A comparative study of well-founded semantics for disjunctive logic programs
研究生复试英语考试
范文四 Good morning,my dear teachers,my dear professors.i am very glad to be here for your interview.my name is song yonghao,i am 22 years old .i come from luoyang,a very beautiful aicent city.my undergratuade period will be accomplished in chang'an university in july ,2004;and now,I am trying my best for obtaining a key to tongji university. Generally speaking ,i am a hard working student especially do the thing i am interested in. i will try my best to finish it no matter how difficult it is. when i was sophomore, i found web design very interesting, so i learned it very hard . to weaver a homepage for myself, i stayed with my pesonel computer for half a month.,and i am the first one in my class who own his homepage. forthermore,i am a person with great perserverence. during the days preparing for the first examination,i insist on running every day, no matter what the weather was like.and just owning to this,i could concentrate on my study and succeeded in the end. Well ,in my spare time ,i like basketball, tennis and chinese chess. also english is my favorate.i often go to english corner to practise my oral english on every thursday,and write compositions to improve my witten ability .but i know my english is not good enough ,i will continue studying. Ok, that is all,thank you for your attention.
孔子和苏格拉底的不同英语作文
Confucius vs. Socrates: A Comparative Study In the annals of history, two figures stand out as epitomes of wisdom and morality: Confucius and Socrates. While both men lived in different times and cultures, their influence on the world is immeasurable. This essay aims to delve into the differences between these two great philosophers, exploring their varying perspectives on life, morality, and the role of the individual in society.**Philosophical Foundations**Confucius, a Chinese philosopher who lived in the 8th century BCE, founded Confucianism, a philosophy that emphasized the importance of social harmony and personal morality. His teachings were centered on the concept of "ren" or benevolence, which advocated kindness, respect, and love towards others. Confucius believed that by cultivating one's moral character, individuals could contribute to the overall well-being of society.On the other hand, Socrates, a Greek philosopher who lived in the 5th century BCE, is known for his method of inquiry known as "elenchus" or dialectic. He questionedeverything, seeking the truth through rigorous examination and debate. Socrates emphasized the importance of self-knowledge and the ethical life, believing that true wisdom came from knowing oneself and living in accordance with one's principles.**Views on Morality**Confucius' morality was rooted in social harmony. He believed that individuals should follow the "golden rule" of treating others as they would like to be treated, upholding the virtues of loyalty, filial piety, and righteousness. Confucian morality was less focused on abstract principles and more on practical applications, emphasizing the role of the individual in maintaining social order.In contrast, Socrates' morality was more focused on individual character and virtue. He believed that morality was not just about following rules but about living a life of truth and wisdom. Socrates questioned the conventional moral codes of his society, challenging people to think critically and examine their own beliefs. His morality wasless about maintaining social harmony and more about personal growth and authenticity.**Role of the Individual in Society**Confucius advocated a hierarchical social structure in which individuals should play their designated roles in maintaining social order. He believed that each person hada duty to contribute to the welfare of society, whether it was through governance, military service, or family life. Confucius saw the individual as a means to societal harmony, rather than an end in itself.On the contrary, Socrates saw the individual as thecore of society. He believed that true progress and wisdom came from the free exchange of ideas and criticism among individuals. Socrates challenged the authorities of his time, questioning their wisdom and seeking the truththrough dialogue. He saw the individual as an agent of change and progress, not just a cog in the social machine.**Conclusion**Confucius and Socrates, though separated by thousandsof miles and centuries, offer two distinct yetcomplementary perspectives on life and morality. Confucius' emphasis on social harmony and personal morality provides a framework for understanding one's role in maintaining societal well-being. On the other hand, Socrates' focus on individual character and the pursuit of truth challenges us to think critically and question authority. Together, their teachings offer a rich tapestry of wisdom that continues to guide and inspire us in our quest for understanding and enlightenment.**孔子与苏格拉底之比较**在历史的长河中，两位伟人以其智慧和道德成为了时代的标杆：孔子与苏格拉底。
英语复试常见问题30例
英语复试常见问题30例考研英语复试口语常见问题30例1.Where do you come from?2.What kind of landscape surrounds your hometown?3.What do you do during the Spring Festival?4.Tell me something about the customs of your hometown.5.Could you tell me something about your family?6.What social responsibilities should a post-graduate take?7.Which kind of professor do you like best?8.What does friendship mean to you and what kind of people do you make friend with?9.What is your major? How do you like your major?10.When and where did you graduate? What qualifications have you obtained?11.What impressed you most when you were at university?12.What is the best university in your opinion?13.Do you think the subjects you are studying today are relevant topresent-day society?Why？14.What do you do for a living?15.What are your job prospects?16.If you had the opportunity to change your subject, what would you dowith it?17.What are your spare time interests?18.Where have you been traveling to? Which place interested you most?19.What kind of differences in the system of higher education between China and other countries?20.Do you think you will be able to cope with English-demands of your intended study program?21.What difficulties do you think you'll encounter in your studies?22.Why did you choose our university?23.If there were an opportunity of studying abroad, what would you do?24.Should you study more theory or do more practice? Give your reasons,please。
托福听力 语音识别填空练习(答案)
Speech 1The _1____Greek word___________for “man” is “anthropos” and the word_2______anthropology___________has been in the English language_3_for centuries_______. Butjust what does the word mean? Literally anthropology means“__4_the study of man_______” However, as British_ 5_philosopher_______AlfredNorth Whitehead_6__noted__________, “It is a well founded historicalgeneralization that _7_the last thing to be discovered___in any science is whatscience is really about” And as Paul Bohannan, _8_renowned anthropologist____________, pointedout a number of years ago, “Each science that deal s with people has its own_9__definitions_____of human. An_10__economist__________, “he explains,” defines ahuman as a_11 _choice-making_____________animal. Philosophers _12_define__________manas a _13__rationalizing_________animal…” Anthropology___14 ___attempts______to beall-inclusive-the study of human _15__behavior_________in all places and throughouttime. It_16_specializes________in the _17_describtion______of_18____humanistic, scientific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans._____________________.Now, to _19_paraphrase_________Barbara Miller’s statement in her textbook, culturalanthropology , the popular impression of anthropology is _20_based mainly___onmovies and television shows that _21__anticipated_______anthropologists asadventurers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures inEgyptian _22__tombs____________and elsewhere, but_23_mostly________, their work isless _24_glamourous_______and involves _25__repetitive___and _26_tedious___activities.Until around the middle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a termused for all humanists._27__My lecture today explains the fields and branches of anthropology_____. We’re going to_28_begin by____stating that anthropology is the study ofhuman behavior in all places and at all times.Western_29 __civilizations_ takes credit for the development of anthropology,which, _30____as a matter of fact___, was a relatively late science. Earlier Greek andRoman philosophers were more interested in _31__speculating____about the idealsociety _32___rather than_____describing those known to them.After the__33 _onset____of the Age of Exploration, which included thediscovery of the Americas, as well as travel to other distant places, the study ofnon-western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthropology is arecognized _34__social science____with two__35 __broad fields__andseveral_36__branches or sub-fields____.The two broad fields are _37_physical_________anthropology and_38__cultural_anthropology. Let me give you a _39___brief description__ofeach. Physical anthropology is concerned with the development of man asa_40__mammal__. Related subjects are_41__anatomy___, biology, andpaleontology. Physical anthropologists study the _42_evolution__of thehuman_43__species__. One way they do this is by the comparativeanalysis of fossils-preserved _44__remanence____of once-living creatures andliving_45_primates___, which include human beings or Homo sapiens. Common_46__fossils__are shells, bones, and molds or imprints. These are foundburied in the earth or_47__permanently frozen in glaciers_____. Living primatesare analyzed in order to study the mechanics of evolution and_48_genetic_differences among human populations.Next let’s talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study of learnedbehavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limit themselves toa few_49_geographic areas___, _50__for example___, Margaret Mead in Samoaand New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indians in thesouthwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckhohn’s work Mirror forMan is considered_51_one of the best introductions to anthropology______. Cultural anthropology and the _52__scientific_______study of human culture will be discussedin more detail in our next lecture. The subfields of cultural anthropologyare_53___archeology, linguistics and ethnography. _.Archaeology is the study of different cultures through material sources ratherthan direct _54___interviews or observations____of the group under study. _55_one example__of a famous archaeological site discovered in the past century was King Tut’sTomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922.Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as_56__communication_____among humans. Culture is learned and_57_transmitted__primarily through language.Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies,58 _mostly_____basedon firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthropologists provideethnologies or explanations of the behavior of different peoples. A secondsubfield of ethnography is social anthropology. Social anthropology is_59_concerned with people_____as social beings. A related subject is, of course,sociology.Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, which deals withhuman_60_personality and feelings_____________. These are gr eatly influenced by an individual’s biological and_61 __mental________characteristics, as well as physicalsurroundings and personal_62_experiences____. Related subjects are psychologyand psychiatry.It is important to note that there are several _63_univesals__________common amongall societies;_64_for example__________, the basic similarities in human biology and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education either formal or informalor both. Education is necessary to provide the young with the_65__skills and attitudes___needed to carry on as_66_adults_______.So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such a broad field?The answer is that anthropology helps us _67_plan the field____and helps us contribute to the _68_solutions__________of human problems. This newest area of the study of man is applied anthropology._69_a formally___, anthropology waslimited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museumcurators. But for the past several _70_decades________large numbers of “anthro” graduates have been employed in fields such as _71__urban__planning and administration, _72__health care____, and international development. Most important is that although anthropologists have taken up the task ofdocumenting the _73_processes and changes____of cultures past and present, they also provide the necessary insight into_74_where the human species is hiding___.Speech 2Let me begin the lecture today by asking, _1_what exactly is culture_Thisquestion has been _2_approached_____by anthropologists in many different ways. Murdock, _3_for example__, in outline of world cultures, produced what manyhave called the _4_the ultimate laundry list ___of things cultural, by naming 900-odd _____of human behavior. I won’t _6_attempt____to go into these at this time.wr ote, “culture is that _8_complex_____whole which includes knowledge,_9_belief, art, morals ____, custom, and any other_10_capabilities__and habitsacquired by man as a member of society.” But another _11_definition___ofculture that many find useful is, “the_12_totality___ of learned, sociallytransmitted behavior.” Obviously this definition leaves out much if we feel_13_obligated__to include all the ways of life that have been evolved by peoplein every society.A particular culture, then, would mean the total shared way of life of a givengroup. This would include their ways of thinking, acting, and feeling asreflected in their_14_religion__, law, language, art, and customs, as well asconcrete things such as_15_houses, clothing and tools__. Cultural anthropology isthe study of cultures-living and dead. In its totality, it includes linguistics, thestudy of speech forms, _16__archaeology____( the study of dead cultures),and_17__ethnology__, which is the study of living cultures or those that can beobserved directly.Why study cultural anthropology? One reason noted by Ruth Benedict,another well-known anthropologist, is that the story of humanity from the StoneAge to the present is such a fascinating one of cultural growth. Interestingly,every society has gone through three _18_stages_or steps of cultural growth.These are savagery, barbarism, and finally, civilization. The last is, of course,to varying degrees.We are often reminded of another _19_compelling___reason to learn aboutdifferent cultures-to learn and use a foreign language effectively. Most of usrealize that just knowing the language of another culture is not enoughfor_20__meaningful communication__. You can ask anyone who has tried touse their high school Spanish inside a Spanish-speaking country.Ned Seelye, in his 1993 book Teaching Culture, lists six _21_skills__to nurtureand support intercultural communication:Number 1: Cultivate_22_curiosity__ about another culture and empathy towardits members.Number 2: Recognize that different roles and other social variables such asage, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and _23_place of residence___affect the way people speak and behave.Number3: Realize that effective communication requires discovering theculturally _24__conditioned images of people___when they think, act, and react to the world around them.Number4: Recognize that situational _25_variables and conventions __shapepeople’s behavior in important ways.Number5: Understand that people generally act the way they do because theyare _26_excising the options__their society allows for satisfying basicphysical and psychological needs.And, finally, number6: Develop the ability to evaluate the truth of ageneralization about the target culture and to _27_locate___and organizeinformation about the target culture from books, mass media, people, andpersonal observations.Culture and society must coexist. Without living together people cannot createa culture or a way of life. If a_28_group or society is small, isolated_____,and_29_stable__, it might also share a single culture. For example, thinkof the Tasaday, allegedly a Stone Age people in the Philippine rain forest, whowere discovered by anthropologists back in 1971. A side note is that due totheir supposed_30_isolation__, they had no weapons or known words intheir language for “enemy” or “war” In your reading after the lecture, you’ll learnmore about the Tasaday and the controversy surrounding them up to thepresent time.It is important to remember, however, that_31_large societies____, such as thosein Canada, the United States, India, or Egypt, are multicultural or “pluralist”societies. They also tend to have many subcultures. In the long history ofhuman life, multiculturalism is a fairly_32_recent phenomenon___. Those of us in multicultural environments must remember that discovering_33__similarities___among people from different cultures is as important asidentifying differences. For example, in classrooms on just about everyuniversity campus in the world, we find students from manydifferent_34_social and ethnic backgrounds___. What are some of the “universals”that you and other international students have all experienced inyour_35_earlier educational life_____?One common universal is that all cultures use _36_rewards or punishments____to encourage_37_correct behavior__. Another__38 __example__is that societieswithhold certain information from the young. This might include faults in ourleaders or sexual taboos. A third universal is the _39_effort by the controlling group___in a culture to educate the young to _40_strengthen and secure____its dominant position. Inthe majority of contemporary societies this control is reached through politicalmeans__41_and in contrast to military actions of ealier times__,__42 _such as_the Roman Conquests and the Morrish invasions._43__In closing this lecture on societies and culture___, let me _44_remind_you not to forget the contributions of thoughts and actions of the _45_individual person__in a group. Note the observation of Edward Sapir, another famous anthropologist: “it is always theindividual that really thinks and acts and dreams andrevolts.”_46_Now, obviously the concept of culture will be argued by anthropologists for years to come.Speech 3To many people throughout the world, some of the _1_most remarkable _and_2__puzzling monuments_______________ of ancient times are the pyramids of ancient Egypt. You know, almost nothing at all _3_remains__________of the great cities of the kingsof Egypt, the pharaohs. _4_Time and weather________________have been really hard on ancient Egypt’s cities and towns, but several of the_5_temples, statues_____________, and, most important of all, the pyramids have _6_survived______________. Even thoughmany of the pyramids are in_7__ruins__________, they still give us some idea ofthe _8_magnificence ___of ancient Egypt’s civilization-a civilization that, after all,lasted for more than 3000 years. Remember, when we’re talking about_9_ancient____Egypt, we’re talking about at least thirty consecutive_10_dynasties____.A dynasty is a series of kings or queens of the same _11_royal_____family-somethinglike the Romanovs of Europe, the Ming dynasty of China, or the Al-Sauds ofSaudi Arabia.As many of you probably already know, the pyramids were constructed astombs or _12_burial______places for the Egyptian kings and their family members.You see, the ancient Egyptians _13__passionately__________believed in life after death.In fact, their entire culture _14__revolved________around that belief. The kings,queens, and state officials often_15_spend an entire life time___ preparingfor their life after death. They did this by_16_collecting possessions____ or “grave goods,” by__17__building tombs____________, and so forth. The Egyptiansbelieved that they could be assured of an afterlife only if their bodies could bepreserved from_18_decay or destruction____. So when a person died, and_19__especially______________when a pharaoh died, in order to ensure his_20__eternal_________life, he had his body embalmed or mummified. In other words,he had his corpse _21__dried out_________and wrapped in linen to preserve if fromdecay. Then he had his mummy_22_hidden___________. This whole idea mayseem quite strange today, but the ancient Egyptians really believed that ifone’s mummy was destroyed, then his or her_23_soul would be destroyed____,and if, on the other hand, the mummy-the dead body-was preserved, the soulwould be_24_immortal_____. Let me repeat that. If one’s mummy waspreserved, the soul would_25__go on living_________.For another thing, the ancient Egyptians believed that the dead person couldtake his or her earthly possession along to the next world-this is just theopposite of the Western idea that “_26_You can’t take it with you when you go___.” Anyway, the dead person was provided with_27_food, clothing, furniture, weapons__,and even_28_servants________. It was not at all unusual for the pharaoh’s slaves tobe put to death so that they could serve him in his afterlife.So you can see why the pharaohs wanted to have their bodies and theirpossessions hidden to protect them from_29_grave robbers_____. Before they died,they had special tombs built for this purpose-to hide their bodies andtheir_30_treasures_________. In the early years of ancient Egypt, these tombs werethe pyramids-the vast burial chambers that were built to fool the grave robbers. Unfortunately, the grave robbers almost always outsmarted even the_31_most powerful and the most careful ___of pharaohs. They broke intomost of the pyramids or tombs and _32_stole the food and other treasures______they found. They even desecrated and destroyed the mummies of the dead.Needless to say, they would not bother a poor person’s grave. These graverobbers even banded together into_33_organizations or brotherhoods_____. Just imagine, a grave rob bers’ union!Now, as for the actual construction of the mighty pyramids, it was during theFirst and Second Dynasties that the _34_kings and nobles_______of Egypt began to construct the type of tomb called the “mastaba.” The First and SecondDynasties lasted from about 3100 until about 2665 B.C.E. Mastaba, by the way,comes from an Arabic word meaning _35_bench or long seat_____A mastabalooked like a low, flat-topped rectangle-something like a low bench or ashoebox._36_essentially____________, the pointed pyramid was no more than an extension upward of the flat-topped mastaba.The first _37_typical______________pyramid (or, at least what most peoplegenerally think a pyramid looks like) was built during the third Dynasty (whichlasted roughly from about 2664 until 2615 B.C.E.) this pyramid was for KingZoser (that’s spelled Z-o-s-e-r) in about 2650 B.C.E. It was built by an_38_architect________named Imhotep (I-m-h-o-t-e-p). This pyramid was constructedas a series of_39__giant steps or stairs_____. It, along with others of its type, iscalled the Step Pyramid. It was really simply a pile of mastabas, each stepsmaller and higher than the one before. The Step Pyramid of King Zoser was_40__different from___the later pyramids _41__because___________it was never covered with stone to give it a smooth surface.Actually, it was not until the Fourth Dynasty that the_42_most famous___pyramids were built. The three great pyramids of Giza belong to the FourthDynasty pyramids. (The Fourth Dynasty covered the period from 2614 to 2503B.C.E.) They are located near the town of Giza, _43_on the west bank___ofthe Nile River, just outside the _44_capital city_________of Egypt-Cairo. TheGreat Pyramids are really the very __45_best reserved____of all the Egyptian pyramids. The _46_largest_________of these pyramids of is known as the Great Pyramid. And great it is! It was built for King Khufu (that’s K-h-u-f-u). (Khufuwas called Cheops[C-h-e-o-p-s] by the Greeks, and so the pyramid issometimes called the pyramid of Cheops.) It has been _47_estimated__that 2.3million blocks of limestone were used to build the Great Pyramid. The blocksaveraged 2500 kilograms each. The largest stone block_48_weights__________about 15000 kilos. The base of the pyramid covers 5.3hectares-an area large enough to hold ten_49__football fields___________. There’s a story that the conqueror Napoleon once sat in the _50_shadow_______of the Greatpyramid and _51_calculated___________that the mass of stone in the pyramid couldbe used to build a wall _52__3 meters high______________by 0.3 meters thick around the entire country of France. In terms of height, the pyramid was originally 147meters high, but today the top 10 meters are missing, and the_53__entire outer____limestone covering has been stripped away. Itseems that local builders and conquerors found it _54_convenient_ to stripoff the limestone from the pyramids and use it to build with.The Great Pyramid of Khufu is considered a wonder of_55_ ancient architecture_. When you look at it, you _56_will immediately__wonder how on earth the ancient Egyptians ever managed to build such a _57_structure____with only basic mathematics, with no modern machinery (such as cranes, bulldozers, and soforth), and with _58__no iron__tools they had to cut the big limestoneblocks with tools made of_59_coper___, which is a rather soft metal. Butthey managed to do it. The ancient Greek_60__historian___, Herodotus(that’s H-e-r-o-d-o-t-u-s)-Herodotus said that 400000 men worked for twentyyears to build the Great Pyramid. _61_archaeologists___today doubt these figures, but, of course, the true _62__statistics_________cannot ever really be determined. It is thought, though, that at least 100000 people worked to build any singlepyramid._63_Most of these works were slaves_. They worked on thetombs during times when the Nile River overflowed its banks and covered thefields. The Nile’s flooding made farming impossible and made_64_transportation________of the stone to the pyramid site_65_easier_______.The Second and Third Pyramids of Giza were built by Khufu’s successors. Thetomb of Khafre is the Second Pyramid of Giza (Khafre is spelled K-h-a-f-r-e.) Itwas originally three meters_66_lower______ the Great Pyramid; however,today it is only 0.8 meters lower. Its present height is 136.2 meters. The third pyramid, built for Menkaure, covers_67_half the area_____ occupied by theGreat pyramid, and it is only 62.5 meters high. (Menkaure is spelledM-e-n-k-a-u-r-e.)None of the later pyramids that were built during the next thirteen or fourteen centuries were nearly as large or as magnificent as the pyramids of Giza. Andeven though pyramid building continued right up into the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties (that was up through about 1786 B.C.E.), it was becomingincreasingly clear to the pharaohs and the nobles of Egypt that the pyramidmethod of burial _68_provided very little or no protection_____at all for theirroyal corpses. The pyramids were, of course, _69_impressive and lasting monuments__, but they were all too_70_visible____________. They invited grave robbers to try to break into them. And so_71_eventually____________, one of the pharaohs, King Thutmose І, decided to _72_sacrifice publicity_for safety in the construction of his House of Eternity. I don’t need to spell Thutmose for you, do I? Instead ofordering the construction of a pyramid, Thutmose had his tomb dug out of therock of a valley far from the Nile River and far from Cairo. The _73_spot______he chose was some eleven kilometers from the river on its west bank. The area isnow known as the Valley of the Kings. Many pharaohs followed Thutmose’s example. After him, most of the pharaohs_74__abandoned_____ above-ground pyramid construction in favor of underground hiding places as the burial placesfor their_75_precious royal bones__. And yet, what is so _76_ironic____is thateven these tombs did not _77_escape the attack_____of the graverobbers-persistent devils that they were!I’ll end this discussion by pointing out that, when the ancient Greeks first sawthe Great Pyramids of Egypt, the pyramids were already 2000 years old. TheGreeks called them one of the Seven Wonders of the World._78_almost nothing remains____of the other six Wonders-the HangingGardens of Babylon, the Temple of Diana, and so on –but the three mightyPyramids of Giza, as well as thirty-two other _79__recognizable____pyramids,still stand. These pyramids of Egypt are monuments to a great and ancientcivilization and to people’s_80__endless search for eternal recognition and eternal life_.Speech 4The fields of _1_history and archaeology_ go hand in hand. Let me explain what Imean. History is often the story of a _2_particular____person, a person like theEmperor Napoleon. Or, history is the story of a_3__nation___, _4_such as _thecountry of France. _5_On the other hand_____archaeology is the study of thepeople, the_6_customs___, and the life of ancient times. Archaeologists find outabout these ancient times by studying the_7_ruins of cities__________, monuments ortombs, or any written _8_records_____that remain.In today’s lecture I’m going to _9_talk about__a little_10_particular person in ancient Chinese history__, and I’m going to talk about _11_one of the greatest archaeological discoveries_______ofthe late twentieth century. The history part of my talk will be about QinShihuang, who was the founder of the _12_first unified empires__in China. He livedbetween 259 B.C.E and 210 B.C.E., and he is often called the first emperor ofChina. Just as the exploits of the Emperor Napoleon still _13_facinate___manypeople and scholars today, so does the story of Qin Shihuang and his house ofetern ity. Today, I’m also going to be talking about what has been found, to date,in the area of Qin Shihuang’s tombs. We don’t know what _14_additional_____treasuresof Chinese history and culture will be found in the tomb area (or tomb mound)in the future, but what has been discovered so far is an _15_incredible_______find forancient Chinese history and archaeology.To set the historical context for the _16_exhibition_____of Qin Shihuang’s House ofEternity, I’d like to first talk a little bit about_17_the man himself__. His name wasYing Zheng. And before he unified the empire in 221 B.C.E., China had beentorn apart by wars between seven regional kingdoms. Under the leadership ofYing Zheng, one of these regional kingdoms., the Kingdom of Qin,eventually_18_defeated______ the other six kingdoms. Ying Zheng’sdefeat of the other six kingdoms _19_accomplished_______two things: First, itended the power of these other six kingdoms. Second, the _20_unification_________ofthe seven kingdoms started a centralized imperial system that lasted morethan 2000 years.When he became Emperor, Qin Shihuang did a number of things to unify andprotect his_21__empire________. First, he standardized _22_the system for writing__Chinese characters. Prior to his unification of the empire, the writing of Chinesecharacters _23_varied______in the different kingdoms. When Qin Shihuang becameEmperor, he decreed that a standardized system of Chinese characters was tobe used throughout the empire. Next, he decreed that there would be just onesystem of_24_weights and measures_____, and one system of currency, rather than manydifferent systems, as had been the case before unification.To protect his new empire from the barbarian tribes to the north, he ordered theconstruction of the Great Wall of China._25_Now_________, there were alreadysmall walls scattered across the northwest frontier of the empire, but QinShihuang had these walls _26_join together to creat_____1500 miles of__27_fortification______and protection for his empire. Qin Shihuang alsobegan an _28_enormous________road-building project. In the second year afterunification, construction of three major imperial highways was begun. These highways eventually _29_stretched____________6800 kilometers (or 4225 miles) throughout the empire. Just in_30_comparison___________, by the year 150 C.E. the Roman Empire’s road system was about 5984 kilometers or 3718 miles. TheRoman Empire’s system stretched all the way from Scotland to Rome and thento Jerusalem.Qin Shihuang also began another large construction project- the building of histomb or mausoleum. It seems that as soon as the Emperor_31_gain power___, he became preoccupied with death, and with constructing a magnificent House ofEte rnity for his afterlife. At this point, I’m going to segue from talking about the biography of Qin Shihuang to talking about the archaeology part of my lecture.Let’s see. OK. As I mentioned, when Qin Shihuang became emperor, he_32_immediately begin contruction ___of his House of Eternity.And what an incredible House of Eternity it was! Archaeologists believe that700000 laborers were forced to work on the tomb for about eleven years. Theentire area of the tomb covers approximately 56.25 square kilometers. It isbelieved that the tomb was intended to be a microcosmic replica of the Qincapital around the years 221 to 210 B.C.E. Archaeologists also believe thatQin Shihuang’s tomb contained imperial _33_palaces_____filled with raregems and other treasures, and that it also contained_34_gradens and temples_____. It is even believed that the _35_chemcial mercury_____was pumped through the tombto create the image of _36_flowing rivers_____in the tomb area. Can you imagine rivers of mercury in a tomb? A 12000-square-meter area at the site of the tombhas a very high mercury content-in fact, ten times higher than that of thesurrounding area so archaeologists think that it is very likely that the MercuryRivers did, indeed, flow through the tomb area.Without a doubt, _37__the most striking features____of the Emperor Qin’s House of Eternity are the terracotta warriors and horses found in the tomb area. In 1975, Chinese _38_authorities___________built a museum on the excavation site to preserve these terracotta warriors and horses, and the other incredible treasures thatwere being uncovered. Today, the museum covers an area of 16300 squaremeters. That means the area is more than two football fields long! The areais_39__divided into 3 sections_____, or what are called pits: No.1 Pit,No2 Pit, and No.3 Pit. No.1 Pit is the_40__largest______ of the three pits; it’s approximately 960 square meters in size. It first opened to the public onChina’s National Day in 1979. in No.1 Pit, there are columns of soldiers at thefront, followed by war chariots at the back. It is _41_estimated___that there are3210 terracotta foot soldiers in this pit, alone. Two rears later, in 1976, No.2 Pitwas unearthed. It contained nearly a thousand warriors and ninety woodenchariots. This pit was opened to the public in 1994, and today visitors from allover the world go to see Qin Shihuang’s House of Eternity, and to see histerracotta army that was to protect his tomb. Altogether more than 7000terracotta soldiers, horses, chariots, and even _42_weapons_________have beenfound in these three pits, and more will likely be found in the future as。
中日神话传说比较
四川师范大学硕士学位论文中日神话传说比较姓名：仲田和代申请学位级别：硕士专业：中国古代文学指导教师：***20030101中日神话传说比较古代文学专业掰｝究生仲钟表代指导教师李诚这个专题我是研读审国襻诺和目本稀话静过程发现了关于审酲神话的不同的背景。
因为神话能够反映出版当时的文化和政治背景。
特别是网本神话跟日本天皇的掰史有缀大静关系。
但是也有相似的部分。
例如以中国的女娲·伏羲和日本的伊邪那岐《ｉｉ垒鹜鲢２）焦嚣鍪羞ｆｌｉ垒ｉ箜ｉ２棒话受代表豹笺强神话。
本文把问题集中到生国、历史流传、太阳和月亮的性格及中网各代表的神格麓褒焘徽了深入熬毙较磷究，还有羞蔽《吉事记》移《鹜本书纪》编辑的对筏翡政治、文化背景（由于天皇统治日本、遣隋·唐使、当时的日本很重视中豳文化，魏捶文学），也搽索《吉攀记》秘《基本器纪》鼹孛藿舂代襻话瓣共阕煮。
其实《日本书纪》，宦本来用中文写的原因，引用的中国书籍也不少，有《三圈志魏书》、《史记》、《汉警》、《惹汉书》、《艺文类聚》警。
历史流传比较是重点在中日神话的历史化和由于神话的历史化引起的中日专孛话当孛戆悲剧。
孛基都受到了教浍亵思惩款影糖。
孛晷是在矮窳熬舍毽主义下纂改了原来的意思。
日本是因为以天皇煞理，所以洗不掉天皇的政治思想。
生爨§￡较是参考蜀本民族学蠹的论说，鞋嚣零害孛话、曩本营落及孛嚣少数爨族神话传说为材料，从其流传地区、兄妹婚、洪水等的角度来研究。
日本神话是蠢方海洋民族和中国嚣意她区内骧亚洲懿农耢民族夔传谈互提纠缝露蔽焱豹。
日月比较是煎点在太阳和月亮的性别，研究射日故事、左右的位置等日月的谯格。
串方用射豳故事比较多盼少数民族害串话传说，吕方熙日本｛枣话和巷诱镁了３研究。
关于太阳和月亮的性别也参考其他国家的神话，结果，关于性别不能断定。
看左右关系，有了中日的共同点，太阳跟左有关，月亮跟右有关。
这恰好和中国的阴阳思想一致。
还有中日最大的区别是日本神话里没有射日神话。
福建省“德化一中、永安一中、漳平一中”三校协作2023-2024学年高一5月联考英语试题(含答案)
“德化一中、永安一中、漳平一中”三校协作2023—2024学年第二学期联考高一英语试题（考试时间：120分钟总分：150分）本试卷分为第Ⅰ卷（选择题）和第Ⅱ卷（非选择题）两部分。
第Ⅰ卷（选择题，共85分）第一部分听力(共两节，满分30分)第一节(共5小题；每小题1.5分，满分7.5分)听下面 5 段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的 A、B、C 三个选项中选出最佳选项。
听完每段对话后，你都有 10 秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1. What is the weather like now?A. Sunny.B. Foggy.C. Rainy.2. What are the speakers going to do this Friday?A. Go to a musical.B. Have a barbecue.C. Look after their nephew.3. What happened to the woman?A. She missed an international call.B. She was given the wrong bill.C. She went to the wrong room.4. Where does the conversation probably take place?A. At home.B. In an office.C. Over the phone.5. What are the speakers mainly talking about?A. A course.B. A trip.C. An app.第二节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分）听下面 5 段对话或独白。
每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听每段对话或独白前，你将有时间阅读各个小题，每小题 5 秒钟；听完后，各小题将给出 5 秒钟的作答时间。
世界各国在由传统农业向现代农业的转变过程中
Analysis of the issueIn the transformation from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture, because of the difference in the natural recourse, land system and such social and economic factors among countries,the paths and modes of agricultural modernization in different countries are not all the same. There are three types of agricultural development in industrialized countries.The United States and Canada are in the representative of the first type, this kind of country with little amount of but in huge scale of land ,they have the problem of the shortage of labor resources,the path of agricultural modernization’s construction is to improve labor productivity greatly, and to realize the modernization of agriculture by firstly focusing on the basis of agricultural mechanization and secondly turning emphases to the biotechnology;Japan and Holland are in the representative of the second type, this kind of country usually with more people than land, and so have abundant labor resources, the path of the agricultural construction is to improve the productivity of land greatly,to realize the agricultural scale on the development of mechanical technology which based on biotechnology;Britain and France are in the representative of the third type, between the first and the second. the path of the modern agricultural construction is the improvement on both of the land productivity and the laborproductivity(Xiyuan.Liao,2011).In China, there are several reasons for the restriction in agricultural machine industry.1、the mode of family productionOver the past years, the agricultural production in China has always been leasing of land management model which see the family as a unit , the land separation problem is very serious, the level of agricultural production is relatively stly,our country through the land circulation system, unified the decentralized farming land , modified the farmland infrastructure according to the requirements of modern agricultural production (by water, power, road reconstruction),It has laid a solid foundation and created more favorable conditions for the scale management of agriculture, the promotion of agricultural mechanization, and the scaling and intensive production.At present, many large agricultural provinces have started to increase investment, strengthen the agricultural integration and infrastructure reconstruction,the progress of irrigation’s supporting equipment,and road construction is speeding up,the rate of agricultural mechanization is increasing. But most of the rural areas the agricultural performance is still laying behind.2、The Backward in mechanization of agriculture production levelThe performance of China's agricultural machine industry in the world is not very prominent. the agricultural machine enterprises from The United States and Japan have occupied most of the market in China.in Japan, the largest agricultural machinery manufacturer is Kubota,which funded in 1998, the main products are the semi-feed combine harvester ,the rice transplanter,and the half-feed combine harvester.they has accounted for more than 50% domestic market,in 2008, the production and sales of semi-feed combine harvesters had reached 7000 units.John Deal was founded in 1937 in the United States, the world's leading agricultural and forestry fields of advanced products and services provider, listed on the NYSE.,it is a suppliers and service providers whose products are advanced in construction, lawn and field conservation, landscape engineering and irrigation.it also is the major manufacturers who cooperate in sugar cane producing areas in Guangxi, Guangdong, Yunnan province.Case new Holland is one of most largest agricultural machine manufacturing company, the tractors, combine harvesters and bundling machine sales are in the forefront above the world. Headquartered is in the United States, the products are sold to over 160 countries and regions, by over 11500 distributors above the world, of which agricultural equipment accounted for 76%. Casenew Holland ’s history can be traced back to 170 years ago, there are nearly a hundred years of history in China. last century,the earliest service branch established in China and the earliest tractor introduced to China are both related with Keith brand.Comparatively,the development of agricultural machinery industry in China is a little late, the domestic industry only share a small Chinese market. The rising space of domestic agricultural machine industry is huge.Critical analysisIn China, the promotion of agricultural machine products mainly has the following problems.-----a serious imbalance between the level in mechanization of the different region.In the east region with developed economy, farmer’s income growths rapidly, the purchase of agricultural machineries are in a large number,the development of agricultural mechanization is speeding fastly; compared to the underdeveloped west regions, the amount of agriculture machinery possession is limited, the development of agricultural mechanization is slow. For example, in Guangxi, 2010,the level of rice tractor machine to plough，plant,harvest respectively were 79.4%, 6.3% and 42%, mechanizedfarming level is only 46.3%, which differs from the average difference is 15.7 percentage points; sugarcane only achieved partly plowing,the planting and harvest mechanization level is almost zero.According to statistics, China's arable land in eastern region accounted up 32.1% of the total arable land, and agricultural machines have accounted up 50.2% of the total agricultural machines; the western region accounted for 23.7%, agricultural machines takes up only 15.3%, the relative possessed rate is 2.4:1.Comparison of the level of Agricultural Mechanization in someprovinces---- product structure is not reasonableFirstly, The amount of large and medium-sized machines are in the small scale, the small agricultural machinery are in the large; secondly, the transport machinery are in a large scale but the agricultural machinery in a samll one; thirdly,the agricultural machinery supporting equipments is little and the matching ratio is low; fourth，the high performance machine are less which can adjust to agricultural structure; fifth, the total amount of agricultural machinery growth fast, but the application of advanced technology growth slowly .----defects in the categoriesThere is a big gap in the level of agricultural mechanization between different crops and production link. At present, the most prominent problem is the level of mechanization in paddy fields and sugar cane industry is too low. As a country with more than 24 million acres of cultivated area ,ranking in the third largest sugarcane producer over the world, sugarcane mechanization rate is less than 1%, only touch the equivalent of the national average level of 0.1/100.----Exist such condition that people can not afford to buy, or using badly.The role of agricultural machinery is to purchase, use and obtain benefits. Although the local government undos activelysubsidies, it still exist such condition,that people can not afford to buy, using badly and the problem of poor efficiency, which get in the way of improving the rate of agricultural mechanization. The performance is: first, can not afford to buy. At present, the large and medium size of the general agricultural machines takes 50 thousand to 100 thousand , a sugarcane harvester will need 1.35 million to 1.8 million , on one-time investment, long payback period of investment. Although many places have introduced the subsidies of agricultural purchase , but the effect is not very obvious. Second,using badly.,Agricultural management is lack of funds, the introduction of agricultural machinery, agricultural technology promotion and free training work is difficult to carried out, causing if some farmers could afford to a buy agricultural machine, but he also can not use it well.At the same time, the promotion of agricultural machinery products in China has a deep relationship with the land transfer policy. In China ,under the mode of agricultural operation in the family unit, the mechanization of agriculture is difficult to promote. One family use some agricultural machinery together, in high cost, high vacancy rate, causing the space smaller, such condition is not convenient also. So if we want to implement the mechanization of agriculture, we must make the agriculturalproduction more scaled.Research questionThe study will use literature review, case study and comparative method, several feature Chinese agricultural policy, agricultural region layout, farmland manage—technology,agricultural management way were briefly combed in this paper．The main points were to explore the following questions:1)Is the agricultural subsidies and agricultural technology extension were the effective means to protect the agriculture sustainable development in Chinese and why?2)Is the agricultural regional layout and mechanical management was the basic premise for improving the production efficiency and reducing the production cost and how?3.Is there any realationship between the development of agricultural mechanization and of the agricultural machinery industry?Bibliography1.xiyuan.Liao,hongfang.Shen,zhigang.Wang．The "three step" strategy of agricultural scale management -- from "the production link" to "the circulation of the management right" and then to "the circulation of contractual right".Agricultural economic problems,2011(12)：15—20/xinwen/2016-08/29/content_5103285.htm2.John Stuart Muller. Principle of political economy. China Press,20093.William Roscher. Zhu Shaowen. The historical method of national economics lecture outlines the commercial press,1981：61—63 5．4,.Theodore Schultz, Liang Xiaomin. The transformation of traditional agriculture. The Commercial Press,1987：19～235.Roy Prosterman, Tim Hanstad, Li Ping. The scale management of Chinese agriculture: the policy is appropriate. Chinese rural observation,1996(6)：17-29 7．6.Rui Ding Jie, Kangsai advantages. The reform of twenty-first Century China into the rural land system of Philippines land reform and thinking. China economic press,2000：45～477.Yang Guoyu, Hao Xiuying. Theoretical thinking on agricultural scale management.,2005(12)：42-45 9．8.Zhang Hongyu. Modern agriculture and appropriate scale management. Rural economy,2012(5)：3—69.Zhang Peigang, Qi Fang Chinese. In the process of agricultural industrialization. Seeking truth,1996(1)：37—45 11．10.Liu Fengqin. Definition of the efficiency of agricultural land scale. Study on financial and economic issues,2011(7)：109—116 11.Yang Runguang. Agricultural scale management is amust,2004(1)12．Wang Wenjing. An introduction to agricultural economy in the world.,1991：69～8513.Li Zhu's turn. The Enlightenment of American farmland system to the reform of the rural land system in China,2003(2)：181～182 14.Sun Ruiling. Research on the path and pattern of modern agriculture construction,2008：19 16．15.Wang Lijuan, Huang Zuhui, Gu Yikang, Huang Baolian, Hu Bao. The case and Revelation of the rural land transfer in the typical countries (regions),2012(4)：49～5516.Deng Xiaohong, Xiong Hongfang. The revelation of the land circulation system in the United States of America to China,2004(11)：6l一62 18．17.Liu Yurong. Comparison of rural land transfer system in the United States and Japan and Its Enlightenment to China,2008,19(11)：18—19,2118.Sun Li. A comparative study of the development of modern agriculture and policy adjustment and the Northeast Normal University,2007：37-4119.High strength, Takahashi Goro.the reform of the rural land system and Its Enlightenment to China,2012(5)：60—64 21．20.Xiao Qifang, Zhang Huanzhao. Analysis of the Japanese city,land system and social security system for farmers association of Asia Pacific economy,2008(3)：64-6821.Xu Tian Xiao, Japan's reform of land system and its significance for China's reference,2009(36)：285—28622.Hu Xia. The experience and Enlightenment of Japanese agriculture expanding operation scale,2009(3)：61-65。
4月23日托福阅读答案解析
4月23日托福阅读答案解析词汇题：attest to=provide evidence offragments=piecespainstaking=taking great effort tosubstantial=considerableconfiguration=arrangementprecise=accuratedistinctive=recognizablein contrast to=as opposed todispersal=distributionimitator=someone who copied his workassociated with=related to第一篇：题材划分：社科类文章主要内容：制造表的发展。
先说以前一个master一年只能做十几个表，特别painstaking只有富人才能买得起。
后来有个人叫Elf，他简化了钟表制造的材料，创新了一些设备，行了一系列变革，通过专业化啊水力啊，让表产量变大，又轻，又便宜。
本来特别重，不好运输，他就把弄得更轻了，可以挂住，不用专门做cabinet了。
然后使钟表让中产阶级也买得起，从精细制造变成mass production。
后来他为了peddler就继续发明创造，然后在1816年造出了shelf clock获得专利，但是还是有很多人抄袭模仿，这些模仿也在一定程度上促进了钟表的精细化。
他有个员工叫Jerome，借鉴了上一个老板的经验，然后和Elf一起将钟表变得美观时尚又物廉价美。
解析：整体文章词汇相对较简单，没有生涩难懂的学术词汇，只是第一篇相对而言比较难进入状态，所以一定要调整好自己的心态。
相似TPO练习推荐：TPO30- The Invention of the Mechanical ClockTPO16- Development of the Periodic Table相关文章：The Invention of the Mechanical ClockIn Europe, before the introduction of the mechanical clock, people told time by sun (using, for example, shadow sticks or sun dials) and water clocks. Sun clocks worked, of course, only on clear days; water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing, to say nothing of long-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well in sunny climates; but in northern Europethe sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go to sleep. All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritative timekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock.We do not know who invented this machine, or where. It seems to have appeared in Italy and England (perhaps simultaneous invention) between 1275 and 1300. Once known, it spread rapidly, driving out water clocks but not solar dials, which were needed to check the new machines against the timekeeper of last resort. These early versions were rudimentary, inaccurate, and prone to breakdown.Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’s time. Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours variedwith the seasons. But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity. Its general accuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena, like the rising and setting of the sun. The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design. At every stage, clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision; they became masters of miniaturization, detectors and correctors of error, searchers for new and better. They were thus the pioneers of mechanical engineering and served as examples and teachers to other branches of engineering.The clock brought order and control, both collective and personal. Its public display and private possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy: people could now coordinate comings and goings without dictation from above. The clock provided the punctuation marks for group activity, while enabling individuals to order their own work (and that of others) so as to enhance productivity. Indeed, the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock: once on can relate performance to uniform time units, work is never the same. One moves from the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant (working on job after another, as time and light permit)and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant (who always had something to do) to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.第二篇题材划分：历史类文章主要内容：在泰国附近出现的一个D文明，语言和Mon语言有联系。
不完全信息,股利政策,和“一鸟在手”的谬论[外文翻译]
![不完全信息,股利政策,和“一鸟在手”的谬论[外文翻译]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/09f33b5249649b6648d747fc.png)
外文翻译Imperfect information, dividend policy, and "the bird in thehand" fallacyMaterialSource:The Bell Journal of Economic Author: Sudipto BhattacharyaThis paper assumes that outside investors have imperfect information about firms' profitability and that cash dividends are taxed at a higher rate than capital gains. It is shown that under these conditions, such dividends function as a signal of expected cash flows. By structuring the model so that finite-lived investors turn over continuing projects to succeeding generations of investors, we derive a comparative static result that relates the equilibrium level of dividend payout to the length of investors' planning horizons.This article develops a model in which cash dividends function as a signal of expected cash flows of firms in an imperfect-information setting. We assume that the productive assets in which agents invest stay in place longer than the agents live and that ownership of the assets is transferred, over time, to other agents. The latter are a priori imperfectly informed about the profitability of assets held by different firms. The major signaling costs that lead dividends to function as signals arise because dividends are taxed at the ordinary income tax rate, whereas capital gains are taxed at a lower rate. Within this framework, this paper explains why firms may pay dividends despite the tax disadvantage of doing so.Recently, Leland and Pyle (1977) and Ross (1977) have used the paradigm of Spence's signaling model (1974) to examine financial market phenomena related to unsystematic risk borne by entrepreneurs and firm debt-equity choice decisions, respectively. In its spirit and cost structure, our model is closely related to the Ross model (1977).The essential contributions of our model are the following. First, we develop a tax-based signaling cost structure founded on the observation that signaling equilibria are feasible, even if signaling cost elements that are negatively related to true expected cash flows are small, provided there are other signaling costs that are not related to true cash flow levels. Second, we develop the model in an intertemporal setting that allows us to identify the relative weights placed on the benefits (increase in value) and costs of signaling with dividends. Our modelsuggests an interesting comparative static result concerning the shareholders' planning horizon; namely, the shorter the horizons over which shareholders have to realize their wealth, the higher is the equilibrium proportion of dividends to expected earnings. Other comparative static properties of the dividend-signaling equilibrium, with respect to major variables like the personal income tax rate and the rate of interest, are also developed and are shown to be in accord with the empirical results of Brittain (1966).To keep the analysis manageable, and to highlight the essential characteristics, we employ two major analytical simplifications. First, we assume that the valuation of cash flow streams is done in a risk-neutral world. Second, we allow the "urgency" of the agents' need to realize their wealth to be parameterized by the length of the planning horizons over which they maximize expected discounted realized wealth, with no detailed consideration of the intertemporal pattern of asset disposal. These assumptions are further discussed below, after the basic model is developed. The general structure of the dividend-signaling model and the conditions for the existence of dividend-signaling equilibria are developed in Section 2.In Section 3 we analyze an example with uniformly distributed cash flows to facilitate discussion of comparative static properties and issues related to multiperiod planning horizons and dynamic learning possibilities. Section 4 contains the concluding remarks and suggestions for further research.In this section we outline the nature of the dividend-signaling model and the signaling cost structure. The model applies to a setting in which outside investors cannot distinguish (a priori) the profitability of productive assets held by across section of firms. Existing shareholders of firms care about the market value "assigned" by outsiders, because the planning horizon over which they have to realize their wealth is shorter than the time span over which the firms' assets generate cash flows. The simplifying assumption of risk-neutrality eliminates the diversification motive. The usual noncooperative evolution arguments of the Spence-type (1974) suggest a signaling equilibrium, if a signal with the appropriate cost-structure properties exists. Dividends are shown to satisfy the requirements.We ignore the incorporation of other sources of information (e.g., accountants' reports) on the ground that, taken by themselves, they are fundamentally unreliable "screening" mechanisms because of the moral hazard involved in communicating profitability. Hence, the model of this paper is somewhat exploratory in nature, a property that it shares with most other signaling models in which the costliness ofsignals derives from exogenous consideration.To preserve the simplicity of the model's structure, we assume that assets owned by firms generate cash flows that are perpetual streams, which are, in most of what follows, taken to be intertemporally independently identically distributed. In this section, and for most of the paper, we assume that existing shareholders have a single-period planning horizon. The firms are assumed to have sufficient investment opportunities, so that all of the cash flows from existing assets can be rationally reinvested. This simplifying assumption can be relaxed somewhat. The communication of even ex post cash flows from existing assets is assumed to be costly, because cash payouts in the form of dividends on regular share repurchases are assumed to be taxed at a higher personal tax rate than capital gains. In the absence of explicit cash payout, before taking on outside financing for new investments, ex post cash flows cannot be communicated without moral hazard, because one of the "inside" variables that a firm cannot readily communicate without moral hazard is the level of new investment.It is assumed that the signaling benefit of dividends derives from the rise in liquidation value V (D) caused by a committed, and actually paid, dividend level D. We develop the model in terms of a marginal analysis for a new project taken on by a firm. This simplification serves two purposes. First, not analyzing dividend decisions vis-à-vis existing and new asset cash flows enables us to postpone discussion of dynamic learning issues to the example in Section 3. Second, this mode of analysis permits us to retain simplicity and flexibility with respect to the modeling of costs incurred in making up shortfalls of cash flows relative to promised dividends. For example, one way of making up such short-falls is likely to be the postponement of investment/replacement plans, although fundamentally we adhere to the sound partial equilibrium practice of analyzing the dividend decision when the investment policy is given. It is assumed that dividend decisions are taken by shareholders' agents, whom we term insiders or managers. These agents optimize the after-tax objective function of shareholders, possibly because their own incentive compensation is tied to the same criterion. The insiders are the only people who know the cash flow distributions of their projects.Having discussed the general structure of the model and the costs that permit dividends to function as a signal, we now use a simple example to examine in more detail the nature of equilibrium and its comparative statics. Suppose the incremental cash flow of the project whose value is being signaled is, in any given period,distributed uniformly over [0, t] with mean t/2.All projects are perpetuities and, forthe time being, the cash flows of each project are taken to be intertemporallyindependently identically distributed. In the cross section of firms the value of t isassumed to vary between t min and t max，but investors cannot discriminate amongprojects with different t's held by different firms. It is further assumed that t=0.This is partly for analytical convenience but, vis-à-vis a marginal project in minany given firm, this is a natural assumption since one of the "inside" variables that afirm cannot costlessly communicate to the market without moral hazard is theamount of investment it undertakes. Initially, we continue to assume shareholdershave a one-period planning horizon.The signaling cost structure that we have developed is not only realistic(dividends linked only to expected cash flows), but also the only simple structureconsistent with the assumption of an exogenously costly dividend-signalingequilibrium. Superficially, another simple possibility that satisfies the marginal-costcharacteristics required for signaling is a "lower-truncated" structure with cash flowX in dividends paid if and only if X is less than some "promised" D! Since the moralhazard in costlessly communicating X to outsiders is the basis for the dissipativesignaling equilibrium, this is not going to be a very enforceable structure. In adifferent context Ross (1977) has developed a financial-signaling model of leveragebased on a "lower-truncated" cost structure of significant bankruptcy penalties formanagers. A difficulty with such a structure is that unless enforceable penalties ofsimilar magnitude relative to the benefits of nonbankruptcy exist for shareholders,there is an incentive for shareholders to make side payments to managers to inducefalse signaling by employing higher levels of debt. In anotherpaper(Bhattacharya,1977), I have developed a model of nondissipative-notexogenously costly-signaling of insiders' information about future cash flows, basedon expectations revision in the market, in a setting in which there is no tax cost todirectly communicating ex post cash flows. As noted in Section 2, it is my belief thata synthesis of the two types of models, which should allow us to provide a partialrole for sources of ex post earnings information like accounting reports, is aninteresting, if difficult, problem for further research.Convergence to equilibrium in financial-signaling models is an interesting issueprimarily because the time structure of events is likely to be different from that inthe job-market signaling model of Spence (1974).In both our model and that of Ross(1977), the signaling cost arises in the future, whereas the benefit, the rise in value,is likely to get established in current as well as liquidation values. If unconstrained liquidation with no effect on value is posited, then current shareholders, and their agents, clearly have an incentive to signal falsely and sell out at an inconsistently high value. One must assume that premature or excessive-relative to normal trading by "retiring" stockholders-liquidation bids by shareholders would significantly affect market value so as to virtually eliminate such problems. It is also likely that observations of insider trading, conditional on their signaling decisions in the current shareholders' interest, or eliciting (conditional) insider bids in a tâtonnement model will play a significant role in convergence to the equilibrium valuation schedule as a function of the signal. These are clearly issues that need further study, as do the issues related to multiperiod planning horizons discussed in Section 3.译文不完全信息，股利政策，和“一鸟在手”的谬论资料来源: 贝尔经济杂志作者：巴特查亚本文假设外部投资者对公司的盈利能力持有不完全信息和现金股息比资本利得税率更高。
英语课程与教学论--期末考核答案
期末考试《英语课程与教学论》满分100分I. Multiple ChoiceSelect the best answer for each of the questions, and there is only one correct answer to each question. (每题2分，共40分)1. Emphasizing on certain practice techniques such as mimicry; memorization and pattern drills is the featureof ＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. The Direct MethodB. The Audio-lingual MethodC. Situational Language TeachingD. Communicative Language Teaching2. The emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language shows the feature of ＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. The Direct MethodB. The Audio-lingual MethodC. Situational Language TeachingD. Communicative Language Teaching3. ＿＿＿＿＿＿is supported by the fact that learners from the same language background may come up withdifferent errors, and conversely speakers of different language backgrounds can make similar errors.A. The teacher-centerednessB. The student-centerednessC. The hypothesis-testing processD. The structural syllabus4. The latter has evolved into a learner-centered approach to encompass not only the student as a learner, butalso the teacher, the parents and the citizen of the ＿＿＿＿＿＿of the learning process.A. Social contextB. Educational contextC. Smaller contextD. Larger context5. Which of the following expressions is not correct? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. Different sentences structures can be used to express the same concept.B. One sentence structure can have more than one communicative function.C. One communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms.D. One form can have more than one meaning, but one meaning or concept can be expressed by only one form.6. Which of the following sounds does not have the pronunciation /u:/?＿＿＿＿＿＿A. foodB. stoodC. chooseD. smooth7. Among the following examples of integration, which one is the example of integrating speaking with listening?A. dictationB. answer questions orallyC. discussion followed by readingD. note-taking while listening8.Every good writing assignment includes several elements, in the following, which one is one of those elements?A. missionB. audienceC. materialsD. topic9.Which of the following is NOT one of the hypotheses put forward by Stephen Krashen?A. The acquisition-learning hypothesis.B. The natural order hypothesis.C. The input hypothesis.D. The hypothesis of linguistic universals.10. In the Natural Approach, the teacher can make use of various ways except ＿＿＿＿＿＿in order to help the students to be successful.A. keeping their attention on key lexical itemsB. explaining grammatical rulesC. using appropriate gesturesD. using context to help them understand11. At which stage does the teacher provide opportunities for the students to use language as a vehicle for communication? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. at the warming-up stageB. at the presentation stageC. at the practice stageD. at the production stage12. Effective learning depends to a large extent on＿＿＿＿＿＿of the class.A. course arrangementB. learners’ performanceC. encouraging atmosphereD. teacher’s management13. ＿＿＿＿＿＿are popular among students because they are associated with fun and games and they are considered to be fashionable.A.tape recordersB. walkmansC. video playersD. computers14.＿＿＿＿＿＿makes the web more easily interactive than a book or magazine.A. telephone numberB. publisher’s addressC. e-mail addressD. postcode15.Observe materials used in class teaching carefully with the purpose of identifying the teaching goals they achieve. Those materials may include except＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. excerpts from other didactic materialsB. learners’ bookC. adapted materials in the foreign languageD. complementary materials to the book16.When w e talk about the teachers’ body language, which one is not the proper＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. “bury yourself” in your notes and plansB. do not stand in one place for a long timeC. make frequent eye contact with all students in the classD. let your body posture exhibit an air of confidence17. Which kind of techniques can not be used to get formative assessment? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. observationB. classroom discussionC. questioningD. results from oral tests18.Summative assessment is used to assess learners’＿＿＿＿＿＿over a period of time.A. knowledgeB. skillsC. abilitiesD. achievements19.＿＿＿＿＿＿relates to the truthfulness of the data.A. ValidityB. reliabilityC. subjectD. Object20.＿＿＿＿＿＿is an intensive study of a specific individual or specific context, which is usually based on the assumptionA. Action researchB. Teaching journalC. Lesson reportD. A case studyII. Multiple ChoiceSelect the best answer for each of the questions, and there are more than one correct answer to each question. （每题2分，共20分)1. The decision of language policy includes＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. at what age to begin the course of a foreign languageB. the number of hours per week devoted to teaching itC. whether it will be made available to all or only certain students in the school systemD. how many children should be involved2. Which of the following is true?A. Interlanguage is a product of communicative strategies of the learner.B. Interlanguage is a product of mother tongue interference.C. Interlanguage is a product of overgeneralization of the target language rules.D. Interlanguage is the representation of learners’ unsystematic L2 rules.E. Interlanguage is the representation of learners’ unsystematic L1 rules.3. Contents of structural syllabus usually consist of discrete sentences, yes/no and questions, ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿, and relative clauses; plus inductively or deductively, presented pedagogic“grammar points”,with structures being generally presented one at a tim e.A. articlesB. situationsC. prepositionsD. conditionals4. There are three strategies for expanding your English vocabulary, they are＿＿＿＿＿＿A. contextualizationB. discriminationC. affixationD. substitution5. When students do listening exercises, what may make them feel it’s difficult to do listening comprehension? ＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. Inadequate vocabularyB. Inability to perform tasksC. Anxiety and nervousnessD. Lack of face-to-face interaction6. What are the challenges in teaching large classes? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. Let every student like you.B. Keep good discipline.C. Give individual student attention.D. Manage classroom disruption.7. By＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿＿＿＿, EFL students can communicate with people they have never met and who they will probably never meet.sending e-mails B. telephoningC. joining newsgroupsD. introduction8. As teachers, we need to know when students are more likely to be engaged in learning. Generally, they become engaged when＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. the work builds on their prior attainment; they are able to do the work but find it challenging.B. they have opportunities to ask questions and try out ideas.C. they get a feeling of satisfaction and enjoyment from the work.D. they are emotionally, physically and intellectually involved by the tasks.9. When carry out an assessment, which of the following factors should be taken into consideration＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. cultureB. genderC. family D community situations10. Which procedures are recommended in preparing self-report forms (Richards and Lockhart, 1996)A. identify in as much as possible the philosophy underlying the courseB. identify different kinds of teaching activities, proceduresC. prepare a lesson report formD. prepare videosIII. True or False1分，共10分）1. Sociolinguistics is a branch of science where sociology and linguistics meet.2. A general assumption is that the learning that takes place in natural and educational settings are the same in nature.3. In student-centered approach, students are treated as “empty vessels” and learning is viewed as an additive process with new information that is geared to the “average” s tudents.4. Discrimination can be used as a strategy to expand your English vocabulary.5. Good writing begins with good assignments.6.Teacher should present herself to students as a person rather than just a reader of texts and a vessel of knowledge7.The use of the Internet is not advisable because it cannot help improve the students’ English level.8. The physical feature of learning environment cannot offer clues about the teaching.9. The diagnostic use of assessment to provide feedback to teachers and students over the course of instruction is called summative assessment.10. The simplest type of experiment involves two “equivalent” groups.III. Answer the questions (每题15分，共30分)1. Case analysisMiss Li. is an English major student who wants to be an English teacher, but she doesn’t know how to strive for it. Can you help her?Because Mr. Wang is all in Chinese, Mr. Wang is not an English teacher.Because the English teacher is a student's brother, Lee teacher is a woman, so the teacher is not the Englishteacher.So English teacher can only be Liu.Also because the teacher Li asked the math teacher a question, it is impossible that Li is a maths teacher.The math teacher can only be a teacher.Therefore, Li is a Chinese teacher.2. It is very important to show meanings of a lexical item in the process of teaching; can you talk about how to show to show meanings of a lexical item?Vocabulary teaching is an important part of English teaching, in the primary stage, vocabulary is the most frequent contact with the primary school students in English learning, will encounter a variety of problems, especially vocabulary. Now, in the majority of primary school English vocabulary teaching, our teacher or the most use a traditional way of vocabulary teaching: first to read over the vocabulary pronunciation, students read several times, finally in class by rote or copying to memory words. Under the influence of the traditional English vocabulary teaching, students can only rely on one letter of the machine to memorize vocabulary, not only difficult but also easy to forget. This teaching method makes students into a boring vocabulary memory. How to help students to memorize and master the word efficiently becomes an urgent problem to be solved.。
直造建筑事务所
水雁飞 出生于 1981 年 直造建筑事务所创始合伙人及主持建筑师 美国普林斯顿大学建筑学硕士 一直以来 直造将中西方文化的比较研究作为工作的内核 积极地拥抱现实中的矛盾性与 复杂性 同时以设计激发不同基因之间的共鸣 功能场地 材料 地形 气候等 面对 每个项目的具体性和多变的限制 直造通过理性推演与物理研究的工作方式 来探寻建造 中新的可能性 从而在当代生活中延展更广义的自然 作为中国当代新锐建筑师的最先锋代表 直造的设计实践与研究刊载于 A+U The Plan PASAJES arquitectura 建 筑 学 报 Wallpaper dezeen designboom 等学术刊物和专业媒体 作品“大乐之野庾村民宿”的设计回顾文章于 2017 年在 建筑 学报 发表 并荣获 2018 年 AIA 美国建筑师协会卓越设计奖 同年受邀参加威尼斯建筑 双年展 意大利建筑杂志 The Plan 近期以专题文章形式刊登由李翔宁撰写的 Design Maturity and Balance 一文 评论并介绍了直造近年来的主要作品
NATURALBUILD is founded in 20Байду номын сангаас2 by Yanfei Shui and Yichi Su. In the face of the complexities and contradictions of the reality in China, NATURALBUILD embraces the view that everything is a whole as opposed to functionalism, or ”Advaita Vedanta” mentioned in eastern thought. Therefore, rejecting the dichotomy of binary opposition, transcending the pure concept, but ”focusing on the familiar of everyday life” has become the starting point of design thinking. On the one hand, we make a thorough investigation on different regions, invoke the ancient genes and wisdom on the ground construction, and try to establish a relatively economic spatial mechanism to win the freedom of use, in response to the current increasingly severe ecological and energy challenges. On the other hand, we also attempt to excavate the possibilities hidden in the prevalent industrial technologies and materials, and explore the new potential between body perception and environment that would expand the meaning of naturality in contemporary living.
论罗密欧与朱丽叶的爱情观--毕业论文
【标题】论罗密欧与朱丽叶的爱情观【作者】陈雪松【关键词】《罗密欧与朱丽叶》;人物刻画;爱情观【指导老师】【专业】英语【正文】I. IntroductionWilliam Shakespeare is considered as one of the greatest writers in thehistory and shows his unique opinions of European Renaissance period. All of his works are based on the feudalism. So those works reflect his views on the society at that time. It was early in the middle 19th century when Shakespeare was first introduced to China. From then on,his works haveinfluenced the Chinese literary production and stage. It is from the early 20th century when academic study of Shakespeare found its way into this country. And based on developments during nearly a hundred years, China’sShakespeare Society (now changed to China’s Shakespeare Academy)1 was founded in 1984. Many scholars, writers and artists have made their contributions to building up an individual, systematic study of Shakespeare and his works, which include his tragedies, literary background,characterization, and so on.Romeo and Juliet is a well-known literary creation in the western and Chinese history. It is classified as a great love tragedy in thatits heroes and heroines first struggled in the conflict between love and feudalism, andat last coincidentally gave up their youthful lives for love. However, owing to the different attitude toward love at different times, a comparative study of these two generations deserves even greater appreciation. This thesis aims at a comparative analysis of some different views on love and the influences and significance of Romeo and Juliet. By doing research from several perspectives including their different background and quality on love, and applying theories concerning some research on this drama, thispaper analyzes the different views on love in different times.To summarize, the author of the thesis argues that people’s viewson love in this drama are affected by the environment of feudalism, which resulted in their tragedy. Views on love are also closely related to the quality of human beings. Different qualities bring aboutdifferent views on love, which can influence the fate of people.II. William Shakespeare and his DramaEnglish poet, dramatist, and actor, often called the Englishnational poetand considered by many to be the greatest dramatist of all time, Shakespeare occupies a position unique in worldliterature. Other poets, such as Homer and Dante, and novelists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Charles Dickens, have transcended national barriers; butno writer’s living reputation can compare to that of Shakespeare, whose plays, written in the late 16th and early 17th centuries for a small repertory theatre, are now performed and read worldwide. He is a writer of great intellectual rapidity, perceptiveness, and poetic power. Shakespeare is astonishingly clever with words and images, so that his mental energy, when applied to intelligible human situations, finds full and memorable expression, convincing and imaginatively stimulating. The art form intowhich his creative energies went involved the vivid stage impersonationof human beings, commanding sympathy and inviting vicarious participation. Thus Shakespeare’s merits can survive translation into other languages andinto cultures remote from that of Elizabethan England.A. William ShakespeareShakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564 on April the23rd. Weknow little about Shakespeare’s early years. His father, John Shakespeare, was a merchant and a man of some importance in his local community. Hismother, Mary Arden, was of higher social class, so Shakespeare had a good upbringing. Although there are no records, it seems that Shakespeare attended the local grammar school but not university at Stratford-upon-Avon, where he was born. So Shakespeare is considered as “the swan of Avon”.2 In 1582, when Shakespeare was 18, he married Anne Hathaway, who was eight years older than he was. They had three children. Shakespeare wrote 38 plays and 154 sonnets. He began workingin his hometown of Stratford, but by 1592 he was writing in London. He becamerich enough to buy a house in the capital and one in Stratford. In 1594, Shakespeare became a leading member of the newly-formed acting company, the LordChamberlain's Men. This company became the King's Men when James I was made king. Shakespeare stayed with them for the rest of his career.3 In 1599, the company occupied the now famous Globe theatre in London. Shakespeare lived and worked in London, while his family remained in Stratford. Built on the banks of the River Avon the Royal Shakespeare Theatre is the main base for the Royal Shakespeare Company. Many distinguished British actors and actresses have been associatedwith the theatre. You can even see one of Shakespeare’s plays being performed in his “home town”.Nowadays, Shakespeare becomes a symbol of national culture.He wrote sad plays called tragedies, like Romeo and Juliet, funny stories or comedies, romantic stories and stories about historical figures such asJulius Caesar. Shakespeare died on his birthday in 1616, almost 400 years ago. But why is his work still popular today? That is, Shakespeare can write skillfully in different poetic forms, and has an amazing wealth of vocabulary and idiom. Shakespeare's influence on the English language canstill be felt today. We t alk about “fair play”, meaning honest behaviorbut this phrase was first used by Shakespeare. He coined the phrase “youcan have too much of a good thing”. And it was Shakespeare who came up withthe expression to disappear “into thin air” which we stil l use today whenwe lose something.4 Shakespeare is above all writers in the past and in the present time.B. Shakespeare’s DramaDrama is very popular in Britain. It is the traditionalentertainment forBritish people. As we know, England is a developed country. British people have much more free time and money to do what they like. Their good welfare makes them have a higher living standard and well educated.But if we want to talk about British Drama, it cannot avoid mentioning Shakespeare, whom all British people regard as an honor. And perhapsthis is the real reason why they like drama so much.Shakespeare is the most important representative in the Renaissance Period of English Literature. His drama looked at common human themes, such as betrayal, murder, lust, power, ambition and love. These themes are as much a part of human nature today as they were all those years ago and are the themes we see in modern soap operas and Hollywood films. Even though histheatre, The Globe, burned down in 1613 it was rebuilt in London in 1997 and you can still see his drama performed there today. Shakespeare’s drama has been translated into every major language in the world. And perhaps we'll still be as fascinated by his drama.Shakespeare’s tragedies were of a stonishing variety in presentment, dramatic movement, and in characterization. The characters differ in their sex, age, state of life, virtues and vices, but all of them show distinctive marks even if their parts were very short. Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies are: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. They have some characteristics in common. Each portrays some noble hero, who faces the injustice of human life and is caught in a difficult situation and whose fate is closelyconnected with the fate of the whole nation. Each hero has his weakness of nature.His comedies bring us into happy and ideal worlds with singing, dancing, harmony with nature and freedom from the vices of the world. They proveShakespeare to be a great humanist writer.Taken as a whole, it could be said that Shakespeare’s early works showed optimism and his belief that love and benevolence will triumph over everything and concern for a peaceful and unified England whereas his laterworks, with deep insight, brought to light contradictions between the humanists and the dark and brutal feudal and capitalist reality.Shakespeare used his drama to narrate the happy and sad life of the world. All his literary works profoundly decayed feudal society. His drama is aninexhaustible treasury. His dramas are the soul of British culture more than a kind of graceful and pure art only. British people are so proud of theMan that many celebrations are set to commemorate him.C. Romeo and JulietRomeo and Juliet was a product of the English Renaissance written by Shakespeare in 1595. And it embodied the life in the feudal society. It has the same theme as Shakespeare’s other works, that is, the conflict between love and feudalism. Although the main characters were faithful to love,there existed simply too many obstacles on their ways to true love. In order to protect their love, they stood against their respective feudal families. But they failed and died for love in the end.Romeo and Juliet’s families were deadly enemies. But they fell in deep love with each other at their first sight at the ball. And passion lent them power. They exchanged their faithful vow of love under the moonlight. Such love affairs between the families in feud certainly led to great conflict. Inorder to protect their love, Romeo and Juliet took all kinds of actions to revolt against the feudalism. With the help of Priest Laurence, they got married very quickly without telling their parents. At the same time, the old Lord Capulet had been planning for his daughter Juliet’s future. He had chosen a nobleman named Paris to be her husband. He supposed that Juliet would feel honored and glad to accept him as a husband. But instead of cheering Juliet, this news served but to increase her misery. She perplexedher mother by her plain distress. She refused to marry Paris. And her excuses made her parents exasperated. It seemed to her father that she was putting obstacles in the way of her own good fortune. So he sternly ordered her tobe ready by Thursday. In her extremity, Juliet decided to seek help of the kind priest. She said there was nothing she would not face, even the death by her own hands, rather than give up Romeo and marry Paris.In order to be together with Romeo, Juliet took the medicine bravely on theeve of the wedding day and lost consciousness. Romeo got the news of her “death” and felt an extremity of despair. He thought he would have no joy when Juliet was dead. So he kissed her and then drank the poison. When Juliet came to herself, she found her Romeo was dead, so she killed herself with a dagger.The climax of the conflict resulted in this pair winning their love, but with the sacrifice of their lives.III. The Characterization of the ProtagonistsPeople are not isolated, especially for the leading roles in a play; living in specific environments, people tend to inherit part of their character traits from their surroundings. And their characters decide their will. Then they will take all kinds of actions under the control of their wills. Thispart will examine how the characterizations in this drama contribute to the literature.A. The Personalities of the ProtagonistsThe Personalities in Romeo and Juliet are direct and concrete: we know the inner world of the person by what they said and what they did. Because ofthe different culture backgrounds and their influences, Romeo and Juliet saw each other at a banquet, they fell in love and Romeo kissed Juliet. She accepted and asked him to do that again.Romeo: Thus from my lips, by thine my sin is purged.(kisses her) Juliet: Then have my lips the sin that they have took.Romeo: Sin from my lips, O trespass sweetly urged!Give me my sin again. (Kissed her)Juliet: You kiss by the book. (Act one, Scene V)5Romeo and Juliet were full of youthful spirit and bravery, and they were so naive and unaffected that people could feel romance from them. Romeo was an enthusiastic young man, both peace loving and courageous. When he saw a fight was happening between Tybalt and his friends, he did his best to intervene, beating down the swords of their opponents. When he saw Tybalt mortally wounded his friend on his account, he provoked Tybalt to a fight and instantly killed him. In order to show hisfaithful love to Juliet, herisked his life to climb over the walls of the orchard to meet her and exchange their love’s faithful vows.Romeo: With love’s light wings did I o’er perch these walls;For stony limits cannot hold love out,And what love can do, that dares love attempt.Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.Juliet: If they do see thee, they will murder thee.Romeo: Alack, there lies more peril in thine eyeThen twenty of their swords! Look thou but sweet,And I am proof against their enmity. (Act Two, Scene II)6From Romeo’s own speech, we re cognize his courage to go see his Juliet, his cleverness to escape from the Capulet’s men and eagernessto have Juliet as his wife. And then he was willing to throw away his family name. He could even give up his precious life for loving Juliet and staying together forever. Juliet was a naive and lively girl. She was brave and decisive, clever and resourceful. Being a strong character, she represented the power of hope. In the love affair with Romeo, she was the dominant part. It seemsthat power of her love would never dry up.Juliet: My bounty is as boundless as the sea,My love as deep; the more I give to thee,The more I have, for both are infinite. (Act Two, Scene II)She loved Romeo and devoted all her heart into love.Juliet: go ask his name. —If he be married,My grave is like to be my wedding bed. (Act One, Scene V)7In her secret rendezvous boundless with Romeo, in dealing with her parents’ forcing of her marriage to Paris, she showed extraordinary intelligence.She put forward every plea she could think of to stop or delay the projected marriage. She pleaded that she knew too little of the proposed husband, that she was too young for marriage, that it was still too soon after the death of Tybalt. When she failed to persuade her parents tod elay the wedding, she took Priest Laurence’s advice and drank thephial bravely. Here Juliet’s brave character was shown through what she said and did.She was a complete rebel of the feudalism society. She was bold enough toseek love in defiance of the enmity of the two families. After the first sight of Romeo, she knew he was the only son of her father’s great enemy. But she was still determined to love him and made appointment for their tryst. Then she decided to arrange for marriage and lay all her f ortunes at Romeo’s foot and follow her husband throughout the world. When she found that her lover had died, she killed herself to show her loyalty to Romeo and the tenacity to pursue happy life. She would rather die than marry Paris,whom she did not love at all. The enthusiastic love encouraged herto throw away all the shyness and said directly to her lover: “Please tell me whereyou go, I will dedicate myself to you, and go with you to any place.” 8 Both Romeo and Juliet went ahead without any hesitat ion. They just followed their natural instinct, never accommodated themselves to the feudal ethics. They vividly displayed the humanist spirit of the English Renaissance.B. The Love of the ProtagonistsNothing can separate two people being in love. The love of the protagonists in Romeo and Juliet is very powerful. And it means that love can conquer everything. But love can also destroy many things. Inorder to purify love, Romeo and Juliet broke through the obstruction of the family. And they elopedwith each other boldly.Shakespeare said that every one of us is an actor, life is like aplay and the world is like a huge stage in the theater. 9 Every one has their own parts and scripts that can not be changed and they must follow. This is whatwe call fate, an unchangeable process of life. In the play of Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare describes them as two star-crossed lovers. Their storywas written on the star long before they were even born. They met each other,they fell in love with each other then they died and ended the story. All those happened because of love. Love is a force that makeseverything changed including the story of Romeo and Juliet, in which it advanced the plot and brought the ultimate death of the protagonists. In this drama the love fate happened frequently.After all the entire drama was full of chance, circumstance and coincidence on love, which pushed the plots to go on and controlledJuliet and Romeo’s lives, controlled the story. Juliet and Romeo, two star-crossed loversblessed by fate where they meet; were also cursed by love fate where they died. The author of Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare, was the most outstandingwriter in the period of the English Renaissance. And the feature of theEnglish Renaissance was humanity, which encouraged human being to enjoy the happiness in love in this life.IV. The Views on Love in the DramaA. The Main Characters’ Views on LoveMost of the traditional works must express characters’ feeling directly,such as this drama, which also reflects views of all the characters on love.1.Different Love Views of the Two GenerationsLove is an everlasting topic. In this drama, different generations have different views on love. Julie’s parents made a misunderstanding andthought that she was sad of her cousin’s death. Therefore, they ordered Juliet to get married with Paris. All this reflects that the old generations at that time were very despotic on love. They opposed free love because of the views of fogyism.It was in vain for Juliet to stand against her parents, so she hadto turn to Priest Laurence for help. And Priest Laurence gave her a liquid medicine, which would make her sleep deeply and look like dead. So long as Romeo came back and took her away, their love and lives would be saved. Butunfortunately, the priest did not send the letter to Romeo in time because of the pestilence. After Romeo came to the Cemetery, he misunderstood that Juliet had died. As a result, he drank the poison.After several minutes,Juliet woke up but she also killed herself for love.Romeo and Juliet’s love proved that the young generations can giveup something important to a complete love. It reflected thecontradictions existing between the advanced youth and the backwardsocial system that isthe ol d generations. And this drama stirred up people’s courage and confidence to pursue freedom and happiness, especially in the young generations at that time.2. The Reasons for the DifferencesShakespeare’s major characters are individuals representing cer tain types. He succeeds in exploring the characters’ inner mind. The soliloquies in his plays fully reveal the inner conflict of his characters. Shakespeare also portrays his characters in pairs which will bring vividness to hischaracters. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet does not coincide with Aristotle's tragic theories; it is more like a comedy.10 During theperiod when feudalism was declining, humanism was not totally established. Some obstinate feudalist conventions such as blood revenge still existed in theformer big feudal families, and became the last fortress to struggle.From above, we can know that the main theme is the conflict between love and feudalism. So Romeo and Juliet was a product of feudalism. It objects feudalism and has a great influence on both the people and the society.3. The Results of the DifferencesIn order to protect their love, Romeo and Juliet took all kinds of actions to revolt against the feudalism. With the help of Priest Laurence, they gotmarried very quickly without telling their parents. At the same time, the old Lord Capulet had been planning for his daughter Juliet’s future. He had chosen a nobleman named Paris to be her husband. He supposed that Juliet would feel honored and glad to accept him as a husband. But instead ofcheering Juliet, this news served but to increase her misery. She perplexed her mother by her plain distress. She refused to marry Paris. And her excuses made her parents exasperated. It seemed to her fatherthat she was puttingobstacles in the way of her own good fortune. So he sternly ordered her to be ready by Thursday. In her extremity, Juliet decided to seek help of the kind priest. She said there was nothing she would not face, even the death by her own hands, rather than give up Romeo and marry Paris.In order to be together with Romeo, Juliet took the medicine bravely on the eve of the wedding day and lost consciousness. Romeo got the newsof her “death” and felt an extremity of despair. He thought he would have no joy when Juliet was dead. So he kissed her and then drank the poison. When Juliet came to herself, she found her Romeo was dead, so she killed herself with a dagger. If they would not fight for the views on love in the feudalism and adhere to their parents’ views, they woul d have another end.Maybe they would live with other persons not considering their love. So they would not have sacrificed their precious lives.B. The Author’s Views on Love1. The Formation of His Views on LoveAlthough there are no records, it seems that Shakespeare attendedthe local grammar school at Stratford-upon-Avon, where he was born. As we know thatin 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, who was eight yearsolder than he was. All this reflects that he was also the casualty of that society offeudalism. And he also had no choices to express his love at that time.Shakespeare’s dramas are the product of the British social life during the Renaissance and cultural development. At that time, Shakespeare’s humanistic worldviews were graduall y taken shape. And his works were filled with humanism spirit of optimism and full of humanistic ideals. It isin this great historical background that Shakespeare’s protagonists in the first image are rebellious character. Based on this, he formed his specialviews on love.2. The Ways He Expressed His Views on LoveShakespeare expressed his views on love from the following aspects: Shakespeare’s major characters: In this drama, Shakespeare’s major characters are individuals representing certain types. Shakespeare succeeds in exploring the characters’ inner mind. The soliloquiesin Romeo and Juliet fully reveal the inner conflict of his characters. Shakespeare also portrays his characters in pairs which will bring vividness to his characters.Shakesp eare’s plays’ plot construction: Shakespeare’s plays are well-known for their adroit plot construction. Shakespeare usually borrowsthe plots from some old plays or storybooks, or from ancient Greek and Roman sources. To make the play more lively and compact, he would shorten the time and intensify the story.Shakespeare’s language: Shakespeare wrote skillfully in different forms, either formal ones or informal ones. He has an amazing wealth of vocabulary and idiom in this drama. His coinage of new words and distortionof the meaning of the old ones also create striking effects on the reader. Shakespeare is above all writers in the past and in the present time.In this drama, Shakespeare used different ways to express the theme.Besides, he had some other ways to transfer his views on love to us. He used his drama to narrate the happy and sad life of the world.V. The Influences and Significance of Romeo and JulietA. The InfluencesRomeo and Juliet has great influences both on that time and today. And ithas the realistic significance to the world.Romeo and Juliet reflects the characteristics of Shakespeare’searly creativity. And Romeo and Juliet eulogizes the faithfulness oflove and the spirit of pursuing happiness. The play, though a tragedy,is permeated withoptimistic spirit. So it has a great influence on People’s view on love at that time. More and more people wanted to pursue a perfect love.The opinions of love in this drama still have some inspiration tothe modernsociety. Modern people are influenced by Romeo and Juliet, and what they pursue is the spirit of love, not the physical things. They are inspired with this kind of love.Romeo and Juliet added a sad atmosphere to the whole play, whichmade people think what the true love is. As time changes, it changes theconfusing interpretation of the drama. More and more people areattracted by this drama because of this deep love in Romeo and Juliet. This drama is a great masterpiece in the world. So Romeo and Juliet is of permanent art value inthe literature. With this further investigation of this drama, wecan gain more direct views on love in the feudalism. And we can have a good understanding on love nowadays. But it does not mean that the views on love in Romeo and Juliet are right. We can have our respective views on love based on the modern times.B. The Realistic SignificanceIn Romeo and Juliet, the leading roles’ families were the representatives of the feudal power. They would fight on the street even when they justhappened to meet each other, let alone permitting their posterity to love each other. It reflects the society of feudalism. Romeo and Juliet establishes an imaginative world, in which we are likely to enter and share the fortuity of these imaginative people. Compared to the accurate reports, this works could enjoy the people and compels them to follow the imaginative world created.Romeo and Juliet as a creative of individual scholars, in the light of thetrue story of many young men and women to the unfortunate stories and legendswritten, it created the background and environment which is typical features of the times. Therefore, it has a great realistic significance at that time. Young women and men changed their views of love. They are no longerinfluenced by the feudalist thought.VI. ConclusionRomeo and Juliet is a tragedy by William Shakespeare written in 1595,1596.It portrays the life in the feudal society. It has the same theme as Shakespeare’s other works, that is, the conflict between love and feudalism. Although the main characters were faithful to love, there existed simply too many obstacles on their ways to true love. In order to protect their love, they stood against their respective feudal families. But they failed and died for love in the end.Romeo and Juliet is one of several Shakespeare’s plays that are based on true events from history. Most Shakespeare critics and historians agree that the play reflected the general anxiety of England due to worries over succession of leadership. In his drama, we can know people who have different views on love. If we want to live happily and not to regret, when we make decisions on love, we should ask our heart for help. And we can also know that: we should consider all the factors besides love or materials.This thesis aims at expressing characters and understanding the drama and the views on love. We can understand the drama and the themeby analyzing the views on love in Romeo and Juliet, as well as its influence on modern ideas on love.。
2020年9月英语六级真题及参考答案完整版
2020年9月英语六级真题及参考答案【完整版】四六级试卷采用多题多卷形式，大家核对答案时，请找具体选项内容，忽略套数。
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【网络综合版】听力：Section ALong Conversation OneM: You are a professor of Physics at the University of Oxford. You are a senior advisor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research. You also seem to tour the global tirelessly, giving talks. And in addition, you have your own weekly TV show On Science. Where do you get the energy?W: Oh, well. 【Q1】I just love what I do. I am extremely fortunate to have this life, doing what I love doing.M: Professor, what exactly is your goal? Why do you do all of these?W: well, as you said, I do have different things going on. But these I think can be divided into 【Q2】two groups: the education of science, and the further understanding of science.M: Don't these two things get in the way of each other? What I mean is, doesn't giving lectures take time away from the lab?W: Not really, no. I love teaching, and I don’t mind spending more time doing that now than in the past. Also, what I will say is, that 【Q3】teaching a subject helps me comprehend it better myself. I find that it furthers my own knowledge when I have to explain something clearly, when I have to aid others understanding it, and when I have to answer questions about it. Teaching at a high level can be very stimulating for anyone, no matter how much expertise they may already have in the field they are instructing.M: Are there any scientific breakthroughs that you see on the near horizon? A significant discovery or invention we can expect soon.W: 【Q4】The world is always conducting science. And there're constantly new things being discovered. In fact, right now, we have too much data sitting in computers.For example, we have thousands of photos of planet Mars taken by telescopes that nobody has ever seen. We have them, yet nobody has had time to look at them with their own eyes, let alone analyze them.Q1: Why does the woman say she can be so energetic?Q2: What has the woman been engaged in?Q3: What does the woman say about the benefit teaching brings to her?Q4: How does the woman say new scientific breakthroughs can be made possible?Section AConversation 2M: Do you think dreams 【Q5】have special meanings?W: No. I don't think they do.M: I don't either, but some people do. I would say people who believe that dreams have special meanings are superstitious, especially nowadays. In the past, during the times of ancient Egypt, Greece or China, people used to believe that dreams could foresee the future. But today, with all the scientific knowledge that we have, I think it's much harder to believe in these sorts of things.W: My grandmother is superstitious, and she thinks dreams can predict the future. Once, 【Q6】she dreamed that the flight she was due to take the following day crashed.Can you guess what she did? She didn't take that flight. She didn't even bother to go to the airport the following day. Instead, she took the same flight but a week later. And everything was fine of course. No plane ever crashed.M: How funny! Did you know that flying is actually safer than any other mode of transport? It's been statistically proven. People can be so irrational sometimes.W: Yes, absolutely. But, even if we think they are ridiculous, 【Q7】emotions can be just as powerful as rational thinking.M: Exactly. People do all sorts of crazy things because of their irrational feelings. But in fact, some psychologists believe that our dreams are the result of our emotions and memories from that day. I think it was Sigmund Freud who said that children's dreams were usually simple representations of their wishes, thingsthey wished would happen. 【Q8】But in adults', dreams are much more complicated reflections of their more sophisticated sentiments.W: Isn't it interesting how psychologists try to understand using the scientific method something as bazaar as dreams? Psychology is like the rational study of irrational feelings.Q5: What do both speakers think of dreams?Q6: Why didn't the woman's grandmother take her scheduled flight?Q7: What does the woman say about people's emotions?Q8: What did psychologist Sigmund Freud say about adults' dreams?Section BPassage 1While some scientists explore the surface of the Antarctic, others are learning more about a giant body of water -- four kilometers beneath the ice pack. Scientists first discovered Lake Vostok in the 1970s by using radio waves that penetrate the ice. Since then, they have used sound waves and even satellites to map this massive body of water. How does the water in Lake Vostok remained liquid beneath an ice sheet? “The thick glacier above acts like insulating blanket and keeps the water from freezing,” said Martin Siegert, a glaciologist from the university of Wales. In addition, geothermal heat from the deep within the earth may warm the hidden lake.The scientists suspect that microorganisms may be living in Lake Vostok, closed or more than two million years. Anything found that off from the outside world f s on the surface of the earth, said Siegert. Scientists ’will be totally alien to what are trying to find a way to drill into the ice and draw water samples without causing ht be the solution. If all goes as planned, a contamination. Again, robots mig shift robot will melt through the surface ice. When it reaches the lake, it -drill will release another robot that can swim in the lake, take pictures and look for ries will shed light on life in outer signs of life. The scientists hope that discove up -space, which might exist in similar dark and airless conditions. Recently closed s moon, Europa, shows signs of water beneath the icy surface. ’pictures of Jupiter ropa to search for life there, Once tested the Antarctic, robots could be set to Eu too.Q9: What did the scientists first use to discover Lake Vostok in the 1970s? Q10: What did scientists think about Lake Vostok?Q11: What do the scientists hope their discoveries will do?Section BPassage 2The idea to study the American Indian tribe – Tarahumaras, came to James Copeland in 1984 when 【Q12】he discovered that very little research had been done on their language. He contacted the tribe member through a social worker who workedwith the tribes in Mexico. At first, the tribe member named Gonzalez was very reluctant to cooperate. He told Copeland that no amount of money could buy his language. But after Copeland explained to him what he intended to do with his research and how it would benefit the Tarahumaras, Gonzalez agreed to help. 【Q13】He took Copeland to his village and served as an intermediary. Copeland says, thanks to him, the Tarahumaras understood what their mission was and started trusting us. 【Q14】Entering the world of Tarahumaras has been a laborious project for Copeland.To reach their homeland, he must strive two and half days from Huston Taxes. He loads up his vehicle with goods that the tribe’s men can’t easily get and gives the goods to them as a gesture of friendship. The Tarahumaras, who don’t believe any humiliating wealth, take the food and share among themselves. For Copeland, the experience has not only been academically satisfying but also has enriched his life in several ways. 【Q15】“I see people rejecting technology and living a very hard, traditional life, which offers me another notion about the meaning of progress in the western tradition,” he says, “I experienced the simplicity of living in nature that I would otherwise only be able to read about.I see a lot of beauty and their sense of sharing and concern for each other.”Q12: Why did James Copeland want to study the American Indian tribe -- Tarahumaras?Q13: How did Gonzalez help James Copeland?Q14: What does the speaker say about James Copeland’s trip to the Tarahumaras village?Q15: What impresses James Copeland about the Tarahumaras tribe?Section CRecording 1What is a radical? It seems today that people are terrified of the term,minority, who are mostly wealthy white males in western society.Feminism is a perfect example of this phenomenon. The women's movement has been plagued by stereotypes, misrepresentations by the media, and accusations of man-hating and radicalism. When the basic foundation of feminism is simply that women deserve equal rights in all facets of life. When faced with the threat of being labelled radical, women back down from their worthy calls and consequently, participate in their own oppression.It has gotten to the point that many women are afraid to call themselves feminists because of a stigma attached to the word. If people refused to be controlled, and intimidated by stigmas, the stigmas lose all their power, without fear on which they feed, such stigmas can only die.To me, 【Q17】a radical is simply someone who rebels against the norm when advocates a change in the existing state of affairs. On close inspection, it becomes clear that the norm is constantly involving, and therefore, is not a constant entity. So why then, is deviation from the present situation such a threat, when the state of affairs itself is unstable and subject to relentless transformation?It all goes back to maintaining the power of those who have it and preventing the right of those who don't. In fact, when we look at the word "radical" in a historical context, nearly every figure we now hold up as a hero was considered a radical in his or her time. Radicals are people who affect change. They are the people about whom history is written. Abolitionists were radicals, civil rights activists were radicals, 【Q18】 even the founders of our country in their fight to win independence from England were radicals. Their presence in history has changed the way our society functions, mainly by shifting the balance of power that previously existed. Of course, there are some radicals who've made a negative impact on humanity, 【Q18】 but undeniably, there would simply be no progress without radicals. That been said, next time someone calls me a radical, I would accept that label with pride.Q16: What usually happens when people are accused of being radical?Q17: What is the speaker's definition of a radical?Q18: What does the speaker think of most radicals in the American history?Recording 2We are very susceptible to the influence of the people around us. For instance, you may have known somebody who has gone overseas for a year or so and has returned with an accent perhaps. We become part of our immediate environment. None of us are immune to the influences of our own world and let us not kid ourselves that we are untouched by the things and people in our life.Fred goes off to his new job at a factory. Fred takes his ten-minute coffee break, but the other workers take half an hour. Fred says, “What’s the matter with you guys?” Two weeks later, Fred is taking twenty-minute breaks. A month later, Fred takes his half hour. Fred is saying “If you can’t be them, join them. Why should I work any harder than the next guy?” The fascinating thing about being human is that generally we are unaware that there are changes taking place in our mentality. It is like returning to the city smog after some weeks in the fresh air. Only then do we realize that we’ve become accustomed to the nasty smells. Mix with critical people and we learn to criticize. Mix with happy people, and we learn about happiness. What this means is that we need to decide what we want from life and then choose our company accordingly. You may well say, "That is going to take some effort. It may not be comfortable. I may offend some of my present company." Right, but it is your life. Fred may say, "I’m always broke, frequently depressed. I’m going nowhereand I never do anything exciting." Then we discover that Fred’s best friends are always broke, frequently depressed, going nowhere and wishing that life was more exciting. This is not coincidence, nor is it our business to stand in judgement of Fred? However, if Fred ever wants to improve his quality of life, the first thing he'll need to do is recognize what has been going on all these years.It’s no surprise that doctors as a profession suffer a lot of ill health, because they spend their life around sick people. Psychiatrists have a higher incidence of suicide in their profession for related reasons. Traditionally, nine out of ten children whose parents smoke, smoke themselves. Obesity is in part an environmental problem. Successful people have successful friends, and so the story goes on.Q19 What does the speaker say about us as human beings?Q20 What does the speaker say Fred should do first to improve his quality of life?Q21 What does the speaker say about the psychiatrists?Section CLecture 3Virtually every American can recognize a dollar bill at a mere glance. Many can identify it by its sound or texture. But 【Q22】few people indeed can accurately describe the world's most powerful, important currency.The American dollar bill is colored with black ink on one side and green on the other;【Q23】 the exact composition of the paper and ink is a closely guarded government secret. Despite its weighty importance, the dollar bill actually weighs little. It requires nearly 500 bills to tip the scales at a pound. Not only is the dollar bill lightweight, but it also has a brief life span. Few dollar bills survive longer than 18 months.The word "dollar" is taken from the German word "taler," the name for the world's most important currency in the 16th century. The taler was a silver coin first minted in 1518 under the reign of Charles V, Emperor of Germany.The concept of paper money is a relatively recent innovation in the history of American currency. When the Constitution was signed, people had little regard for paper money because of its steadily decreasing value during the colonial era.【Q24】Because of this lack of faith, the new American government minted only coins for common currency. Interest-bearing bank notes were issued at the same time, but their purpose was limited to providing money for urgent government crises, such as American involvement in the War of 1812.The first noninterest-bearing paper currency was authorized by Congress in 1862, at the height of the Civil War. At this point, citizens' old fears of devalued paper currency had calmed, and the dollar bill was born. The new green colored paper money quickly earned the nickname "greenback."Today, the American dollar bill is a product of the Federal Reserve and is issued from the twelve Federal Reserve banks around the United States. The government keeps a steady supply of approximately two billion bills in circulation at all times.Controversy continues to surround the true value of the dollar bill.【Q25】American history has seen generations of politicians argue in favor of a gold standard for American currency. However, for the present, the American dollar bill holds the value that is printed on it, and little more. The only other guarantee on the bill is a Federal Reserve pledge of as a confirmation in the form of government securities.Q22: What does the speaker say about the American dollar bill?Q23: What does the speaker say about the exact composition of the American dollar bill?Q24: Why did the new American government mint only coins for common currency?Q25: What have generations of American politicians argued for?参考答案1.A)She can devote all her life to pursing her passion.2.D)Science education and scientific research.3.A)A better understanding of a subject.4.B)By making full use of the existing data.5. B) They have no special meanings.6. C) She dreamed of a plane crash.7. D) They can have an impact as great as rational thinking8. C) They reflect their complicated emotions.9. A) Radio waves.10. B)It may have micro—organisms living in it.11. D)Shed light on possible life in outer space.12. A)He found there had been little research on their anguage.13. D)He acted as an intermediary between Copel and the villagers.14. C)Laborious15. B)Their sense of sharing and caring.16 .A)They tend to be silenced into submission.17. D)One who rebels against the existing social orser.18. C)They served as a driving force for progress.19. B)It is impossible for us to be immune from outside influence.20. D) Recognize the negative impact of his coworkers.21. A) They are quite susceptible to suicide.22. B) Few people can describe it precisely.23. C) It is a well—protected government secret.24. A) People had little faith in paper money.25. C) It is awell—protected government secret.翻译：《水浒传》(Water Margin)是中国文学四大经典小说之一。
第一对比语言学理论定位ppt课件
第一章 对比语言学中的几个基本问题
Carl James 给对比研究下了这样的定义：
2. “对比语言学”ຫໍສະໝຸດ 术语的历史溯源詹姆斯（Carl James）(1980)在其著名的《对比分 析》中这样写道：
I shall not attempt to reconstruct the history of CA:Di Pietro finds an early example of CA in C.H. Grandgent’s book on the German and English sound systems, published
“对比语言学” 术语的历史溯源:
其实，“对比语言学”这一名词最早是由美国人 类语言学家沃尔夫（Benjiamin Whorf）1941年提 出来的（王宗炎 1985：4；许余龙 2002：18；潘 文国 2002：383；魏志成 2003：4），这在对比 研究界已经成了不争的事实，但是却很少有人对 沃尔夫当时提出这一名词的理论思想作深一步的 研究，只是默认于既定的‘常识’，停滞在已有 的定式上。
对比语言学 Contrastive Linguistics
对比语言学名称：
对比语言学 / 对比分析 / 对比研究
Contrastive Linguistics (CL) Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive Studies (CS)
第一章 对比语言学中的几个基本问题
高中英语北师大版选择性必修第一册Unit1Relationships单元复习与测试课后练习、课时练习
一、根据首字母填写单词(单词拼写)1. My son bought me a scarf for my birthday without my a________.(根据首字母单词拼写)2. American film studios are desperate to win a________from the audience in China because the Chinese film market is rocketing. （根据首字母单词拼写）3. Independence and equality among different countries are the basic p__________ of the international laws.二、根据汉语意思填写单词(单词拼写)4. The boy did well at school and won his father’s ______ (赞成，认可).(根据汉语提示单词拼写)5. As is known to all, China is a country with a long history, ________(属于) to theThird World. (根据汉语提示单词拼写)6. The soldiers were determined to _____(保卫) their homeland, no matter how difficult it was. (根据汉语提示单词拼写)三、根据中英文提示填写单词(单词拼写)7. All our policemen are trained to d________ (protect sb./sth. from attack) themselves against knife attacks. （根据英文提示单词拼写）8. The four countries b________(属于) to the UK have different education legal systems. （根据中英文提示填空）四、完成句子9. 我们已经向一家慈善组织提出申请，请求其对这个项目提供资助。
文学研究-奈达翻译理论研究 第一章 笔记
奈达翻译理论研究第一章笔记奈达翻译理论研究A Study on Nida’s Translation Theory 马会娟著English AbstractThis book makes a systematic research on Nida’s translation theory, clarify some misunderstandings concerning his theory, disclose its true nature and explore its validity and limitations in literary translations. Examples from Today’s English V ersion and Today’s Chinese V ersion of the Bible, which were translated, following Nida’s translation theory, demonstrate that Nida’s theory, contrary to some popular wrong assumptions, is applicable to translation practice between foreign languages and Chinese. A comparative study of Nida’s theory and Jin Di’s theory is made to reveal the similarities and differences between the two theories, and the reasons for their discrepancies are also explored. Examples from Jin’s Chinese translation of Ulysses are examined against the principle of “equivalent effect”. This book also explores the limitations of Nida’s theory in literary translation, pointing out that his theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic values of literary work into another language. Attempts have been made to amend Nida’s theory in respect of transferring aesthetic values of literary work by means of “formal aesthetic markers”and “non-formal aesthetic markers”, with aim of marking it more suitable for literary translation between Chinese and English.CHAPTER ONE Introduction1.1 Reasons for further research on Nida’s translation theoryHis works on translation set off the study of modern translation as an academic field ( Snell—Hornby, Heylen, Baker)Before his theory was introduced into China in the 1980s, people mainly focused attention on traditional Chinese theories, especially Y an Fu’sthree—character principle of translation: faithfulness, smoothness and elegance. Since Nida’s theory was grounded solidly on contemporary developments of linguistics, communication theory, information theory, semiotics and anthropology, Chinese translation scholars took great interest in his theory.Chang Namfung summarizes 4 kinds of misunderstandings regarding Nida’s theory in China:1)“Dynamic equivalence” is only an ideal translation ctiterion2)Nida’s theory is unfit to guide translation practice between Chinese andEnglish because it grows out of translation experience amongIndo—European language3)Nida’s takes “reader’s response” as a translation criterion in evaluating translation4)Nida doesn’t respect the cultural factors in the source language and his maintenance of complete naturalization in translating is a kind ofcultural hegemonism.The term “equivalence” in Nida’s theory never means “identical”, but only “substantially the same”.“dynamic equivalence” is founded on information theory, and is has on direct relationship with “reception aesthetics” or “reader-response theory” at all.Nida’s discussion about kernels and deep structures is based on semantic level while Chomsky focuses on syntactical level.Nida’s “science of translation” is totally different from the debates of the debate of whether “translation is a science or an art” occurring among some Chinese scholars. When Nida talks about “science of translation”, what he means is that he tends to “deal with the process of translation in a scientific manner”, drawing on the theories of linguistics, information and communication, etc.1.2 A profile of Nida1.2.3 His academic contributions to modern linguistics and translationEric M. North, the former General Secretary of the American Bible Society of the American Bible society, divides Nida’s academic activity into 4 phases on his writings in chronological order:1)the phase of descriptive linguistics, 1943—19512)the phase of cross—cultural communication. 1952—19603)the translation phase, 1961—19734)the semantic phase, 1974—Message and Mission was the most significant book of the second phase. Gentzler suggested that it was in this book that Nida first outlined his translation theory. This book marked the beginning of the third phase.In the third phase, in the book, Toward a Science of Translating, Nida firsta dvanced the proposition of “dynamic equivalence”, and the three-stage model of the translation process：“analysis, transfer and restructuring”. It is commonly agreedthat Toward a Science of Translating best summarizes the various aspects of his translation theory.For Nida, translating means translating meaning.The most representative book of this phase was From One Language to Another. In this book, Nida not only further explored the issues of meaning of adopting a sociosemiotics approach, but substituted “functional equivalence” for “dynamic equivalence” just to avoid unnecessary misunderstandings.1.3 A survey of Nida’s translation theoryWe will review Nida’s translation theory from two important aspects:1)the scientific study of translating2)the principle of “ dynamic equivalence”1.3.1 Nida’s scientific study of translating“Science of translating” means “for just as linguistics may be classified as a descriptive science, so the transference of a message from one language to another is likewise a valid subject for scientific description. He suggests that it is more effective to transfer the meaning from the source language to the receptor language on the kernel lever, because on this lever the linguistic meaning of the original test is structurally the simplest and semantically most evident.Nida advances a three-step translation process: ○1to analyze source-language expressions in terms of basic kernel sentences ○2to transform the kernel forms of the source language into the equivalent kernel forms of the receptor language ○3to transform the kernel utterances of the receptor language into the stylistically appropriate expressionThis process of translating helps the translator consciously avoid literal translation. The principle of “dynamic equivalence” (which was later modified into “functional equivalence”) has a scientific basis as well. It is solidly founded on information theory or communication theory.Nida sees translation as a communication event.Nida holds that in translating, the first thing one should do is to understand thoroughly the meaning of the source text. Inadequate understanding of the original text is the major cause for failures in translation. In describing referential meaning of words or phrases, he uses various techniques of semantic theories such as chain analysis, hierarchical analysis and componential analysis.It is evident that Nida’s theory of translation is not merely linguistic—oriented, butsociolinguistic—oriented.1.3.2 The principle of dynamic equivalenceTranslating consists in producing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence” is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”.In From One Language to Another, the expression “dynamic equivalence” is superseded by “functional equivalence”. The substitution of “functional equivalence”is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term “dynamic”.In Language, Culture and Translation, “functional equivalence” is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level.The minimal level is defined as “the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend in to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “the essentially the same manner as the original readers did”.In Nida’s theory, “dynamic equivalence” is defined with “receptors’ response”as its nature.Nida’s concept of translating shifts from “the form of message” to “the response of the receptor”.In Nida’s view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation, but compare the “receptors’ response”. If he finds that the the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader inthe source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation.Nida’s theory of “reader s’ response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language, and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but itis a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.The inadequacy of Nida’s theory for literary translation is made manifest in 3 aspects: ○1Nida pays little attention to the transference of style in his translation process:○2Nida’s discussion of style is very general and superficial: ○3Nida’s functional approach to style does not provide effective means to transfer aesthetic values of literary work.1.4 The guiding principles of the researchThe task of translation theory is to study translation problems, no translation problems, no translation theory (Newmark 1998).1.5 The methodological approachDifferent views of translation are determined by different views of language and culture.In Nida’s view, each language has its own genius, and there are no such things as superior or inferior languages. Anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, and human languages have more in common than in difference. It is this view of language that provides the theoretical basis for his belief in translatability. Nida insists that language and culture are closely related. Language is a part of culture, and the meaning of word or phrase cannot be determined out of linguistic and cultural contexts.。
高三英语学术研究方法创新不断探索单选题30题
高三英语学术研究方法创新不断探索单选题30题1.In an academic research discussion, what is the most important aspect of a research method?A.AccuracyB.SpeedC.CreativityD.Popularity答案：A。
解析：在学术研究中，准确性是至关重要的，它确保研究结果的可靠性。
速度在某些情况下可能重要，但不是最主要的。
创造力也很重要，但不是最重要的方面。
而受欢迎程度与研究方法的重要性关系不大。
2.What does a good research method ensure?A.Lots of dataB.Accurate resultsC.Fast completionD.High popularity答案：B。
解析：一个好的研究方法能确保得到准确的结果。
大量的数据不一定能保证结果准确。
快速完成也不是主要目的。
高人气与研究方法的主要作用无关。
3.In academic research, the definition of a research method mainly includes?A.Question asking and data collectionB.Guessing and intuitionC.Opinion sharing and discussionD.Random selection and chance答案：A。
解析：学术研究方法主要包括提出问题和收集数据。
猜测和直觉不是科学的研究方法。
意见分享和讨论是研究的一部分但不是研究方法的定义。
随机选择和偶然也不是研究方法的主要内容。
4.Which of the following is not a characteristic of an effective research method?A.Biased data collectionB.Systematic approachC.ReliabilityD.Validity答案：A。
厚海原版英语和学而思国际英语
厚海原版英语和学而思国际英语全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: The Great English Divide: Houzai vs. XueersiAs a high school student in China, the decision of which English language program to enroll in can be a daunting task. Two of the most prominent options are Houzai Original English and Xueersi International English, and the debate surrounding these two giants is nothing short of intense. From teaching methodologies to cultural influences, the differences between these two programs are vast, and the implications for a student's language acquisition journey are significant.Houzai Original English, with its roots firmly planted in Chinese soil, has garnered a reputation for its unwavering commitment to preserving the essence of the English language. The program's approach is rooted in the belief that true mastery of English can only be achieved by immersing students in the native linguistic and cultural landscapes of English-speaking nations. Houzai's curriculum is a meticulously curated tapestry woven from authentic materials sourced directly from theEnglish-speaking world, ensuring that students are exposed to the language in its purest and most unadulterated form.One of the standout features of Houzai Original English is its emphasis on native English accents and pronunciations. The program's instructors, many of whom hail from the United States, the United Kingdom, or other English-speaking countries, are tasked with guiding students through the intricacies of natural speech patterns and intonations. This approach aims to equip students with the ability to communicate seamlessly with native speakers, without the hindrances of accented or unnatural speech.Conversely, Xueersi International English takes a more globalized approach, embracing the reality of English as a lingua franca in today's interconnected world. The program recognizes that the English language has evolved beyond its traditional boundaries, adapting to the diverse cultural contexts in which it is spoken. Xueersi's curriculum reflects this understanding, incorporating elements from various English dialects and accents, preparing students for effective communication in a multitude of international settings.One of Xueersi's strengths lies in its emphasis on practical communication skills. The program's methodology places astrong emphasis on equipping students with the linguistic tools necessary to navigate real-world situations, such as business negotiations, academic discourse, and cross-cultural interactions. This approach resonates with students who envision themselves as global citizens, seamlessly navigating the complex tapestry of international communication.However, the contrasting philosophies of these two programs extend beyond mere pedagogical approaches. Houzai Original English is often perceived as a bastion of linguistic purism, championing the preservation of the English language's historical and cultural heritage. Its proponents argue that by maintaining a steadfast adherence to the linguistic norms and traditions of native English-speaking societies, students can truly appreciate the depth and richness of the language, unlocking a wealth of literary and cultural treasures.On the other hand, Xueersi International English embraces the concept of linguistic evolution, acknowledging that languages are living entities that adapt and transform as they traverse geographical and cultural boundaries. Its advocates contend that by exposing students to the diverse manifestations of English, they are better equipped to navigate the complexitiesof a globalized world, where effective communication transcends rigid linguistic boundaries.As a student navigating this divide, the decision between Houzai Original English and Xueersi International English is deeply personal, influenced by individual aspirations, linguistic preferences, and cultural leanings. For those who envision themselves as custodians of the English language's heritage, immersing themselves in the linguistic traditions of native English-speaking societies through Houzai's program may be the ideal path. Conversely, for students who see themselves as global citizens, embracing the multifaceted nature of English through Xueersi's international approach could be the key to unlocking a world of cross-cultural understanding and effective communication.Ultimately, the choice between these two programs is not merely a matter of language acquisition but a reflection of one's personal and cultural identity. As I navigate this crossroads, I find myself drawn to the allure of both perspectives, recognizing the merits and limitations of each approach. Perhaps the true mastery of the English language lies not in adhering to a singular ideology but in finding a harmonious balance betweenpreserving its heritage and embracing its ever-evolving global nature.In a world where borders are increasingly blurred and cultures intersect, the ability to navigate linguistic complexities with grace and nuance is a invaluable asset. Whether through the lens of Houzai Original English or Xueersi International English, the journey towards linguistic proficiency is a testament to the resilience of the human spirit and our innate desire to connect across boundaries.篇2A Comparative Analysis of Houhan Original English and Studysmarter International English ProgramsAs an avid language learner, I have always been fascinated by the various approaches to English language education. Two prominent programs that have caught my attention are Houhan Original English and Studysmarter International English. While both claim to provide effective language learning experiences, they differ significantly in their methodologies and philosophies.Houhan Original English: Embracing the Native ApproachHouhan Original English (HOE) is a program that emphasizes the acquisition of English through immersive and authenticexperiences. Founded on the belief that language learning should mimic the natural way children acquire their mother tongue, HOE focuses on exposing learners to native English speakers and materials from an early age.The core principle of HOE is "native is best." The program heavily relies on native English-speaking teachers, primarily from English-speaking countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. These teachers serve as linguistic models, providing students with genuine exposure to the nuances, intonations, and idiomatic expressions of the English language.HOE advocates for a "full immersion" approach, where classes are conducted entirely in English, even for beginners. This method is designed to create an English-rich environment that fosters natural language acquisition. Lessons often incorporate storytelling, games, songs, and interactive activities, encouraging learners to engage with the language in a meaningful and enjoyable manner.One of the strengths of HOE is its emphasis on building a strong foundation in listening and speaking skills. By continuously exposing students to native English speakers, theprogram aims to develop a keen ear for authentic pronunciation and to cultivate confidence in verbal communication.Studysmarter International English: A Blended ApproachIn contrast, Studysmarter International English (SIE) takes a more structured and balanced approach to language learning. While recognizing the importance of exposure to native English, SIE believes in a blended methodology that combines elements of both native and non-native instruction.SIE's teaching staff comprises a mix of native English speakers and highly qualified non-native English teachers. This diverse team allows for a comprehensive learning experience, catering to different learning styles and providing awell-rounded perspective on the English language.The program emphasizes a systematic and structured curriculum, focusing on the explicit teaching of grammar rules, vocabulary, and language patterns. SIE employs a variety of teaching methods, including textbook-based lessons, interactive exercises, and multimedia resources, to cater to various learning preferences.One unique aspect of SIE is its emphasis on "International English," which recognizes the global nature of the Englishlanguage and its diverse cultural contexts. The program aims to equip students with the linguistic skills and cultural awareness necessary to communicate effectively in a globalized world.SIE also places great importance on developingwell-rounded language skills, including reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Lessons are designed to strike a balance between these areas, ensuring that students acquire a comprehensive understanding of the English language.Striking a Balance: Personal ReflectionsHaving experienced both programs firsthand, I can attest to the strengths and limitations of each approach. While HOE's immersive and native-centric methodology is effective in building strong listening and speaking skills, I sometimes felt overwhelmed by the intense exposure, especially in the early stages of learning. The lack of explicit grammar instruction and structured lessons made it challenging for me, as a more analytical learner, to grasp the underlying rules and patterns of the language.On the other hand, SIE's balanced approach resonated with my learning preferences. The structured curriculum and explicit teaching of grammar provided me with a solid foundation upon which to build my language skills. However, I sometimes felt thatthe non-native instructors, despite their exceptional qualifications, lacked the natural fluency and cultural nuances that native speakers could offer.Ultimately, I believe that an ideal language learning program should strike a balance between these two approaches, combining the strengths of immersive native exposure and structured, systematic instruction. A blended methodology that incorporates native English speakers, qualified non-native teachers, and a well-designed curriculum could provide learners with the best of both worlds.Furthermore, it is crucial to recognize that language learning is a highly individualized journey, and different learners may thrive under different approaches. Some may excel in an immersive environment, while others may benefit more from a structured, analytical approach. Flexibility and adaptability in language programs are essential to cater to diverse learning styles and preferences.In conclusion, both Houhan Original English and Studysmarter International English offer valuable perspectives on language education, each with its own strengths and limitations. As a language learner, it is essential to explore and experiment with different methodologies to find the approachthat resonates most with your learning preferences and goals. By embracing the best of both worlds and tailoring language programs to individual needs, we can create an enriching and effective learning experience that empowers us to become proficient and confident English speakers in an increasingly globalized world.篇3Navigating the World of English Learning: A Student's Perspective on Hohai Original English and Xueersi International EnglishAs a student in the ever-evolving landscape of education,I've come to realize that mastering the English language is more than just a academic pursuit – it's a gateway to global opportunities and personal growth. In my journey to become proficient in this universal tongue, I've encountered two distinct approaches: Hohai Original English and Xueersi International English. Each with its own unique strengths and philosophies, these programs have left an indelible mark on my understanding of language acquisition.Hohai Original English, rooted in the hallowed halls of Hohai University, is a program that embodies the traditional Chineseapproach to English education. From the very first lesson, I was struck by the program's emphasis on rigorous grammar instruction and a deep appreciation for the intricacies of the English language. The classrooms were a crucible of linguistic analysis, where we meticulously dissected sentence structures, parsed verb tenses, and delved into the nuances of idiomatic expressions.The instructors at Hohai Original English were a breed apart, wielding their command of the English language with a masterful touch. Their lectures were akin to finely crafted tapestries, weaving together the threads of grammar, vocabulary, and cultural context into a rich and immersive learning experience. Admittedly, the sheer density of the material could be overwhelming at times, but it instilled in me a profound respect for the complexities of the English language.As I progressed through the program, I found myself developing a keen eye for detail, a skill that proved invaluable in my academic pursuits and beyond. The rigorous training in grammar and syntax enabled me to communicate with greater precision and clarity, ensuring that my thoughts and ideas were conveyed with utmost accuracy. This attention to detail extendedbeyond the realm of language, shaping my approach to problem-solving and critical thinking in myriad disciplines.However, as I delved deeper into the world of English learning, I stumbled upon a contrasting philosophy – Xueersi International English. This program, with its global reach and emphasis on practical communication, offered a refreshing counterpoint to the traditional Chinese approach.Xueersi International English embraced the concept of language as a living, breathing entity, constantly evolving and adapting to the needs of a globalized world. Rather than focusing solely on the intricate rules and structures of the English language, this program prioritized real-world applications and practical fluency.The classrooms at Xueersi International English were vibrant hubs of cultural exchange, where students from diverse backgrounds came together to engage in lively discussions, debates, and roleplaying scenarios. The instructors, hailing from various corners of the English-speaking world, brought with them a wealth of cultural insights and idiomatic expressions that breathed life into the language we were learning.Rather than memorizing dry grammar rules, we were encouraged to immerse ourselves in the richness of Englishthrough authentic materials – novels, films, news articles, and podcasts. This approach not only enhanced our understanding of the language but also provided invaluable glimpses into the cultural tapestry that underpinned it.As I navigated the Xueersi International English program, I found myself shedding the shackles of linguistic inhibition and embracing the freedom of expression. The emphasis on practical communication enabled me to engage in meaningful dialogues, articulate my thoughts with fluency, and develop a genuine appreciation for the nuances of cross-cultural interactions.Yet, as I reflect on my journey through these two contrasting approaches, I cannot help but recognize the inherent value in each. Hohai Original English laid the foundational groundwork, instilling in me a deep reverence for the intricacies of the English language and honing my attention to detail. Xueersi International English, on the other hand, breathed life into that foundation, empowering me to wield the language as a tool for genuine communication and cultural exchange.In the end, my experiences with both programs have taught me that true mastery of a language is not merely a matter of memorizing rules or engaging in rote exercises. It is a holistic journey, one that demands a delicate balance betweentheoretical rigor and practical application, between attention to detail and fluidity of expression.As I stand at the precipice of a world that demands global citizenship and cross-cultural competence, I am grateful for the lessons I've learned from both Hohai Original English and Xueersi International English. The former has equipped me with the linguistic precision and analytical prowess to navigate complex ideas, while the latter has empowered me to communicate those ideas with clarity and cultural sensitivity.In a world where language is the currency of human connection, my journey through these two programs has imparted an invaluable lesson: true fluency lies not only in mastering the mechanics of a language but in embracing its spirit, its cultural richness, and its capacity to bridge divides and forge understanding.。
taboos and euphemisms
Question: Why are taboo words used in every language? In primitive society, people couldn’t explain such things as ailments and natural phenomena. They had blind faith in ghosts and Gods. They feared them so much that they did not dare to address their names directly. Therefore the names of gods become the earliest taboos.
moral judgment and sometimes even religious beliefs. A taboo word is a world known to speakers but avoided in some, most, or all forms of context of speech, for reasons of religion, decorum, politeness, etc. (The Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics)
In ancient China, people regarded the
names of their emperors and elders as taboos. It was forbidden to write the name of an emperor. To avoid such problems, later emperors were given names with characters invented for them -- characters that were utterly useless for any other purpose.
Comparative Education
What is the tripartite system in the U.K.? Your opinions towards it?The basic assumption of the Tripartite system was that all students, regardless of background, should be entitled to an education appropriate to their needs and abilities. It was also assumed that students with different abilities were suited to different curricula. It was believed that an IQ test was a legitimate way of determining a child's suitability to a particular tier. There were to be three categories of state-run secondary schools. Each was designed with a specific purpose in mind, aiming to impart a range of skills appropriate to the needs and future careers of their pupils.Grammar schools were intended to teach a highly academic curriculum, teaching students to deal with abstract concepts. There was a strong focus onintellectual subjects, such as literature, classics and complex mathematics.In addition to wholly state-funded grammar schools, a number of schoolscurrently receiving state grants could become direct grant grammar schools, with some pupils funded by the state and the rest paying fees. Secondary technical schools were designed to train children adept in mechanical and scientific subjects. The focus of the schools was on providing scientists, engineers and technicians. Secondary modern schools(secondary intermediate schools in Northern Ireland[4]) would train pupils in practical skills, aimed at equipping them for less skilled jobs and home management.It was intended for all three branches of the system to have a parity of esteem. The appropriate type of school for each student would be determined by their performance in an examination taken in the final year of primary school.2What are the main issues of higher education in the U.K.?The development of British education system: from the 19th century limited and voluntary schooling to the present expanded and compulsory education system.The basic structure of British education system, particularly the 3 stages of education in modern Britain.The higher education system and institutions of further education.The Robbins Report 1963recommended immediate expansion of universitiesall Colleges of Advanced Technology should be given the status of universities.Lord Robbins himself would later become the first Chancellor of the new University ofStirling in 1968Further and Higher Education Acts 1992made changes in the funding and administration of further education and higher education within the United Kingdom.The most visible result was to allow thirty-five polytechnics to become universities.The Act created bodies to fund higher education in England — HEFCE — and further education —FEFC. Universities in Scotland and Wales which had previouslybeen funded by one UK-wide Universitie Funding Council were the subject of otherActs that created higher education funding councils in each country.3What is “multicultural education”? Is it good to apply the theory to the ethnic education in China?"Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline whose major aim is to create equal educational opportunities for students from diverse racial, ethnic, social-class, and cultural groups. One of its important goals is to help all students to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with peoples from diverse groups in order to create a civic and moral community that works for the common good." --Banks This theory concentrates on the need of including notions of race, class, and diversity while teaching. Multiculturalism supports the idea that students and their backgrounds and experiences should be the center of their education and that learning should occur in a familiar context that attends to multiple ways of thinking. If done correctly, students will develop a positive perception of themselves by demonstrating knowledge about the culture, history, and contributions of diverse groups. This way, multiculturalism is a tool for instilling students with pride and confidence in their unique and special backgrounds4Briefly introduce teacher education and training in the U.K. What can we learn from it?Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school and wider community.•T eacher education is often divided into:•i nitial teacher training / education(a pre-service course before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher);•i nduction (the process of providing training and support during the first few years of teaching or the first year in a particular school);•t eacher development or continuing professional development (CPD) (an in-service process for practicing teachers).Teachers are entrusted with the transmission to children of society's beliefs, attitudes and deontology, as well as of information, advice and wisdomTeaching involves the use of a wide body of knowledge about the subject being taught, and another set of knowledge about the most effective ways to teach that subject to different kinds of learner; it therefore requires teachers to undertake a complex set of tasks every minute. Many teachers experience their first years in the profession as stressful. The proportion of teachers who either do not enter the profession after completing initial training, or who leave the profession after their first teaching post, is high5What can we learn from ethnic education in the U.K.?Education for ethnic minorities is special part of the educational cause in China. Its law of development, type, mode, level and stage appear differently. In order to study and find solutions to these different problems for better promoting ethnic education, the country has set up ethnic education research institutions at national, local and institutional levels. At the national level, there is one institute now. Some provinces and autonomous regions concerned also have their own research societies.Across most of the ethnic groups, the proportion of pupils eligible for free school meals is greater at primary school than at secondary school.there is large variation in the distribution of minority ethnic pupils in maintained primary and secondary schools across England. Around a quarter of England’s minority ethnic pupils are in schools in Outer London and just under a fifth are in schools in Inner London. Very small proportions of England’s minority ethnic pupils are in schools in the North East.Minority ethnic pupils are more likely to experience deprivation than White British pupils, especially Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Black African and Black Caribbean pupils.The Department of Children, Schools and Families, which is responsible for setting the national education policy, recently produced a “Guidance on the duty to promote comm unity cohesion,” which reinforces the existing laws requiring schools to uphold their duty to eliminate unlawful racial discrimination and to promote equality of opportunity and good relations between people of different groups6Advantages and disadvantages of “steaming” in school.Since the introduction of comprehensive schools some have argued that streaming still causes children to be ‘labeled’ at an early age as either academic or non-academic, while others argue that it holds back brighter pupils since more attention will be given to those with less academic talents.Some comprehensives are “streamed”; others are “unstreamed”. In a streamed school, pupils are placed into classes according to their ability. Children of high ability are in the “A” stream, those of lesser ability in the “B” stream & so on. In an unstreamed school, children of mixed ability are placed together in the classes.❑In many British schools, children are grouped together according to their ability, and this is known as ‘streaming’.❑As to whether it is reasonable, different people may hold different opinions.Some people may not think it fair to put children into groups according to their ability, while others may think it helpful to promote competition among children.7State your opinions towards “open universities” in the U.K.?The OU provides university education to those wishing to pursue higher education on a part-time and/or distance learning basis, including people with health disabilities, who are officially a priority group for the university. The Open University was founded in 1960s for people who might not get the opportunity for higher education for economic and social reasons. Purpose: to give educational opportunity to those people who, for one reason or another, had not had a chance to receive further education. A diverse range of students from all walks of life are attracted to the OU; for most modules there are no entry requirements other than the ability to study at an appropriate level, though most postgraduate modules require evidence of previous study or equivalent life experience. This fundamental open admissions policy makes undergraduate university study accessible to all8Definitions of “equality and equity”. Please explain “equality and equity” based on your own experiences.In jurisdictions following the English common law tradition, equity is the set of legal principles that supplement strict rules of law where their application would operate harshly. In civil legal systems, broad "general clauses" allow judges to have similar leeway in applying the code.[1] Equity is commonly said to "mitigate the rigor of common law", allowing courts to use their discretion and apply justice in accordance with natural law. In practice, modern equity is limited by substantive and procedural rules, and English and Australian legal writers tend to focus on technical aspects of equity. There are 12 "vague ethical statements", known as the Maxims of equity,[2][3] that guide the application of equity, and an additional five can be added.[2] As noted below, a historical criticism of equity as it developed was that it had no fixed rules of its own, with the Lord Chancellor occasionally judging in the main according to his own conscience. The rules of equity later lost much of their flexibility, and from the 17th century onwards equity was rapidly consolidated into a system of precedents much like its common-law cousin.。
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A Comparative Study of Well-founded Semantics forDisjunctive Logic ProgramsKewen WangInstitut f¨u r Informatik,Universit¨a t PotsdamPostfach601553,D–14415Potsdam,Germanykewen@cs.uni-potsdam.deAbstract.Much work has been done on extending the well-founded semantics togeneral disjunctive logic programs and various approaches have been proposed.However,no consensus has been reached about which semantics is the most in-tended.In this paper we look at disjunctive well-founded reasoning from differentangles.We show that there is an intuitive form of the well-founded reasoning indisjunctive logic programming which can be equivalently characterized by sev-eral different approaches including program transformations,argumentation,un-founded sets(and resolution-like procedure).We also provide a bottom-up proce-dure for this semantics.The significance of this work is not only in clarifying therelationship among different approaches,but also in providing novel argumentsin favor of our semantics.1IntroductionThe importance of representing and reasoning about disjunctive information has been addressed by many researchers.Disjunctive logic programming(DLP)is widely be-lieved to be a suitable tool for formalizing disjunctive reasoning and it has received ex-tensive study in recent years.Since DLP admits both default negation and disjunction, the issue offinding a suitable semantics for disjunctive programs is more difficult than it is in the case of normal(i.e.non-disjunctive)logic ually,skepticism and credulism represent two major semantic intuitions for knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.The well-founded semantics[12]is a formalism of skeptical reasoning in normal logic programming while the stable semantics[6]formalizes cred-ulous reasoning.Recently,considerable effort has been paid to generalize these two semantics to disjunctive logic programs.However,the task of generalizing the well-founded model to disjunctive programs has proven to be complex.There have been various proposals for defining the well-founded semantics for general disjunctive logic programs[8].As argued by some authors(for instance[2,10,13]),each of the previous versions of the disjunctive well-founded semantics bears its own drawbacks.Moreover, no consensus has been reached about what constitutes an intended well-founded se-mantics for disjunctive logic programs.The semantics D-WFS[1,2],STATIC[10]and WFDS[13]are among the most recent approaches to defining disjunctive well-founded semantics.D-WFS is based on a series of abstract properties and it is the weakest(least)semantics that is invariant under a set of program transformations.STATIC has its root in autoepistemic logic and is based on the notion of static expansions for belief the-ories.The semantics STATIC for a disjunctive program is defined as the leaststatic expansion of AEB where AEB is the belief theory corresponding to.The basic idea of WFDS is to transform into an argumentation framework and WFDS isspecified by the least acceptable hypothesis of.Although these semantics stem from very different intuitions,all of them share a number of attractive properties.In partic-ular,each of these semantics extends both the well-founded semantics[12]for normallogic programs and the generalized closed world assumption(GCW A)[9]for positive disjunctive programs(i.e.without default negation).It has been proven that D-WFS is equivalent to a restricted version of STATIC[3].But the relation of these semantics to the argumentation-based semantics and unfounded sets are as yet unclear.In this paper,we modify some existing semantics to make themmore intuitive and report further equivalence results.First,we define a transformation-based semantics denoted D-WFS by introducing a new transformation into Brass and Dix’s set WFS of program transformations.This semantics naturally extends D-WFSand enjoys all the important properties that have been proven for D-WFS.We prove that WFDS is equivalent to D-WFS.We also provide a bottom-up evaluation proce-dure for WFDS(and D-WFS).Second,we define a new notion of unfounded sets which is a generalization of the unfounded sets defined in[7,5].Based on this new notion of unfounded sets,we define a well-founded semantics U-WFS for disjunctive programs.We show that U-WFS is equivalent to WFDS(and thus D-WFS).Moreover, in[14]we have developed a top-down procedure D-SLS Resolution which is sound and complete with respect to our semantics.D-SLS extends both SLS-resolution[11]and SLI-resolution[8].Altogether we obtain the following equivalence results:WFDS D-WFS U-WFS D-SLSWe consider these results to be quite significant:(1)Our results clarify the relation-ship among quite several different approaches to defining disjunctive well-founded se-mantics,including argumentation-based,transformation-based,unfounded sets-based and resolution-based approaches.(2)Since the four semantics are based on very dif-ferent intuitions,these equivalent characterizations in turn provide yet more powerful arguments in favor of our semantics.(3)Both the top-down procedure D-SLS Resolu-tion[14]and the bottom-up query evaluation proposed in this paper pave two different ways for implementing our semantics.The rest of this paper is arranged as follows.In Section2we recall some basic definitions and notation;we present in Section3a slightly restricted form of the well-founded semantics WFDS.In Section4we introduce a new program transformation Head reduction and then define the transformation-based semantics D-WFS,which naturally extends D-WFS.In Section5,wefirst provide a bottom-up query evalua-tion for D-WFS(and WFDS)and then prove the equivalence of D-WFS and WFDS. Section6introduces the new notion of unfounded sets and defines the well-founded semantics U-WFS.We also show that U-WFS is equivalent to WFDS.Section7is our conclusion.Proofs of the theorems are given in the full version of this paper.2PreliminariesWe briefly review most of the basic notions used throughout this paper.A disjunctive logic program is afinite set of rules of the form(1) where are atoms and.The default negation‘’of an atom is called a negative literal.In this paper we consider only propositional programs although many definitions and results hold for predicate logic programs.is a normal logic program if it contains no disjunctions.If a rule of form(1)contains no negative body literals,it is called positive;is a positive program if every rule of is positive.If a rule of form(1)contains no body atoms,it is called negative;is a negative program if every rule of is negative.Following[2],we also say a negative rule is a conditional fact.That is,a condi-tional fact is of form,where and are(ground) atoms for and.For a rule of form(1),whereand;.When no confusion is caused,we also use to denote the set of atoms in.For instance,means that appears in the head of.If is a set of atoms, is the disjunction obtained from by deleting the atoms in.The set consists of all atoms appearing in rule heads of.As usual,is the Herbrand base of disjunctive logic program,that is,the set of all(ground)atoms in.A positive(negative)disjunction is a disjunction of atoms(negative literals)in.A pure disjunction is either a positive one or a negative one.The disjunctive base of is DB DB DB where DB is the set of all positive disjunctions in and DB is the set of all negative disjunctions in.If and are two disjunctions,then we say is a sub-disjunction of,denoted .A model state of a disjunctive program is a subset of ually,a well-founded semantics for a disjunctive logic program is defined by a model state.If is an expression(a set of literals,a disjunction or a set of disjunctions), denotes the set of all atoms appearing in.For simplicity,we assume that all model states are closed under implication of pure disjunctions.That is,for any model state,if is a sub-disjunction of a pure disjunc-tion and,then.For instance,if,then.Given a model state and a pure disjunction,we also say is satisfied by, denoted,if.We assume that all disjunctions have been simplified by deleting the repeated liter-als.For example,the disjunction is actually the disjunction.3Argumentation and well-founded semanticsAs illustrated in[13]1,argumentation provides an unifying semantic framework for DLP.The basic idea of the argumentation-based approach for DLP is to translate each disjunctive logic program into an argument framework DB.Here,an assumption of is a negative disjunction of,and a hypothesis is a set of assumptions;is an attack relation among the hypotheses.An admissible hypothesis is one that can attack every hypothesis which attacks it.The intuitive meaning of an assumptionis that can not be proved from the disjunctive program.Given a hypothesis of disjunctive program,similar to the GL-transformation [6],we can easily reduce into another disjunctive program without default negation. Definition1.Let be a hypothesis of disjunctive program,then the reduct of with respect to is the disjunctive programandThe following definition introduces a special resolution which resolves default-negation literals with a disjunction.Definition2.Let be a hypothesis of disjunctive program and DB.If there exists DB and such that and .Then is said to be a supporting hypothesis for,denoted.Here is the inference relation of the classical propositional logic.The set of all positive disjunctions supported by is denoted:cons DBTo derive suitable hypotheses for a given disjunctive program,some constraints will be required tofilter out unintuitive hypotheses.Definition3.Let and be two hypotheses of disjunctive program.If at least one of the following two conditions holds:1.there exists such that,for all;or2.there exist,such that, then we say attacks,and denoted.Intuitively,means that causes a direct contradiction with and the contradiction may come from one of the above two cases.Example1.Let and,then.The next definition specifies what is an acceptable hypothesis.Definition4.Let be a hypothesis of disjunctive program.An assumption of is admissible with respect to if holds for any hypothesis of such that .Denote DB is admissible wrt for someOriginally,also includes some other negative disjunctions.To compare with differ-ent semantics,we omit them here.Another reason for doing this is that information in form of negative disjunctions does not participate in inferring positive information in DLP.For any disjunctive program,is a monotonic operator.Thus,if isfinite then has the leastfixpoint lfp and lfp for some.Definition5.The well-founded disjunctive hypothesis WFDH of disjunctive pro-gram is defined as the leastfixpoint of the operator.That is,WFDH.The well-founded disjunctive semantics WFDS for is defined as the model state WFDS WFDH cons WFDH.By the above definition,WFDS is uniquely determined by WFDH.For the disjunctive program in Example1,WFDH and WFDS.Notice that is unknown.4Transformation-based semanticsIn this section we study the relation of the argumentation-based semantics to the transformation-based semantics.Wefirst introduce a new program transformation so as to simplify the rule heads of disjunctive programs and then define a new transformation-based semantics(called D-WFS)as the most skeptical semantics that satisfies both our new program transformation and Brass and Dix’s set WFS of program transformations. Our new semantics D-WFS naturally extends the D-WFS in[2]and is no less skeptical than D-WFS.In fact,this extension is meaningful because D-WFS seems too skepti-cal to derive useful information from some disjunctive programs as the next example shows.Example2.John is traveling in Europe but we are not sure which city he is visiting.We know that,if there is no evidence to show that John is in Paris,he should be either in London or in Berlin.Also,we are informed that John is now visiting either London or Paris.This knowledge base can be conveniently expressed as the following disjunctive logic program:Here,and denote that John is visiting Berlin,London and Paris,respectively.Intuitively,(i.e.John is not visiting Berlin)should be inferred from.It can be verified that neither nor its negation can be derived from under D-WFS and STATIC while can be derived under WFDS.The intuition behind Minker’s Generalized Closed World Assumption(GCW A)[9]can be read off its proof-theoretic characterization:If,for every positive disjunction,implies,then is deriv-able from,where is the inference relation in the classical logic and is considered as a classical logic theory.The above principle for positive DLP can be reformulated in general DLP as fol-lows:If,for every conditional fact,implies ,then is derivable from,where is the inference relation in the classical logic and is considered as a classical logic theory.However,D-WFS does not to obey the above principle as Example2shows.In fact,implies since is in.But D-WFS.According to[2],an abstract semantics can be defined as follows.Definition6.A semantics is a mapping which assigns to every disjunctive programa set of pure disjunctions such that the following conditions are satisfied:1.if is a sub-disjunction of pure disjunction and,then;2.if the rule is in for a(positive)disjunction,then;3.if is an atom and(i.e.does not appear in the rule heads of),then.It should be noted that a semantics satisfying the above conditions is not necessarily a suitable one because Definition6is still very general.Besides the program transformations WFS in[2],we also need a new program transformation called Head reduction to define our semantics.This definition is de-signed just to reflect the semantic intuition behind the GCW A as mentioned at the be-ginning of this section.Definition7.An atom in disjunctive program is called GCW A-negated if,for any rule in of form,there is a rule in such that is a sub-disjunction of.For instance,can be GCWA-negated for the disjunctive program in Example2.Definition8.A rule is an implication of another rule if, and at least one inclusion is proper.The definition of our new semantics D-WFS will be based on the set WFS of the fol-lowing six program transformations.In the sequel,and are disjunctive programs:–Unfolding:is obtained from by unfolding if there is a rulein such thatthere is a rule of such that–Elimination of tautologies:is obtained from by elimination of tautologies if there is a rule in such that and.–Elimination of nonminimal rules:is obtained from by elimination of non-minimal rules if there are two distinct rules and of such that is an impli-cation of and.–Positive reduction:is obtained from by positive reduction if there is a rule in and such that and.–Negative reduction:is obtained from by negative reduction if there are two rules and in such that and.–Head reduction is obtained from by head reduction if there is a rulein such that is GCW A-negated and.Example3.Consider the disjunctive program in Example2.Since the atom is GCW A-negated,can be transformed into the following disjunctive program by Head reduction:Suppose that is a semantics.Then by Definition6,and.We say a semantics satisfies a program transformation(or,is invariant under) if for any two disjunctive programs and with.Let and be two semantics.is weaker than if for any disjunctive program.We present the main definition of this section as follows.Definition9.(D-WFS)The semantics D-WFS for disjunctive programs is defined as the weakest semantics allowing all program transformations in WFS.This definition is not constructive and thus it can not be directly used to compute the semantics D-WFS(a bottom-up procedure will be given in the next section).In the rest of this section,wefirst look at some properties of D-WFS.As the following theorem shows,D-WFS is well-defined for every disjunctive program.This is guaranteed by the following two lemmas.Lemma1.There is a semantics that satisfies all the program transformations in WFS. Lemma2.Let and be two semantics satisfying WFS.Then their intersection is also a semantics and satisfies WFS.Therefore,we have the following result which shows that semantics D-WFS assigns the unique model state D-WFS for each disjunctive program.Theorem1.For any disjunctive program,D-WFS is well-defined.Since the set WFS of program transformations in[2]is a subset of WFS,our D-WFS extends the original D-WFS in the following sense.Theorem2.Let be a disjunctive program.ThenD-WFS D-WFSThe converse of Theorem2is not true in general.As we will see in Section5,for the dis-junctive program in Example2,D-WFS but D-WFS.This theorem also implies that D-WFS extends the restricted STATIC since the D-WFS is equivalent to the restricted STATIC[3].5Bottom-up ComputationParallel to the computation for D-WFS[2],we willfirst provide a bottom-up procedure for D-WFS and then show the equivalence of D-WFS and WFDS.As a result,we actually provide a bottom-up computation for WFDS.Let be a disjunctive program.Our bottom-up computation for D-WFS con-sists of two stages.At thefirst stage,is equivalently transformed into a negative program Lft called the leastfixpoint transformation.The details of this transforma-tion can be found in[2,13].The basic idea is tofirst evaluate body atoms of the rules in but delay the negative body literals.The second stage is to further simplify Lft into res from which the semantics D-WFS can be directly read off.5.1Strong Residual ProgramIn general,the negative program Lft can be further simplified by deleting unnec-essary rules,unnecessary body literals and unnecessary head atoms.This leads to the idea of so-called reductions,which wasfirstly studied in[4]and then generalized to the case of disjunctive logic programs in[2].The reduction of a disjunctive program is called the residual program of.The following is a generalization of Brass and Dix’s residual programs.Let GCWA be the set of atoms that are GCW A-negated in disjunctive program. The reduction operator is defined as,for any negative program(i.e.a set of conditional facts),there is rule such that(1)no rule of form with(2)no rule s.t.is an implication ofand GCWAGCWAThe notion of the implication of rules can be found in Definition8.For any disjunc-tive program,we canfirst transform it into the negative disjunctive program Lft. Then,fully perform the reduction on Lft to obtain a simplified negative program (the strong residual program of).The iteration procedure of willfinally stop infinite steps because containsfinite number of atoms and the total number of atoms occurring in each is reduced by.This procedure is precisely formulated in the next definition,which has the same form as Definition3.4in[2](the difference is only in that we have a new reduction operator here).Definition10.(strong residual program)Let be a disjunctive program.Then we havea sequence of negative programs with Lft and.Let.Then we call is the strong residual program of and denote it as res.Since the Head reduction has been directly embedded into the operator,the follow-ing result can be obtained from Theorem4.3in[2],which guarantees the completenessof our bottom-up computation.Theorem3.Let and be two disjunctive programs.If is transformed into bya program transformation in WFS,then.This theorem has the following interesting corollary.Corollary1.Let be a semantics satisfying res for all disjunctive program.Then allows all program transformations in WFS.This corollary implies that,if is a mapping from the set of all strong residual pro-grams to the set of model states and it satisfies all properties in Definition6,thenthe mapping defined by res is a semantics.Therefore,the following lemma is obtained from the fact that D-WFS is the weakest semantics.Lemma3.Given disjunctive program,we haveD-WFS res D-WFS D-WFSwhereD-WFS res DB rule is in for some sub-disjunction of D-WFS res DB if for some atom appearing in. Thus,for any disjunctive program,it is an easy task to get the semanticsD-WFS res of its strong residual program.The main theorem in this section can be stated as follows.Theorem4.For any disjunctive program,we haveD-WFS D-WFS D-WFSwhereD-WFS DB rule is in for some sub-disjunction ofD-WFS DB if for some atom appearing in. Example4.Consider again the disjunctive program in Example2.The strong resid-ual program is as follows:Thus,D-WFS2.5.2Equivalence of WFDS and D-WFSBefore we present the main theorem of this section,we need some properties of WFDS. First,we can justify that WFDS is a semantics in the sense of Definition6.Moreover, it possesses the following two properties which can be verified directly.Proposition1.WFDS satisfies all program transformations in WFS.This proposition implies that the argumentation-based semantics WFDS is always at least as strong as the transformation-based semantics D-WFS.The next result convinces that the strong residual program of disjunctive program is equivalent to w.r.t.the semantics WFDS.Therefore,we canfirst trans-form into and then compute WFDS.Proposition2.For any disjunctive program,WFDS WFDSIt has been shown in[2]that Lft and their reduction operator can be simulated byHead reduction,we have that Lft and can be simulated by WFS WFS.Thus,the above proposition holds.WFSNow we can state the main result of this section,which asserts the equivalence of D-WFS and WFDS.Theorem5.For any disjunctive logic program,WFDS D-WFSAn important implication of this result is that the well-founded semantics WFDS also enjoys a bottom-up procedure similar to the D-WFS.6Unfounded SetsThefirst definition of the well-founded model[12]is given in term of unfounded sets and it has been proved that the notion of unfounded sets constitutes a powerful and intu-itive tool for defining semantics for logic programs.This notion has also been general-ized to characterizing stable semantics for disjunctive logic programs in[7,5].However, the two kinds of unfounded sets defined in[7,5]can not be used to define an intended well-founded semantics for disjunctive programs.Example5.3Intuitively,should be derived from the above disjunctive program and actually,many semantics including DWFS,STATIC and WFDS assign a truth value‘false’for.However,according to the definitions of unfounded sets in[7,5],is not in any-fold application of the well-founded operators on the empty set.For this reason,a morereasonable definition of the unfounded sets for disjunctive programs is in order.In this section,we will define a new notion of unfounded sets for disjunctive pro-grams and show that the well-founded semantics U-WFS defined by our notion is equiv-alent to D-WFS and WFDS.We say of is true wrt model state S,denoted,if ;is false wrt model state,denoted if either(1) the complement of a literal in is in or(2)there is a disjunctionsuch that.In Example5,the second rule is false wrt.Definition11.Let be a model state of disjunctive program,a set of groundatoms is an unfounded set for wrt if,for each and each rule such that,at least one of the following conditions holds:1.the body of is false wrt;2.there is such that;3.if,then.Notice that the above definition generalized the notions of unfounded sets in[7,5]in two ways.Firstly,the original ones are defined only for interpretations(sets of ground literals)rather than for model states.An interpretation is a model state but not vice versa. Secondly,though one can redefine the original notions of unfounded sets for model states,such unfounded sets are still too weak to capture the intended well-founded se-mantics of some disjunctive programs.Consider Example5,let.According to definition11,the set is an unfounded set of wrt,but is not an unfounded set in the sense of Leone or Eiter.Having the new notion of unfounded sets,we are ready to define the well-knownoperator for any disjunctive program.If has the greatest unfounded set wrt a model state,we denote it.However,may be undefined for some.For example,let and. Then and are two unfounded sets wrt but is not. Here we will not discuss the operator in detail.Definition12.Let be a disjunctive program,the operator is defined as,for any model state,there is a rule such thatandNotice that is a set of positive disjunctions rather than just a set of atoms.Definition13.Let be a disjunctive program,the operator is defined as,for any model state,where.In general,is a partial function because there may be no greatest unfounded set wrt model state as mentioned previously.However,we can prove that has the leastfixpoint.Given a disjunctive pro-gram,we define a sequence of model states where and for.Similar to Proposition5.6in[7],we can prove the following proposition. Proposition3.Let be a disjunctive program.Then1.Every model state is well-defined and the sequence is increasing.2.the limit of the sequence is the leastfixpoint of.Since we consider onlyfinite propositional programs in this paper,there is some such that.The well-founded semantics U-WFS is defined byU-WFS lfpFor the program in Example5,U-WFS.An important result is that WFDS(and thus D-WFS)can also be equivalently characterized in term of the unfounded sets defined in this section.Theorem6.For any disjunctive program,WFDS U-WFSTheorem6provides further evidence for suitability of WFDS(equivalently,D-WFS) as the intended well-founded semantics for disjunctive logic programs.By the following lemma,we can directly prove Theorem6.Lemma4.Let be a disjunctive program.Then for any.This lemma also reveals a kind of correspondence between the well-founded disjunctive hypotheses and the unfounded sets.7ConclusionIn this paper we have investigated recent approaches to defining well-founded seman-tics for disjunctive logic programs.Wefirst provided a minor modification of the ar-gumentative semantics WFDS defined in[13].Based on some intuitive program trans-formations,we proposed an extension to the D-WFS in[2].In our approach,we intro-duce a new program transformation called Head reduction.This transformation plays a similar role in DLP as the GCW A[9]in positive DLP.We have also given a new definition of the unfounded sets for disjunctive programs,which is a generalization of the unfounded sets investigated by[7,5].This new notion of unfounded sets fully takes disjunctive information into consideration and provides another characterization for dis-junctive well-founded semantics.The main contribution of this paper is the equivalence of U-WFS D-WFS and WFDS.We have also provided a bottom-up computation for our semantics.A top-down procedure is presented in[14],which is sound and com-plete with respect to our semantics.These results show that there exists a disjunctivewell-founded semantics which can be characterized in terms of argumentation,pro-gram transformations,unfounded sets and resolution.The fact that different starting points lead to the same semantics provides strong support for WFDS.Future work will concentrate on more efficient algorithms and applications.Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Philippe Besnard,James Delgrande, Thomas Linke and Torsten Schaub for helpful comments on this work.This work was supported by DFG under grant FOR375/1-1,TP C and NSFC under grant69883008. 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