p3)=1),both the photovoltaic cell and diesel generator are off(M(p5)=1and M(p7)=1) and the energy stored in the battery is8kWh(M(p10)=8). At6am(τ=6),since the wind speed is strong enough,the wind turbine switches from the third mode to the second one by moving a token from p3to p2.However,the intensity of sunlight is not that strong,and thus the photovoltaic cell is off by having a token in p5.Meanwhile,the energy produced by the wind turbine can meet the load demand.Thus,theﬁring speed vector is(02000022)during the period of time from 6-8am.Atτ=8,the marking is(010********).At this moment,because the intensity of sunlight is strong enough,t7 is enabled and a token goes to p4from p5,which denotes that the photovoltaic cell is on.Then,continuous transition t13is enabled with theﬁring speed v13=2kW.According to the curve of daily load demand,the load demand increases to 6kW at the same time.Then,theﬁring speed vector changes to(02201164).Since the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell cannot support the load demand,after a short time interval ∆τ,the value of p11increases toεand t10is enabled which means that the diesel generator is turned on by moving a token from p7to p6.Inversely,at10am(τ=10),the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell is able to meet the load(v wp>v17), then M(p8)=ε,which denotes the microgrid has extra energy produced from the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell. At this point in time,the diesel generator is turned off by moving a token from p6to p7.At18o’clock,the intensity of sunlight is reduced.The power generation from the wind turbine and photovoltaic cell is not able to support the load any more(v wp<v17).Thus,the battery and diesel generator are required to be turned on.It is easy to determine the energy produced by the diesel generator and the battery in the real world.Then,the multiple values of the power generation lead a system into different states.In the reachability graph,we are able to describe the multiple cases which are reached by different values of the power generation.In Fig.8,atτ=18, it has three possible branches that are corresponding to three cases.Case1:the direct upward branch chooses the battery as the only backup source and it generates1kW.Meanwhile,the diesel generator is turned on,but it generates0kW power.This state of the system remains untilτ=22.After that,the wind turbine generates more power than during the time interval fromτ=18toτ=22.Then,the diesel generator is switched off atτ=22+∆τ.Case2:the right upward branch selects the battery to be the backup source as well.The difference from Case1is that Case2continues the power generation mode of diesel generator for a short time interval∆τ.Then, the valueεin p11is converted into p10.Atτ=18+∆τ,the diesel generator is turned off directly.Differently,in Case1,it is turned off atτ=22+∆τ.From the reachability graph,no matter what option is selected,the marking goes back to the marking(0100101ε640).Case3:the right downward branch describes that either of the battery and diesel generator generate0.5kW.If we assume that one day starting at6am and ending at the same time on the next day is the system354IEEE/CAA JOURNAL OF AUTOMATICA SINICA,VOL.3,NO.4,OCTOBER2016Fig.8.Reachability graph of an HPN model of a 4-DGs microgrid.cycle,the third case leads the marking to a new one when the second cycle begins.On the contrary,the ﬁrst and second cases bring the system back to the initial state.These three cases represent three options in the physical layer.The ﬁrst case represents that the energy can be sufﬁciently supplied by the battery,and the battery is chosen as the backup source.Meanwhile the diesel generator is operated at on-mode,but it does not generate power.Once the battery is exhausted,the diesel generator can generate the needed power immediately.In the second case,if the battery can support the load,the diesel generator is turned off.The generator only needs to be turned on when the battery is exhausted.Thus,it does not require to spend any diesel cost once it remains in its on-mode during the period of supplying the load from battery.The ﬁrst or second case brings the system back to the initial state.This means that in the new system cycle the initial state is the same.In other words,the wind turbine is operated at the third mode,both the photovoltaic cell and diesel generator are off and the energy stored in the battery is 8kWh.However,the third case gives another scheme that allows the battery and diesel generator produce power at the same time when the system does not have enough power.The difference is that the battery is fully charged when the new system cycle starts.In this HPN model and reachability graph,the states ofLU et al.:HYBRID PETRI NETS FOR MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF MICROGRID SYSTEMS 355power sources and parameters of a dynamic system are clearly described.Therefore,the HPN is one of the effective methods to model a hybrid system.Meanwhile,the reachability graph is an effective way to describe the variations of the system whether they are the discrete or continuous behaviors.V.E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTSThe effectiveness of the proposed HPN modeling method is veriﬁed by our developed Matlab program.The curves of daily energy produced by the photovoltaic cell and wind turbine are adopted as shown in Figs.3and 7.The curve of daily load demand is described in Fig.6.Then,the experiment simulates a 24-hour duration.Figs.9-11show the experiment results of the HPN model.The X axis labels the time slots,while the simulation starts from τ=6am and ends at τ=6am the next day.In Figs.9and 10,because the back-up sources start to generate power after a very short time interval,there is a ∆τright after 8am as an example.Fig.9shows the velocity of t 15under three cases,which refers to the discharged energy of the battery.Fig.10shows the energy produced by the diesel generator.These two ﬁgures show that the three cases have different types of back-up sources and different amount of energy produced from each source.Fig.11represents the variants of the storage capacity of the battery modeled by M (p 9).Three different branches represent three mentioned cases of the available energy capacity oftheFig.9.The rate of discharging of thebattery.Fig.10.The rate of energy produced by the dieselgenerator.Fig.11.The storage capacity of the battery.battery.In this ﬁgure,only two branches are found because the ﬁrst and second cases have almost the same curve.Then,the curve is bifurcated at τ=18at which the third case appears.The curve of the third branch has much difference from the ﬁrst and second ones,since it adopts both battery and diesel generator as power sources.On the contrary,the ﬁrst and second cases utilize the battery as the only power source during the time slots after τ=18.Meanwhile,the distinction between the ﬁrst and second branches in Fig.11is the slight difference between τ=22and τ=22+∆τ.This is caused by the different time points of the diesel generator being turned off.As Fig.12shows the opposite action which describes the energy stored in the battery modeled by M (p 10),the breaking points are the same as shown in Fig.11.Fig.12.The amount of energy stored in the battery.Comparing with [6]and [17],the proposed method can also obtain the same simulation results.In addition,it leads to a way for optimal control and decision making.VI.C ONCLUSIONAn HPN modeling method is able to describe the discrete and dynamic behaviors in an underlying hybrid system.Its application to microgrid systems is presented.The reachability graph of the resulting HPN is generated and used to show all states of a system,whether they are discrete or continuous states.Furthermore,it is able to list all the possible options/choices at a decision point.Analyzing the post markings via。

10 Grid-connected Photovoltaic Systems

4
§10.2 PV in Buildings
A grid-connected home with an integral photovoltaic system.
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§10.2 PV Systems in Buildings ─ A wide range of specific building-integrated PV (BIPV) products are now on the market, especially for roofs, facades and as architectural elements in atria etc. ─ To date, however, normal modules are most commonly placed on roofs to supplement grid power. ─ For a household system, the essential components are: PV modules, a grid-interactive inverter, so that the electricity is utility-compatible, and metering equipment to feed and measure the power exchange between the house and the grid.
• (1) Line-commutated—where the grid signal is used to synchronize the inverter with the grid. • (2) Self-commutated—where the inverter’s intrinsic electronics lock the inverter signal with that of the grid.

栅格坐标转换流程原理

栅格坐标转换流程原理英文回答：Grid coordinate transformation is a process used to convert coordinates between different grid systems or reference frames. It is commonly used in various fields such as geodesy, cartography, and remote sensing. The purpose of this transformation is to accurately represent the location of points on the Earth's surface in different coordinate systems.The process of grid coordinate transformation involves several steps. First, the coordinates in the original grid system need to be determined. These coordinates are usually expressed in terms of latitude and longitude or easting and northing, depending on the grid system used. For example,in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system, coordinates are given in terms of easting and northing.Once the original coordinates are obtained, they needto be converted to a common reference frame. This is done by applying a transformation equation or algorithm. The transformation equation takes into account the differences in the geometrical properties and reference frames of the original and target grid systems. It may involve parameters such as scale factors, rotations, and translations.After the transformation equation is applied, the coordinates are converted to the desired grid system. This may involve converting from latitude and longitude to easting and northing, or vice versa. The transformed coordinates can then be used in the target grid system for various purposes, such as mapping, navigation, or geospatial analysis.It is important to note that grid coordinate transformation is not a simple mathematical conversion. It requires a deep understanding of the underlying geodetic principles and the specific characteristics of the grid systems involved. Errors in the transformation process can lead to significant inaccuracies in the final coordinates. Therefore, it is essential to use reliable transformationalgorithms and software tools, and to validate the results against known control points or reference data.中文回答：栅格坐标转换流程是一种将坐标在不同栅格系统或参考框架之间进行转换的过程。

Smart Grid and Energy Systems

Smart Grid and Energy Systems The smart grid and energy systems are critical components of modern society, playing a vital role in ensuring the efficient and sustainable distribution of power. As we continue to face challenges such as climate change, population growth, and increasing energy demands, it is imperative to explore innovative solutions to enhance the performance and reliability of these systems. In this discussion, we will delve into the various aspects of smart grids and energy systems, considering their impact on the environment, economy, and overall well-being of communities. From an environmental perspective, the integration of smart grid technologies presents a promising opportunity to reduce carbon emissions and mitigate theeffects of climate change. By incorporating renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power into the grid, we can significantly decrease our reliance on fossil fuels and decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, the implementation of advanced monitoring and control systems enables more efficient energy management, leading to reduced wastage and increased overall system efficiency. These efforts contribute to a healthier and more sustainable environment for current and future generations. Furthermore, the economic implications of smart grid and energy system advancements are substantial. The integration of smart grid technologies creates opportunities for job growth, innovation, and investment in the clean energy sector. As we transition towards a more sustainable energy infrastructure, there is potential for the development of new industries and the revitalization of existing ones. Moreover, by optimizing energy distribution and reducing operational costs, smart grids can lead to long-term economic benefits for both utility providers and consumers. This can resultin lower energy bills for end-users and improved financial stability for energy companies. In addition to environmental and economic considerations, the societal impact of smart grid and energy system developments is noteworthy. Enhanced reliability and resilience in power distribution can lead to a more secure and stable energy supply for communities, reducing the impact of power outages and enhancing overall quality of life. Moreover, the integration of smart grid technologies facilitates the adoption of electric vehicles and energy-efficient appliances, further contributing to a more sustainable and environmentallyconscious society. These advancements not only benefit individuals and households but also contribute to the collective well-being of communities at large. However, it is essential to acknowledge the challenges and potential drawbacks associated with the implementation of smart grid and energy system technologies. One significant concern is the issue of cybersecurity, as the increased connectivity and digitalization of energy infrastructure introduce new vulnerabilities that could be exploited by malicious actors. It is crucial to prioritize robust cybersecurity measures to safeguard against potential threats and ensure the integrity of the grid. Additionally, the upfront costs of implementing smart grid technologies can be substantial, posing a barrier to widespread adoption, particularly for smaller utility providers and communities with limited resources. Addressing these challenges requires careful planning, collaboration, and investment to ensure the successful and equitable deployment of advanced energy systems. In conclusion, the development and integration of smart grid and energy system technologies hold immense potential to transform the way we generate, distribute, and consume power. From environmental sustainability and economic growth to societal well-being, the benefits of advancing these systems are far-reaching. However, it is crucial to approach these advancements thoughtfully, considering the potential challenges and ensuring that the benefits are accessible to all. By embracing innovation, collaboration, and a long-term perspective, wecan harness the power of smart grids and energy systems to create a more sustainable and resilient future for generations to come.。

光伏发电技术试题十二

一、单项选择题1．太阳是距离地球最近的恒星，由炽热气体构成的一个巨大球体，中心温度约为10的7次方K，表面温度接近5800K，主要由__B__(约占80%)和____(约占19%)组成。

A．氢、氧 B. 氢、氦C. 氮、氢D. 氮、氦2．在地球大气层之外，地球与太阳平均距离处，垂直于太阳光方向的单位面积上的辐射能基本上为一个常数。

这个辐射强度称为太阳常数，或称此辐射为大气质量为零（AM0）的辐射，其值为__A__。

A．1.367 kW/m2 B. 1.000 kW/m2C. 1.353 kW/m2D. 0.875 kW/m23.太阳电池是利用半导体__C__的半导体器件。

A．光热效应 B.热电效应C. 光生伏特效应D. 热斑效应4．在衡量太阳电池输出特性参数中，表征最大输出功率与太阳电池短路电流和开路电压乘积比值的是__B__。

A．转换效率 B.填充因子C. 光谱响应D. 方块电阻5.下列表征太阳电池的参数中，哪个不属于太阳电池电学性能的主要参数__D__。

A．开路电压 B.短路电流C. 填充因子D.掺杂浓度6．下列光伏系统器件中，能实现DC-AC（直流-交流）转换的器件是__C__。

A．太阳电池 B.蓄电池C. 逆变器D. 控制器7．太阳能光伏发电系统的装机容量通常以太阳电池组件的输出功率为单位，如果装机容量1GW，其相当于__C__W。

A．103 B.106C. 109D.10108．一个独立光伏系统，已知系统电压48V，蓄电池的标称电压为12V，那么需串联的蓄电池数量为__D__。

A．1 B. 2C. 3D. 49.某无人值守彩色电视差转站所用太阳能电源，其电压为24V，每天发射时间为15h,功耗20W；其余9小时为接收等候时间，功耗为5W，则负载每天耗电量为__D__。

A．25Ah B. 15AhC. 12.5AhD. 14.4Ah10．光伏逆变器常用的冷却方式（ C ）。

A．自然风冷 B. 水冷 C. 强风冷11．某单片太阳电池测得其填充因子为77.3%，其开路电压为0.62V，短路电流为5.24A,其测试输入功率为15.625W,则此太阳电池的光电转换效率为__A__。

德国管道德国FRAENKISCHE 简介

关于德国FRÄNKISCHE德国FRÄNKISCHE公司是欧洲百年传承的第三代家族企业，始创于1906年，是欧洲塑料管系统的设计、制造和市场的行业领导厂商，精通于管道系统的创新、研发和制造，形成了电气系统、排水系统、建筑技术、汽车工业四大产品事业部，目前在全球有9个生产基地和5个营销管理中心，产品销售覆盖全球五大洲50多个国家，2011年销售额已经突破3亿欧元。

通过不断的研究和发展，Fränkische坚持为客户提供按照环保要求而设计的兼具有高性价比的产品。

严格的质量控制和高产品安全性的指导方针确保所有的产品都符合最严格的国际标准。

Fränkische致力于与客户建立长期稳定的合作关系和联盟，现在进入中国，旨在为国内的建筑科技的发展和人们家居生活品质的提升贡献一份力量。

FRÄNKISCHE全球解决方案FRÄNKISCHE是技术完美的管道系统的研发商和制造商–具有几十年管材生产经验的积累。

我们的工厂分布于德国、欧洲、亚洲和美国，近1600名干劲十足的员工正在为排水系统，电气系统，建筑技术和工业产品提供完善的解决方案。

产品适用于众多领域：建筑民用工程和道路建设、广泛先进的采暖建筑、土木工程和建筑的饮用水管道、创新的电缆保护或流畅的线条电气安装系统、最复杂的排水系统、汽车行业。

这些仅仅是一部分一流的系统解决方案的案例。

FRÄNKISCHE延续了100年的传统–面向未来富于创新的心和有效整合的专业技能，可以成为您理想的合作伙伴，为您寻求解决方案完成复杂而技术要求高的任务。

事业部分布FRÄNKISCHE的四个事业部一、DRAINAGE SYSTEMS |排水系统道路和轨道的排水，雨水管理方案，建筑物的排水和通风系统，电缆保护系统〃雨水处理〃道路和跑道的排水〃下水道建造〃建筑通风设备〃地下电缆保护〃建筑排水〃农业排水二、ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS |电气系统土木和机械工程中的电器管道，电缆保护系统〃隐蔽式安装和空心墙安装〃混凝土安装〃无掩蔽安装〃地基安装〃电缆保护管和工业应用三、BUILDING TECHNOLOGY |建筑技术供水、供暖和天然气管道系统〃散热器采暖和冷却系统〃地板低温辐射采暖〃专业应用四、FRÄNKISCHE INDUSTRIAL PIPES |工业管道工业和汽车应用上的电缆保护和流体应用〃汽车及零部件供应行业〃家用电器行业〃机械和设备工程〃医疗科技〃通风技术〃水暖技术〃可再生能源。

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