北大MBA会计学案例库
北大MBA西方经济学案例til
出）
=买者评价 – 卖者付出
如何衡量市场效率？总剩余最大！ 当一个经济的总剩余达到最大，就是有资源 配置效率的。 什么时候总剩余最大？
❖闲暇 ❖家庭生产 ❖地下经济(因偷税而未统计的部分以及非法经济活动）
GDP中的一些项目损害了福利，破坏环境 GDP中有些项目无益于社会福利，如军工产品 GDP没有反映收入分配 但是，总体而言，GDP是一个好指标。
GDP恒等式 GDP ＝ 消费（C） ＋投资（I ）＋政府购买 支出（G） ＋进出口净额（X-M）
信贷
贷款利率8％，但 有一部分款收不 回？
大部分投资项目 利润率不高。
应不应该提高利 率？
信息不对称的后果
❖ 逆向选择——交易双方中拥有更多信息的一方利用 信息优势作出不利于对方的决策，这种决策足以消除 交易。
柠檬市场——二手车的例子 ❖ 道德危险——交易双方中拥有信息优势的一方利用
对方的不知情在达成交易后改变行为，例如采取不诚 实行为，损害对方利益。
纸厂与鱼塘的交易
排污 部分净化 彻底净化
纸厂的利润 100
40
10
鱼塘的利润 40
140
150
总利润 140
180
160
科斯定理的要点： ▪ 产权界定 ▪ 私人协商 ▪ 交易成本 牛与大象的例子 科斯定理的缺陷：私人解决方法并不总是有效
原因：交易成本可能比较大
针对外部性的公共政策
管制 征税与补贴
北大MBA会计学案例库
北大MBA会计学案例库成本与市价孰低法某公司采用成本与市价孰低发对短期投资进行计价。
该公司1992年12月31日短期投资余额未400，000元，证券跌价准备余额未20，000元。
1991年12月31日短期投资种类及相关资料如下：成本市价证券跌价准备A公司股票200,000.00190,000.0010,000.00B公司股票100,000.0090,000.0010,000.00C公司股票200,000.00204,000.000.00合计500,000.0020,000.00???1992年B公司股票以91,000元售出，售家和按市价调整后的账面数之差被计入"证券出售利得"。
1992年12月31日的市价情况如下：市价 A公司 199,000.00???C公司 205,000.00问题：???（1）该公司运用成本与市价孰低法对短期投资计价，是以单个证券为基础还是以总价为基础？???（2）运用成本与市价孰低法的主要理论基础是什么？该公司运用这一规则合理吗？???（3）该公司对出售C公司股票的会计处理正确吗？???（4）该公司于1992年12月31日还需要做什么分录，以反映有价证券市价的变化？阳澄湖公司以下是阳澄湖公司1996年发生的部分经济业务：??? （1）因为火灾物品贱卖（fire sale ），价值140，000元的设备以110，000元的价格购入。
所作分录为：??? 借：机器设备140，000?????? 贷：现金110，000???????? 收入30，000??? （2）预计销售价格减去估计的销售成本（销售费用）后，成本为380，000元的商品存货在资产负债表中确认的金额为460，000元。
记录商品存货增值的会计分录是：??? 借：商品存货80，000?????? 贷：收入80，000（3）公司总裁使用他自己的钱购买小帆船自用，所作会计分录如下：??? 借：杂项费用80，000?????? 贷：收入80，000??? （4）1996年度房屋折旧为23，000元，因为房屋市价上涨过大，所以年底所作的计提折旧分录为：???借：留存收益23，000?????? 贷：累计折旧--房屋23，000（5）以股票换入设备，股票总面值为70，000元，公平市价为300，000元，设备的公平市价不详，交换时所作的会计分录是：??? 借：机器设备：70，000?????? 贷：股本70，000（6）收到顾客的购货定单，购买本公司商品16，000元。
北大MBA案例-危机管理案例
雀巢公司：婴儿奶粉危机的经验与教训哈佛案例的尖峰时刻重现雀巢??中国普通消费者认识雀巢是从那句家喻户晓的广告语--"味道好极了"开始的，而作为营销界内的人士，全面研究雀巢却是从作为哈佛危机管理的反面经典案例开始的。
?? 1973年8月，在英国的《新国际主义者》上发布的一份报告中称，"据统计资料表明，只有2％的母亲由于生理原因不能哺育和只有不到6％的母亲是因为不在家而不能哺育。
这些食品公司为了商业利益而片面宣传其产品的母乳的替代作用，发展中国家由于相信了这些宣传，每年有1000万婴儿因非母乳喂养而带来营养不良、疾病或死亡"。
由此拉开了一场最初由慈善和宗教团体发起、耗时长达十年之久的抵制雀巢产品的世界性运动。
反应最为激烈的是美国市场，这场抵制运动高举"维护母乳喂养"的大旗，指责以雀巢公司为代表的世界食品工业企业如何不负责任地在发展中国家大量销售其婴儿食品，反对雀巢公司等公司在这些国家倾销婴儿牛奶。
??近三十年后的今年5月，又一类似的危机尖峰时刻重现雀巢。
据5月9日的媒体报道，2002年5月8日，美国环境安全研究所向加州地方法院指控多家巧克力生产商(好时食品公司、马氏公司、雀巢公司(Nestle)美国分公司、卡夫(Kraft)食品公司北美分公司、洛基山(Rocky Mountain)巧克力公司和西伊氏(See＇s)糖果公司)没有依照法律要求向消费者公布其产品中铅等有害于人体健康的金属物质的含量。
该组织在向洛杉矶高级法院递交的一份诉状中说，现有研究结果显示，在加州销售的巧克力制品中含有铅和镉，且这类金属的含量足以对人体健康、尤其是儿童健康构成"严重威胁"。
??从中不难看出两者何其相似，同样将靶标瞄准招风的大树，同样以儿童健康为理由，对雀巢而言，几乎是同样性质的危机时刻。
不过上一次雀巢耗时十年摆平，这一次呢？闪电出击，除患于清萍之末??在婴儿奶粉事件的开始阶段中，雀巢在舆论开始兴起并逐步发展过程中，其决策者对媒体采取了对抗的方式，将作者告上法庭，这场官司结果，被告因没有足够的证据支撑其"雀巢公司是婴儿杀手"的观点而败诉，但法官在宣布雀巢公司的产品事实上可以信赖时，却加上了一句评论，"如果公司想避免再受到道德和法律上的指控，必须改变产品推广程序"。
2024年mba入学面试实战案例之北京大学
MBＡ入学面试实战案例之北京大学1.中文面试 （1)面试前２０分钟，进行资格审查(在MＢA办公室），包括身份证、学历学位证书、面试通知书、报名记录表，同等学历报考者需提供大学四级英语证书(要求原件）。
（2)审查合格后,到大教室填写记录表，包括姓名、考号、报考类别、经费起源等,并填写两个信封:邮寄录用通知书及政审通知。
(3）填写完成后，统一看案例１0分钟，案例为３页A4纸，字数约为3００0～35０0字。
（４)工作人员点名分组,每组6～7人,由工作人员带到对应面试教室（５）面试官一般由４人组成,但也有６人的。
由面试官宣布面试流程：每人1~2分钟个人自述,然后计时案例讨论,时间为30分钟，最后进行英语口语面试。
(6）个人自述时,如遇有人超时,但考官没有打断,阐明考官比较随和。
（７)小组讨论结束后，不一定要进行总结。
（8）讨论结束后,考官有也许就案例问询问题，并指定某人回答。
每组６～7人。
2．英文面试（1）中文面试结束后,由一位考官对每位同学问一个问题。
（2）问题内容多包括：来自哪里？工作情况?个人兴趣?性格特点？毕业院校?专业？企业简介? （３）问题较简单,且考官有时在你听不懂时，再用中文问一次，态度随和。
５.2.2 经验手稿 (1)同一个时间段的考友被集中到一个大教室，约60人左右，按照事先随机分到的号组成10个6人小组。
老师发给面试材料,10分钟内浏览完成。
（2）老师率领一个面试小组进入面试教室。
因为浏览案例的大教室到面试教室往往有一段距离，因此路上尚有2分钟左右的思考和交流的时间。
在进入面试教室之前,需要确定各自的角色。
(３）进入面试教室，问好后就座。
依次向面试老师做每人1分钟左右的面试陈述。
从入座到简介完成共６～10分钟。
(4）开始讨论案例。
前15分钟自由发言;到15~２0分钟的时候,Leader要协助大家的讨论聚焦在一个方向上；大家就这个方向进行讨论，分析原因,论述现象等等,提出数个处理方案，约10~１５分钟;Leadｅr总结大家提出的处理方案,讨论选择一个最佳的方案，约5～10分钟;整个讨论的过程控制在４０～45分钟。
北大MBA原文案例库汇编(5个doc文档)5
北大MBA原文案例库汇编(5个doc文档)5北大MBA管理学案例库比特丽公司的分权管理比特丽公司是美国一家大型联合公司，总部设在芝加哥，下属有450个分公司，经营着9干多种产品，其中许多产品-如克拉克棒糖，乔氏中国食品等，都是名牌产品。
公司每年的销售额达90多亿美元。
多年来，比特丽公司都采用购买其他公司来发展自己的积极进取战略，因而取得了迅速的发展。
公司的传统做法是：每当购买一家公司或厂家以后，一般都保持其原来的产品，使其成为联合公司一个新产品的市场；另一方面是对下属各分公司都采用分权的形式。
允许新购买的分公司或工厂保持其原来的生产管理结构，这些都不受联合公司的限制和约束。
由于实行了这种战略，公司变成由许多没有统一目标，彼此又没有什么联系的分公司组成的联合公司。
1976年，负责这个发展战略的董事长退休以后，你--德姆就是在这种情况下被任命为董事长。
新董事长德姆的意图是要使公司朝着他新制定的方向发展。
根据他新制定的战略，德姆卖掉了下属56个分公司，但同时又买下了西北饮料工业公司。
据德姆的说法，公司除了面临发展方向方面的问题外，还面临着另外两个主要问题：一个是下属各分公司都面临着向社会介绍并推销新产品的问题，为了刺激各分公司的工作，德姆决定采用奖金制，对下属干得出色的分公司经理每年奖励1万美元。
但是，对于这些收入远远超过l万元的分公司经理人员来说，1万元奖金恐怕起不了多大的刺激作用。
另一个面临的更严重的问题是，在维持原来的分权制度下，应如何提高对增派参谋人员必要性的认识，应如何发挥直线与参谋人员的作用问题。
德姆决定要给下属每个部门增派参谋人员，以更好地帮助各个小组开展工作。
但是，有些管理人员则认为只增派参谋人员是不够的，有的人则认为，没有必要增派参谋人员，可以采用单一联络人联系几个单位的方法，即集权管理的方法。
公司专门设有一个财务部门，但是这个财务部门根本就无法控制这么多分公司的财务活动，因此造成联合公司总部甚至无法了解并掌握下属部门支付支票的情况等等。
北大MBA管理学案例库(8)
北大MBA管理学案例库（8）目标管理某机床厂从1981年开始推行目标管理：为了充分发挥各职能部门的作用，充分调动一千多名职能部门人员的积极性，该厂首先对厂部和科室实施了目标管理。
经过一段时间的试点后，逐步推广到全厂各车间、工段和班组。
多年的实践表明，目标管理改善了企业经营管理，挖掘了企业内部潜力，增强了企业的应变能力，提高了企业素质，取得了较好的经济效益。
按照目标管理的原则，该厂把目标管理分为三个阶段进行。
第一阶段：目标制订阶段1．总目标的制订。
该厂通过对国内外市场机床需求的调查，结合长远规划的要求，并根据企业的具体生产能力，提出了19××年”三提高”、”三突破”的总方针。
所谓”三提高”，就是提高经济效益、提高管理水平和提高竞争能力；”三突破”是指在新产品数目、创汇和增收节支方面要有较大的突破。
在此基础上，该厂把总方针具体比、数量化，初步制订出总目标方案，并发动全厂员工反复讨论、不断补充，送职工代表大会研究通过，正式制定出全厂19××年的总目标。
2．部门目标的制订。
企业总目标由厂长向全厂宣布后，全厂就对总目标进行层层分解，层层落实。
各部门的分目标由各部门和厂企业管理委员会共同商定，先确定项目，再制订各项目的指标标准：其制订依据是厂总目标和有关部门负责拟定、经厂部批准下达的各项计划任务，原则是各部门的工作目标值只能高于总目标中的定量目标值，同时，为了集中精力抓好目标的完成，目标的数量不可太多。
为此，各部门的目标分为必考目标和参考目标两种。
必考目标包括厂部明确下达目标和部门主要的经济技术指标；参考目标包括部门的日常工作目标或主要协作项目：其中必考目标一般控制在2-4项，参考目标项目可以多一些。
目标完成标准由各部门以目标卡片的形式填报厂部，通过协调和讨论最后由厂部批准。
3．目标。
北大MBA财务管理分析案例库(003)
北大MBA财务管理分析案例库(003)北大MBA会计学案例库成本与市价孰低法某公司采用成本与市价孰低发对短期投资进行计价。
该公司1992年12月31日短期投资余额未400，000元，证券跌价准备余额未20，000元。
1991年12月31日短期投资种类及相关资料如下：成本市价证券跌价准备A公司股票200,000.00190,000.0010,000.00B公司股票100,000.0090,000.0010,000.00C公司股票200,000.00204,000.000.00合计500,000.0020,000.001992年B公司股票以91,000元售出，售家和按市价调整后的账面数之差被计入"证券出售利得"。
1992年12月31日的市价情况如下：市价 A公司 199,000.00C公司 205,000.00问题：（1）该公司运用成本与市价孰低法对短期投资计价，是以单个证券为基础还是以总价为基础？（2）运用成本与市价孰低法的主要理论基础是什么？该公司运用这一规则合理吗？（3）该公司对出售C公司股票的会计处理正确吗？（4）该公司于1992年12月31日还需要做什么分录，以反映有价证券市价的变化？阳澄湖公司以下是阳澄湖公司1996年发生的部分经济业务：（1）因为火灾物品贱卖（fire sale ），价值140，000元的设备以110，000元的价格购入。
所作分录为：借：机器设备140，000贷：现金110，000收入30，000（2）预计销售价格减去估计的销售成本（销售费用）后，成本为380，000元的商品存货在资产负债表中确认的金额为460，000元。
记录商品存货增值的会计分录是：借：商品存货80，000贷：收入80，000（3）公司总裁使用他自己的钱购买小帆船自用，所作会计分录如下：借：杂项费用80，000贷：收入80，000（4）1996年度房屋折旧为23，000元，因为房屋市价上涨过大，所以年底所作的计提折旧分录为：借：留存收益23，000贷：累计折旧--房屋23，000（5）以股票换入设备，股票总面值为70，000元，公平市价为300，000元，设备的公平市价不详，交换时所作的会计分录是：借：机器设备：70，000贷：股本70，000（6）收到顾客的购货定单，购买本公司商品16，000元。
北大mba案例之物流管理篇
物流管理案例WDM≈沃尔玛+戴尔+麦当劳仅仅在2003年刚刚过去一半的时间里，IT零售卖场领域相继有百脑汇郑州店、赛博青岛店、赛博昆明店、阿波罗、赛博中关村店等因经营不善、选址失利等原因，或败走麦城、歇业整顿，或撤出商圈、另谋新址。
据中关村的一位电脑卖场老总向记者透露，北京多数电脑卖场的亏损都在百万以上。
然而，就在不久前，英特尔和爱普生全球总裁、惠普家用电脑事业部总裁却频频光顾一家位于南京的IT超级卖场，着实让这家IT产品零售商受宠若惊。
事实上，这家IT卖场企业目前已成为国内独家经营企业面积最大、独家经营品种最大的IT专业零售连锁企业。
这家名为“宏图三胞”的大经销商，其实早已在华东地区的IT 渠道中声名雀起，而其迅速崛起的最大卖点就是由其总裁袁亚非创立并应用到IT终端零售经营中的“WDM”营销模式，即融合了沃尔玛(Walmart)的规模采购平价销售模式、戴尔(Dell)电脑的定制生产和直销模式，以及麦当劳(McDonlad＇s)的标准化服务于一体的专业连锁经营模式。
“WDM”能实现1+1+1>3吗？2001年，当袁亚非在深圳第一次体验沃尔玛的时候，他被这种新型超市的繁荣场面震惊了。
“齐刷刷的三十几个收银通道排的全是人，当时我就奇怪了：它卖的多是中国货，国内哪个商场没有？凭什么就能卖成这个样子？”怀着这样的疑问，他当时就买了一本《富甲天下》(沃尔玛创始人的自传)，回去以后就慢慢研究。
研究它的物流中心、配送中心、全球采购、快速反应机制、高效运输等，并设想着“什么时候卖电脑也能通过这种方式卖成这个样子”。
其时，袁亚非已在做着电脑销售的生意，但总是做不大。
后来他明白了为什么电脑销售一条街的销售总是做不大，原因之一就是对人的依赖性太强了，“你看珠江路的sales，既懂得市场又要懂技术还要知道货源……这样一天做下来相当的累，做不了几个单子不说，还难保服务质量。
”于是他想到了连锁经营。
然而实现连锁经营需要雄厚的资金支持和完善的物流、信息管理系统以及专业的管理团队来支持，并不是你想选择什么模式就能做什么模式的，在人们都争着去抢食“连锁经营”这块香喷喷的“汉堡包”的时候，你能否把它咽下去好好消化显然是一个问题。
最新4北大mba学案例库汇总
4北大M B A管理学案例库北大MBA管理学案例库比特丽公司的分权管理比特丽公司是美国一家大型联合公司，总部设在芝加哥，下属有450个分公司，经营着9干多种产品，其中许多产品-如克拉克棒糖，乔氏中国食品等，都是名牌产品。
公司每年的销售额达90多亿美元。
多年来，比特丽公司都采用购买其他公司来发展自己的积极进取战略，因而取得了迅速的发展。
公司的传统做法是：每当购买一家公司或厂家以后，一般都保持其原来的产品，使其成为联合公司一个新产品的市场；另一方面是对下属各分公司都采用分权的形式。
允许新购买的分公司或工厂保持其原来的生产管理结构，这些都不受联合公司的限制和约束。
由于实行了这种战略，公司变成由许多没有统一目标，彼此又没有什么联系的分公司组成的联合公司。
1976年，负责这个发展战略的董事长退休以后，你--德姆就是在这种情况下被任命为董事长。
新董事长德姆的意图是要使公司朝着他新制定的方向发展。
根据他新制定的战略，德姆卖掉了下属56个分公司，但同时又买下了西北饮料工业公司。
据德姆的说法，公司除了面临发展方向方面的问题外，还面临着另外两个主要问题：一个是下属各分公司都面临着向社会介绍并推销新产品的问题，为了刺激各分公司的工作，德姆决定采用奖金制，对下属干得出色的分公司经理每年奖励1万美元。
但是，对于这些收入远远超过l万元的分公司经理人员来说，1万元奖金恐怕起不了多大的刺激作用。
另一个面临的更严重的问题是，在维持原来的分权制度下，应如何提高对增派参谋人员必要性的认识，应如何发挥直线与参谋人员的作用问题。
德姆决定要给下属每个部门增派参谋人员，以更好地帮助各个小组开展工作。
但是，有些管理人员则认为只增派参谋人员是不够的，有的人则认为，没有必要增派参谋人员，可以采用单一联络人联系几个单位的方法，即集权管理的方法。
公司专门设有一个财务部门，但是这个财务部门根本就无法控制这么多分公司的财务活动，因此造成联合公司总部甚至无法了解并掌握下属部门支付支票的情况等等。
北大MBA精选案例技术创新案例
北大MBA精选案例技术创新案例60年代初着手制定经济开发打算时，韩国政府认为有必要制造一批能够灵活运用丰富而廉价劳动力的出口产业，并从先行进展中国家的情形着眼，认定纤维产业比较合适。
此后，纤维工业得到了积极的扶植和进展，它不仅为非熟练的劳动者提供了就业机会，而且也为工业进展所必需的外汇的猎取作出了极大的奉献。
纤维产业的成长促进了合成纤维的产生。
60年代末，三种要紧合成纤维--尼龙、聚酯纤维、丙烯纤维--全部都投入了生产，结果，韩国一跃而成为了世界市场上要紧的纤维出口国家。
尽管这种趋势一直连续到70年代初，然而，由于国内经济的迅速进展和国内劳动力的相对减少，以及东南亚等后续新兴工业国的猛烈追赶，韩国确信国内的纤维工业最终将在国际上丧失自己的比较优势。
因此在第三个经济开发五年打算中，韩国开始努力摆脱劳动密集型产业，谋求向技术密集型产业的转移。
另外，世界上的聚酯产业在连续进展，进人70年代后，它的生产量自合成纤维开始生产以来首次超过了尼龙的生产量；这一点，韩国也不例外。
70年代初，韩国的聚酯生产量40000M／T，是世界排名第13位的生产大国。
然而产量的增加和发达国家进口限制的逐步强化，使企业的经营战略也发生了重大的变化。
企业开始慎重地研究纤维制品系列的多样化代产品的开发。
聚酯作为高分子聚合物是一种可用于生产纤维、薄膜、粘合剂等产品的用途广泛的化合物。
关于聚酯的研究已有较长的历史。
在学术界及企业研究所里，关于聚酯的分子结构、化学分析、物理的及机械的性质，以及用途的开发等各项研究都在活跃地进行着。
当今称霸于产业用聚酯薄膜市场的产品是芳香族聚酯--聚乙烯对苯二酸所制成的薄膜，通常称这种PET 薄膜为聚酯薄膜。
PET薄膜的特性是，它有专门强的韧性、柔软性、低吸湿性、低透气性，对化学药品的高抗腐性及良好的绝缘性，同时，它还能够轻易地制成多种不同的厚度。
由于PET薄膜具有如此杰出的特性，因此，它的用途也是多样的，它现在已用作包装材料、装饰纱、电池绝缘体、工业用皮带、磁带、卫生器具等。
北大MBA原文案例库DOC
How Financial Firms Decide on Technology,介绍国际大银行在决定对信息技术投资时的考虑要点和他们具体的实施过程;How Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyAbstractThe financial services industry is the major investor in information technologyIT in the . economy; the typical bank spends as much as 15% of non-intereste expenses on IT. A persistent finding of research into the performance of financial institutions is that performance and efficiency vary widely across institutions. Nowhere is this variability more visible than in the outcomes of the IT investment decisions in these institutions. This paper presents the results of an empirical investigation of IT investment decision processes in the banking industry. The purpose of this investigation is to uncover what, if anything, can be learned from the IT investment practices of banks that would help in understanding the cause of this variability in performance along with pointing toward management practices that lead to better investment decisions. Using PC banking and the development of corporate Internet sites as the case studies for this investigation, the paper reports on detailed field-based surveys of investment practices in several leading institutionsHow Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyPart One信息技术对金融服务业的影响正在增加,不仅仅表现在银行的15%无息开支上,而且对金融服务业的运做和战略也有很强的影响;一个对金融机构的长期研究表明,不同的机构的效率和表现也不同;其决定的因素有以下一些其中的一个因素就是对投资的决定和管理;SBS是一个失败的例子,但是成功的公司也不少;本文注重解答以下的问题：１.银行对ＩＴ投资的评估和管理过程２.在对ＩＴ的管理过程中,理论和实际操作的结合如何３.ＩＴ投资的管理和银行性能的关系如何IntroductionInformation technologyIT is increasingly critical to the operations of financial services firms. Today banks spend as much as 15% ofnon-interest expense on information technology. It is estimated that the industry will spend at least $ billion on IT in 1998, and financial institutions collectively account for the majority of IT investment in the . economy. In additon to being a large component of the cost structure, information technology has a strong influence on financial firms operatons and strategy. Few financial products and services exist that do not utilize computers at some point in the delivery process, and a firms'information systems place strong constraints on the type of products offered, the degree of customization possible and the speed at which firms can respond to competitive opportunities or threats.A persistent finding of research into the performance of financial institutions is that performance and efficiency varies widely across institutions, even after controlling for factors such as sizescale, product breadthscope, branching behavior and organizational form. stock versus mutual for insurers; banks versus saving & loans. Given the central role that technology plays in these institutions, at least some of this variation is likely to be due to variations in the use and effectiveness of IT investments. While some authors have argued that the value of IT investment has been insignificant, particularly in services, recent empirical work has suggested that IT investment, on average, is a productive investment. Perhaps more importantly, there appears to be substantial variation across firms; some firms have very high investments but are poor performers, while otheres invest less but appear to be much more successful. Brynjolfsson and Hitt found that as much as half the returns to IT investment are due to firm specific factors.One potentially important driver of differences in IT value, and of firm performance more broadly, is likely to be the decision and management peocessed for IT investments. Horror stories of bad IT investment decisions abound. Consider the example of the new strategic banking systemSBS at Banc OneAmerican Banker 1997. Banc One Corp. and Electronic Data Systems Corp. agreed last year to end their joint development of this retail banking system after spending an estimated $175 million on it. As stated in the American Banker article, SBS"was just so overwhelming andso complete that by the time they were getting to market, it was going to take too long to install the whole thing," said Alan Riegler, principal in Ernst & Young's financial services management consulting division. However, not all the stories are negative. New IT systems are playing a vital role in reshaping the delivery of financial services. For example, new computer-telephony integrationCTI technologies are transforming call center operations in financial institutions. By investing in technology, more and more institutions are moving operations from high-cost branch operations to the telephone channel,where the cost per transaction is one-tenth the cost of a teller interaction. This IT investment not only reduces the cost of serving existing customers, but also extends the reach of the institution beyond its traditional geographic boundaries.In this paper, we utilize detailed case studies of six retail banks to investigate several interrelated questions:１.What processes do banks utilize to evaluate and manage IT investments ２.How well do actual practices align with theoretical arguments about how ITinvestments shouldbe managed３.What impact does that management of IT investments have on performance How Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyPart TwoFor the first question, we develop a structured framework for cataloging IT investment practices and then populate this framework using a combination of surveys and semi-structured interviews. We then compare the results of this exercise with a synthesis of the literature on IT decision making to understanding how practices vary across firms and the extent to which this is consistent with "best practices" as described in previous literature. Finally, we will compare these processes to internal and external performance metrics to better understand which sets of practices appear to be most effective.To make these comparisons concrete, we examine both the general decision process as well as the specific processes used for two recent IT investment decisions :the adoption of computer-based home banking PC banking, and the development of the corporate web site. These decisions were chosen because they were recent and are related but provide some contrast; in particular, PC banking is a fairly well defined product innovation, while the corporate web presence is more of an infrastructure investment which is less well-defined in terms of objectives and business ownership.Overall, we find that while some aspects of the decision process are fairly similar across institutions and often conform to "best practice" as defined by previous literature, there are several areas where there is large variation in practice among the banks and between actual and theoretical best practice. Most banks have a strong and standardized project management for ongoing systems projects, and formal structures for insuring that line-managers and systems people are in contact at the initiation of technology projects. At the same time, many banks have relatively weak processesboth formal and informal for identifying new IT investment opportunities, allocating resources across organizational lines, and funding exploratory or infrastructure projects with long term or uncertain payoffs.The reminder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the previous literature on performance of financial institutions and the effects of IT on performance. Section 3 describes the methods and data. Section 4 describes the current academic thinking on various components of the decision process and compares that to actual practices at the banks we visited. Section 5 describes the results of our in-depth study of PC banking projects and the summary, Section 6 contains a similar analysis for the Corporate Web Site and discussion and conclusion appear in Section 7.How Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyPart ThreePrevious LiteraturePerformance of Financial InstitutionsThere have been a number of studies that have examined the efficiency of the banking industry and the role of various factors such as corporate control structure type of board, directors, insider stock holdings, etc., economies of scale size, economies of scope product breadth, and branching strategy; see Berger, Kashyup and Scalise 1995 and Harker and Zenios forthcoming for a review of the banking efficiency literature. While there is substantial debate as to the role of these various factors, there is one unambiguous result: that most of the in efficiency of banks is not explained by the factors that have been considered in prior work. For example, Berger and Mester 1997 estimate that as much as 65-90% of thex-inefficiency remains unexplained after controlling for known drivers of performance. A similar story also appears in insurance where "x-efficiency" varies substantially across firms when size, scope, product mix, distribution strategy and other strategic variables are considered. It has been argued that one must get "inside the black box" of the bank ot consider the role of organizational, strategic and technological factors that may be missed in studies that rely heavily on public financial data.Information Technology and Business ValueEarly studies of the relationship between IT and productivity or other measures of performance were generally unable to determine the value of IT conclusively. Loveman 1994 and Strassmann 1990 ,using different data and analytical methods both found that the performance effects of computers were not statistically significant. Barus, Kriebel and Mukadopadhyay 1995, using the same data as Loveman, found evidence that IT improved some internal performance metrics such as inventory trunover, but could not tie these benefits to improvements in bottom line productivity. Although these studies had a number of disadvantages small samples, noisy data which yielded imprecise measures of IT effects, this lack of evidence combined with equally equivocal macroeconomic ananlyses by Steven Roach 1987 implicitly formed the basis for the "productivity paradox". As Robert Solow 1987 once remarked, "you can see teh computer age everywhere except in the productivity statistics."More recent work has found that IT investment is a substantial contributor to firm productivity, productivity growth and stock market valuation in a sample that contains a wide range of industries. Brynjolfsson and Hitt 1994,1996 and Lichtenberg 1995 found that IT investment had a positive and statistically significant contribution to firm output . Brynjolfsson and Yang 1997 found that the market valuation of IT capital was several times that of ordinary capital. Brynjolfsson and Hitt also found a strong relationship between IT and productivity growth and taht this relationship grows stronger as longer time periods are considered. Collectively ,these studies suggest that there is no productivity paradox, at least when the analysis is performed across industries using firm-level data. The differences between these results and earlier studies is probably due to the use of data taht was recent , more comprehensice ,and more disaggregated firm level rather than industry or economy level.Most previous sutdies have considered the effects of technology across firms in multiple industries, although a few studies have considered the role of technology in specifically in the banking industry. Steiner and Teixiera surveyed the banking industry and argued that while large investments in technology clearly had value,little of this value was being captured by the banks themselves; most of the benefits were being passed on to customers as a result of intense competition. Alpar and Kim examined the cost efficiency of banks overall and found that IT investment was associatied with greater cost efficiency although the effects were less evident when financial ratios were used as the outcome measure. Prasad and Harkere examined the relationship between technology investment and performance for 47 retail banks and found positive benefits of investments in IT staff.While these studies show a strong positive contribution of IT investment on average, they do not consider how this contribution or level of investment varies across firms. Brynjolfsson and Hitt found that "firm effects" can account for as much as half the contribution of IT found in these earlier studies. Recent results suggest that at least part of these differences can be explained by differences in organizational and strategic factors. Brynjolfsson and Hitt found that firms that use greater overall IT benefits. Bresnehan, Brynjolfsson and Hitt found a similar result for firms that have greater levels of skills and those that make greater investments in training and pre-employment screening for human capital . In addition,strategic factors also appear to affect the value of IT. Firms that invest in IT to create customer value . improve service, timeliness, convenience, variety have greater performance than firms that invest in IT to reduce costs.While these studies are begining to explore how the performance of IT investment varies across firm, particularly due to organizational and strategic factors, little attention has been paid to the technology decision making process.How Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyPart FourIT Investment DecisionsWhile there is no concise definition of "best practice" in IT investment decisions, there are a number of consistent arguments advanced in the IT management literature that can be synthesized into an understanding of the conventional wisdom.For the pruposes of discussion it is useful to subdivide the process of IT management into seven discrete, but interrelated processes. The first six processes are oriented around the proposal, development and management of IT projects, while the last process is about maintaining the capabilities of the IT function and its interrelationships with the rest of the business:of IT opportunitiesopportunitiesIT projectsmake-buy decisionIT projectsIT projectsand Develop the IT FunctionThis subdivision loosely corresponds to many of the major issues in IT management such as outsourcing, line management-IT alignment, software project management, and evaluating IT investments.In addition, this list loosely corresponds to frameworks for the management of IT. The primary difference is that this list views the IT management process as managing a stream of projects rather than focusing on the function of the IT department overall or the role of the CIO, the typical perspective in the previous literature. For example, a common framework used to align IT to business starategy, the critical success factorsCSF method, include three workshops: the first to identify and focus objectives, the second to decide and prioritize on systems investment, and the third to develop, deploy and reevaluate prototype systems. Boynton, Jacobs and Zmud1992 identify five critical IT management processes: setting strategic direction, establishing infrastructure systems, scanning technology, transferring technology and developing systems. Rockart, Earl and Ross1996 propose eight imperatives for the IT organization which can be grouped into managing the IT-business relationship, building and managing systems and infrastructure, managing vendors, and creating a high performance IT organization. Thus, while previous work has subdivided the process in different ways, collectively the studies cover all the seven processes we examine.We will discuss each of the individual points in detail below.Identificant of OpportunitiesHistorically, the IT function was primarily reactive, responding to requests by business units. A business unit. A business unit manager would identify a need for a new system or a repair/enhancement to an existing system and communicate this need to the IT function. The IT personnel would then evaluate the idea for technical feasibility and develop a project proposal include an initial determination of resource needs, cost, and delivery time. While this makes effective use of ITpersonnel in evaluating particular ideas, it provides only a limited role for IT personnel to aid in the identification of technology-based business opportunities.For that reason, some authors have suggested that the IT function should play a larger role in the identification of technological opportunities. For example, Davenport and Short 1990 emphasize that IT capabilities should inform business needs as well as the business units placing demandson the IT function. Fockart, Earl and Ross and Boynton, Jacobs and Zmud identify the role of "technology scanning" and "technology education" as an important component of a centralized IT department; they argue that information systems specialists should be reponsible for evalusting new technologies for business applicability since business units will generally lack the resources or the technological capability to perform these evaluations themselves. Moreover, central IT is best positioned to educate the end uses to make them good "custmers" of the central IT group.In the banking industry, IT may be able to play an additional role in coordinating technology. Because banks and other financial firms are often managed with largely autonomous business units for example, banks are often divided into product lines ---cash management, investment----or along customer segments---wholesale, commercial, retail only the central IT function will have a perspective over the porfolio of systems projects and capabilities. One critical role in this respect is the provision and development of the shared IT infrastructure . central processors, networks, software standards, etc.. Often these projects naturally span business units such that the only ral owner is the IT function; also they generally tend to be highly technical and thus the natural responsibility would also fall on the IT department.How Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyPart FiveEvaluating OppoutunitiesOnce a project is at least initially defined, there is a process by which the initial idea is converted into a proposal that can be evaluated by management for approval or rejection of funding.In the last ten years, it has become more or less standard practices to develop a business case or business plan for any substantial IT investment some small maintenance projects are simply done on request, although the content, sophistication and formality of this process varied substantially. The most typical of these project proposals assuming a mid-size to large project take the form of a business plan which includes a qualitiative description of the objectives, competitive environment, a description of the opportunity and, in some cases, an implementation plan. While the form of these plans varies widely, there are some general points of comparison.For the qualitative portion, the major issue is whether the plan explicitly addresses changes in the business environment, or is primarily inward focused. For minor systems enhancement projects with no strategic objective or even major investments that are not strategic such as year 2000 repairs, it makes sense for the plan to focus entirely on internal issues. However, to the extent that the investment is made for competitive reasons or is likely to spur a reaction from competitors, it is important to qualitatively evaluate whether the business environment will remain static and , if not, examine possible scenarios that are likely to occur. The assumption of a static business environment is a common decision bias that can particularly plague strategic IT investments; Clemens 1991 terms this the "trap of the vanishing status quo".For the quantative financial evaluation, most IT evaluation methods have their roots in traditional capital budgeting procedures such as discounted cash flow analysisDCF. However, while these techniques can work well for projects where costs and benefits ar well defined . purchasing off-the -shelf software in pursuit of operational cost savings, it is increasingly recognized that simple application of DCF approaches is not sufficient for IT investments. This is because much of the value of modern IT investments is likely to be difficult to quantify --such as revenue enhancements or cost savings through improved customer service, product variety, or timeliness. One commonly used stategy is to value non-quantifiable benefits atzero, although this strategy will systematically bias project evaluations to unnecessarily reject projects.Recognizing the limitation of the DCF approach, several alternative approaches have been proposed. One method is to base tghe case entirely on qualitative analysis; unfortunately, this approach often leads to hightly subjective judgements and is likely to err on the side of accepting bad projects. Kaplan, recognizing this problem in the context of evaluating computer integrated manufacturing CIM, proposed using a variant of DCF; a firm calculates the present value of the investment using all the components that can be quantified and then compares this prliminary value to the qualitative list of other benefits and costs. In other cases, where the evaluation is make difficult because of future uncertainties . market growth and acceptance; response of competitors decision trees or other types of probability based assessment tools may simplify investment decisios. Finally, for some types of investments or decisions for example, the decision whether to invest immediately or defer, advanced techniques such as real options can be applied.Although this discussion has focused primarily on evaluating the benefit part of the quantitative evaluation, there are other difficulties in estimating the cost of IT projects, particualarly those involving software development. Existing models such as COCOMO of function points estimation are known to improve the ability to predict project length, staffing requirements and total costs, although they are k own to be systmeatically off by as much as 400%. However, the accuracy of these estimates can also be improved later in the project when specifications are well defined or by customizing the models to the experience of a particular organization. However, despite the fact that these tools and approaches are readily available many firms still utilize "seat of the pants" estimants or lock in schedules and cost estimants before the projects are fully defined.How Financial Firms Decide on TechnologyPart SixApproving IT ProjectsOnce a project has been evaluated and a formal project proposal exists, there are a variety of mechanisms that are used to determine which projects should be funded. Most institutions have some form of committee structure, similar to capital budgeting committees, which is responsible for evaluating, modifying and approving projects.Most of the previous literature on the management of IT has focused on the so-called "IT steering committee" which is an executive level group, often comprised of the heads of business units or their direct reports. The objective of this committee is to ensure that IT strategy is aligned with business unit strategy, projects are coordinated across business units where there are possible synergies and to educate the business unit managers on the both the actual activities of the IT group and the potential IT opportunities.Make-Buy DecisionsOutsourcingAt the inception of any project, a firm has the choice of whether to utilize their internal resources in the IT department insource or utilize an outside vendor for any or all of a projectoutsourcing. While the market for outsourced services has existed since sale of the first corporate computers, the size of the outsourcing market has grown dramatically in recent years and is expected to grow substantially. In 1997 the market for information technology outsourcing has been estimated at $ billion in the . and at $90 billion worldwide. Growth estimates of this market range from 15% to 25%.In general , an outside firm may be advantaged in providing a service previously produced internally, because of economies of scale, scope or specialization. By aggregating demands for multiple clients, vendors can smooth variations in demand increasing capacity utilization and reducing risk, make investments that trade larger fixed costs for lower variable costs, and have stronger incentives to invest in cost-reducing technology. By narrowly focusing on technology, they may be better able to attract, hire , manage and retain high quality personnel due to better ability to tailor management practices, career paths and incentive structures toa specific activity. The value of these benefis is tempered by explicit and implicit costs of using the market or some intermediate form of governance rather than vertical integration. These problems manifest themselves in three types of risk: shirkingunder-performance in hard-to-measure tasks, poaching misappropriaiton of shared resources and opportunistic re-negotiation exploitation of bargaining disadvantages in ongoing relationships . Some authors have argued that in IT these risks are so severe that outsourcing has, overall, a poor value proposition. However , there are a number of very successful agreements and the growth in the market over the long term suggests that some economic benefits of outsourcing are present.In pratice, outsourcing can take many forms and the complexity of these arrangements is increasing. The simplest arrangement is the use of contract workers; the worker is not employed by the firm, but is managed more or less as if they were an employee. This pratice is so common in IT that the presence of contract employees is assumed to be a standard feature of IT departments. At the next level is selective outsourcing in which a firm outsources particular projects or parts of projects to an outside vendor. This is also quite common in software development and technical support activities, although any well-defined task could presumably be outsourced in this way. Finally, the firm may choose to outsource the entire IT function, a practice that began in the late 1980s and has continued today.Hitt, Lorin M., Frei, Frances X. and Patrick T. Harker. 1999 "HowFinancial Firms Decide on Technology," in Brookings/Wharton Paperson Financial Services:1999, Litan, Robert E. and Anthony M. Santomero,Eds. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.。
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北大MBA会计学案例库
成本与市价孰低法
某公司采用成本与市价孰低发对短期投资进行计价。
该公司1992年12月31日短期投资余额未400，000元，证券跌价准备余额未20，000元。
1991年12月31日短期投资种类及相关资料如下：
成本市价证券跌价准备
A公司股票200,000.00190,000.0010,000.00
B公司股票100,000.0090,000.0010,000.00
C公司股票200,000.00204,000.000.00
合计500,000.0020,000.00
1992年B公司股票以91,000元售出，售家和按市价调整后的账面数之差被计入"证券出售利得"。
1992年12月31日的市价情况如下：
市价 A公司 199,000.00
C公司 205,000.00
问题：
（1）该公司运用成本与市价孰低法对短期投资计价，是以单个证券为基础还是以总价为基础？
（2）运用成本与市价孰低法的主要理论基础是什么？该公司运用这一规则合理吗？
（3）该公司对出售C公司股票的会计处理正确吗？
（4）该公司于1992年12月31日还需要做什么分录，以反映有价证券市价的变化？
阳澄湖公司
以下是阳澄湖公司1996年发生的部分经济业务：
（1）因为火灾物品贱卖（fire sale ），价值140，000元的设备以110，000元的价格购
入。
所作分录为：
借：机器设备140，000
贷：现金110，000
收入30，000
（2）预计销售价格减去估计的销售成本（销售费用）后，成本为380，000元的商品存货在资产负债表中确认的金额为460，000元。
记录商品存货增值的会计分录是：借：商品存货80，000
贷：收入80，000
（3）公司总裁使用他自己的钱购买小帆船自用，所作会计分录如下：
借：杂项费用80，000
贷：收入80，000
（4）1996年度房屋折旧为23，000元，因为房屋市价上涨过大，所以年底所作的计提折旧分录为：
借：留存收益23，000
贷：累计折旧--房屋23，000
（5）以股票换入设备，股票总面值为70，000元，公平市价为300，000元，设备的公平市价不详，交换时所作的会计分录是：
借：机器设备：70，000
贷：股本70，000
（6）收到顾客的购货定单，购买本公司商品16，000元。
所购商品于1997年1月10日运出，但1996年已作会计分录如下：
借：应收账款16，000
贷：销货16，000
（7）某顾客诉阳澄湖公司，要求赔偿损失90，000元，理由是由于公司商品质量问题而使其个人受到了伤害。
公司所聘请的律师非常肯定地说，公司100%地能赢得这场官司。
然而，公司所作的会计分录为：
借：诉讼损失90，000
贷：诉讼负债90，000
（8）阳澄湖公司总裁担心，万一公司发生清算，则其无形资产将要转变为现金。
因此，决定将本年因购买交易产生已入账的商誉600，0000元作如下注销：
借：折旧费用8，000
贷：累计折旧8，000
要求：试说明上述会计分录有无违背公认的会计原则，若有，指出违背了哪条原则，并做出正确的会计分录。
宝岛商场
宝岛商场于1996年8月31日办理结账并编制报表。
财务报表编完后，发现下列错误：
（1）期末调整时，折旧多计10，000元；
（2）期末漏记推销人员薪金20，000元；
（3）"预收租金收入"帐中，有80 ，000元应属本期，但期末所作的调整分录为：借：预收租金收入 8， 000 贷：租金收入 8，000
（4）6月15日预付广告费18 ，000元，广告期间自7月1日起至12月31日止，已记入"预付广告费"账户，期末未作调整；
（5）漏记应计利息收入15，000元；
（6）少提办公设备折旧3， 600元；
（7）应付管理人员薪金15 ，800元，误记为18 ，500元。
要求：试按下列格式，逐一说明每项错误对该商场财务报表的影响（提示：纯利足以影响业主权益）。
兹举（1）项错误为例说明如下：
1996年损益表1996年8月31日资产负债表错误收入费用纯利资产负债业主权益
（1）+10，000-10，000-10，000-10，000
太湖公司
以下是月湖会计事务所在审查太湖公司帐目时发现的会计处理：
（1）年底的存货不予盘点，作为"销货成本"处理，以示稳健；
（2）将电视广告费列为商誉，分5年摊销；
（3）购入台灯一个，成本为30元，估计使用寿命5年，无残值，已借记"办公设备"账户，并分5年计提折旧；
（4）该公司发行的公司债设有偿债基金，所以在资产负债表中，将该基金在"应付公司债"下减除，以显示其实欠的债务；。