语言学教程胡壮麟第四版第11课课件
语言学精品课胡壮麟版ppt课件
2. Scopes of linguistics
☺General linguistics—studies linguistics as a whole.
☺ Phonetics—study of sounds ☺ Phonology--study of the system of
sounds, how they are combined ☺ Morphology—study of the structure and
language development, more practical than written form, hard to record • writing : • permanent, can be recorded
• ngue and parole • —by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure
• descriptive –describes and analyzes the language people are currently speaking. It deals with “what people actually say”
• 3.2 synchronic vs. diachronic • synchronic—description of a language at
• 2.1.4. Language is symbolic. • 2.1.5. Language is human –specific. • 2.1.6. Language is used for
communication
2.2. Design features of language
• 2.2.1. arbitrariness • 2.2.2. productivity • 2.2.3. duality • 2.2.4. displacement • 2.2.5. cultural transmission
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第十一章Linguistics_and_foreign_language_teaching ppt课件
ppt课件
7
1.2 Input
Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language.
This input may come in written or spoken form.
ppt课件
5
The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways.
Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input Interactively modified input: tends to do
a better job
ppt课件
9
(Krashen): i+1
Do we teach grammar?
How do we teach grammar?
As a compromise between the “purely formfocused approaches” and the “purely meaningfocused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.
胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter_4_gram
The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction‟s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.
8
It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
9
This is what Saussure called ASSOCIATIVE relations, or in Hjemslev's term, PARADIGMATIC relations. To make it more understandable, they are called VERTICAL relations or CHOICE relations.
3
1.1 Positional Relation
For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object
In the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The + girl + is +
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic.1.What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability(1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds.(2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units ofthe primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand anindefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.(4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to thefact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.(5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.3.Functions of Language.Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.(1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certainatmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas).Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.(2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearerto do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.”(3)Informative function: Language serves an “informational function” when used to tellsomething, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).(4)Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogativefunction”. This includes all questi ons that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.(5)Expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.(6)Evocative function: The “evocative function” is the use of langu age to create certain feelings inthe hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please.(7)Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.4. What is linguistic?“Linguistics” is the sc ientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities. 5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc. 6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic study vs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguis tic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(4). langue vs. paroleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, . to discover the regularities governing all instances of paroleand make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Choms ky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. (6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain per son is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phoneticsis phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance ofa consonant.4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated.5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.6. Narrow transcription and broad transcription.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable ofdistinguishing one word from another in a given language.7. Phone Phoneme AllophoneA “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we he ar and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, ., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words is the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out bya phonologist.8.Minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what English phonemes are. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.9. Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”.10. Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.11. Assimilation rule.The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.12. Deletion ruleThe “deletion rule” tell us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.13. Suprasegmental phonology and suprasegmental features“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the s tudy of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.Chapter 3. Morphology1.Morpheme and MorphologyThe “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules b y which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.2.Types of Morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morphemeA “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).(2). root; affix; stemA “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is the part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.“Affixes”is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. (prefix, suffix, infix)A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.(3). Inflectional affix and derivational affix.Inflectional affixes: do not change the word class, but only added a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Derivational affixes: often change the lexical meaning and word class.Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, and derivational affixes can be prefixes (sub-, de-) or suffixes (-er, -able).3. Inflection“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.4. Word formationIn its restricted sense, refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be future sub classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type.5. Lexical change(1) lexical change proper(特有词汇变化)A. InventionB. Blending: blending is relative complex from of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.C. Abbreviation: a new word is created by cutting the final part, the initial part, or both the initial and final parts accordingly.D. Acronym: acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which have a heavily modified headword.E. Back-formation: it refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.F. Analogical creation: it can account for the co-existence of the forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.G. Borrowing:a. loanwords: the borrowing of loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some causes, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.b. loanblend: it is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.c. loanshift: it is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, and the form is native.d. loan translation: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(2). Morpho-syntactical change （形态句法变化）A. morphological change: the words have changed their formsB. syntactical change(3). Semantic change （语义变化）A. broading: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relative general one.B. narrowing: it refers to a process in which the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.C. meaning shift: the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction.D. fork etymology: it refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term on from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(4). Phological change （音位变化)Refers to changes in sound leading to change in form.a. loss（语音的脱落）b. addition （语音的增加）c. metathesis（换位）d. assimilation （同化）(5). Orthographic change （书写法变化）Chapter Four. Syntax1. Syntax.“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2. Sentence.L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not include d by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, and it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.3. Syntactic relations.“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hencethree kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.a.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the seq uential arrangement to words in a language.It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.b.“Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each othergrammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.c.“Relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit orrequire the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.3.Grammatical constructionGrammatical construction: it can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional function in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.4.IC analysis and immediate constituents.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut is called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut is called “ultimate constituents”.5.Endocentric and exocentric constructions“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole; that is to say, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.6.Coordination and subordination.They are two main types of endocentric construction.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two of more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” ,“but” and “or”. Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. (three basic types of subordination clause: complement clause, adjunct clause, relation clause.)7. Syntactic function(1) Subject: “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.a. Grammatical subject: it refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, ., “He is a good cook, (isn’t he?).”b. Logical subject: the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies, the core subject, now the object of a preposition, is called the logical subject.(2). Predicate: A “predicate” refers to a major constituent o f sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. ., in the sentence “The monkey is jumping”, “is jumping” is the predicate.(3) Object: “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case”for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). ., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.8. CategoryThe term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.(1)Number: “Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying suchcontrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.(2)Gender: “Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and“inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).(3)Case: “Case” identifies the syntactic r elationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar,cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.(4)Agreement (or Concord): “Concord” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or morewords of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, ., “man runs”, “men run”.9. Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relationSyntagmatic relation: it is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between “weather” and the others in the following sentence “If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.”Paradigmatic relation: it is also called Associative, a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. It is also known as the vertical relation or choice relation.10. Phrase; clause and sentence.A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, falling between a clause and word, ., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we havenominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as “one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.”11. RecursivenessIt mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category. By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a c omplex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, ., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”(1)Conjoining: “Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined withanother, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”(2)Embedding: “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in thesentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, ., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.”12. Beyond the sentence(1) Sentential connection: the notion of hypotactic and paratactic relations can also be applied to the study of syntactic relations between sentences.a. “Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjuncti on, . “He bought eggs and milk.”b. “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”).(2). Cohesion:Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse of text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.Textual cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution etc.Chapter Five. Meaning1.Semantics:“Semantics” refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.2.What is meaning?Though it is difficult to define, “meaning” has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter belie ves the user refers to…linguists argued about “meaning of meaning” fiercely in the result of “realism”, “conceptualism/mentalism”, “mechanism”, “contextualism”, “behaviorism”, “functionalism”, etc. Mention ought to be made of the “Semantic Triangle Theory” of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of。
胡壮麟语言学课件
2. What is this course about?Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language and cognitionChapter 7 Language, Culture, and SocietyChapter 8 Language in useChapter 9 language and literatureChapter 10 language and computerChapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teachingChapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics1. languageDefinitionFeaturesFunctions1) Definition:Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。
）Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。
(完整版)胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案(学习必备)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案1. Design feature:are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing:pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.ernment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.municative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such aslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. Theshorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with twovalues,e.g<+human>positionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knowswhy and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late. 149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of bothfrequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting thetarget,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.。
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic.What is language“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chi nese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeabilityArbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.Functions of Language.Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain at mosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.Directive function: The “directive function” means t hat language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.”Informative function: Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) orfalse (falsehood).Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.Expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.Evocative function: The “evocative function” is the use of langua ge to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please.Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.4. What is linguistic“Linguistics” is the scie ntific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic study vs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguisti c study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(4). langue vs. paroleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared b y all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, . to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes andambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.(6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain perso n is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phoneticsis phonetics？“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant.4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated.5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.6. Narrow transcription and broad transcription.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7. Phone Phoneme AllophoneA “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hea r and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, ., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words is the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist. 8.Minimal pairsWhen two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what English phonemes are. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.9. Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”.10. Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.11. Assimilation rule.The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.12. Deletion ruleThe “deletion rule” tell us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.13. Suprasegmental phonology and suprasegmental features“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the stu dy of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.Chapter 3. MorphologyMorpheme and MorphologyThe “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship be tween expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.Types of Morphemes.free morpheme and bound morphemeA “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).(2). root; affix; stemA “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is the part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.“Affixes”is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. (prefix, suffix, infix)A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to wh ich an affix can be added.(3). Inflectional affix and derivational affix.Inflectional affixes: do not change the word class, but only added a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Derivational affixes: often change the lexical meaning and word class.Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, and derivational affixes can be prefixes (sub-, de-) or suffixes (-er, -able).3. Inflection“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.4. Word formationIn its restricted sense, refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be future sub classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type.5. Lexical change(1) lexical change proper(特有词汇变化)A. InventionB. Blending: blending is relative complex from of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.C. Abbreviation: a new word is created by cutting the final part, the initial part, or both the initial and final parts accordingly.D. Acronym: acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which have a heavily modified headword.E. Back-formation: it refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.F. Analogical creation: it can account for the co-existence of the forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.G. Borrowing:a. loanwords: the borrowing of loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some causes, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.b. loanblend: it is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.c. loanshift: it is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, and the form is native.d. loan translation: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(2). Morpho-syntactical change （形态句法变化）A. morphological change: the words have changed their formsB. syntactical change(3). Semantic change （语义变化）A. broading: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relative general one.B. narrowing: it refers to a process in which the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.C. meaning shift: the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction.D. fork etymology: it refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term on from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(4). Phological change （音位变化)Refers to changes in sound leading to change in form.a. loss（语音的脱落）b. addition （语音的增加）c. metathesis（换位）d. assimilation （同化）(5). Orthographic change （书写法变化）Chapter Four. Syntax1. Syntax.“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing t he ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2. Sentence.L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, and it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.3. Syntactic relations.“Syntactic relations” re fer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the seque ntial arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.“Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.“Relations of co-occurrence”, one means that wo rds of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations. Grammatical constructionGrammatical construction: it can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional function in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.IC analysis and immediate constituents.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing whatthey really are. What remain of the first cut is called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut is called “ultimate constituents”.Endocentric and exocentric constructions“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole; that is to say, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. Coordination and subordination.They are two main types of endocentric construction.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two of more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” ,“but” and “or”. Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. (three basic types of subordination clause: complement clause, adjunct clause, relation clause.)7. Syntactic function(1) Subject: “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.a. Grammatical subject: it refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, ., “He is a good cook, (isn’t he).”b. Logical subject: the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies, the core subject, now the object of a preposition, is called the logical subject.(2). Predicate: A “predicate” refers to a major constituent of s entence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. ., in the sentence “The monkey is jumping”, “is jumping” is the predicate.(3) Object: “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case”for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). ., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.8. CategoryThe term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.Number: “Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such cont rasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.Gender: “Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and“inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).Case: “Case” identifies the syntactic rela tionship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by fol lowing a preposition and by word order.Agreement (or Concord): “Concord” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by th e same paradigmatically marked category or categories, ., “man runs”, “men run”.9. Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relationSyntagmatic relation: it is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between “weather”and the others in the following sentence “If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.”Paradigmatic relation: it is also called Associative, a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. It is also known as the vertical relation or choice relation.10. Phrase; clause and sentence.A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subje ct-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, falling between a clause and word, ., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups an d phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.A “clause” i s group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as “one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.”11. RecursivenessIt mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category. By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a comp lex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, ., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”Conjoining: “Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”Embedding: “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, ., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.”12. Beyond the sentence(1) Sentential connection: the notion of hypotactic and paratactic relations can also be applied to the study of syntactic relations between sentences.a. “Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction,. “He bought eggs and milk.”b. “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected。
英语语言学及应用课件PPT胡壮麟史上最全面
2020/10/1
Contents
名词解释；学术流派对比评论；理论解释某语言现象 语料库语言学 、修辞学 、语用学 、认知语言学 、语言哲学 、 英汉对比语言学 、 语言学概论 语言学理论流派 流派漫谈：刘润清 认知语言学（附件） 第二语言习得（附件） 语料库语言学（附件）
2020/10/1
Or maybe the reason is in fact simple: human beings are always curious in seeking what they don’t know. Consider: What are taken for granted in our course of language use without realizing its wonder?
The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.
tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme
What is the point of departure of phonology? A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme
What is the point of departure of phonology? A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme(音位)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第10-11章
Chapter 10 Language and Computer1. 计算机语言学计算机语言学可以看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。
计算机语言包括：对语言数据的分析，建立一个序列，通过它，语言学习者可以获得各种语法规律或某一特定词项的出现频率；人工语言的电子生成和人类语言的自动识别；它也包括不同自然语言之间的自动翻译和语篇处理；人与计算机的交流。
2. CAI, CAL & CALL2.1. CAI：计算机辅助教学，就是在教学过程中使用计算机。
2.2. CAL：计算机辅助学习，强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，通过学生自己的推理和和实践，帮助学习者达到教学目标。
2.3. CALL：计算机辅助语言学习，如果说CAI,和CAL是处理一般的教和学，那么CALL是用来处理语言教学的。
它特别是指将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。
3. 机器翻译&人工翻译3.1. 定义机器翻译是指使用机器将语篇从一种自然语言翻译至另一种自然语言。
机器翻译可分为两类：不需要辅助的和需要辅助的。
3.2. 机器翻译&人工翻译在新世纪之初，很明显，机器翻译和人工翻译能够且将会相对协调地同时存在。
我们仍旧需要那些人工翻译者所作出的贡献。
当翻译不得不讲究“可发行”质量时，机器翻译和人工翻译都具有各自的作用。
对语篇翻译来说，在对输出的质量要求不高的地方，机器翻译是一种理想的解决方法。
对信息的一对一交换而言，人工翻译家可能总是会有作用的。
至于口语翻译，一定会是人工翻译者的市场。
4. 计算机语料库4.1. 语料库(corpus)A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language--- for example, to determine how the application of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.语料库是一个语言数据的集合，可以有书面文本构成，也可以由录音言语的转写本构成。
英语考研 胡壮麟版 语言学教程英语考研 Chapter 11
In a broad sense: computional linguistics, SLA, psycholiguistics,sociolingguistics,neurolinguistics
9
Focus on form: occasional attention on grammar with focusing on meaning at the same time. （聚焦于形式，形式与意义兼顾）
6
As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.
8
1.1 Grammar
Do we teach grammar?
How do we teach grammar?
As a compromise between the “purely formfocused approaches” and the “purely meaningfocused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form（Long, 1988,1991,1998) seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.
胡壮麟语言学课件
胡壮麟语言学课件chapter12（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学课件chapter11-名牌大学教授整理胡壮麟语言学chapter10（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第九章课件-名牌大学教授整理胡壮麟语言学第八章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第六章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第五章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第四章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第三章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟英语语言学教学笔记Chapter 2 （名牌大学语言学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学教程第一章课件，名牌大学英语专业课课件，概括很全面，很到位哦胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 12（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 8（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 7（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 6（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 5（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 4（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 2（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 1（名牌大学教授整理）大家论坛--英语专业考研--资料汇总--希望能对您的英语学习有帮助！！！鲜花送人，留己余香。
如果您觉得资料好，请您转发给需要的人——英语专业考研者没时间找资料的同学和朋友。
英语专业在校大学生希望获得本专业信息的人。
谢谢您！如有打扰，请包涵！更多考试经验的帖子在：大家论坛-英语专业考研版/forum-406-1.htmlQQ群大家论坛英语专业考研:221970617 ,欢迎您的加入。
高级英语第二册教材及教师用书第一册rar下载孙亦丽--大学英语精读学习精要--第一册第二册第三册pdf 下载孙辉的简明法语教程练习参考答案rar《480个最有用的法语动词》09年出版pdf下载大家论坛大学俄语阅读高分突破与技巧pdf 2005年版大家网《俄语语义:句法集成描写模式》下载【大家论坛】大学德语4（修订版）pdf--2003年版高教出版社张书良【大家论坛】传播学原理2009年版张国良《英语语言学基础》学习指南-南温洪瑞主编1999年08月版pdf基础英语真题：（北外）00-09年基础英语试题及答案详解大家论坛-英语专业考研版-真题+资料汇总/forum-406-1.html(华东师大)06年华东师大基础英语（华东师大）基础英语08-09年真题（华东师大）2007年“基础英语” 和“翻译”（华东师大）2008年“基础英语”和“翻译”（华东师大）03年基础英语（四川外语学院）09年基础英语真题（西外） 04年基础英语真题（川外） 05年基础英语真题（广外）历年基础英语考试真题（考研真题）天外07年基础英语节选（对外经贸大学）基础英语02-07年真题（对外经贸大学）09、10年基础英语考研真题（对外经贸大学）2001基础英语考研试题.pdf（南京师大）基础英语2004（南京师大）基础英语2003（南京师大）基础英语2001（大连海事大学）基础英语08-09年真题（山东师范大学）基础英语06-09年真题（外交学院）02-04年基础英语真题（华中师大） 07年基础英语真题（考研真题） 08 年中大基础英语（考研真题）09年中大基础英语（武大）2007基础英语（武大）2006基础英语法语真题：（北外）1998-2009年法语二外真题（北外）2002~2009北外法语二外真题答案)（北外）08年二外法语(北师）04年法语二外考研真题（上外）07年二外法语试题（上外）二外法语05-07年真题及答案（上外） 09 二外法语考研真题（对外经贸）09年二外法语试题（华东师大）08-09年法语二外真题（华东师大）2007年二外法语（华东师大）03-04年二外法语大家论坛-英语专业考研版-真题+资料汇总/forum-406-1.html（人民大学）02-07年法语二外真题（武汉大学）02-04年二外法语真题（大连外国语学院）2003年二外法语试题日语真题：（上海外国语大学）二外日语历年真题（北外）二外日语真题及丰富的资料！（中南大学）2006-2007年日语二外真题（南京师大）日语二外 2004（南京师大）日语二外 2001德语真题：（广外）二外德语真题（厦大）英专考研德语（二外）真题参考答案（厦大）英语专业考研德语（二外）真题北外西班牙真题：（北外）2001到2007 年西班牙语考试真题（山东师范大学）06-09年二外法语+二外日语（武汉大学）08年二外日语+法语真题（对外经贸）商英+笔译+口译+二外俄语翻译真题：（广外）英语专业历年初试真题水平+翻译与写作（武汉大学）2009综合英语汉译英真题及参考答案（南京大学）2007基础英语汉译英及参考答案文本及pdf （广外）10年写作与翻译真题（上外）01-08年英汉互译真题（外交学院）翻译真题及答案语言学方面真题：（中南大学）2006年英语语言文学与文化综合知识真题（四川外语学院）01-06年英语语言文学真题（长安大学）2007年英语语言学真题（四川外国语大学）英语专业2006年考研真题英美文学真题：（上海交通大学）07年英美文学考研真题（深圳大学）05年英美文学真题================================================= 语言学资料：英语修辞手法经济学人文本大家论坛-英语专业考研版-真题+资料汇总/forum-406-1.html英语语言学资料《英语语言学基础》学习指南-南温洪瑞主编1999年08月版pdf （华中师范大学）语言学课本教程2010版戴伟栋语言学笔记liguistics--胡壮麟超赞的笔记英美文学资料：高教版《英美文学选读》课文译文《英国文学简史》中文版英国文学主要作家作品汇总《英美文学史》之英国文学作家作品大全《美国文学简史》（上）中文版英国文学史考试要点英美文学部分作家的介绍和评论外国文学史图表版笔记整理英国文学部分作品分析英美文学超全题库十套考研英美概况练习题（含答案）翻译资料：汉语成语典故谚语与歇后语英语翻译全国68所院校英汉互译试题分析英语专业考研翻译超全面的笔记~英语专业考研各大院校题型对比分析pdf法语真题回忆版：（北师）2010年二外法语真题回忆版（广外）10年二外法语试题回忆（北京师范大学）2010年二外法语真题回忆版（南京师大） 09外院二外法语回忆大学法语简明教程笔记汇总记忆法语名词阴阳性的方法法语重要句型汇总实用法语语法 - 精讲与练习（中国宇航出版社）日语学习资料：日本语表现文型辞典(最全最实用的句型大全)日语语法及词汇练习题1500题标准日本语法笔记资料考研日语（非日语专业）资料大家论坛-英语专业考研版-真题+资料汇总/forum-406-1.html日语二外考研作文18篇93年到07年的全国日语考试日语二外需掌握的最基本词汇大家论坛-英语专业考研版-真题+资料汇总/forum-406-1.html。
胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part10
7.1.2 More about the SapirWhorf hypothesis
Strong version: The original hypothesis emphasizes the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. Weak version: The modified theory suggests that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.
7.1.3 Case studies 7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study? 7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom
7.2 Language and society
It has been widely recognized that the so-called “magic words” like “thank you” and “please” are more frequently used in an English speaking society than they will in a Chinese speaking society. One of explanations for this phenomenon may go like this: Look, these foreigners are really more polite than our countrymen. Try to use your knowledge in sociolinguistics and make some comments on this understanding of cultura culture
胡壮麟语言学教程汉语
《语言学教程》汉语解释第一章 语言的性质语言的性质语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章 语言学语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
学）等。
第三章 语音学语音学发音器官的英文名称；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；语音学的定义；发音语音学；发音语音学；听觉听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章 音位学音位学音位理论；音位理论；最小对立体；最小对立体；最小对立体；自由变异；自由变异；自由变异；互补分布；互补分布；互补分布；语音的相似性；语音的相似性；语音的相似性；区别性特征；区别性特征；区别性特征；超语段音位学；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章 词法学词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章 词汇学词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
语言学教程胡壮麟
知识创造未来
语言学教程胡壮麟
《语言学教程》是由胡壮麟教授编写的一本语言学入门教材。
这本教材系统地介绍了语言学的基本理论和分析方法。
首先，教程
从语言学的起源和发展历程着手，讲解了语言学的研究对象和方法论。
然后，教程逐步介绍了语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等语
言学的不同分支，并深入探讨了各个分支的理论框架和研究方法。
此外，教程还特别强调了语言变异和语言变迁的研究，以及语言与
社会、语言与文化之间的关系。
《语言学教程》以清晰的逻辑结构和简明易懂的语言风格著称。
它
不仅适合作为语言学专业的教材使用，也适合作为其他相关学科的
参考书。
此外，教程还包含大量的案例分析和习题，供学生巩固知
识和提高分析能力。
胡壮麟教授是中国著名的语言学家，具有丰富的教学和研究经验。
他在编写《语言学教程》时，借鉴了国内外许多经典的语言学教材，结合自己的教学体验，使得这本教材内容全面、系统、易于理解。
1。
胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part11
胡壮麟语⾔学教程课件Part11Chapter 8 Language in Use 8.1 Speech Act TheoryPerformatives and constativesA Theory of Illocutionary Act8.2 The Theory of conversational Implicature The Cooperative PrincipleViolation of the maximsCharacteristics of Implicature8.3 Post-Gricean DevelopmentRelevance TheoryThe Q-and R-PrinciplesThe Q-,I-and M-Principles8.1 Speech Act TheoryThis is the major theory in the study of language in use, which originated with J.L.Austin.8.1.1 Performatives and ConstativesAustin in his How to Do Things with Words claims that there are two types of sentences: Performatives and constatives.1)Performatives are utterances by which a speaker does something.2) Constatives are sentences by which a speaker makes a statement that may be trueor false.Felicity Conditions have to be met for performatives to be appropriate or felicitous.8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary ActIn Austin’s opinion, there are three senses in which saying something maybe understood as doing something.1) Locutionary Act: the act of producing some units of language with certain meanings.2) Illocutionary Act: the act of producing some units of language with the intention of thespeaker.3) Perlocutionary Act:the act which is performed through, by means of , a locutionaryact.8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature The second major theory of pragmatics is the theory of conversational Implicature, proposed by Paul Grice.8.2.1 The cooperative principle (CP)To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:1) Quantityi) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose ofthe exchange).ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.i) do not say that you believe to be false.ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3) RelationBe relevant4) MannerBe perspicuousi) avoid obscurity of expression.ii) avoid ambiguity.iii) be brief.iv) be orderly.The cooperative principle and its component maxims are descriptive, rather than prescriptive.8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature1) Calculability2) cancellability3) Non-detachability4) Non-conventionalityConversational Implicature is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventionalmeaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.8.3 Post-Grice Developments8.3.1 Relevance TheoryThis theory is formally proposed by Dan Sperser and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986.The principle of relevance is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q-and R-PrincipleThese two principles are developed by Laurence Horn.1) The Q-principle ( Hearer-based)2) The R-principle ( Speaker-based)8.3.3 The Q-, I-and M-principle1) Q-principle2) I-principle3) M-principleQuestions1 Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Tryto explain the illocutionary force In each of the utterance.[ the daughter walks into the kitchen and takes some popcorn]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the [violin] stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?2 If you ask somebody “can you open the door?”he answers “Yes”butdoes not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.3”The Club”is a device for blocking an automobile’s steering wheel,thus protecting the car from being stolen.And one of its ads reads:The Club! FDAnti-theft device for carsPolice Say“Use it”or Lose itin terms of the Grice’s theory, what maxim is exploited here? Find two Chinese ads of the same type.。
胡壮麟语言学课件
胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter OneInvitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study LanguageLanguageFeaturesFunctionLanguage learningfirst language leaningsecond language learning1.2 What Is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules.Arbitrary: There is no intrinsic connection between the word and its meaning.Symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.1.3 Design Features of LanguageDesign features are features that define our human language.Design Features of Language(1)Arbitrariness: the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.arbitrariness at different levels of a language1) arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2) arbitrariness at the syntactic levelapples, pears and bananaspears, apples and bananasb) He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.c) She got married and had a baby.She had a baby and got married.d) 屡战屡败屡败屡战3) arbitrariness and conventionarbitrariness→ language creativeconvention→ learnabili ty;→ learning a language laborious1.3 Design Features of Language(2)Duality: the property of having two levels of structures1) sound— secondary units2) meaning — primary units1.3 Design Features of Language(3)Creativity(productivity): Users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.1) Words can be used in new ways to mean new things.mouse bridge2) Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness （递归性）e.g. a. Smith believes that the earth is flatb. Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flatc. Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flatd. Brown believes Smith believes that Brown believes thatSmith believes that the earth is flat山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经……1.3 Design Features of Language(4)Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time or space) at the moment of communication.1.3 Design Features of Language(5)Cultural transmission: language is passed on through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe bow-wow theory汪汪理论: imitate the sounds of the animals. onomatopoeicThe pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论: instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. interjectionThe yo-he-ho theory哟嗬哟理论: rhythmic grunts produced when working . chantsOrigin of LanguageThe divine-origin theory“So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names. So the man named all the birds and the animals,…”（Genesis，Chapter11：6）The invention theorya. imitativeb. cries of naturec. grunts of men working togetherThe evolution theory1.5 Functions of Language(1)Jakobson"Linguistics and Poetics: Closing Statement"All acts of communication, be they written or oral, are contingent on six constituent elements: context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and codeEach of the constituent elements of the communicative act has a corresponding function; thus:referential，poetic，emotive，phatic, conative and metalingualcontextREFERENTIALAddresser message addresseeEMOTIVE POETIC CONA TIVEcontactPHA TICcodeMETALINGUALReferential : to convey message and informationEmotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotionsPoetic: to indulge in language for its own sakeConative: to persuade and influence others through commands and requestsPhatic: to establish communion with othersMetalingual: to clear up intentions and meanings1.5 Functions of Language(2)Halliday: three metafunctions of language:1) ide ational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons,things actions,events,states,etc.达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic.1.What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre”in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and canonly learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability(1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean thereis no logical connection between meanings andsounds.(2)Duality: The property of having two levels ofstructures (phonological and grammatical), units ofthe primary level being composed of elements ofthe secondary level and each level having its ownprinciples of organization.(3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to theability to construct and understand an indefinitelylarge number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.(4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of thedesign features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.Language itself can be talked about too.(5)Cultural transmission: This means that language isnot biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means thatany human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.3.Functions of Language.Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.(1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers tolanguage being used for setting up a certainatmosphere or maintaining social contacts (ratherthan for exchanging information or ideas).Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weatherin English and on clothing in Chinese all serve thisfunction.(2)Directive function: The “directive function”means that language may be used to get the hearerto do something. Most imperative sentencesperform this function, e. g., “Tell me the resultwhen you finish.”(3)Informative function: Language serves an“informational function” when used to tellsomething, characterized by the use of declarativesentences. Informative statements are often labeledas true (truth) or false (falsehood).(4)Interrogative function: When language is used toobtain information, it serves an “interrogativefunction”. Th is includes all questions that expectreplies, statements, imperatives etc.(5)Expressive function: The “expressive function”is the use of language to reveal something aboutthe feelings or attitudes of the speaker.(6)Evocative function: The “evocative function” isthe use of language to create certain feelings in thehearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle,antagonize, soothe, worry or please.(7)Per formative function: This means people speak to“do things” or perform actions.4. What is linguistic?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages areconstructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic studyvs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speechvs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds:individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptivevs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(4). langue vs. paroleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract lingui stic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parolespecific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does notalways match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.(6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phonetics1.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches ofphonetics.(1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, lo oking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant.4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated.5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.6. Narrow transcription and broad transcription.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7. Phone Phoneme AllophoneA “phone” is a phonetic unit or segm ent. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily ma king possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i.e., the different (i.e., phones) b ut do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words is the allophones of the samephoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.8.Minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wo rds together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what English phonemes are. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.9. Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do notcontrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”.plementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.11. Assimilation rule.The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. 12. Deletion ruleThe “deletion rule” tell us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.13. Suprasegmental phonology and suprasegmental features“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.Chapter 3. Morphology1.Morpheme and MorphologyThe “morpheme” is the smal lest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.2.Types of Morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morphemeA “free morpheme” is a morpheme that con stitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at leastanother morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).(2). root; affix; stemA “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.It is the part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.“Affixes” is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. (prefix, suffix, infix)A “stem” is any morphe me or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.(3). Inflectional affix and derivational affix. Inflectional affixes: do not change the word class, but only added a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Derivational affixes: often change the lexical meaning and word class.Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, and derivational affixes can be prefixes (sub-, de-) or suffixes (-er, -able). 3. Inflection“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.4. Word formationIn its restricted sense, refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be futuresub classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type.5. Lexical change(1) lexical change proper(特有词汇变化)A. InventionB. Blending: blending is relative complex from of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of thesecond word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.C. Abbreviation: a new word is created by cutting the final part, the initial part, or both the initial and final parts accordingly.D. Acronym: acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which have a heavily modified headword.E. Back-formation: it refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.F. Analogical creation: it can account for the co-existence of the forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.G. Borrowing:a. loanwords: the borrowing of loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some causes, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.b. loanblend: it is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.c. loanshift: it is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, and the form is native.d. loan translation: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(2). Morpho-syntactical change （形态句法变化）A. morphological change: the words have changed their formsB. syntactical change(3). Semantic change （语义变化）A. broading: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relative general one.B. narrowing: it refers to a process in which the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.C. meaning shift: the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction.D. fork etymology: it refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term on from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(4). Phological change （音位变化)Refers to changes in sound leading to change in form.a. loss（语音的脱落）b. addition （语音的增加）c. metathesis（换位）d. assimilation （同化）(5). Orthographic change （书写法变化）Chapter Four. Syntax1. Syntax.“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2. Sentence.L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated toa larger linguistic form, and it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.3. Syntactic relations.“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.a.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refersto the sequential arrangement to words in alanguage. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect ofwhat F. de Saussure called “syntagmaticrelations”, or of what other linguists call“horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.b.“Relations of substitutability” refer to classes orsets of words substitutable for each othergrammatically in same sentence structures. Saussurecalled them “associative relations”. Other peoplecall them “paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.c.“Relations of co-occurrence”, one means thatwords of different sets of clauses may permit orrequire the occurrence of a word of another set orclass to form a sentence or a particular part of asentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partlybelong to syntagmatic relations and partly toparadigmatic relations.3.Grammatical constructionGrammatical construction: it can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional function in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.4.IC analysis and immediate constituents.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut is called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut is called “ultimate constituents”.5.Endocentric and exocentric constructions “Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole; that is to say, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.6.Coordination and subordination.They are two main types of endocentric construction. Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two ofmore categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” ,“but” and “or”. Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. (three basic types of subordination clause: complement clause, adjunct clause, relation clause.)7. Syntactic function(1) Subject: “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.a. Grammatical subject: it refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, e.g., “He is a good cook, (isn’t he?).”b. Logical subject: the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies, the core subject, now theobject of a preposition, is called the logical subject. (2). Predicate: A “predicate” refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. e.g., in the sentence “The monkey is jumping”, “is jumping” is the predicate.(3) Object: “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case” for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns).e.g., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.8. CategoryThe term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb,subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.(1)Number: “Number” is a grammatical category usedfor the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs. (2)Gender: “Gender” displays such contrasts as“masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and “inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).(3)Case: “Case” identifies the syntactic relationshipbetween words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms ofthe word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English, the c ase category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.(4)Agreement (or Concord): “Concord” may bedefined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”.9. Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation Syntagmatic relation: it is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between “weather” and the others in the following sentence “If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.”Paradigmatic relation: it is also called Associative, a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one elementpresent and the others absent. It is also known as the vertical relation or choice relation.10. Phrase; clause and sentence.A “phrase” is a single element of structure con taining more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, falling between a clause and word, e.g., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as “one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.”11. RecursivenessIt mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category. By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”(1)Conjoining: “Conjoining” refers to a constructionwhere one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”(2)Embedding:“Embedding” refers to the process ofconstruction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination,e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.”。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
The process of syllabus design
The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language item.
select ing
The restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register(语域). The selection from within the register of the items that are to be taught according to criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learn ability and classroom needs.
Grading
Arrange the items into blocks of the right size for years ,terms, months ,weeks, days and classes of the teaching course. Sequence which the items in the blocks are to be taught.
Syllabus design is a bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice.
What is a Curriculum ? 课程计划
Stern(1983) (1)It refers to the substance of a programme of studies of an educational institution or system. School, university, china education (2)The course of study or content in a particular subject .一个特定学科内容的学习。 Mathematics Curriculum, history curriculum
Rodgers (1989)
Curriculum and syllabus
A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom ,which usually contains suggestions of methodology. However, curriculum ,provides (1)general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching (2)detailed specification of aims ,objectives and targets learning purpose (3)implementation of a program. In some sense，a syllabus is part of a curriculum.
Байду номын сангаас
objectives
★ ★ ★ ★
Syllabus design Curriculum and syllabus The process of syllabus design The importance of Linguistics in syllabus design
Syllabus design
Nunan(1988)
Syllabus is more localized and is based on the accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and students apply a curriculum to their situation.
The importance of Linguistics in syllabus design
（1）linguistics provides both the description of a L2 and an understanding of how the components make up the language system. (2) In the planning of a teaching program. all aspects of language that need to be taught.