语习得引论 读书笔记 chapter
二语习得引论-读书笔记-chapter-1-2
一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
二语习得第二章
section one: Errors and error analysis
step1. Identifying errors step2. Describing errors step3. Expaining errors step4. Error evaluation
Identifying errors
the free variation
Variability constitutes an essential stage in the acquistion of grammatical structures.
begin acquire other verb forms but initially they use these interchaneably with the simple form start to use the forms systematically
Learners vary in their use of L2 according to: the linguistic context the situation context the psycholinguistic context
the free variation
the linguistic context
paint(future,present and past time) painted(for past time)
painted(in planned discourse) paint (in unplanned discourse) elimainate non-target forms and painted(consistently use the target language form to to refer to past time) perform the same function as native speakers
二语习得引论翻译笔记-第五章
第五章SLA与社会环境【真题：语言社团；反馈】交际能力P100言语沟通民俗学：交际能力：一个说话者在一个特定的语言社团里知道自己需要说什么。
不但包括词汇语音语法结构，还要知道什么时候说对谁说和在既定环境里适当的表达。
还包括说话的人应该指导社会文化方面的知识，应该具有保证顺利地和别人交流的能力。
语言社团：一组人；用同一种语言；因此，多语者属于多个语言社团。
非本族语的人讲话和本地人相差很大，即使他们属于同一个语言社团。
比如包括语言结构组合的不同，对话、写作等规则使用不同，同一个词汇意思不同。
P101外语[FL]：在当地环境下学习二语，没机会与该语言的语言社团进行互动（除非出国），且没有机会完全融入该外语的社会，学习这种语言大多是课业要求。
附加语[AL]P102微观社会因素学习者语言的变异社会语言学家认为语言的变异是指在语言的产出过程中，把语言的不系统的不规则的变化当做次于语言系统规则模式的变异性特点。
交际环境的多个维度：语言学环境：语言形式和功能的成分心理学环境：在语言加工过程中，起始阶段要倾注多少注意力，从控制加工到自动化加工；微观社会环境：环境与互动特征与交际部分相关，并在此过程中被产出、翻译、协商宏观因素：政治背景下，哪种语言应该学习，社会对某种语言的态度。
适应理论[accommodation theory]：说话者会随着说话对象的说话方式改变自己的语调难易。
工作地点影响语言输入的性质和群体认同性。
自然变异：中介语的产物，是习得二语语法的必要步骤Ellis 变异的性质随着学习二语的深入而变化：1.一个简单的形式被用于多种功能2.其它形式一开始会用于中介语3.多种形式被系统化地使用4.无目的的形式被摘除，自由变异的清楚使中介语更加高效P105语言的输入与互动P106一、自然输入的修改语言输入对一语二语都是绝对必要的。
外国式谈话[foreigner talk]：一语学习者对二语学习者说话时调整说话的语气速度来适应二语者的语言。
二语习得引论读书笔记chapter3
主要研究成果I.The nature of languageII.Early approaches to SLA1.Contrastive Analysis (CA)1). as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches.It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2). CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaininglearner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3). influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4). Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increase efficiency in L2teaching and testing.5). Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAnalyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may cause problems6). Assessment:Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners knowmore than they’ve heard and been taught)Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors.Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarIts analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2.Error analysis (EA)1). EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus onlearner’s creative ability to construct language.(based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2)2). CA f EAPredictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are nottransferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms and patterns f underlying rules Behaviorism fmentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity) Teaching concerns as motivationI3). Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors4). ShortcomingsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidance3.Interlanguage (IL)1). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of a learner’s languageas it moves toward the target L2.2). Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function3). Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4). L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they 'll cease their IL development in somerespects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4.Morpheme order studies1). Refers to：a n important Q in the study of SLA, whether there is a naturalorder (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners.2). Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a word, togive it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4). The concept of natural order remains very important for understanding SLA.(both from linguistic and cognitive approaches)5.Monitor model1). One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focus in theMonitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a language acquisition device(LAD) (Chomsky used for children’s innate knowledge of language)3). Krashen’s approach: 5 hypotheses6.Consensus:1). What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” language systems2). How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3). Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than others relates primarilyto the age of the learner.m. Universal Grammar (UG)1.UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1). Two important conceptslinguistic competence (speaker-hearers’ underlying knowledge of language)needs to be accounted for LAsuch knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input. (the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2). The nature of speaker-hearers’ competence in native language can beexplained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with.3). The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented inthe brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2.Principles and Parameters1). With Chomsky’s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles and Parametersframework [often called the Government and Binding (GB) model] and thesubsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new ideaabout the acquisition process.2). UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of alllanguages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3). What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UGthat match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input.4). How acquisition occurs for children:natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5). Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)1.Functional approach1). Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAFocus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlyingknowledge (competence)Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA requirecommunicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used ininteraction; include aspects of communication beyond language Systemic linguistics Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”3). What language learners acquire: meaning potential4). Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of language developing a meaning potentialfor each5). pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition: instrumental f regulatoryf interactional f personal f heuristic f imagination^ representational6). linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions that language serves;related to the social and personal needs2.Functional Typology1). Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world’s language2). Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences among languages; todetermine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.3). Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficult than others forL2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4). important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specific feature oflanguage is marked or unmarked)5)In SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6). Compared with CA:Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA) to moreabstract patterns, principles and constraints;the Markedness Differential Hypothesis7). implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhy some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing,physical constraints, communicative needs)3.Function-to-form mapping1). Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process of grammaticalization.2). Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed by sharedextralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse,then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker.Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3). Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical element4). According to function-to-mapping approach, LA importantly involves developinglinguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.rmation organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their words together.)2). Includes:describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)disc overing what organizational principles guide learners’ production at various stages of developmentanalyzing how these principles interact with one another.3). European Science Foundation (ESF) projectdevelopmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 and L2, thelearners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in theirinterlanguage.organizing principles:*there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints; semanticconstraints; pragmatic constraints) which learners make use of fororganizing information.*Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.。
第二语言习得导论 (笔记)
第二语言习得：是指人们在获得母语的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
母语：第一语言，通常是指学习者所属种族，社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
就语言获得的方式而言，习得是指非正式的语言获得，儿童大都是通过这种方式来获得母语的，学习是指正式的语言获得，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。
就语言获得的心理过程而言，习得是指在下意识状态下获得的语言，而学习一般是指有意识的语言获得。
心理学者一般称前者为内隐学习，后者为外显学习。
习得是通过无意识或者下意识的方式来获得语言知识。
学习则是在有意识的状态下，通过规则学习来获得语言知识。
就语言获得的知识类型而言，通过习得方式获得的是隐性语言知识，通过学习获得的是显性语言知识，所以，学者们通常用“picking up a language”来描述习得，就像儿童那样下意识的，毫不费力的获得一种语言。
而学习，学者们认为knowing about a language，即学习一种显性语言知识，而不是language learning，即获得一种语言。
SLA的发端：20世纪60年代末。
1、在《中介语》中首次提出SLA的研究对象：学习者的语言系统（学习者在目的语学习的过程中产生的语言）。
2、把学习者的语言系统作为与其母语和目的语系统相对应的，独立的语言系统。
汉语作为SLA的研究起点：《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》鲁健骥，1984。
乔姆斯基对“刺激——反应”模式的批判1、语言最重要的特点之一是移置型，行为主义无法表达这种特性。
2、句子结构的重要特征之一是成分结构和表层结构的不吻合性。
3、合乎语法的句子不一定有意义。
4、行为主义无法合理解释语言习得。
行为主义对语言本质的看法：1、语言是一套习惯，语言习得是此习惯的养成。
2、揭示语言行为的模式是刺激反应理论。
3、人们的话语就是对其环境或他人的语言，行为所做的一系列反应。
4、把语言行为加以强化，便形成了语言习惯。
5、语言行为则是语言习惯的总和。
《语言学导论》中文笔记
《语言学导论》中文笔记语言学导论中文笔记(完整)什么是语言学?- 语言学是研究语言的科学- 研究语言的性质、结构和功能- 研究语言的发展、变化和使用语言学的分支1. 语音学: 研究语音的产生、传播和认知2. 词汇学: 研究单词的构成、意义和使用3. 句法学: 研究句子的结构和语法规则4. 语义学: 研究词语和句子的意义5. 语用学: 研究语言在特定情境中的使用方式语言的特点1. 语言是人类特有的沟通工具2. 语言具有拟态性，即能通过语言表达事物的形状、动作等特征3. 语言具有符号性，即语言中的单词和语法符号代表着特定的意义4. 语言是可以研究和教授的，通过语言能够传递文化和知识语言的功能1. 意指功能: 通过语言表达思想、情感和意图2. 表示功能: 通过语言描述和描绘事物、现象和过程3. 交际功能: 通过语言实现沟通和交流4. 记忆功能: 通过语言记录和传递信息5. 心理功能: 通过语言影响和塑造个体的心理活动语言与文化- 语言是文化的一部分，反映了社会和文化的价值观和观念- 不同的语言体现了不同的文化方式和思维方式- 语言的变化和发展与文化的变迁和演变相互关联语言的变化和发展- 语言是动态的，不断发展和变化- 语言变化的原因包括：社会文化变迁、语言接触和语言演化- 语言变化常常由语言使用者的创新和共同接受推动语言的使用- 语言使用涉及语言使用者的语法知识、语境理解和交际目的- 语言的使用方式受到社会、文化、地域等因素的影响- 语言的使用也受到个体因素和语言使用者之间的关系影响以上是《语言学导论》的简要笔记，介绍了语言学的定义、分支、特点、功能、与文化关系、变化和使用等方面的内容。
对于进一步学习语言学的人来说，这份笔记能够提供一个全面的概览，并为深入研究打下基础。
二语习得引论-读书笔记-chapter-3
二．主要研究成果Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLAⅠ. The nature of languageⅡ. Early approaches to SLA1.Contrastive Analysis (CA)1). as a beginning of the survey:♦aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches.♦It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2). CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting andexplaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3). influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4). Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increaseefficiency in L2 teaching and testing.5). Process:♦Describing L1 and L2 at different level♦Analyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may♦Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners know more than they’ve heard and been taught)♦Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors.♦Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammar♦Its analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2.Error analysis (EA)1). EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes aninternal focus on learner’s creative ability to construct language.(based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2)2). CA→EA♦Predictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are not transferred from L1♦Focus on surface-level forms and patterns→underlying rules♦Behaviorism→mentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity)♦Teaching concerns as motivation↓3). Procedures for analyzing learner errors:♦Collection of a sample of learner language♦Identification of errors♦Description of errors♦Explanation of errors♦Evaluation of errors4). Shortcomings♦Ambiguity in classification♦Lack of positive data♦Potential for avoidance3.Interlanguage (IL)1). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of alearner’s language as it moves toward the target L2.2). Characteristics:♦Systematic♦Dynamic♦Variable♦Reduced system, both in form and function3). Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by children♦Language transfer from L1 to L2♦Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taught♦Strategies of 2nd language learning♦Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4). L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:♦Fossilization: the probability that they’ll cease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage time.♦Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4.Morpheme order studies1). Refers to： an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there isa natural order (or universal sequence) in the grammaticaldevelopment of L2 learners.2). Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base formof a word, to give it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4). The concept of natural order remains very important forunderstanding SLA. (both from linguistic and cognitive approaches) 5.Monitor model1). One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focusin the Monitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a languageacquisition device (LAD) (Chomsky used for children’s innate knowledge of language)3). Krashen’s approach: 5 hypotheses6.Consensus:1). What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” languagesystems2). How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3). Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than othersrelates primarily to the age of the learner.Ⅲ. Universal Grammar (UG)1.UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1). Two important concepts♦linguistic competence (speaker-hearers’underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LA♦such knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input.(the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2). The nature of speaker-hearers’competence in native language canbe explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with.3). The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2.Principles and Parameters1). With Chomsky’s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles andParameters framework [often called the Government and Binding (GB)model]and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there camea new idea about the acquisition process.2). UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which areproperties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3). What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input.4). How acquisition occurs for children:natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5). Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)Ⅳ. Functional approaches1.Functional approach1). Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLA♦Focus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlying knowledge (competence)♦Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA require communicative use♦Concern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used in interaction; include aspects of communication beyond language2.Systemic linguistics (M.A.K.Halliday)1). Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in termsof the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”2). What language learners acquire: meaning potential3). Process of acquisition:♦mastering certain basic functions of language♦developing a meaning potential for each4). pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition:instrumental→regulatory→interactional→personal→heuristic→ imagination→ representational5). linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions thatlanguage serves; related to the social and personal needs3.Functional Typology1). Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world’slanguage2). Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences amonglanguages; to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.3). Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficultthan others for L2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4). important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specificfeature of language is marked or unmarked)In SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6). Compared with CA:♦Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA)to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints;♦the Markedness Differential Hypothesis7). implications:♦some aspects of some languages are more difficult♦why some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and 2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing, physical constraints, communicative needs) 4.Function-to-form mapping1). Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process ofgrammaticalization.2). Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed byshared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker.Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3). Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical element4). According to function-to-mapping approach, LA importantlyinvolves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.rmation organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their wordstogether.)2). Includes:♦describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)♦discovering what organizational principles guide learners’production at various stages of development♦analyzing how these principles interact with one another.3). European Science Foundation (ESF) project♦developmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 and L2, the learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage.♦organizing principles:*there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints;semantic constraints; pragmatic constraints) which learnersmake use of for organizing information.*Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.（注：可编辑下载，若有不当之处，请指正，谢谢!）。
《二语习得引论》第四章翻译报告
所以在报告的第三部分，译者通过对欧化现象在词汇层面和句子层面以及文化层 面的分析，以阐释学理论作指导，运用适当的翻译方法来解决翻译文本中的欧化 现象。在最后一个部分，译者总结了此次翻译的经验和教训，以及仍待解决的问 题，对翻译报告作出总结。
２原文背景
２原文背景
２．１作者简介
Ｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｉｎｇ Ｓｅｃｏｎｄ Ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ
Ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｙ ｏｆ Ｓｅｃｏｎｄ Ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ Ａｃｑｕｉｓｉｔｉｏｎ）
进行翻译。本章是为语言学、心理学及教育学的初学者及外语教师详细介绍二语 习得的心理学原理。
本翻译报告主要由四部分组成。第一部分是对项目的背景和项目目标与意义 进行描述，并进一步阐述这篇翻译报告的结构；第二部分讨论了原文背景和作者 背景，分析原文的结构和语言特征。因为在翻译过程中，发现译文中出现了汉语 的欧化现象，所以在本报告的第三部分，译者通过对欧化现象在词汇层面和句子 层面以及文化层面的分析，以阐释学理论作指导，运用适当的翻译方法来解决翻 译文本中的欧化现象；在第四部分中，对翻译报告作出了总结。
本次翻译项目是对穆里埃尔・萨维尔・特罗伊克（Ｍｕｒｉｅｌ Ｓａｖｉｌｌｅ—Ｔｒｏｉｋｅ）的学 术著作《二语习得引论》（ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｉｎｇＳｅｃｏｎｄＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＡｃｑｕｉｓｉｔｉｏｎ）中的第四章（Ｔｈｅ
Ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｙ ｏｆ Ｓｅｃｏｎｄ Ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ
Ａｃｑｕｉｓｉｔｉｏｎ）进行翻译，该书适用于初次接触第二
二语言习得，涉及到很多心理学、认知心理学的相关知识。 穆里埃尔・萨维尔・特罗伊克（Ｍｕｒｉｅｌ Ｓａｖｉｌｌｅ．Ｔｒｏｉｋｅ）的学术著作《二语习得 引论》（Ｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｉｎｇ
Ｓｅｃｏｎｄ Ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ
Ａｃｑｕｉｓｉｔｉｏｎ）中的第四章（Ｔｈｅ
语言学语言习得理论知识点梳理
语言学语言习得理论知识点梳理语言习得是一个复杂而引人入胜的领域，它试图解释人类如何获取和发展语言能力。
在语言学中，有多种语言习得理论，每一种都从不同的角度为我们理解这一过程提供了有价值的见解。
一、行为主义理论行为主义理论将语言习得视为一种习惯形成的过程。
该理论认为，儿童通过对环境中的语言刺激做出反应，并因正确的反应得到强化，从而逐渐习得语言。
例如，当孩子说出一个正确的单词或句子时，家长给予表扬或奖励，这会增加孩子再次做出相同语言表达的可能性。
行为主义强调模仿和重复在语言学习中的重要性。
然而，行为主义理论也存在一些局限性。
它无法很好地解释儿童创造性地使用语言的现象，即他们能够说出从未听过的句子。
二、先天论先天论的代表人物是诺姆·乔姆斯基。
他认为人类生来就具有一种语言习得装置（LAD），这是一种内在的、天生的机制，使得儿童能够在接触到有限的语言输入后，迅速掌握复杂的语言规则。
乔姆斯基提出了“普遍语法”的概念，认为所有语言都具有某些共同的基本结构和原则。
儿童在习得语言时，不是通过单纯的模仿和强化，而是利用先天的语言习得装置来发现和理解这些普遍语法规则。
这一理论能够解释儿童为何能够快速而轻松地习得语言，并且在缺乏充分语言输入的情况下仍然能够创造出合乎语法的句子。
三、认知相互作用论认知相互作用论强调语言习得是儿童的认知能力、语言环境和语言输入相互作用的结果。
儿童的认知发展水平会影响他们对语言的理解和掌握。
例如，在具有一定的认知能力，能够理解物体的分类和关系后，才能更好地理解和运用相关的词汇和语法结构。
同时，语言环境和语言输入为儿童提供了丰富的语言材料和交流机会，促进他们的语言发展。
儿童在与他人的互动中，不断调整和改进自己的语言表达。
四、社会文化理论社会文化理论认为语言习得是在社会文化背景中通过与他人的互动实现的。
该理论强调语言不仅是一种交流工具，也是社会文化活动的一部分。
在社会交往中，儿童通过与更有能力的他人（如父母、老师、同伴）进行合作和互动，逐渐掌握语言。
《二语习得引论》(第二章)翻译报告
L1speakers(in millions)L2speakers(in millions) Chinese1,20015
English427950
Spanish266350
a second or a later-acquired language,at least
portion of their formal education,than there are children educated exclusively via the first language.(1999:1)
Given the size and widespread distribution of multilingual populations,it is somewhat surprising that an overwhelming proportion of the scientific attention which has been paid to language acquisition relates only to monolingual conditions and to first language acquisition.While there are interesting similarities between L1and L2 acquisition,the processes cannot be equated,nor can multilingualism be assumed to involve simply the same knowledge and skills as monolingualism except in more than one language.This point is made most cogently by Vivian Cook,who introduced the concept of multilingual competence(his term is“multicompetence”)to refer to‘'the compound state of a mind with two【or more]grammars”(1991:112).This is distinguished from monolingual competence(or“monocompetence”in Cook’S terminology),which refers to knowledge of only one language.
二语习得引论翻译笔记-第四章
语言与大脑布罗卡区：大脑左前叶与说的能力有关。
左脑受损比右脑更易失语。
维尼克区：左前叶附近靠近皮质的部分与听觉输入有关，也是语言处加工中心。
大脑侧裂偏侧优势：大脑不同半球的分工；在孩童时期就出现了。
临界期假说：Lenneberg提出儿童的一定年龄内大脑受损，此时大脑的可塑性会使儿童大脑其它部分接管语言功能，从而使其正常习得一语.超过了这个时期就做不到了。
左右半球的特化分工：图4.1左——语言体系、词法、句法、功能词和变形、声调系统、更多的词汇知识；右——非语言的（婴儿哭）、视觉空间信息（非语言的)、语调、非字面意义和模糊性、一些词汇知识。
大脑的特化是一样的，不管是说出来的语言还是聋哑人的手语,都是左半球支配。
关于大脑的研究收集数据的方法：1.对脑损伤者语言受损情况的搜集;2.不同语言对左右脑的刺激，大脑左半球比右半球加工语言更加快速准确；3.电击法定位大脑皮层的功能；4.PET扫描法等直接观察法；未解的四个问题:1.多语者的多种语言间的相互独立性?这个问题依然未解，因为个体间有差异。
多语系统既不是完全分离的，也不是完全融合的. Ervin和Osgood提出的三种可能：［coordinate, compound, subordinate]同等关系：平行的语言系统复合关系：整合的融合的从属关系:一种语言系统要通过另一种来介入，学习二语通过一语作为媒介。
2.多语者两种语言存储在大脑的相同部位吗？说话的个体间存在很大的差异性,两种语言存储在不同在不同的部位,但是都在左半部分。
右脑对二语的影响比左脑大回答：L2需要的是大脑的记忆功能;L1需要的是大脑的直接文字处理功能3.大脑关于L2学习的构造跟学习年龄、学习方法、熟练程度有没有关系？年龄：对大脑构造有影响；年龄越大,涉及到右脑更多熟练程度:对大脑构造的影响还不知道,二语大脑的构造对于水平较低的人有更高的融合程度学习方法：见问题2的回答4.脑损伤后两种语言受什么影响？哪种先康复？后学习的语言先丢掉，最早的语言保留到最后.康复的话,一语先恢复。
二语习得引论读书笔记chapter
二语习得引论读书笔记c h a p t e r文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语）also commonly called a target language (TL)Refers to: any language that is the aim or goal of learning.3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge3). Why are some learners more successful than othersDifferent answers from different fields4.3 main perspectives:linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages canonly be estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information maynot be reliable.3)A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteriafor identification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to schooland the development normally takes place without anyconscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop throughthe school years.< < 3 years old Master an awareness of basic discourse patterns< 3 years old Master most of the distinctive sounds of L1< 5 or 6 years old Control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns2. The role of natural ability1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity tolearn language.2) Reasons:Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much thesame way.…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different fromthose of the adults around them.There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of generalintelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is thatpart of language structure is genetically “given”to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary andmay have little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural andsocial factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sourceshas little effect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learning1.L1 and L2 development:Final state NativeMultilingual competencecompetence2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie languageacquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learnedfrom the input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.Children use language in accordance with generaluniversal rules of language though they have notdeveloped the cognitive ability to understand theserules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.Patterns of children’s language development are notdirectly determined by the input they receive.Ⅴ. Frame works for SLA。
英语语言学概论第十章笔记
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得a)The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。
人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。
儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。
b)Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech.语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。
语言引论读后感
语言引论读后感
关于研读相关的书籍我选择了布龙菲尔德的《语言论》，因为无法找到原文，我仅仅以他的著名观点结合*知识谈谈我自己的理解。
布龙菲尔德是北美结构主义语言学的先导人物之一。
他的著作《语言论》明显地摒弃了过去的语言学传统，这部著作因其简洁明了而被视为语言学中的经典之作。
与传统的将语言学与心理学结合起来进行语言研究不同，布龙菲尔德摆脱了语言学中所有内省心理学内容的影响，将语言学独树为一门科学进行研究，因而在语言学界引起巨大争议。
以布龙菲尔德为代表的结构主义语言学对语言学的发展做出了巨大贡献。
而其中影响最大的不得不提层次分析法。
层次分析法最早由他提出，经过后人不断完善，对语言学产生了重大影响。
在本学期，我们也学习了层次分析的相关内容，所谓层次分析法就是“在分析语言结构时，将语言结构的层次*考虑进来，并按其构造层次逐层进行分析，在分析时，指出每一层面的直接组成成分，这种分析就叫层次分析。
第二语言习得研究概况-读书笔记
第二语言习得研究概况-读书笔记第一篇：第二语言习得研究概况-读书笔记第二语言习得研究概况第一章介绍1.1 L2在世界中的地位：不仅在学校，而且影响人们生活的方方面面，在这个相互依存的世界里，SLA和二语使用无处不在。
1.2 为什么研究二语习得1.3 SLA领域的发展SLA研究的范围必须足够的广用来包含很多的受试，说很多不同的语言，在很多背景下因为很多原因习得很多L2。
第二章二语习得研究方法1.重要的不是选择定质方法范式还是定量方法范式，运用性质的最优结合来处理研究问题。
2.SLA研究者开始探寻SLA过程的理解，希望当语言教学与SLA 协调的时候语言教学会提高。
毫无疑问有好多相同点和不同点在教学中的习得和非教学中的习得。
然而我们不能忽视他们之间的相似性。
3.数据的收集尽可能真实自然，设计的好的工具能够使生产、直觉和情感数据的收集更加有效。
而且能够产色和那个更多完整和可比较的数据。
学习者在不同的任务中语言表现不同，因此应从多个角度来处理研究问题，并且研究者应避免做出不适当的概括。
4.语言水平很难定义，更别说测量。
第三章 SLA：数据分析的类型后一种分析的类型包含了前者，而不是代替前者。
除形位句法以外，语言的其他方面和交流能力也要能考虑到，对于语义方面，行为形成或规则形成都不可用，话语联想，多项区分和概念学习有更大的解释力。
第四章中介语研究：实证发现4.2.1 自由变量原因（1）IL在发展中变化地非常快(2)比起小孩习得母语来说，大一点的儿童和成人SL习得者很少认知上和心理语言学上受限制。
4.2.2 系统变量4.2.3 自由变量阻碍发展4.2.1对于变量的多种解释4.3 IL展现了共同的习得顺序和发展序列4.3.1习得顺序：形位研究4.3.2 发展序列：疑问句4.3.3 发展序列：否定句4.4 IL收学习者L1的影响相似点而不是不同点引起了主要的问题4.4.1 L1如何影响SLA（1）发展序列的步子被打断了（2）发展结构的数量改变了L1-L2的不同并没有改变发展序列，只是推迟了，推迟了开始，增加了次阶段。
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 Morphology⏹Lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. It is synonymous with “vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e., the analysis and creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language. The features of wordWord is meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.⏹Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics, whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics.Open class word and closed class word⏹Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.⏹Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.⏹1-morpheme boy, desire⏹2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble⏹3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity⏹4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity⏹5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness⏹7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism⏹Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may suedthe term.It is the phonetic realization of a morpheme⏹Allomorph: A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. It is the phoneticvariant of a morpheme.⏹Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:⏹map----maps [s]⏹dog----dogs [z]⏹watch----watches [iz]⏹mouse----mice [ai]⏹ox----oxen [n]⏹tooth----teeth⏹sheep----sheep⏹Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.⏹Affix⏹Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.⏹Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morpheme⏹Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.⏹Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached tofree morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be usedindependently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes andsuffixes).Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphem e⏹Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.⏹Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) c ase: John/John’s⏹Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect ofverbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes⏹SuffixesMorphological rules⏹The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.unfair unthinkable unacceptable…⏹Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compounds⏹Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⏹Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⏹Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)⏹Preposition compoundsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compounds⏹When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…⏹When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…⏹Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…⏹The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.●Formation of new words1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a numberof affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly,unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.pounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns,verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.4. Conversion (invention)◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and back◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. Forexample, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax(facsimile)are rarely used in their complete form.6.Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existingwords. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing bothbreakfast and lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook forjunior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7. Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. Forexample, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formedby putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion inEnglish indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and dropit to form the verb televise.8.Acronyms◆Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letterby letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, theword sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his foodbetween two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for anew product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing wordsfrom other languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active rolein this process, such as “atom, electricity” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin, “violin, pizza”from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is_______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless。
第二语言习得导论笔记和概念总结
第一章：语言习得和语言教学第一课：第一语言和第二语言第一语言是个人身份的标志，总体水平也高于第二语言。
第二语言可以在不同环境中获得。
外语环境和二语环境，它们的区分主要取决于课堂之外的目的与是否常用。
第一、而与环境和外语环境的对立，取决与目的与在社区中是否常用。
第二、外语环境和二语环境的区分，有时并不像认为的那么简单。
第三、随着科学技术的进步，特别是因特网的普及，二语环境和外语环境的区别可能变得不那么重要。
第二课：语言习得语言习得即指语言习得这一现象，也指对这现象的研究。
第一语言习得研究的是儿童学习母语问题，也称“母语习得”。
第二语言习得包括对母语之外的所有语言的习得研究，研究对象一般是成年人。
语言习得研究中，有两个基本问题：逻辑问题和发展问题。
逻辑问题研究的课题是：语言习得是如何成为可能的？发展问题指的是：语言习得遵循一定的发展顺序和步骤。
第三课：应用语言学科德是应用语言学的早期代表人物之一。
语言教学和第二语言习得仍然是应用语言学的两个重要领域，但是应用语言学的研究范学科。
与应用语言学相对的，是理论语言学。
理论语言学的目的是对语言系统本身进行理论描述，找出其规律。
第四课：语言教学第一语言教学（母语教学）语言教学母语环境中的第二语言教学（或二语教学）第二语言教学对外环境的第二语言教学（外语教学）上图说明第二语言教学在两个层面上出现即广义：第二语言教学是从基本性质角度进行的分类，与第一语言教学相对。
狭义：第二语言教学是从学习环境角度进行的分类，和外语教学相对。
研究重点：学习机制、学习者语言、语言环境和语言习得、学习者个体差异。
第二语言教学研究的重点是教师和教学过程，第二语言习得研究的重点是学习和学习过程，包括中介语。
第五课：教学理念反应的是对语言学习和语言教学的基本认识。
包括：学习什么、怎样学习、如何教授。
理念是从一个人所受的全部语言教育当中，从这个人的语言学习有关的全部经历当中感悟出来的。
比较系统，有比较深厚的理论基础。
二语习得读书报告
一、key issues in second language acquisition(二语习得的关键问题)调查sla的框架：（1）situational factors（形势）（2）input（输入）（3）learner differences（学习者差异）（4）learner processes（学习过程）（5）linguistics output（语言输出）1.situational factors（形势）linguistic environment：situational factors & input 根据语言环境的不同，两种类型的习得：（1）naturalistic sla（自然二语习得）（2）classroom sla（课堂二语习得）2.linguistic input（语言输入）中心问题是：语言输入在多大的程度上决定了sla的过程，是仅仅激发了学习过程，还是机构化sla？本地话语者是其话语水平适应l2学习者，另一个问题是：这些话语调整在促进学习中起到什么作用。
3.learner differences（学习者差异）潜在影响因素：年龄，个人能力水平（aptitude）和智力（intelligence），动机（motivation）和需求（needs），个性（personality）和认知方式（cognitive style）另一种差异：学习者的l1，要保证对比分析假说（contrastive analysis hypothesis）服从实验测试(empirical test)4.learner processes（学习过程）学习过程包含认知学习过程（cognitive learner processes）和语言学习过程（linguistic learner processes）认知学习过程分为三个范畴：（1）学习战略（learning strategies）：内化新的l2知识（2）产生战略（production strategies）：学习者利用其现存的l2知识的方式语言学习过程涉及学习者天生具有的语法的普遍规则，提供了学习者一个起始点，其任务是扫描输入来发现目的语的什么规则是普遍的，什么规则是特殊的。
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一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语）also commonly called a target language (TL) Scopes Takes place in ExamplesInformal L2 learning Naturalistic contexts “pick up”Interacting Formal L2 learning Classes or courses ClassesL2 learning that involves a mixture of formal and informal learning Naturalistic contextscombined with Classesor coursesInteracting and learning inclasses at the same time3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?Fields EmphasizeLinguists Characteristics of the differences and similarities in thelanguages that are being learned;The linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) andlinguistic performance (actual production).Psychologists and psycholinguists The mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition; The representation of languages in the brain.Sociolinguists Variability in learner linguistic performance;Communicative competence (pragmatic competence).Social psychologists Group-related phenomena;The interactional and larger social contexts of learning.Applied linguists about SLA Any one or more perspectives above; Theory and research for teaching.4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages. (bilingualism: 2languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only be estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learn language.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are oftensystematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part of languagestructure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate social experience (includingL1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may have little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and social factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has little effect onthe rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learning2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specificinput.♦Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。