繁体版国际经济学Ch 2
ch02国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔瓦多）
ch02国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔⽡多）*CHAPTER 2Chapter) (CoreCOMPARATIVE ADVANTAGEOUTLINE2.1 Introduction2.2 Mercantilists’ Views on TradeCase Study 2-1 Mercantilism Is Alive and Well in the Twenty-First Century2.3 Trade Based on Absolute Advantage: Adam Smith2.4 Trade Based on Comparative Advantage: David Ricardo2.5 Gains from Trade with Comparative Advantage2.6 Comparative Advantage with MoneyCase Study 2-2 The Petition of the Candlemakers2.7 Comparative Advantage and Opportunity CostsCase Study 2-3 Labor Productivities and Comparative Advantage2.8 Production Possibility Frontier with Constant Costs2.9 Opportunity Costs and Relative Commodity Prices2.10 Basis and Gains from Trade Under Constant CostsAppendix: Comparative Advantage with More than Two Commodities and NationsA2.1 Comparative Advantage with More than Two CommoditiesA2.2 Comparative Advantage with More than Two NationsKey TermstheoryofvalueLabortradeBasisfortheorytrade OpportunitycostGainsfromtrade Production possibility frontierofPatterncostopportunityConstantMercantilismcommodityRelativeprices advantageAbsolutespecializationCompleteLaissez-faireLaw of comparative advantage Small-country case-7-Lecture Guide1. This is a long and crucial core chapter and may require four classes to cover adequately. In thefirst lecture, I would present Sections 1-4 and assign review questions 1-3.2. In the second lecture of Chapter 2, I would concentrate on Sections 5-6 and carefully explain the law of comparative advantage using simple numerical examples, as in the text. Both sections are crucial. Section 5 explains the law of comparative advantage and Section 6 establishes the link between trade theory and international finance. I find that the numerical explanations before the graphical analysis really helps the student to truly understand the law. The simple lawyer-secretary example should also render the law more immediately relevant to the student. I would also assign Problems 4-7.3. In the third lecture, I would cover Sections 7-9 and assign Problems 8-10.4. In the fourth lecture, I would Section 10 and go over problems 4-10. The appendixes could bemade optional for the more enterprising students in the class.Answer to Review Questions and Problems1. The mercantilists believed that the way for a nation to become rich and powerful was toexport more than it imported. The resulting export surplus would then be settled by an inflow of gold and silver and the more gold and silver a nation had, the richer and more powerful it was. Thus, the government had to do all in its power to stimulate the nation’s exports and discourage and restrict imports. However, since all nations could not simultaneously have an export surplus and the amount of gold and silver was fixed at any particular point in time, one nation could gain only at the expense of other nations. The mercantilists thus preached economic nationalism, believing that national interests were basically in conflict.Adam Smith, on the other hand, believed that free trade would make all nations better off.All of this is relevant today because many of the arguments made in favor of restrictinginternational trade to protect domestic jobs are very similar to the mercantilists argumentsmade three or four centuries ago. That is why we can say that “mercantilism is alive and well in the twenty-first century”. Thus we have to be prepared to answer and demonstrate thatthese arguments are basically wrong.2. According to Adam Smith, the basis for trade was absolute advantage, or one country being more productive or efficient in the production of some commodities and other countriesbeing more productive in the production of other commodities.The gains from trade arise as each country specialized in the production of the commodities in which it had an absolute advantage and importing those commodities in which the nation had an absolute disadvantage.Adam Smith believed in free trade and laissez-faire, or as little government interference with the economic system as possible. There were to be only a few exceptions to this policy of laissez-faire and free trade. One of these was the protection of industries important for national defense.3. Ricardo’s law of comparative advantage is superior to Smith’s theory of absolute advantage inthat it showed that even if a nation is less efficient than or has an absolute disadvantage in theproduction of all commodities with respect to the other nations, there is still a basis for beneficial trade for all nations.The gains from trade arise from the increased production of all commodities that arises wheneach country specializes in the production of and exports the commodities of its comparativeadvantage and imports the other commodities.A nation that is less efficient than others will be able to export the commodities of its compara-tive advantage by having its wages and other costs sufficiently lower than in other nations so asto make the commodities of its comparative advantage cheaper in terms of the same currencywith respect to the other nations.4. a. In case A, the United States has an absolute and a comparative advantage in wheat and theUnited Kingdom in cloth.In case B, the United States has an absolute advantage (so that the United Kingdom has anabsolute disadvantage) in both commodities.In case C, the United States has an absolute advantage in wheat but has neither an absoluteadvantage nor disadvantage in cloth.In case D, the United States has an absolute advantage over the United Kingdom in bothcommodities.b. In case A, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdomin cloth.In case B, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdomin cloth.In case C, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdomin cloth.In case D, the United States and the United Kingdom have a comparative advantage in neither commodities.5. a. The United States gains 1C.b. The United Kingdom gains 4C.c. 3C < 4W < 8C.d. The United States would gain 3C while the United Kingdom would gain 2C.6. a. The cost in terms of labor content of producing wheat is 1/4 in the United States and 1 in the United Kingdom, while the cost in terms of labor content of producing cloth is 1/3 in theUnited States and 1/2 in the United Kingdom.b. In the United States, Pw=$1.50 and Pc=$2.00.c. In the United Kingdom, Pw=￡1.00 and Pc=￡0.50.7. The United States has a comparative disadvantage in the production of textiles. Restrictingtextile imports would keep U.S. workers from eventually moving into industries in which the United States has a comparative advantage and in which wages are higher.8. Ricardo’s explanation of the law of comparative is unacceptable because it is based on the labor theory of value, which is not an acceptable theory of value.The explanation of the law of comparative advantage can be based on the opportunity costdoctrine, which is an acceptable theory of value.9. The production possibilities frontier reflects the opportunity costs of producing bothcommodities in the nation.The production possibilities frontier under constant costs is a (negatively sloped) straight line. The absolute slope of the production possibilities frontier reflects or gives the price of thecommodity plotted along the horizontal axis in relation to the commodity plotted along thevertical axis.10. a. See Figure 1.b. In the United States Pw/Pc=3/4, while in the United Kingdom, Pw/Pc=2.c. In the United States Pc/Pw=4/3, while in the United Kingdom Pc/Pw=1/2.d. See Figure 2.The autarky points are A and A' in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively. The points of production with trade are B and B' in the United States and the UnitedKingdom, respectively.The points of consumption are E and E' in the United States and the United Kingdom,respectively. The gains from trade are shown by E > A for the U.S. and E' > A' for the U.K.Fig 1.1aU.K. Fig 1.1bFigure1Fig 1.2aFig 1.2bFigure2Multiple-Choice Questions1. The Mercantilists did not advocated:*a. free tradeb. stimulating the nation's exportsc. restricting the nations' importsd. the accumulation of gold by the nation2. According to Adam Smith, international trade was based on:*a. absolute advantageb. comparative advantagec. both absolute and comparative advantaged. neither absolute nor comparative advantage3. What proportion of international trade is based on absolute advantage?a. allb. most*c. somed. none4. The commodity in which the nation has the smallest absolute disadvantage is the commodityof its:a. absolute disadvantageb. absolute advantagec. comparative disadvantaged. comparative advantage5. If in a two-nation (A and B), two-commodity (X and Y) world, it is established that nationA has a comparative advantage in commodity X, then nationB must have:a. an absolute advantage in commodity Yb. an absolute disadvantage in commodity Yc. a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y*d. a comparative advantage in commodity Y6. If with one hour of labor time nation A can produce either 3X or 3Y while nation B canproduce either 1X or 3Y (and labor is the only input):a. nation A has a comparative disadvantage in commodity Xb. nation B has a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y*c. nation A has a comparative advantage in commodity Xd. nation A has a comparative advantage in neither commodity7. With reference to the statement in Question 6:a. Px/Py=1 in nation Ab. Px/Py=3 in nation Bc. Py/Px=1/3 in nation B*d. all of the above8. With reference to the statement in Question 6, if 3X is exchanged for 3Y:a. nation A gains 2X*b. nation B gains 6Yc. nation A gains 3Yd. nation B gains 3Y9. With reference to the statement of Question 6, the range of mutually beneficial trade between nation A and B is:a. 3Y < 3X < 5Yb. 5Y < 3X < 9Y*c. 3Y < 3X < 9Yd. 1Y < 3X < 3Y10. If domestically 3X=3Y in nation A, while 1X=1Y domestically in nation B:a. there will be no trade between the two nationsb. the relative price of X is the same in both nationsc. the relative price of Y is the same in both nations*d. all of the above11. Ricardo explained the law of comparative advantage on the basis of:*a. the labor theory of valueb. the opportunity cost theoryc. the law of diminishing returnsd. all of the above12. The Ricardian trade model has been empirically*a. verifiedb. rejectedc. not testedd. tested but the results were inconclusive13. The Ricardian model was tested empirically in terms of differences ina. relative labor productivities costs in various industries among nationsb. relative labor costs in various industries among nations*c. relative labor productivities and costs in various industries among nationsd. none of the above14. A difference in relative commodity prices between two nations can be based upon a difference in:a. factor endowmentsb. technologyc. tastes*d. all of the above15. In the trade between a small and a large nation:a. the large nation is likely to receive all of the gains from trade*b. the small nation is likely to receive all of the gains from tradec. the gains from trade are likely to be equally sharedd. we cannot say。
国际经济学课件中文版(克鲁格曼教材)
比较优势理论
大卫·李嘉图发展，即使一国在所 有产品的生产上都没有绝对优势 ，仍可通过生产具有比较优势的 产品并从贸易中获益。
要素禀赋理论
赫克歇尔-俄林提出，各国应出口 密集使用其丰裕要素生产的产品 ，进口密集使用其稀缺要素生产 的产品。
新古典贸易理论
贸易条件
新古典贸易理论关注贸易条件的变化，即一国出口商品相对于进口 商品的价格。贸易条件的变化会影响一国的福利水平。
该理论认为投资者会根据不同国家资产的风险和收益特性 来构建国际投资组合，以实现风险和收益的最优平衡。
跨国公司直接投资理论
该理论强调跨国公司进行对外直接投资是为了利用不同国家的 比较优势和资源禀赋，通过跨国经营来实现利润最大化。
国际金融市场一体化理论
该理论认为随着国际金融市场的不断发展和一体化程度的提高 ，国际资本流动将越来越频繁和复杂，对各国经济的影响也将
反全球化的原因
经济不平等、文化冲突、环境破坏和恐怖主义等。
反全球化的影响
引发贸易保护主义、阻碍国际经济合作、导致全球经济不稳定等。
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CATALOGUE
中国在国际经济学中的地位和作用
中国对外贸易的发展历程与特点
改革开放以来的快速发展
自1978年改革开放以来，中国对外贸易经历了 快速增长，成为全球贸易大国。
利率平价理论
该理论认为两国货币之间的汇率变动应该等于两国利率之间的差异，即投资者在两国之 间进行套利活动所要求的汇率风险溢价。
国际收支理论
该理论认为汇率的变动取决于两国的国际收支状况，即外汇市场的供求关系决定了汇率 的水平。
国际收支调节理论
弹性分析法
该理论强调货币贬值可以通过改变进出口商品的相对价格来改善国际收支状况，但要求进出口需求对价格变动具有足 够的弹性。
国际经济学[2]
![国际经济学[2]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/291b4cbc5022aaea988f0f0e.png)
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本章结构
古典贸易理论的演变 劳动生产率差异与国际贸易：李
嘉图模型 古典贸易理论的验证和评价
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第一节 古典贸易理论的演变
重商主义 亚当·斯密的绝对优势理论 大卫·李嘉图的比较优势理论
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一、重商主义（mercantilism）
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（三）绝对优势的分析
1、证明
分工前
国家 酒产量 劳动人数 毛呢产量 劳动人数
（单位）
（人/年）
（单位）
（人/年）
英国 1
120
1
70 ＊
葡萄牙 1
80 ＊ 1
110
合计 2
2
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亚当.斯密《国富论》节选
•
裁缝不想自己制作鞋子，而向鞋匠购
买…….如果每一个私人家庭的行为是理性
的，那么整个国家的行为就很难是荒唐的。
如果一个国家能以比我们低的成本提供商品，
那么我们最好用自己有优势的商品同他们交
换。
•
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二、绝对优势理论(Theory of Absolute Advantage)
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亚当∙斯密（Adam Smith,1723－1790）
到了五十年代，斯密就提出经济自由主义的基 本思想。从1751年开始，斯密在格拉斯哥大学连续 任教12年，先后讲授逻辑学和道德哲学,颇受学生 欢迎。在这段被他称之为“一生中最幸福的时期” 中，斯密参加了政治经济学俱乐部活动（被称为 “俱乐部人”），而且，他每年总要到爱丁堡呆上 二至三个月，宣扬他的经济自由思想。他曾在讲演 中说道：“应该让人的天性本身自然发展，并在其 追求自己的目的和实施其本身计划的过程中给予它 充分自由……
International Economics chap 02(克鲁格曼国际经济学英文版)
Theory and Policy (Ninth Edition) Paul R. Krugman 黄卫平 彭刚
Chapter 2 Specific Factors and Income Distribution
CONTENTS
01
Understand how a mobile factor will Respond to price changes by mபைடு நூலகம்ving Across sectors?
1 2
LC2
3
AA
Labor Input in cloth, Lc
1 2
Production Possibility Frontier, PPF
BB（slope= -PC/ PF ,the minus relative 3 price of cloth）
QC2
Output of cloth, Qc
Production function for cloth
The same: MPLF×PF=w= MPLC×PC, or -MPLF/MLPC= -PC/ PF
Wage rate, w
10% PC increase
10% w increase
Labor used in cloth, LC
Price, wages and labor allocation-an equal-proportional change in prices
The main reasons that international trade has strong effects on the distribution of income are: 1. A short-run consequence of trade 2. A long-run consequence of trade
国际经济学2
则：
美国
分工前
生产：6W+4C
消费：6W+4C 生产：12W ∴分工后比 分工前美国 多获得2C
分工后
消费：6W+6C
生产：3W+6C 分工前 英国 消费：3W+6C 生产：12C 消费：6W+6C ∴分工后比分 工前英国多3W
分工后
结论：贸易使两国均能获利。
思 考（1）
一国在一种商品上具有比较优势，则另一国必定 在另一种商品上具有比较优势。此话对吗？ – 对。∵A国在X商品上具有比较优势， 则有ax／ ay ＞ bx ／ by， 又∵ ax、 ay 、 bx 、 by均大于零， ∴必有 by ／ bx ＞ ay ／ ax 即B国在Y商品上具有比较优势。
非贸易品不可能进行国际贸易
附录：多种商品的比较优势
产品 单位商品 本国的劳动 单位商品 外国的劳动 相对劳动生产 率
1 2
3 4 5
1 5
3 6 12
10 40
12 12 9
10 8
4 2 0.75
附录：多种商品的比较优势
相对工资 供给
10 8 1 2
4 2 0.75
3 4
需求
5
相对劳动量
– 例如：美国为了多生产一单位小麦，必须放弃2／3单
位布的生产， 则，在美国：小麦的机会成本=2／3单位布，即1W= 2／3C 同样地，在英国：小麦的机会成本=2单位布，即 1W= 2C
2、比较成本原理：当一国在一种商品上有较低 的机会成本时，则该国在该中商品上就具有了 比较优势（在另一种商品上有比较劣势）。
贸易条件
Terms of Trade: –是指一国出口商品价格和该国进口商品价格 的比值。 –在多种贸易商品世界中，定义为：一国出口 商品价格指数和该国进口商品价格指数的比 值。用百分比表示，通常称作商品或纯易货 贸易条件(Commodity or net barter terms of trade)
国际经济学chpt2
在III图中，通过生产点A、B、C的三条相对价 格线同时又代表该国在三个不同相对价格水平 下的预算约束线，为达到效用最大化目的，消 费者希望选择的消费应在预算约束线与社会无 差异曲线相切的切点。在相对价格为4、2和1 时，消费者希望达到的消费点分别为75、85和 100单位。
在Ⅳ图中，将对应于小麦不同相对价格与消费 者希望得到的消费数量两者之间的关系绘制出 来，得到需求曲线。需求曲线向右下方倾斜， 斜率为负。
品按国际市场价格贸易的利益。图中社 会无差异曲线I-II部分； 2、得自分工的利益 指资源根据比较优势而重新配置获得的 利益。图中社会无差异曲线II-III部分；
第2节 国际贸易的局部均衡分析
局部均衡分析并非研究整个经济情况， 而只讨论某个商品市场。它假定其他市 场的状况不变，把一种商品的价格仅视 为该商品本身供求相互作用的结果。
一、局部均衡分析的主要工具
供给曲线与需求曲线是局部均衡分析的 主要工具，反映了某种商品的价格和数 量间的对应关系，在开放经济分析中可 以表现为一国某一商品对应于其相对价 格的供给与需求。
1、供给曲线与需求曲线的推导
供给曲线和需求曲线可以由一般均衡分 析的生产可能性曲线和社会无差异曲线 推导得出。下图图描述了供给曲线的推 导过程。
生产可能性曲线和社会无差异曲线共同 决定了均衡状态下一国的相对价格水平 、生产及消费。
二、比较优势说的一般均衡分析
1936年，哈伯勒运用基于机会成本的一 般均衡分析方法重新演绎了比较优势理 论，认为当一国在一种商品的生产上相 对于另一国具有较低的机会成本时，该 国在这种商品上便拥有比较优势。根据 机会成本进行国际分工和国际交换，可 以给所有贸易参与国都带来贸易利益， 两国机会成本差异越大，比较优势越明 显。
CH02 国际经济学
1776, Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations
World’s wealth is not a fixed quantity International trade
• Increase the general level of productivity within a country • Increase world output (wealth)
Why Nations Trade: Absolute Advantage
Adam Smith – free trade advocate
Production costs differ among nations
• Different productivities of factor inputs
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7
Principle of absolute advantage
A two-nation, two-product world
International specialization and trade
One nation - absolute cost advantage in one good The other nation - absolute cost advantage i – if absolute cost advantage
© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use
Ch02-Mechanics of Futures Markets
1
Futures Contracts
Available on a wide range of underlying Exchange traded Specifications need to be defined for delivery:
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9
Байду номын сангаас
Convergence of Futures to Spot
Futures Price Spot Price
Spot Price Futures Price
Time
Time
(a)
(b)
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Futures for Crude Oil on Aug 4, 2009
11
Futures for Soybeans on Aug 4, 2009
What can be delivered Where it can be delivered When it can be delivered
Settled daily
2
Margins
A margin is cash or marketable securities deposited by an investor with his or her broker The balance in the margin account is adjusted to reflect daily settlement Margins minimize the possibility of a loss through a default on a contract
Day
2,660 + 1,340 = 4,000 . . . . . 2,740 + 1,260 = 4,000 . . . . . . 5,060 0
《国际经济学》第二章PPT教学课件
该国的福利水平；但必须指出，社会无差异曲线由低
处向高处移动，虽然表明国家的整体福利水平提高了，
但并意味着所有社会成员的福利水平都同时获得提高。
同样，消费点在同一条社会无差异曲线上移动，表示
整个国家的福利水平不变，但也并不意味着所有社会 成员的福利都不变。
前者主要针对某一与国际贸易有关的现象，提 供理论分析框架，旨在解释诸如国际贸易发生的 原因、贸易形态的决定、贸易政策措施对国内经 济活动（如价格、生产；消费；收入分配）的影 响等问题；
后者则就某一与贸易有关的现象进行价值判断， 即说明其好坏，如就一国贸易政策的制定（是采 用自由贸易还是应采取贸易保护主义）提出依据。
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一、国际贸易学图形分析的基本知识
局部均衡中的贸易获利：
所谓局部均衡是指分析研究一种商品在单独的一个市 场中的供应和需求的价格。
消费者剩余是指消费者在购买商品时，其实际支付的 价格和愿意支付的价格之间的差额。消费者剩余的面积， 是需求线以下，价格线以上的部分。
生产者剩余的面积，是供应线以上，价格线以下的部 分。一般而言，价格下降使消费者剩余增加，当价格上 升时，生产者剩余增加。
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主要分析工具（2）
（二）消费者偏好与社会无差异曲线
在国际贸易理论中，社会无差异曲线主要有两种用 途：（1）社会无差异曲线可以用来确定一国的均衡 消费点。（教材P21）（2）从规范分析的角度看，社 会无差异曲线可以用来衡量整个社会的福利。如若贸
易地方开展导致社会无差异曲线向远离坐标原点的方
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国际贸易研究方法的特点（2）
国际经济学作业答案-第二章
Chapter 2 World Trade—An OverviewMultiple Choice Questions1. What percent of all world production of goods and services is exported to other countries?(a) 10%(b) 25%(c) 50%(d) 100%(e) None of the aboveAnswer: B2.What percent of all world imports of goods and services were exported?(a) 10%(b) 25%(c) 50%(d) 100%(e) None of the above.Answer: D3. What percent of all world consumption (private and public, including real investment) was imported?(a) 10%(b) 25%(c) 50%(d) 100%(e) None of the above.Answer: B4. The gravity model, that states that size matters,predicts that the weight of the traded good will________ related to its likelihood to be exported(a) be directly(b) be inversely(c) not be(d) All of the above(e) None of the aboveAnswer: E5. The gravity model offers a logical explanation for the fact that(a) Trade between Asia and the U.S. has grown faster than NAFTA trade.(b) Trade in services has grown faster than trade in goods.(c) Trade in manufactures has grown faster than in agricultural products(d) Intra-European Union trade exceeds International Trade of the European Union.(e) None of the aboveAnswer: D6. The gravity model suggests that over time(a) trade between neighboring countries will increase(b) trade between all countries will increase(c) world trade will eventually be swallowed by a black hole.(d) trade between Earth and other planets will become important(e) None of the aboveAnswer: E7. The gravity model explains why(a) trade between Sweden and Germany exceeds that between Sweden and Spain(b) countries with oil reserves tend to export oil.(c) capital rich countries export capital intensive products(d) intra-industry trade is relatively more important than other forms of trade between neighboringcountries.(e) None of the aboveAnswer: A8. According to the gravity m odel, a characteristic that tends to affect the probability of trade existingbetween any two countries is(a) their cultural affinity(b) the average weight/value of their traded goods(c) their colonial—historical ties(d) the distance between them(e) the number of varieties produced on the average by their industries.Answer: D9. The one single trade partner country of the U.S. is(a) United Kingdom(b) Canada(c) Mexico(d) Japan(e) IsraelAnswer: B10. In general which of the following tend to promote the probability of trade volumes between twocountries(a) Linguistic and/or cultural affinity(b) Historical ties(c) Sizes of economies(d) Mutual membership in preferential trade agreements(e) All of the aboveAnswer: E11. Since World War II (the early 1950s), the proportion of mostc ountries’ production being used insome other country(a) remained constant(b) increased(c) decreased(d) fluctuated widely with no clear trend(e) both (a) and (d) aboveAnswer: B12. Since World War II, the likelihood that foreign markets would gain importance in the averageexporters’ as a source of profits(a) remained constant(b) increased(c) decreased(d) fluctuated widely with no clear trend(e) both (a) and (d) aboveAnswer: B13. Since World War II, the likelihood that any single item in the typical consumption basket of aconsumer in the U.S. originated outside of the U.S.(a) remained constant(b) increased(c) decreased(d) fluctuated widely with no clear trend(e) both (a) and (d) aboveAnswer: B14. Since World War II, the likelihood that the job a new college graduate will be directly or indirectlyaffected by world trade(a) remained constant(b) increased(c) decreased(d) fluctuated widely with no clear trend(e) both (a) and (d) aboveAnswer: B15. Since World War II, the relative importance of raw materials, including oil, in total world trade(a) remained constant(b) increased(c) decreased(d) fluctuated widely with no clear trend(e) both (a) and (d) aboveAnswer: C16. In the current Post-Industrial economy, international trade in services (including banking andfinancial services)(a) dominates world trade(b) does not exist(c) is relatively small(d) is relatively stagnant(e) None of the aboveAnswer: C17. In the pre-World War I period, the U.S. exported primarily(a) manufactured goods(b) services(c) primary products including agricultural(d) technology intensive products(e) None of the aboveAnswer: C18. In the pre-World War I period, the United Kingdom exported primarily(a) manufactured goods(b) services(c) primary products including agricultural(d) technology intensive products(e) None of the aboveAnswer: A19. In the pre-World War I period, the United Kingdom imported primarily(a) manufactured goods(b) services(c) primary products including agricultural(d) technology intensive products(e) None of the aboveAnswer: C20. In the present, most of the exports from China are in(a) manufactured goods(b) services(c) primary products including agricultural(d) technology intensive products(e) None of the aboveAnswer: A21. Which of the following does not explain the extent of trade between Ireland and the U.S.?(a) Historical ties(b) Cultural Linguistic ties(c) Gravity model(d) Multinational Corporations(e) None of the aboveAnswer: CEssay Questions1. When comparing the composition of world trade in the early 20th Century to the early 21st Century,we find major compositional changes. These include a relative decline in agricultural and primary-products (including raw materials). How would you explain this in terms of broad historicaldevelopments during this period?Answer: The typical composition of world production during this period experienced major changes. Focusing on today’s Industrialized Countries (primarily members of the O ECD),the industrial-employment composition was focused primarily on agriculture. Most valuewas in land. The predominant single consumption category was food. Since then, theeconomies shifted from the agricultural to the manufacturing sectors (continuing trendsbegun over a century earlier in the industrial revolution). Incomes rose, and consumptionshifted in favor of (increasingly affordable) manufactures. Both income and priceelasticities were greater in manufactures than in agricultural products. At the same timethere was a steady tendency for synthetic (manufactured) inputs to replace agriculturalbased raw materials and industrial inputs. Hence, trade and of course international tradeconformed to overall changes in patterns of world production and consumption.2. In the past half century, the developing countries have experienced major compositional shifts fromexports of primary products (including agricultural and raw materials) to exports of manufactures.How might you explain this in terms of broad historical developments during this period?16 Krugman/Obstfeld ?Seventh EditionAnswer: Any discussion of the export experience of the developing countries must first clarify the problem of definitional inclusion. In particular, the exports of the (non-OECD) developingcountries, has become increasingly dominated by the experience of a relatively smallnumber of countries in South-East Asia, termed the New Industrialized Countries (NICs).Since they experienced both very rapid increases in their exports, and very rapid increasesin the manufactured component of their exports, their experience alone may explain thebulk of the observed phenomenon. Many would exclude the NICs from the developingcountry category so as to be able to focus the discussion on a more representative sampleof (the over 100) developing countries. More recently, a second wave of East Asiancountries, notably including China have replicated the experience of the NICs, and thisagain muddies the water for one interested in focusing on the export experience of thegrowing heterogenous category, developing countries.Chapter 2 World Trade—An Overview 17 Another explanation of the growing dependence on manufactured exports on the part ofthe developing countries, follows the answer to question 1 above. Since the consumer( including industrial consumer) markets in OECD countries were rapidly shifting awayfrom primary products, these markets were rapidly disappearing.In addition, in the world markets for primary products was generally limited by low priceand especially income elasticities; agricultural sectors tended to be highly and rigidlyprotected in potential OECD markets; and escalating effectivetariff structures leviedsystematically large levels of protection against the primary exports of the developingcountries; success in world exports had to be pursued outside of the traditional primaryexports of these countries.3. The Neoclassical Heckscher-Ohlin model assumes that all producers of any industrial product hasknowledge of, and may avail itself of the same production technology available to producers in any other country. Many have flagged this identical technology assumption as an unrealistic assumption.During the past half century, the relative importance of the Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in world trade has steadily increased. How w ould this trend affect the realism of the “identicaltechnology” assumption?Answer: Noting that MNC plants tend to use more labor intensive production processes in countries where labor tends to be relatively cheap (both in “low” tech , e.g. Nike, and“high tech,” e.g. Motorola), one may argue that MNCs usedifferent technologies indeveloping countries. However, this is a gross misunderstanding of the identicaltechnology assumption . It is axiomatically obvious that if the same MNC is producingsomething in both labor abundant and labor scarce using different processes, itnevertheless has knowledge (intimate knowledge in the case of proprietary patentedprocesses) of available technology. The fact that the MNC may choose not to apply thesame degree of capital intensity in environments with greatly different relative factorprices in no way lessens the fact that the Heckscher-Ohlinidentical technologyassumption is strengthened due to the growing relative strength of MNCs in developingcountries. An additional fact that strengthens this argument is that, as compared to theearly 1950s, a growing proportion of MNCs are themselves based in developing countries,such as China and Brazil.4. One of the major political developments of the past several decades is the growing size andeconomic/monetary integration of the European Union. What effect do you think this will have on international trade between countries?Answer: The growing economic integration between the various countries of Europe, both the old and existing members of the European Union (EU) and the new countries joining it(including perhaps soon, Turkey), means that the barriers to trade are steadily falling in aregion that has traditionally dominated world trade. The common monetary unit should initself go far to promote inter-country trade within the growing EU (judging by thepositive historical effect of a single currency in the U.S.). The standardization oftransportation (including railroad gauges, highway signs etc.) and product codes will alsopromote expansion of intra-EU trade. The decline in the probability of political conflictassociated with this comprehensive economic union, plus conscious attempts to cooperatein fiscal and monetary policy stances again point to growing international trade, allowingthese countries to increasingly enjoy the fruits of potential positive scale economies, andmore traditional classical and neo-classical gains from trade. The scale economies willalso tend to increase trade between the EU and other countries.18 Krugman/Obstfeld ?Seventh Edition5. The Services sector has been steadily rising in relative importance in GDP of the United States, aswell as e lsewhere around the world. Since “services” have been identified as “non-tradables” (e.g. it is difficult to export haircuts), it may be argued that this trend will likely slow the rapid growth in international trade. Discuss.Answer: This argument stands on questionable logical foundations. The past half century has seena steady growth in the absolute and relative importance of international trade. This trendhas been reversed only by global conflicts, i.e. the two World Wars. This trend hasremained steady and robust despite major compositional shifts (e.g. from primary tomanufacturing), and location shifts (e.g., the sudden rise of NICs as significant group ofexporters). The trend will probably continue into the reasonable future, fueled by bothsuper-regional preferential trade regions and a growing impact of the multilateral forces,represented institutionally by the World Trade Organization (WTO)—as illustrated by therecent abolishment of the epitome cartelized trade, the world trade in textiles. Driven bytechnology—especially in the areas of communication and transportation—a reversal ofthe growing trade trend is not likely in t he near future. In any case, many “services” are infact quite tradable. Examples would be financial services, long-distance teaching, “help-desk” outsourcing, consulting and management services and others. In fact, when a touristgets a haircut, we s ee that even haircuts become a “tradable” service.。
国际经济学(chapter2)
第二章 古典贸易理论
第一节 古典贸易理论的演变 一、重商主义(Mercantilism) 重商主义 “就象守财奴一样，双手抱住他心爱的钱袋， 用嫉妒和猜疑的目光打量着自己的邻居” ——恩格斯
第二章 古典贸易理论
1、背景知识
重商主义经济学时代:14世纪末到18世纪,全盛于16 重商主义经济学时代:14世纪末到18世纪,全盛于16 :14世纪末到18世纪 17世纪 17世纪下半叶开始瓦解 世纪， 世纪下半叶开始瓦解。 、17世纪，17世纪下半叶开始瓦解。这一时期正是 资本主义经济的资本原始积累阶段。 资本主义经济的资本原始积累阶段。 重商主义产生的时代背景： 重商主义产生的时代背景： 葡萄牙人在非洲海岸、 “ 葡萄牙人在非洲海岸 、 印度及整个远东地区 搜寻着黄金； 搜寻着黄金 ； 黄金这两个字变成了驱使西班牙人远 渡大西洋的符咒； 渡大西洋的符咒 ； 黄金也是白种人刚踏上新发现的 海岸时所追求的头一项重要的东西” 海岸时所追求的头一项重要的东西” 。
小麦
劳动投 入量 英国 美国 15 10 产出量 120 120 劳动投 入量 5 10
布
产出量 100 100
第二章 古典贸易理论
从表2-2可以看出， 从表 可以看出，进 可以看出 行国际分工之后， 行国际分工之后，整 个世界小麦的产出量 仍是240，没有变化， 仍是 ，没有变化， 但是布的产量增加到 400，比分工前增加 ， 个单位。 了200个单位。这说 个单位 明，国际分工使两国 的资源得到了更有效 的利用。 的利用。
第二章 古典贸易理论
• 本国生产A、B、C、D四种产品的单位劳动 投入分别为14、21、3、4，外国生产这四 种产品的单位劳动投入分别为12、18、24 、30 ,根据斯密的绝对优势理论，本国的哪些具
国际经济学new chap2
Ch-2Law of Comparative AdvantageTwo basic questions:1. What is the basis for trade and what are the gains from trade?2. What is pattern of trade?1. MercantilismMercantilists' view on Trade: The more gold and silver a nation had, the richer and more powerful it was. Thus, the government had to do all in its power to stimulate the nation's exports and discourage and restrict imports (particularly the import of luxury consumption goods).If a country could achieve a favorable trade balance (a surplus of exports over imports), it would enjoy payments received from the rest of the world in the form of gold and silver. The more precious metals a nation had, the richer and more powerful it was. To promote a favorable trade balance, the mercantilists advocated government regulation of trade. Tariffs, quotas, and other commercial policies were proposed by the mercantilists to minimize imports in order to protect a nation’s trade position.During the period 1500-1800In Europe (England, Spain, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands)A group of men (merchants,bankers,govern ment officials, and even philosophers)William Stafford, 1554—1612The early stage mercantilism ------The theory of currency balance Thomas Mum, 1571—1641The later period mercantilism -----The theory of trade balance2. Theory of AbsoluteAdvantageAdam Smith, (1723 –1790)a classical economist, was leadingadvocate of free trade (Laissez-Faire)“Inquiry into the Nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations”1776 ----The wealth of NationsThe main view on tradeTrade is based on absolute advantage and benefits both nations. When each nation specializes in the production of the commodity of its absolute advantage and exchanges part of its output for the commodity of its absolute disadvantage, both nations end up consuming more of both commodities.绝对优势理论(AA)----当一国(A 国)在生产一种产品时比另一国(B 国)更有效率（即有绝对优势AA ），但在生产另一种产品时效率又不如另一国(B 国)（即有绝对劣势AD ），那么，两个国家都可专业化生产各自具有绝对优势的产品并出口部分该产品以与对方换取自己具有绝对劣势的产品，从而双方都可受益.Theory of Absolute Advantage (AA)----When one nation is more efficient (AA over) than another in the production of one good but is less efficient than (absolute disadvantage wi th respect to) the other nation in producing a second good, then both nations can gain by each specializing in the production of the good of its AA and exchanging part of its output with the other nation for the good of i ts absolute disadvantage (AD).èCore opinion: all nations w ould gain from free trade and strongly advocate a policy of laissez-faire（放任自由的）The real world: Laissez-faire?Why?(1) resources most efficiently utilized(2) Increase in the output of both goods(---the gains from trade and specializedproduction.)thus maximize the worldwelfareException: national defenseIn England, w ho benefited from and who were harmed by Smith’s theory? Why?Beneficiary: factory ownersInjured: farm ownersWhat learned from the table? Table 2-1 Absolute advantage between U.S. and U.K.U.S. U.K. Wheat (Bushels/man-hour) 61 Cloth (Yards/man-hour) 45----U.S . more efficient than (AA over) U.K. in producing Wheat .----U.K.more efficient than (AA over) U.S. in producing Cloth .----If U.S. exchanges 6W for 6C with UK, how much could U.S. gain in terms of Cloth? Why? How about U.K.?U.S. gains: 2CU.K. gains: 24C----According to AA theory, if as in table 2-2, can the trade take place betw een US and UK? Why?Table 2-2U.S.U.K.Wheat (Bushels/man-hour)61Cloth (Yards/man-hour)42 (5)★重点3. Theory of Comparative AdvantageEconomists -David Ricardo(1772-1823)He was born in 1772 and w as the third of 17 children. His parents were very successful and his father w as a wealthy merchant banker. They lived at first in the Netherlands and then moved to London. David himself had little formal education and went to work for his father at the age of 14. However, w hen, at the age of 21, he married a Quaker (against his parents wishes) he was disinherited and so set up on his ow n as a stockbroker. He was phenomenally successful at this and w as able to retire at 42and concentrate on his writings and politics. He developed man y important areas of economic theor y much of the theory h e developed is still used and taught today.“Principles of Political Economy and Taxation”1817The key views on trade (The law of comparative ad vantage) Even if a nation has an absolute cost disadvantage in the production of both goods, a basis for mutually benef icialtrade may still exist.The less efficient nation should specialize in the productionand export of the commodity in which it has a comparative advantage (where its absolute disadvantage is less)The more efficient nation should specialize in and exportthat commodity in whic h it is relatively more eff icient (whereits absolute advantage is greater).Theory of Comparative Advantage (CA) ----Even if one nation is less efficient than (has an AD with respect to) the other nation in the production of both commodities, there is still a basis for mutually beneficial trade.The first nation should specialize in the production of and export of the commodity in which its AD is smaller (this is the commodity of its CA), and import the commodity in which its AD is greater (this is the commodity of its CD). And the second nation …..比较优势原理----即使一国(A国)与另一国(B国)相比在生产两种商品时都没有效率（都有绝对劣势），两国仍有互利贸易的基础。
国际经济学第2章(Helen)
David Ricardo,1772-1823
13
(一）概述
涵义：两国都能生产同样两种产品的条件下，其中一国在 两种产品生产上的劳动生产率均高于另一国，该国可以专 门生产优势较大的产品，处于劣势地位的另一国可以专门 生产劣势较小的产品；通过国际分工与贸易，双方仍可从 国际贸易中获利。 两利相权取其重，两弊相权取其轻。 由David Ricardo（1772-1823）提出。英国工业革命深入 发展时期的经济学家，1817年出版了主要著作《政治经济 学和赋税原理》，提出了比较成本理论。
25
（2）赫克歇尔——俄林定理（Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem）
在各国生产要素存量一定的情况下，一国将生产和出口密集使用 其丰裕要素的产品，进口密集使用其稀缺要素的产品。 推理过程：
国际贸易 商品的价格差
生产产品的成本差别
生产要素的价格不同
假定中国和美国生产同种产品 的技术相同，生产布需要2单 位资本和5单位劳动。中国每 单位资本和劳动的价格分别为 6美元和1美元，而美国则分别 为3美元和4美元，结果中国每 单位布的成本为2x6＋5x1＝17 美元，而美国为2x3＋5x4＝26 美元。
毛呢产量 2.7单位
所需劳动 190人/年
4
交换后： (假定英国以1单位毛呢交换葡萄牙1单位葡萄酒) 酒消费量 毛呢消费量 英 1单位 1.7单位 葡 1.375单位 1单位 而分工前：
英 葡
酒消费量 1单位 1单位
毛呢消费量 1单位 1单位
5
（二）具体内容 1、理论分析的假定条件
（1）生产过程中只投入一种生产要素——劳动力； （2）世界上只有两个国家——中国和美国； （3）这两个国家都能生产两种产品——小麦和布； （4）劳动力在一国范围内各部门间自由流动； （5）劳动力在部门间转移时机会成本不变； （6）生产要素在两国之间不能流动； （7）两国经济资源都充分利用； （8）贸易平衡；
国际经济学chpt2
PPT文档演模板
国际经济学chpt2
1、提供曲线的推导
® 以中国小麦、棉布贸易为例推导中国的提供曲线。 左图中横轴和纵轴分பைடு நூலகம்代表中国小麦和棉布的数量； 如前A/B/C三点生产，相对价格为4，2，1；中国 国内交换价格为4；
® 右图横轴表示中国小麦的进口量，纵轴为中国棉布 的出口量。
® 国际市场三种相对价格4/2/1对应不同的出口和进口：
三、贸易利益的衡量
® 局部均衡分析中使用消费者剩余和生产 者剩余来分别表示消费者和生产者两大 集团的利益变化，从而衡量社会福利的 总变化。
PPT文档演模板
国际经济学chpt2
1、消费者剩余与生产者剩余
® 消费者“愿意支付”和“实际支付”的 差价或额外的满足便称为“消费者剩 余”。
® 生产者愿意接受的价格与实际卖出的价 格差额为生产者剩余。
PPT文档演模板
国际经济学chpt2
® 美国作为小麦的出口国，自由贸易使美 国小麦的相对价格由1/4提高到1，小麦 的生产增多，消费减少，超额供给都用 于出口。
® 由于国内价格上升，美国消费者剩余减 少c，生产者剩余增加c+d。
® 美国的整体福利得到提高了 +d
PPT文档演模板
国际经济学chpt2
® 1、在世界小麦市场上，如果中国的进口 量大于美国出口量，小麦的国际市场价 格就会上升；反之小麦国际市场价格下 跌。当进口量等于出口量的时候，国际 市场上的均衡价格才能形成。
® 2、国际市场价格一定处于出口国和进口 国的国内均衡价格之间，假设该国际市 场相对价格为1。
PPT文档演模板
国际经济学chpt2
PPT文档演模板
国际经济学chpt2
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國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-12
單一要素世界的貿易 3/4
以加侖計的外國酒類 產量， 產量， Q*W 本國在乳酪上具有比較利益，因而貿易型態為： 本國在乳酪上具有比較利益，因而貿易型態為： 本國將出口乳酪到外國， 本國將出口乳酪到外國，以進口酒 外國將出口酒到本國， 外國將出口酒到本國，以進口乳酪
(b) 外國
2-19
數值範例
下列的表2-2說明了兩個國家的生產技術： 下列的表 說明了兩個國家的生產技術： 說明了兩個國家的生產技術
表 2-2 單位勞動投入
乳酪 本國 外國 aLC = 每磅需 小時 每磅需1小時 a*LC = 每磅需 小時 每磅需6小時
酒類 aLW = 每磅需 小時 每磅需2小時 a*LW = 每磅需 小時 每磅需3小時
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-5
比較利益的概念 3/3
表 2-1 假設性的生產變動
玻瑰花(百萬朵 玻瑰花 百萬朵) 百萬朵 美國 南美洲 總和 –10 +10 0
電腦(千部 電腦 千部) 千部 +100 –30 +70
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-11
單一要素的世界貿易 2/4
比較利益 假設P 假設 C /PW = aLC /aLW < a*LC /a*LW=P*C/P*W (22) 此假設隱含在本國酒的機會成本比外國低。 此假設隱含在本國酒的機會成本比外國低。 換言之，在不貿易時， 換言之，在不貿易時，本國乳酪的相對價格 比外國乳酪的相對價格還低。 比外國乳酪的相對價格還低。 圖2-2：外國的生產可能線將比本國為陡。 ：外國的生產可能線將比本國為陡。
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-23
相對工資率與專業化生產1/3 相對工資率與專業化生產1/3
貿易型態將取決於本國相對外國的工資率w/w* 貿易型態將取決於本國相對外國的工資率 財貨總是在成本最低的地方生產 例 如 ， 若 第 i 種 財 貨 的 生 產 成 本 為 waLi< w*a*Li ，則在本國生產的成本較低，應在本 則在本國生產的成本較低， 國生產；即財貨的生產原則： 國生產；即財貨的生產原則：任何財貨符合 * a Li a Li > w w * 條 件 時 在 本 國 生 產 ， 而 符 合 * 條件的財貨將於外國生產。 a Li a Li < w w * 條件的財貨將於外國生產。
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型 2-21
第五節 多種財貨下的比較利益 1/5
模型設定 相對工資率與專業化生產 多種財貨模型下相對工資的決定
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-22
模型設定
全世界只有兩個國家， 全世界只有兩個國家，本國和外國 每個國家只有一種生產要素勞動 每個國家都會消費且生產N種不同財貨 ， 每個國家都會消費且生產 種不同財貨， 依序編 種不同財貨 1到 號 1到 N
2
前言
一國參與國際貿易有兩個基本原因： 一國參與國際貿易有兩個基本原因： 各國之間在氣候、土地、資本、 各國之間在氣候 、 土地 、 資本 、 勞動與技術上 的差異性。 的差異性。 各國可透過貿易達到生產的規模經濟。 各國可透過貿易達到生產的規模經濟。 李嘉圖模型是基於各國勞動要素生產技術的差異 生產投資的差異反應在勞動的邊際生產力。 生產投資的差異反應在勞動的邊際生產力。
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型 2-16
Q'
L/aLC L*/a*LW
貿易利得1/3 貿易利得1/3
我們將以兩種方法來驗證這些貿易利得 第一種方法：本國生產乳酪是直接生產法， 第一種方法 ： 本國生產乳酪是直接生產法 ， 但 其可透過出口乳酪向外國換取酒， 其可透過出口乳酪向外國換取酒 ， 而間接生產 酒 ——若間接生產的產量較大 ， 即存在貿易 若間接生產的產量較大 利得。 利得。
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型 2-10
第三節 單一要素的世界貿易 1/4
絕對利益(absolute advantage) 絕對利益 定義： 定義 ： 若一國能以少於其他國家的勞動投入來 生產同樣數量的商品時， 生產同樣數量的商品時 ， 稱該國在生產此一商 品時有絕對利益。 品時有絕對利益。 貿易型態是由比較利益的觀念所決定
2-14
貿易後相對價格的決定1/2 貿易後相對價格的決定1/2
是什麼因素決定貿易後的相對價格(即PC /PW)? 是什麼因素決定貿易後的相對價格 即 一般均衡分析： 一般均衡分析 ： 我們定義全世界乳酪的相對供 與相對需求(RD)。 給(RS) 與相對需求 。 全世界乳酪的相對供給等於在給定兩個國家個 別相對價格之下，所能供給的乳酪總產量除以 別相對價格之下， 全世界所能供給酒的總產量(Q 全世界所能供給酒的總產量 C+ Q*C )/(QW + Q*W)。 。 全世界乳酪的相對需求也是類似的概念。 全世界乳酪的相對需求也是類似的概念。 世界貿易均衡時供給等於需求： 世界貿易均衡時供給等於需求： Q + Q* D + D*
* L*/a*LW F
P* L*/a*LC 以磅計的外國乳酪 產量， 產量， Q*C
2-13
圖2-2 外國的生產可能曲線
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
單一要素的世界貿易 4/4
貿易後相對價格的決定 貿易利得 數值範例 相對工資
國際經濟學(上) cБайду номын сангаасapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
C
QF + Q
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
C * F
=
C
DF + D
C * F
2-15
貿易後相對價格的決定2/2 貿易後相對價格的決定2/2
乳酪的相對價格 PC/PW
a*LC/a*LW 1 2 RD' RD
RS
aLC/aLW
乳酪的相對數量 QC + Q*C QW + Q*W 圖2-3 世界相對供給與相對需求
F L/aLC 以磅計的本國乳酪 產量 ，QC
圖2-1 本國的生產可能線
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型 2-9
單一要素的經濟體系 4/4
命題：如果乳酪的相對價格大於其機會成本， 命題 ： 如果乳酪的相對價格大於其機會成本 ， 該 國將專業化生產乳酪， 國將專業化生產乳酪 ， 如果乳酪的相對價格低於 其機會成本，該國將專業化生產酒。 其機會成本，該國將專業化生產酒。 勞動價值理論：在沒有國際貿易的情況下 ， 產品 勞動價值理論 ： 在沒有國際貿易的情況下， 的相對價格等於其相對單位勞動需求。 的相對價格等於其相對單位勞動需求。 在缺乏貿易之下(封閉經濟體系 ， 在缺乏貿易之下 封閉經濟體系)， 為達到自給 封閉經濟體系 自足以滿足消費所需(對消費者而言同時消費兩 自足以滿足消費所需 對消費者而言同時消費兩 種財貨的效用水準較高)， 種財貨的效用水準較高 ，因此其供給等於需求 的均衡條件為 ：PC / PW = aLC /aLW。
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-3
第一節 比較利益的概念 1/3
機會成本 (opportunity cost) ：損失 用電腦所衡量的玫瑰花之機會成本為： 用電腦所衡量的玫瑰花之機會成本為 ： 生產一 定數量玫瑰花的資源能用來生產多少部電腦。 定數量玫瑰花的資源能用來生產多少部電腦。 例如：1000萬朵玫瑰的機會成本就是 萬朵玫瑰的機會成本就是10萬部 例如： 1000萬朵玫瑰的機會成本就是10萬部 電腦 。
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-4
比較利益的概念 2/3
比較利益 (comparative advantage) 如果一個國家在本國生產某種產品的機會成本 低於其他國家， 低於其他國家 ， 則該國在生產此項產品時具有 比較利益。 比較利益。 李嘉圖模型： 李嘉圖模型 ： 國際間的勞動生產比率不同是決 定國際貿易的主要因素。 定國際貿易的主要因素。
國際經濟學
國際貿易( 國際貿易(上)
林柏生 林淑芬 方誠
Chapter 2
勞動生產力與比較利益： 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
本 章 重 點
前言 第一節 比較利益的概念 第二節 單一生產要素的經濟體系 第三節 單一生產要素的世界貿易 第四節 有關比較利益的誤解 第五節 多種財貨下的比較利益 第六節 運輸成本與非貿易財 第七節 李嘉圖模型的實證
1 1 PC × PC ÷ PW > ⇔ a LC a LW PW
>
a LC a LW
國際經濟學(上) chapter 2 勞動生產力與比較利益：李嘉圖模型
2-17
貿易利得2/3 貿易利得2/3
第二種方法：看貿易如何影響各國的消費水準， 第二種方法 ： 看貿易如何影響各國的消費水準， 即貿易若能提高消費量，則效用水準 提高。 提高。 在給定價格之下，消費可能前線是表達在任 在給定價格之下， 意給定一種財貨的消費量之下， 意給定一種財貨的消費量之下，另一種財貨 的最大消費量。 的最大消費量。
2-6
第二節 單一要素的經濟體系 1/4
假設我們正治理一個經濟體系(我們稱為本國 ， 假設我們正治理一個經濟體系 我們稱為本國)， 在 我們稱為本國 該國中： 該國中： 勞動是唯一的生產要素。 勞動是唯一的生產要素。 只生產兩種財貨：酒(wine)與乳酪 與乳酪(cheese)。 只生產兩種財貨： 與乳酪 。 每個國家勞動供給量(勞動資源稟賦量 固定 每個國家勞動供給量 勞動資源稟賦量)固定：L。 勞動資源稟賦量 固定： 。 勞動在每個財貨的生產力是固定(邊際生產力 固定)。 固定 。 所有的市場皆是完全競爭市場： 所有的市場皆是完全競爭市場：財貨單價等於其 單位生產成本(P 單位生產成本 = AC)。 。