“英语”语言学概论第六章笔记
邢福义《语言学概论》(第2版)复习笔记和课后习题详解(语用学)【圣才出品】
第6章语用学
6.1 复习笔记【知识框架】
【考点归纳】
考点一：语用和语用学
1．语言运用（语用）
语言运用是指交际双方在一定场合，为着一定目的，以某种方式进行的话语表达和话语理解的活动。
表6-1 语言运用（语用）
2．语用学
（1）语用学的兴起
表6-2 语用学的兴起
（2）语用学的任务
表6-3 语用学的任务
（3）语用学与相关学科
表6-4 语用学与相关学科
考点二：语言环境
1．含义
语言环境（context）简称语境。
语境是语用研究中的一个核心概念。
语境有狭义和广义之分。
表6-5 语言环境的含义
2．语境的构成
语境是由影响言语交际的各种相关因素构成的，主要包括语言内部的上下文语境和语言外部的情景语境、背景语境。
表6-6 语境的构成
3．语境的功能
语境的功能指语境对意义的表达和理解所产生的影响，语境并不是独立地发挥功能，而是参与、协助话语的表达和理解。
可以分别从话语的表达和话语的理解两个角度考察语境的功能。
表6-7 语境的功能
考点三：语用原则
1．合作原则
表6-8 合作原则。
语言学概论第六章语言的变异.
言变化往往能在本社团内很快推开而不能同样
快地扩展到其他社团，从而形成不同社会方言 或地域方言的差异。
方言差异是语言演变不平衡性的重要体现， 这种不平衡是指在不同语言社团中进展速度快 慢的不同，是在语言演变在语言外进展的不平 衡。 社会方言是指在同一地区居住的居民因年 龄、性别、职业、文化程度、阶级、原居住地 等的社会因素的不同而决定的小社团语言差异。 社会方言最常见的显著差异在词汇方面， 有时也有发音色彩（如北京的 " 女国音 " ）或音 位分合上的差异。一般来说，社会方言的差别 较小 ， 自由 通 话不 成 问题 （ " 黑话 " 除 外）。
语言的性别差异是显而易见的，但社会 语言学家更感兴趣的是其成因。迄今为止， 已提出了种种假说。代表性的有入侵说、禁 忌说、教育逆反说、保守说、社会声望说、 气质说等。
入侵说：是一种古老的说法。据 17 世纪西方文 献记载，当欧洲人来到西印度群岛的小安地列 斯群岛，跟当地的加勒比印第安接触时，发现 男人和女人说不同的语言。男人有他们所独有 的很多说法，女人能听懂但自己永远不说。女 人也有男人永远不用的词和短语，如果男人用 了就要受到嘲笑。这种语言差异据多米尼加土 著的野蛮人说是由于加勒比人占据了阿拉瓦克 人的岛屿后，将男子斩尽杀绝，女子纳为妻室。 这些女子生男育女并以本族语教养后代。孩子 长大后，女孩继续讲母辈的阿拉瓦克语男孩却 操父辈的加勒比语。
（二）地域方言的特点
地域方言是全民语言在不同地域上的分支。 地域方言在汉语中俗称“话”，“江浙 话”、“福建话”、“广东话”通常指的 就是吴方言、闽方言和粤方言。汉语不同 方言的词语，用汉字写下来差别不大，但 念出来，相互之间就难以听懂了。如：
语言学概论[第六章词义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第六章词义1．词汇与词汇分类词汇又叫语汇，是构成语言的基本材料。
它既可以指一种具体语言或方言中的全部的词和固定词组，也可以指语言中某类词语的总和，还可以指某个作品中所使用的词的总和。
但是它不能指一个个具体的词或固定词组。
根据词汇的稳定程度，它可以分为基本词汇与一般词汇两种。
基本词汇在语言发展中是相对稳定的，一般词汇则敏感地反映着社会的发展和人们生活的变化，于不断产生、消亡等变化之中。
基本词汇与一般词汇相对，是词汇系统的基础和核心。
标志着与人们世世代代的日常生活有密切关系的事物的词以及表示事物关系的常用虚词的总汇叫基本词汇，它是词汇中的主要部分，具有全民常用性、稳固性、能产性等特点。
一般词汇是指词汇中基本词汇以外的词。
它紧随社会的发展与人们生活的变化而变化，稳固性差，构词能力弱，有时候它可以转换为基本词汇。
它包括古语词、方言词、外来词、新造词等。
另外，从词的用途与特点来看，词汇可以分为通用词汇与专用词汇、常用词汇与罕用词汇。
2．词义词义是指人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价，它包括词的理性意义与附加色彩。
它具有概括性、模糊性、民族性、主观性特点。
3．词的理性意义与非理性意义词的理性意义是指以现实现象为基础，不涉及人们主观态度的词义。
它是词义的基础与核心部分。
根据人们对事物本质特征的反映情况，词的理性意义可以分为通俗意义与科学意义两种。
词的非理性意义，又叫词的附加色彩，是人们对客观世界认识的价值观念、立场态度和语言使用上的主观看法。
它附着在词的理性意义之上，可以分为三类：一是感情色彩，它有褒义、贬义与中性之分；二是语体色彩，词的语体色彩分为口语色彩和书面语色彩两种基本类型；三是形象色彩，是因为描绘人或事物的形象、情状或特征而使词带上了形象性、可感性和比喻性等特点，可以引起人们对事物视觉形象或听觉形象的联想。
4．词的本义、基本义、引申义、派生义本义是指词的有历史可查的最初的意义。
语言学概论 自学笔记 第六章 文字
第六章文字一、名词解释1.文字2.字符3.意符4.音符5.记号6.自源文字7.他源文字8.单纯字符9.复合字符 10.词语文字 11.语素文字 12.音节文字 13.音位文字 14.表意文字15.表音文字 16.意音文字 17.假借字 18.楔形文字 19.象形字 20.指事字、会意字21.“六书” 22.独体字23.合体字、偏旁、形旁、声旁24.字符的书写规则 25.“文字的创制”26．语言规划二、简答和论述1.文字是语言的书写符号系统.2.简述字符的类型。
3.谈谈自源文字是如何表音的?4.举例说明音符最初都是由已有的意符转化而来的.5.“自源文字”与“他源文字”的区别。
6.简述划分文字类型的标准。
7.应该如何看待一些表示比较复杂意思的图画以及夹杂一部分字符的图画跟文字的关系？8.如何正确认识汉字的类型？9.汉字是不是音种语素文字或语素一节文字?请谈谈你的看法。
10.文字和语言的关系.11.语言对文字的影响.12.文字对语言的影响.13.简要说明不少人将文字和书面语等同起来进而把文字和语言等同起来的原因？14.文字起源于图画和契刻.15.结绳跟文字的起源没有直接的关系.16.古苏美尔文字的情况.17.古埃及文字的情况.18.腓尼基人借用古埃及文字创造了最早的辅音文字.19.“辅音文字”的起源。
20.试述“音位”文字的发展过程。
21.汉字的形旁跟表意字符的区别.22.汉字的声旁跟表音字符不完全相同.23.汉字字体的演变.24.汉语字符组合规则.25.应该如何看待“文字发展三阶段论”的观点.26.非洲一些新兴国家创制文字的情况.27.新中国为少数民族语言创制文字的情况.28.文字改革的类型.29.文字的创制有哪些值得注意的问题？30.文字创制的目的。
31.应该如何对待文字改革？32.文字改革与创制文字的异同。
33．在现代汉语中，诸如“日、山、火、象”这样的字很多。
这些字的共同特点表现在它们的字形与其所表示的意义之间存在着千丝万缕的关联。
语言学概论(第六章)
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《语言学概论》讲义 语言学概论》
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《语言学概论》讲义 语言学概论》
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《语言学概论》讲义 语言学概论》
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《语言学概论》讲义 语言学概论》
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《语言学概论》讲义 语言学概论》
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语言学概论第六章
第六章文字和书面语三．问答题1．简述文字的作用。
文字的产生是人类社会发展史上的一个重要里程碑。
文字的作用主要表现在以下几方面：（1）突破了有声语言时间和空间的局限性，扩大了语言交际的范围。
（2）文字是人类积累知识的工具和传播科学的媒介。
文字产生以前，人类社会的生产、生活经验和知识只能通过口耳相传，而文字产生以后，前人的创造性成果可以通过文字记载下来，变成我们今天生活的基础，人类能更好地总结生产经验，发展科学技术，扩大生产规模，创造丰富的文化艺术。
人们不仅可以通过文字文本进行超越时间和空间的交流，大容量地传承文化，而且加深了思考的深度。
有了文字，人类才有了历史，文字是人类由蒙昧走向文明的标志。
（3）文字导致了书面语的产生，促进了语言的发展，进而促进了文学语言的形成和文学艺术的繁荣发展。
（4）文字是研究古代社会生活的绝好材料，是文化的活化石。
文字是社会发展到一定阶段的产物，古代社会的生活、历史通过文字记载得以保存下来，同时我们又可以透过文字本身看到古代社会生活的多方面的情况，因为文字也是一种文化现象，是古代社会遗留下来的活化石，古人的思维方式、认知水平等也必然在文字中有所反映。
2．简述汉字和拼音文字的差异。
1、从记录语言单位的大小看,音位文字通过为音节制定符号来记录语言,拼音文字、英文、俄文就属于这种文字.而汉字记录的不是音节或音位,而是词或者语素.在古代汉语中,单音节词占优势,大多数情况下,一个汉字记录的是一个词,也是一个语素.在现代汉语中,双音节词占优势,大多数情况下,一个汉字记录的是一个语素,不见得是一个词.所以现代汉字可以称为语素文字或语素——音节文字.2、从记录语言的文字的字符看,拼音文字为表音文字,它和以汉字为代表的表意文字的不同在于为文字所制定的字符的性质不同.字符大体上可分为3类,即意符、音符、记号.与文字所代表的词在意义上有联系的字符是意符,在语音上有联系的是音符,在意义上和语音上都没有联系的是记号.音位符号或音节符号仅仅同语音相联系,做为字符来讲,是音符,毫无意义可言,所以说是表音的.意符是构成汉字的最基本的符号,是独体的表意字,与语音没有联系.汉字的音符都是“借音符”.汉字在隶变以前,主要由意符和音符构成,记号为数极少.隶变以后,字形发生了剧烈的变化,独体表意字作为字符大都丧失了原来的表意作用,变成了记号.在长期发展过程中,不少字形、字意、字音起了变化,致使意符、音符丧失了原有的表意、表音作用,成为记号.但这并不妨碍占汉字绝大多数的合体字仍然是由意符和音符构成的.把隶变前的古汉字称为意符音符文字,隶变后的今文字称为意符单符记号文字,或简称意符音符文字.3、从记录语言的方法看,文字体系中拼音文字属于表音体系,是根据语音构形的文字体系.汉字是表意体系,指仅仅根据意义构形的文字体系,字形与声音没有直接的联系.3．简述独立的文字体系必须具备的条件。
语言学概论初等教育第六章 语法
第二节 语法的内容和形式
一、语法意义和语法形式
（一二三）语法意 形义 式和语法意义的对立统一关系 12语.法什 语形 意么 法式 义是 意是 和语 义能 语法 的够 法意 特把形义 点语式法是单互位为组依织存起、来不并能在分组割织 的过 。程 但中 两产 者生 不语 是
法一意对（义一每1的）个语 关语言 系法形 ，意单式 这义位。 种必即语关须语言系是素中是高、不极度词管其抽、是复象词语杂的组音的意、的。义句表在。子现具、形体句式的群、 话除词 语了形 中本的 ，身变 我的化 们词 汇形找意式不（义，到2外还 单），是 纯语还成 的法具分 语意有的 法义语组 形必法合式须意和，是义类也语。别找法语形不形法式到式意，单体义凡纯现是是的出语能语来法体法的单现意意位一 义义在类 ，。组意 它合义 们中或 总所有 是产共 结 生单同合统的位作成一（各的用一体3种词的个。）关 汇 形 不句系 意 式 可子意 义 就 分中义 上 都 割的。 。 是 的语语整法法体意形。义式语不。法能中独的立任存何在成，分必都须是依形附式于和一意定义语的法
语言学概论
主讲人：
语言学概论
第一章 绪 论 第二章 语言的本质 第三章 语 音 第四章 语 义 第五章 词 汇
第六章 语 法 第七章 文 字 第八章 语言的起始与发展 第九章 世界的语言 第十章 新兴交叉语言学
二、语法的特性
（一二三）抽 生 语象 成 法性 体系的稳定性
所也谓 就抽 是 稳象 “ 定性 递是 归指 性对”语具。法体语规东法则西规与进则语行实音类际、的上词概就汇括是等。一语种 言有 要限 素手 比段 起可 来以 ， 反变复化使现语用象法的 较的规 少抽则 ，象。 变和可 化词以过义说程的，也抽语十象法分是正缓不是慢同因。性为语质有法的了是抽递语象归言。性 结词， 构义才 中的能 最 如物限 斯质多 大或的林现句所象子说的。：抽“象语，言抽的象语出法来构的造是比词语汇言意的义基；本语词法 的汇抽变象化是得对还词要或慢句，子语之法间构的造关是系许进多行时的代抽以象来，形抽成象的出，来它的在是语语言法中 意根义深。蒂固，所以它的变化比基本词汇还要慢。”这正说明了语法 体系的稳定性。
语言学概论[第六章词义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第六章词义1．词汇与词汇分类词汇又叫语汇,是构成语言的基本材料.它既可以指一种具体语言或方言中的全部的词和固定词组，也可以指语言中某类词语的总和，还可以指某个作品中所使用的词的总和.但是它不能指一个个具体的词或固定词组.根据词汇的稳定程度，它可以分为基本词汇与一般词汇两种.基本词汇在语言发展中是相对稳定的，一般词汇则敏感地反映着社会的发展和人们生活的变化，于不断产生、消亡等变化之中.基本词汇与一般词汇相对,是词汇系统的基础和核心。
标志着与人们世世代代的日常生活有密切关系的事物的词以及表示事物关系的常用虚词的总汇叫基本词汇，它是词汇中的主要部分,具有全民常用性、稳固性、能产性等特点。
一般词汇是指词汇中基本词汇以外的词。
它紧随社会的发展与人们生活的变化而变化，稳固性差,构词能力弱，有时候它可以转换为基本词汇。
它包括古语词、方言词、外来词、新造词等。
另外,从词的用途与特点来看，词汇可以分为通用词汇与专用词汇、常用词汇与罕用词汇.2．词义词义是指人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价，它包括词的理性意义与附加色彩。
它具有概括性、模糊性、民族性、主观性特点。
3．词的理性意义与非理性意义词的理性意义是指以现实现象为基础，不涉及人们主观态度的词义.它是词义的基础与核心部分。
根据人们对事物本质特征的反映情况，词的理性意义可以分为通俗意义与科学意义两种。
词的非理性意义，又叫词的附加色彩，是人们对客观世界认识的价值观念、立场态度和语言使用上的主观看法.它附着在词的理性意义之上，可以分为三类：一是感情色彩，它有褒义、贬义与中性之分；二是语体色彩，词的语体色彩分为口语色彩和书面语色彩两种基本类型；三是形象色彩，是因为描绘人或事物的形象、情状或特征而使词带上了形象性、可感性和比喻性等特点,可以引起人们对事物视觉形象或听觉形象的联想.4．词的本义、基本义、引申义、派生义本义是指词的有历史可查的最初的意义。
语言学概论第六章 语言的发展_OK
2、语言发展的历史变化
指那些被历史固定下来的、已经成为语言事实的变化。
目——眼睛、耳——耳朵等。
十二个月名称的变化。 汉语古今声调的变化。
平分阴阳 浊上变去 去仍为去 入派四声
语法上的被动句的变化。
注意：正如前面提到的，历史变化不同于历时变化，共时 8 阶段也有历史变化。
• 思考： • 面包 mian bao 这种变化属于什么变化？
多义词，如：
布 《国语》中共出现19次。
1、用麻、棉、葛、丝、毛等纤维织成的做衣服的材料。1次
自是子服之妾衣不过七升之布，马饩不过稂莠。鲁语上
2、陈述，表达，抒写。1次
敢私布于吏，唯君图之！晋语四 韦昭注：布，陈也。
3、公布，宣布。6次
以太蔟之下宫，布令于商，昭显文德，底纣之多罪，故谓之宣，所以
宣三王之德也。周语下
汉语语法系统也逐渐精密化。
那么上面的这些变化是如何进行的？诱发这些变化的原因是什么呢？
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先秦时期，随着社会的发展，新事物、新现象的增多，要求 创造新词、新义来表示它们。因为当时的音节数量有限，所 以出现了大量的同音词和多义词：
扬：4次，如：所不掩子之恶，扬子之美者，使其身无终没于越 国。《国语⋅越语下》 羊：7次，如：以丘之所闻，羊也。 《国语⋅鲁语下》 阳：9次，如：阳至而阴，阴至而阳；日困而还，月盈而匡。 《国语⋅越语下》 杨：6次，如：汎汎杨舟，载沉载浮。《诗经⋅小雅⋅菁菁者莪》 飏（表扬）：2次，如：时而飏之。《尚书⋅皋陶谟》 旸（日出）：1次，如：曰旸。 《尚书⋅洪范》 佯：5次，如：乃佯有罪出走入齐。《战国策⋅ 楚策》 炀（烤火）：2次，如：若灶则不然，前人之炀，则后之人无从 见它 锡也们良。都《是《汉余战字部国古阳策音母⋅手赵字册策，》》[，其i 中共收]入，1都7个是余平部声阳字母。字(拟)音据郭14
语言学概论第六章 语言的发展
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（一）一种语言逐步消除方言分歧而走向统一 在存在方言分歧的社会里，不同地区之间的人 们为了交际的方便，往往会选择一种方言作为各方 言区之间的交际工具，我们可以把这种语言形式叫 做“通用语”。我国古代所谓的“雅言”、“通语 ”、“四方之语”以及后来的“官话”，都是当时 的人们给这种通用语起的名称。但是，在经济上自 给自足的、分散的、没有形成统一市场的封建社会 里，各地区之间的相互往来不很普遍，频率也比较 低，通用语的使用者就可能只局限于一些官员、商 人和读书人，人数势必不多。
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第二节
语言的分化和统一
一、语言随着社会的分化而分化 社会的分化有两种基本类型：一是社会分化为 不同的地域，即一个统一的社会在其发展过程中， 在地域上逐渐分化为若干个相对独立或完全独立的 部分；二是社会分化为不同的社群，就是在一个统 一的社会内部，因阶级、阶层、职业、年龄、性别 、文化程度、宗教等社会特征的不同而形成不同的 社会集团（又叫“社群”）。
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（二）亲属语言 一个社会、一个民族或一种文化凭着语言等手 段得以凝聚和整合，在一定的政治历史条件下，一 个社会在地域上相对独立的部分进一步分化，走向 完全独立，分裂成几个各自完全独立的社会，原来 相对独立的地域所使用的方言可能会逐渐转变为各 自独立的语言。
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（三）社会方言 稍加留意，我们会发现不同年龄、性别、职业 、阶级、阶层、文化程度、宗教信仰的人群所说的 话有一定的差异，语言学上把这些不同的人群称为 “言语社团”（speech community），他们所说 的话被称作“社会方言”。社会方言指的是同一种 语言或地域方言在不同的言语社团中表现出来的各 种变体。比如网民这个言语社团在网络聊天室和论 坛上进行交流时所创制和使用的所谓“网络语言” 就是一种社会方言。
语言学概论(笔记整理)
《. What is language？“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.. What are design features of language？“Design features” here refer to the defining properties ofhuman language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. What is arbitrariness？By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo wor ds, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or m ore transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.is duality？Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, languageis analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.is productivity？Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those tha t has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by .is displacement？“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now a nd there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.is cultural transmission？This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.is interchangeability？(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to thelistener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.do linguists say language is human specific？First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”infunctions does language have？Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,, language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. , representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function？The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language . “How are you” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insin cere iftaken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.. What is the directive function？The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, ., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to and ’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, ., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”is the informative function？Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to ’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.is the interrogative function？When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have t his function as well, ., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.is the expressive function？The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own a ttitudes.is the evocative function？The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, ., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.is the per formative function？This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well (see ’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, .is linguistics？“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)makes linguistics a science？Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the languagestructure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.are the major branches of linguistics？The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics,psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.are synchronic and diachronic studies？The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachroni c). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).is speech and what is writing？(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language,writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches？A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high”(literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.is the difference between langue and parole？F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.is the difference between competence and performance？(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. (2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point ofview than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.is linguistic potential What is actual linguistic behavior？M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or thepotential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree In what way do they differ And their counterparts？Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see . Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actualutterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.is phonetics？“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on thehearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.are the vocal organs formed？The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.is place of articulation？It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, , z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed“labial-velar”.is the manner of articulation？The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].do phoneticians classify vowels？Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, .,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, .[I,].is IPA When did it come into beingThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”,is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription？In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.is phonology What is difference between phonetics and phonology？(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in , is the branch oflinguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.is a phone What is a phoneme What is an allophone(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” i s a phonological unit; it is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So th e different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.are minimal pairsWhen two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They areidentical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).is free variation？If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.is complementary distribution？When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the asp iratedEnglish plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the w ords “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.is the assimilation rule What is the deletion rule？(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It ma y be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar)。
语言学概论(6)
root prefix inflectional affix eg. books affix infix suffix derivational affix eg. careful The majority of roots are free forms, and bound roots are relatively few ,but they do exist, such as -ceive, -tain and -cur in receive, retain and recur. 3 、 morpheme
3）语素变体（allomorph） ）语素变体（ ） An allomorph is a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary distribution. eg. ir-, im-,in -, etc; -ion,-tion, etc. （2）词（omission） ） ） （3）固定短语（omission） ）固定短语（ ）
语言学概论知识汇总(英文)
第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。
精讲-第六章_语言的运用特点——语用
二、语境和语句意义
（二）言外语境的作用 1.用来解释词语和句子的具体所指意义。 例如：今天他又迟到了。（上班、上学、约会？） 2.用来解释特殊词义和句义 例如：宁在宝马车里哭，不在自行车上笑。 3.用来解释不但超出了词语的义项义和句子的命题义，而且需要揣 摩才能理解的背后意义。 例如：现在是21世纪了。（陈述事实、回答问题、应该与时俱进）
三、语境和词语所指
3.根据指示词语的类别，指示意义主要包括人称指示、时间指示、地 点指示。有的学者还提出了“语篇指示”和“社交指示”。 例如对话—— A ：订书机在你那儿吗？我这儿有东西要订。 B ：你来拿吧。订书机不在桌上，在我左边的抽屉了。 这里的“你、我、那儿、这儿、桌上、左边”都表示了明确的人称 、地点指示意义，说话双方都有赖语境才可理解。 《围城》中孙柔嘉对方鸿渐的称呼：方先生、您、你、你这个人
有指：名词有指称性； 无指：名词没有指称性（可以看做是一种特殊的指称）； 任指：有指名词与任意的一些或某些对象联系的指称； 全指：有指名词与某类对象的全体联系的指称； 定指：说话人和听话人都知道的有指名词与某个或某些对象联 系的指称； 不定指：至少是听话人不知道的有指名词与某个或某些对象联 系的指称。
重难点和考点
• 本章的重、难点和常考知识点 – 语用的性质（常考单选题、多选题） – 语境的类型、语境和语句意义的关系、语境和词语所 指的关系（常考多选题、简答题） – 会话的“合作原则”和“礼貌原则”、违反会话准则 产生的会话含义（常考单选题、术语解释题、简答题） – 蕴含义和预设义（常考单选题、简答题、分析题）
知识点测评题
【简单题】简述什么是语言的运用以及如何认识语用的性质。 【答案】 语用即语言的运用，是指人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用 。要想有效地使用语言，不仅要掌握好语言的结构规则，还要了解语 言的使用规律，这中规律就是“语用”。 语用主要包括以下一些性质： （1）情境性。语言离不开具体使用的环境。语言使用的环境既包括由 交际双方的言辞构成的上下文语境，也包括言辞之外的各种主客观因 素构成的言语环境。
语言学概论 第五章 第六章
第五章语义第一节词义一、词义及其内容:词义就是词所表示的意义内容。
具体可以包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分的内容。
（一）语法意义：是指词的表示语法作用的意义。
词的语法意义是语言中的词的语法作用通过类聚之后所显示出来的，所以是一种更抽象更概括的意义。
（上一章讲的）（二）词汇意义：是指词所表示的客观世界中的事物、现象和关系的意义。
如：一般词典中对词项所作的说明就是词的词汇意义。
实词具有词汇意义，虚词是否具有词汇意义？二、词义和概念的关系概念是词义形成的基础；另一方面，词义反映概念，概念凭借词义而成为直接现实。
具体来说：（一）词汇意义中的理性意义是指称客观事物的意义，是人们对客观事物的理性认识在词义中的反映。
这种意义与概念直接联系，基本上是一一对应的关系。
（二）语法意义与词汇意义中的色彩意义也与概念相联系，它们通常是多个概念的综合，与概念之间的联系具有类指性。
三、词义的性质（一）客观性（主观性）（二）概括性（具体性）（三）模糊性（确定性）（四）民族性（普遍性）四、词义的层次原生层——派生层引申义？？？（本义）比喻义五、词义的概念内容和联想内容概念内容：根据一个词所指称的事物的本质属性或共同特点所概括出来的内容，就是这个词的词义，也就是这个词义的概念内容。
联想内容：是指由词义的概念内容引发联想所产生的含义。
它通常是依附于词义的概念内容之上的，不能脱离词义的概念内容而存在。
六、词义的关系：（一）相同关系（二）相反关系（三）上下义关系七、义素分析（一）义素是构成词义的基本要素，是最小的语义构成成分，又叫语义特征。
（二）义素分析就是通过对最合适的语义场中的两个或两个以上的义项进行比较、分析，找出这些义项所包含的义素的方法。
(三)义素分析的原则：1、系统性原则。
就是说义素分析必须在一定的语义系统中进行，不在一个系统中无法进行义素分析。
2、对等性原则。
就是说义素分析的结果必须与义项的意义相等，所指范围不能过宽或过窄。
英语语言学概论第六章笔记
英语(yīnɡ yǔ)语言学概论第六章笔记Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1.What is pragmatics?什么(shén me)是语用学？Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.语用学研究(yánjiū)的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。
由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究(yánjiū)。
它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同(bù tónɡ)的。
语言学概论 第六章 语音
第六章语音第一节语音的自然属性与语音学⏹一、发音语音学⏹1、语音产生的生理基础⏹人类发音器官的整个装置像一架风琴，分为三大部分，提供动力的部分是肺，发音体是声带，共鸣器是咽腔、口腔和鼻腔。
⏹（1、2）上下唇（3、4）上下齿⏹（5）齿龈（6）硬腭（7）软腭⏹（8）小舌（9）鼻腔⏹（10）口腔（11）咽腔⏹（12）舌尖（13）舌叶⏹（14）舌面前和舌面中⏹（15）舌面后或舌根⏹（16）会厌软骨⏹（17）食道⏹（18）气管⏹（19）声带（20）喉结⏹口腔，是最重要的发音器官，由三个部分构成，一部分是口壁，包括由上下唇、上下齿、上下齿龈、上下腭、小舌；一部分是舌；一部分是咽头。
⏹口腔是发音的最重要共鸣腔，由上腭和下腭两部分构成。
上腭有上唇、上齿、上齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌六部分。
⏹硬腭可以分为前腭、中腭和后腭三部分。
软腭是硬腭以后较软的部分，它可以上下活动，决定气流进入口腔还是鼻腔。
如果软腭下垂，可以堵住口腔通道，使气流进入鼻腔，形成鼻音和鼻化音；软腭上挺则堵住鼻腔通道，形成口音。
⏹下腭有下唇、下齿、下齿龈和舌头四部分。
⏹舌头又分为舌尖、舌叶、舌面和舌根四部分。
舌在发音时的位置、形状和活动方式不同，可以形成不同的音色，因此舌的位置、形状及活动方式一向是语音区分发音方法的主要依据之一。
⏹舌叶音：舌叶（包括舌尖和舌面前沿）抵住硬腭前部构成阻碍而形成的音。
⏹如：ʧ、ʧ‘、ʃ、ʒ。
⏹当说话的时候，如果软腭小舌伸直，抵到咽壁，挡住鼻腔的通路，这时气流只能从口腔出去，发出来的音就是单纯的口音；如果软腭下垂，气流完全从鼻腔出去，这时发出来的音就是鼻音；如果三条路都通，气流就会从口腔和鼻腔同时出去，这时发出来的音就是口鼻音（也叫鼻化音）。
⏹发音时形成咽腔和口腔有时还加鼻腔这三个共鸣腔。
其中咽腔是人类特有的，口腔中舌头的动作快速灵活，有了这样的装置，能够发出的音的种类自然比其他动物多得多。
⏹在上述的各发音器官中，有些如唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、声带等都是能自由活动的，叫做主动发音器官，有些如上齿、齿龈、硬腭等都是不能活动的，叫做被动发音器官。
语言学概论文字1
第六章文字学【学习提示】本章介绍了文字学的主要内容。
需要重点掌握的内容有：第一节：文字和字符的特征、文字和语言的关系、文字的各种类型和分类的标准。
第二节：文字的起源、文字体系的演变、文字改革的类型、文字规范的内容。
本章主要要求熟记一些重要概念和分类，弄清相关概念之间的关系，并对有关问题进行正确的评价。
第一节文字和文字学一、文字的性质（一）文字和字符文字（character， writing）是记录语言的视觉符号系统。
文字是以字符（graphic sign， graph）为元素构成的符号系统。
文字的基本书写单位是字符，拼音文字的字符一般叫字母（letter），一个字母是一个字符，如英语的字母、日语的假名，汉语的字符一般叫字（character），一个汉字也是一个字符。
文字是语言的符号。
字符的主要特征是能代表某种具体的语言单位，包括音素（音位）、音节、语素、词等。
不代表语言单位的符号不是字符。
常见的示意性符号，如交通标志、商品包装上表示防潮、易碎、有毒等意思的图形标记都只代表某种意义，而不代表具体的语言单位，不与词语的声音发生固定联系。
这种图形具有超语言的性质，人们可以用不同的语言或不同的词语表达同一种图形的意思，因此不能将它们看作字符。
字符除了包括字母和字以外，还包括一些特殊符号，如阿拉伯数字、科学符号、标音符号（如国际音标、汉语拼音、注音字母等）、标点符号等。
这些特殊字符都与语言有一定的关系，但是与字母和字又有明显的区别。
广义的文字包括这些特殊符号，狭义的文字不包括这些特殊符号，只包括字母和字。
一般所说的文字，是指狭义的文字。
（二）文字和语言文字和语言是两种现象，它们之间既有密切联系又有明显区别。
文字是记录语言的符号系统，字符作为文字系统的符号，跟其他符号一样，也有能指和所指两个要素。
字符的能指就是字形，字符的所指就是各种语言单位。
字符的能指和所指之间的关系也是人为约定的。
用什么字符或字符与字符怎样组合表示什么语言单位，是人为约定的。
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Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1.What is pragmatics?什么是语用学？Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。
由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。
它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。
它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。
没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。
3.Context 语境Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。
它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。
The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。
4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。
话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。
5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century.言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。
它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。
According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。
According to speech act theory, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。
a) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax lexicon and phonology.言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为，它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。
b)An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。
c) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is theconsequence of, or the change brought about the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为，或讲某些话所导致的行为，它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化，它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。
American philosopher-linguist John Searle classified illocutionary acts into five general types. Each type has a common, general purpose.美国的哲学语言学家约翰.舍尔把言外行为分为五类，每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。
这五大类是：a)representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true阐述类：陈述或描述说话者认为是真实的情况示例：I have never seen the man before. / the earth is globe.b)directives: trying to get the hearer to do something指令类：试图使听话者做某些事情示例：Open the window! / Would you like to go to the picnic with us?c)commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action承诺类：说话者自己承诺未来要有一些行为。
示例：I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.d)expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state表达类：表达对某一现状的感情和态度。
示例：I’m sorry for the mess I have made. / It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.e)declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something宣告类：通过说话引起骤变。
示例：I now declare the meeting open. / I fire you.Important remark:All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or forth.每一类中的行为都有同样的目的，但具有同样目的的言外行为可能具有不同程度的言外之力。
6.Principle of conversation 会话原则American philosopher Paul Grice concluded that natural language had its own logic. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle (CP).美国哲学家保罗.格赖斯提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。