第11章不确定性和博弈论萨缪尔逊《经济学》第十八版

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萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案2

C H A P T E R 2 T h e S h i f t i n g B o u n d a r y B e t w e e nM a r k e t sa n d G o v e r n m e n tCHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPSThis chapter introduces a series of fundamental ideas and concepts that define the essence of the economic problem. They are important because they form the foundation for the analysis of a market economy. The tools and methods that you present to students in this chapter will be carried throughout the text and developed in greater detail as you make your way through the course. Here is a great opportunity for you to give students a broad introduction to “the economic way of thinking.”The chapter begins with an introduction to markets. Because this text is grounded in market analysis, take the time to illustrate the basics concepts of upward-sloping supply, downward-sloping demand, and equilibrium. Later chapters will fill in important details.Section B broadens the students’ view of the economy from a partial equilibrium setting to a more general equilibri- um setting. This allows you to develop the important interactions between agents and markets. Roles for money and capital are established as well as the importance of property rights. All of these components of a market economy are important to its proper functioning.Section C introduces a role for government in an economy. Efficiency and equity are examined as well as macroe- conomic goals like growth and stability.LEARNING OBJECTIVES1. Describe what is meant by the term market and describe the process of achieving equilibrium in a market economy.2. Use your definition of market equilibrium to address three basic economic problems that confront all societies.3. Explain how the price system works as an invisible hand, allocating goods and services in a market economy.4. Understand the importance of specialization, the division of labor, money, factors of production and capital andproperty rights in the functioning of a modern economy.5. Use a circular-flow diagram to illustrate the relationships between agents and markets in a modern economy.6. Make a case for government intervention in a mixed market economy in order to promote efficiency, equity, andmacroeconomic growth and stability.SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT1. In all of these cases, a combination of consumer choice and government directives or incentive plans determine theultimate allocation of resources.2. Auctions are not always practical, ration coupons hold prices artificially low, and first come first served leads tohigh opportunity costs of standing in line. A market “rations” goods to those consumers who can a fford them.3. There are lots of potential government failures. Some would argue that AFDC has been a failure; more children livein poverty in the United States today than in many other industralized countries. Would it be better to live with this market failure? We shall see.4. Pollution limitations: improving efficiency (public bad)Income supplements: equity (redistribution program)Phone regulation: efficiency (prices higher, output lower with monopoly)56 C HAPTER 2: T HE S HIFTING B OUNDARY B ETWEEN M ARKETS AND G OVERNMENT 5. Money goes in the opposite direction, i.e., from businesses to the suppliers of inputs and from households to thesuppliers of outputs. Money functions to make transactions easier and more efficient.6. Division and specialization of labor is obvious in a college or university. Faculty membersteach classes, staff members clean classrooms and deliver mail, and administrators manage budgets and raise funds for the institution. Overspecialization might leave some individuals unemployable if the demand for their type of labor decreases.7. There were arguments that slaves were property. Some argued that because slaves had to be housed and fed frombirth and trained from adolescence, they represented “human” capital—human elements of roundabout production.I am sure that you can find a lot to write about such a dehumanizing thought.8. Social security helps to promote equity in the distribution of income. National defense represents provision ofa public good. Unemployment insurance provides for stability through the business cycle. Interest on the publicdebt might promote stability by allowing government to use fiscal policy more effectively.Administration of justice often deals with imperfect competition and market failure. Pollution control battles a negative externality, while funding for basic science encourages a positive externality.9. Unlike a private good where you must reveal your preferences to receive the good, public goods are provided by thegovernment and are paid for by taxes collected by the government. It is important that the one who is paying for the good have a say in what is provided by the government.a. The best way to voice your concern about defense spending is at the ballot box.b. You can voice your displeasure at the ballot box or move to a jurisdiction where the tax is not being collected.c. Take alternative means of travel to Miami or not travel to Miami.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. What is meant by a “mixed economy?” Is it socialist? Communist?2. It has been said that prices serve a rationing function and a guidepost function. What could this mean?3. Use a market diagram to show how prices coordinate the behavior of buyers and sellers. What if buyers wantto purchase more units of a particular good than sellers want to provide? How will the price system provideincentivesin this situation?4. The how, what, and for whom questions are solved differently in different economic systems. Consider each ofthe following and explain how the three big questions of economic organization are solved (a) within your family,(b) within your college or university, and (c) in the agriculture industry.5. What considerations do you think have caused leaders in Eastern Europe to lessen their hostility toward the valueof the pricing system? What about the people? If market economies work better than other types of economic rationing systems, why is it so difficult for countries like Russia and Poland to chart a new economic course?6. Why do you suppose that history has never seen a period of complete laissez-faire? Do youthink nineteenth century America came reasonably close? What would your Utopia look like?7. “Losses are as important as profits in a pricing system.” Why? What function do losses serve?8. Identify a few economic areas in which the government is currently active. Are these activities directedprimarily toward correcting problems of equity, efficiency, or stability? Are they working? Discuss positive and negative effects of government intervention in the economy.9. The social security system was devised to help Americans during their retirement years. It has grown beyondthat objective. What are the current objectives of the system, and are there side effects that add to or subtract from its ability to meet those objectives?10. Why is the decision whether to consume today or tomorrow so important to society? Who makes this decision inthe United States? In Cuba?11. “A socialist nation and a capitalist nation do not differ in the fundamental economic problems that they face;they differ in the ways they go about solving those problems.” Do you agree? Why or why not? Do they also differ in what they consider to be desirable solutions?12. Do you think society could organize 200 million people on the principles of the kibbutz or cooperative? Why orwhy not?13. “Th e need of U.S. manufacturers to spend large sums on advertising to stimulate artificial wantsindicates that economic scarcity will soon lose its relevance.” Is this true, and if not true no w, is it likely to become so?14. Who loses, or stands to lose, when trade opens? Do they always lose? Can short-term losses turn into long-term gains?C HAPTER 2: T HE S HIFTING B OUNDARY B ETWEEN M ARKETS AND G OVERNMENT 715. What types of stabilization policies can you think of? Are they consistent with the objectives of equity andefficiency?16. Equity and efficiency can run counter to each other. Why?17. Do markets always do a good job of distributing resources to people who need them most? To people who wantthem most? Explain.ESSAY QUESTIONS1. Sketch a diagram to show how markets and prices link households and businesses to solve the three economic prob-lems. Explain the direction of money flows and the accompanying flows of goods and factor inputs.2. Prices in a market system have sometimes been described as fulfilling a “rationing” function.a. In what sense do prices “ration?” Why is rationing needed in an economic system as productive as ours?b. In the market for energy, what are the factors determining to whom the world’s supply of oil is distributed?c. Suppose a shortage of wheat exists. How does the price system react to bring about anincrease in wheat production?3. Indicate the manner in which the market system provides a solution to the for whom question in a free enterpriseeconomy. In the present American economy, what other factors are important?4. “The U.S. economic system is mixed in at least two senses.” Elaborate on this statement.5. List and discuss (a) the various factors inherent in our economy that make perfect competitionan unrealistic description of our economic system; (b) the factors responsible for the existence of monopoly elements in our society.6. “The bulk of all economic activity is directed toward the future.” What would be the significance of this for oursociety? Is it true?7. Government in a mixed society can (a) purchase goods and services, (b) produce goods and services, (c) transferincome from one group of people to another, (d) tax its citizens, and (e) borrow and/or lend money. Pick examples of each and discuss how equity, efficiency, and stabilization objectives are met in your examples.8. In The Zero Sum Society, Lester Thurow speculates on how economic interaction can take placewithout one person’s gain resulting in another’s loss. What do you think of that notion? How might it relate to globalization?9. Contrast the use of barter and money in a modern mixed economy that uses many capital goods and involves muchspecialization and interdependence. Concentrate on the efficiency of transactions—the cost involved in conducting business.10. “Specialization gives rise to di fferences in skill; differences in skill give rise to s pecialization.” Can both statementsbe true? Would specialization be worthwhile if everyone were identical?11. In what sense do specialization and division of labor depend on the size of the market? Does this help explainthe phenomenon of continuing economic growth?12. Specialization is not entirely problem-free. Discuss some of the troublesome effects of specialization on workers,the workplace, and society as a whole.13. Country A can produce all goods more efficiently than Country B. The opportunity costs of production, however,are different. Can trade ever benefit Country A?14. Discuss the fundamental difference between Milton Friedman’s ideas about a market economy and John MaynardKeynes’ ideas about a market economy. What are their major points of disagreement?15. Discuss the problems associated with providing the service of a lighthouse to ships.。

经济学(第18版,萨缪尔森经典巨著最新版)

本书适合于高等院校经济学专业、财经类专业本科生及教师，MPA、MBA、MBA、EMBA学员及教师，理论研究者，政府工作人员，企事业管理者及一般读者学习和研究之用。
本书由人民邮电出版社出版，是当代经济学泰斗、1970年诺贝尔经济学奖得主萨缪尔森的不朽经济学著作，自1948年问世以来就广受赞誉，先后被翻译成40多种文字出版，是有史以来发行量最大、今在全球范围内仍然被广泛采用的经济学教科书。
——摘自1970年诺贝尔经济学奖颁奖辞
萨缪尔森的教科书不仅能够让初学者迅速地概览主流经济学的全貌，而且还能不断地刷新财政学、金融学、统计学、会计学、制度经济学、国际经济学、发展经济学和环境经济学的知识。在西方它堪称一部“流动的百科全书”。
作者简介
作者简介
保罗·萨缪尔森(PaulA．Samuelson)，毕业于芝加哥大学和哈佛大学，是麻省理工学院经济学研究生部的创始人。他的许多著作使得他在年轻时就赢得了世界性的声誉、他是美国第一个诺贝尔经济学奖得主(1970年)。萨缪尔森教授曾长期为美国《新闻周刊》的经济学栏目撰稿，曾担任美国总统约翰·肯尼迪的经济顾问，属于那种能够同普通民众进行交流和沟通的为数极少的科学家之一。萨缪尔森常出席国会听证，并担任联邦储备、财政部、许多私人机构和非营利机构的咨询顾问。除了在麻省理工学院做研究工作和经常打网球之外，萨缪尔森教授还是纽约大学的客座教授。他的6个孩子(包括三胞胎)为萨缪尔森家族衍续了15个子孙。
目录
目录
前言经济学与互联网第一编基本概念第1章经济学基础知识第1章附录如何看图第2章现代经济中的市场与政府第3章供给与需求的基本原理第二编微观经济学：供给、需求和产品市场第4章供给和需求的应用第5章需求和消费者行为第5章附录消费均衡的几何分析

萨缪尔森《微观经济学》(第18版)笔记和课后习题详解(不确定性和博弈论)【圣才出品】

第11章不确定性和博弈论11.1 复习笔记一、风险和不确定性经济学1．投机原理（1）投机的原因及含义一般而言，市场上的产品价格每月都在波动，劳动、土地、机器和燃料等投入品的价格常常有很高的不稳定性；竞争对手的行为也无法提前预知。

企业当前投资的实质在于为未来的利润积攒财富，以备应对未来的不确定性。

投机包括对有价值物品或商品的买卖，是从市场价格的波动中谋取利益的一种活动。

通常，一个投机者现在买入一种商品，为的是将来在这种商品价格上涨时卖出，以期获得利润。

投机是一种风险行为，即使是有经验的投机者有时也会因为错误的估计而遭受损失。

（2）投机的形式①套利和地区价格形式最简单的投机活动是降低或消除地区差价。

在这种情况下，商人在某一市场买入的同时，以较高的价格在另一市场卖出。

这种活动被称为套利，它在一个市场上买入一种商品或资产，为的是马上在另一个市场上卖出，从而在价差中获得利润。

套利活动就是同时与不同地区的经纪人通话，以找出微小的差价，力图通过低价购买和高价售出来获取利润。

套利活动有助于拉平完全相同的产品在不同市场上的价格差别。

套利体现了“看不见的手”的作用，即在获取利润的动机的诱惑下，消除不同市场价格差异，促进市场功能更加有效地发挥作用。

投机致力于确立某种不同的时间和空间上的价格范式。

但未来难以预测，从而使这种价格范式不那么完美，即总是处在一种不断受到破坏而自身又不断地重新构建的均衡之中。

投机揭示了看不见的手的法则在起作用。

通过拉平供给量和价格，投机实际上在提高经济效率。

通过将商品从数量丰盛的时期转移到数量稀缺的时期，投机商在价格和边际效用低的市场购进商品，又在价格和边际效用高的地方卖出。

投机商们在追求他们私人利益（利润）的同时，提高了公共经济福利（总效用）。

③投机的经济作用和影响投机市场不仅从时间上和空间上促进了价格及配置形式的改善，还有助于风险的转移。

这些任务都是由那些想从价格变动中获利的投机商所完成的。

《经济学：第18版(翻译版)》的读后感

《经济学：第18版（翻译版）》的读后感《经济学：第18版（翻译版）》的读后感《经济学：第18版（翻译版）》是一本由美国经济学家塞缪尔森（Paul A. Samuelson）编写的经济学教材，是经济学领域的经典之作。

本书被广泛用于大学经济学课程教学，并深受许多经济学爱好者的喜爱。

对于刚刚入门的经济学学习者来说，这本书是一本必读之作。

本书全面、系统地介绍了经济学的基本概念、原理和方法，涵盖了宏观经济学、微观经济学以及国际经济学等多个领域。

作者在逐章阐述各个经济学理论和模型的同时，还融入了大量的实际案例和政策分析，使得读者可以更好地理解和应用经济学知识。

另外，本书的内容简明扼要、逻辑清晰，对于初学者来说是非常友好的。

在阅读本书的过程中，我收获了许多经济学方面的知识。

首先，本书让我对经济学的范畴和核心问题有了更加明确的认识。

经济学的核心问题是资源配置问题，即如何有效地利用有限的资源来满足人们的需求。

这个问题涉及到个体决策、市场机制以及政府干预等多个方面，而经济学的研究就是为了更好地解决这些问题。

其次，本书通过介绍供需理论、消费者行为、生产理论、市场结构等基本概念和原理，让我对市场经济的运行机制有了更深入的了解。

市场经济是一种通过供求关系来决定资源配置的经济制度，本书详细讲解了市场的功能、价格的形成以及市场失灵等机制。

通过学习这些知识，我可以更好地理解市场经济的运行规律，并能够对市场现象进行更准确的分析和判断。

另外，本书还介绍了宏观经济学的基本框架和核心概念。

宏观经济学研究的是整个经济体的运行和发展，包括经济增长、通货膨胀、失业等方面的问题。

通过学习宏观经济学的知识，我可以更好地理解宏观经济的运行机制和影响因素，对于国家宏观经济政策的制定和评估也有了更深入的认识。

此外，本书还介绍了国际经济学的基本理论和政策。

国际贸易和国际金融是现代经济的重要组成部分，对于各国的经济增长和全球资源配置都具有重要的影响。

本书通过介绍比较优势理论、汇率理论、国际收支平衡等内容，使我对国际经济关系有了更深入的了解，并能够更好地分析国际经济的问题和挑战。

萨缪尔森《微观经济学》(第18版)笔记和课后习题详解(含考研

9.1复习笔记 9.2课后习题详解 9.3考研真题详解
10.1复习笔记 10.2课后习题详解 10.3考研真题详解
11.1复习笔记 11.2课后习题详解 11.3考研真题详解
第12章市场如何决定收入
第13章劳动市场
第14章土地和资本
第14章附录市场和经济效率
12.1复习笔记 12.2课后习题详解 12.3考研真题详解
第4章供给和需求的应用
2
第5章需求和消费者பைடு நூலகம்为
3 第5章附录消费
均衡的几何分析
4
第6章生产和企业组织
5
第7章成本分析
第 7 章附录生产、1
成本理论和企业决策
2
第8章完全竞争市场分析
3 第9章不完全竞
争及其极端形式——垄断
4
第10章寡头和垄断竞争
5
第11章不确定性和博弈论
13.1复习笔记 13.2课后习题详解 13.3考研真题详解
14.1复习笔记 14.2课后习题详解 14.3考研真题详解
附录课后习题详解
第16章政府税收和支出
第15章比较优势和贸易保护主义
第17章促进市场更富效率
第18章环境保护
第19章效率与公平：重大权衡
15.1复习笔记 15.2课后习题详解 18.3考研真题详解
精彩摘录
这是《萨缪尔森《微观经济学》（第18版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）》的读书笔记模板，可以替换为自己的精彩内容摘录。
感谢观看
目录分析
第1章经济学基础知识
第1章附录如何看图
第2章现代经济中的市场与政府
第3章供给与需求的基本原理

不确定性经济学

不确定性经济学不确定性经济学百科名片不确定性经济学不确定性经济学（Uncertainty Economics）是西方经济学的大家族中派生出来的交叉学科和边缘学派。

在经济理论中，对不确定性的分析和认识不仅是经典的(阿罗—德布鲁)一般均衡理论的基本内容，同时也是信息经济学、行为以及实验经济学、制度经济学、演化经济学等新兴理论、以及现代金融理论、产业组织理论、企业理论、劳动经济学等学科的基本内容。

不确定性的分析和认识不仅决定着经济学对现实的分析和解释力，同时也是经济学现代发展的一个极为重要的方向。

目录[隐藏]形成与发展理论内容对现实的分析和解释形成与发展理论内容对现实的分析和解释[编辑本段]形成与发展经济学通过研究人的经济行为来分析社会的经济现象，又将人的行为过程描述为决策过程。

因此，经济学必须回答的一个问题是：人的经济决策的原则或者方式是什么?对此，经济学的回答是最优化，或者理性。

在确定条件下的理性决策原则是很容易理解和说明的，例如，经济学教科书中描述的消费者的效用最大化，以及厂商的利润最大化。

但是，一般而言，人们在现实生活中的决策是在不确定性的条件下做出的。

在不确定性条件下的决策原则是什么?这是一个更为一般性的问题。

对此，经济学的认识大致可以划分为三个阶段：第一个阶段是数学期望值最大化原则。

贝努里的实验证明了这个原则应用于经济行为是有问题的。

希克斯等人也对这个决策原则的合理性进行了争论并提出了一些观点。

这些争论直接导致了后续的主观期望效用理论的形成。

在经济学领域，门格尔、费雪和埃奇沃斯都曾经指出风险和不确定性将深刻地改变整个经济学的体系和内容。

奈特最早论述了风险和不确定性概念对经济研究的重要性，对这两个概念进行了定义。

希克斯、凯恩斯、斯蒂格勒、哈特等经济学家开始用风险和不确定性解释利润、投资决策企业结构等问题。

第二个阶段是冯·诺伊曼和摩根斯顿(von Neumann & Morgenstem，1944)的期望效用最大化原则。

萨缪尔森《微观经济学》第十一部分不确定性经济学(圣才出品)

第11章不确定性经济学11.1复习笔记一、风险和不确定性经济学1．投机的原因及含义一般而言，市场上的产品价格每月都在波动，劳动、土地、机器和燃料等投入品的价格常常有很高的不稳定性；竞争对手的行为也无法提前预知。

企业当前投资的实质在于为未来的利润积攒财富，以备应对未来的不确定性。

投机包括对有价值物品或商品的买卖，是从市场价格的波动中谋取利益的一种活动。

通常，一个投机者现在买入一种商品，为的是将来在这种商品价格上涨时卖出，以期获得利润。

投机是一种风险行为，即使是有经验的投机者有时也会因为错误的估计而遭受损失。

2．投机的形式（1）套利和地区价格形式最简单的投机活动是通过买卖同一商品降低或消除地区差价。

这种活动被称为套利，它在一个市场上买入一种商品或资产，然后马上在另一个市场上卖出，从而在一买一卖的价差中获得利润。

套利活动就是同时与不同地区的经纪人通话，以找出微小的差价，力图通过低价购买和高价售出来获取利润。

套利活动有助于拉平完全相同的产品在不同市场上的价格差别。

套利体现了“看不见的手”的作用，即在获取利润的动机的诱惑下，消除不同市场价格差异，促进市场功能更加有效地发挥作用。

（2）不同时间的投机与价格行为投机致力于确立某种不同的时间和空间上的价格范式。

但未来难以预测，从而使这种价格范式不那么完美，即总是处在一种不断受到破坏而自身又不断地重新构建的均衡之中。

投机揭示了看不见的手的法则在起作用。

通过拉平供给量和价格，投机实际上在提高经济效率。

通过将商品从数量丰盛的时期转移到数量稀缺的时期，投机商在价格和边际效用低的市场购进商品，又在价格和边际效用高的地方卖出。

投机商们在追求他们私人利益（利润）的同时，提高了公共经济福利（总效用）。

（3）投机的经济作用和影响投机市场不仅从时间上和空间上促进了价格及配置形式的改善，还有助于风险的转移。

这些任务都是由那些想从价格变动中获利的投机商所完成的。

事实上，这表明了“看不见的手”在起作用，即将商品从其数量丰盛（价格低）时期向数量稀缺（价格高）时期进行重新配置。

《不确定性和博弈论》课件

总结
不确定性和博弈论的共同点
总结不确定性和博弈论的共同研究领域和方法。
不确定性和博弈论的未来发展
展望不确定性和博弈论在未来科学和技术中的重要性和应用。
《不确定性和博弈论》 PPT课件
不确定性是指无法确定未来结果的情况。本课件将介绍不确定性的定义和形式，以及其在各个领域的应用。
什么是不确定性?
不确定性的定义
不确定性是指无法确定未来结果的情况。
不确定性的形式
不确定性可以表现为随机性、风险性或不完全信息性。
不确定性的应用场景
1 认识不确定性
了解不确定性对决策和规划的影响。
2 不确定性的应用
应用不确定性分析和预测方法来解决实际问题。
博弈论的基本概念
博弈论的定义
博弈论是一种研究决策者在冲突情境下进行决策的数学理论。
重要概念介绍
介绍博弈论中的策略、回避和最优决策等重要概念。
博弈论的应用
1
博弈论的应用场景
介绍博弈论在经济、政治、生物等领
博弈论在人工智能中的应用
2
域的实际应用。探讨博弈论Βιβλιοθήκη 智能系统和机器学习中的应用。
3
博弈论模型的构建
介绍博弈论中的模型构建方法，如博弈树和正规形式等。
博弈论模型的求解
1
博弈论求解的计算工具
2
介绍博弈论求解中常用的计算工具和
算法。
3
博弈论模型的求解方法
介绍博弈论模型的求解方法，如最优策略和均衡分析。
博弈论模型的实际应用
探讨博弈论模型在商业决策和政策制定中的应用。

萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案5

C H A P T E R 5A P P E N D I XG e o m e t r i c a l A n a l y s i so f C o n s u m e r E q u i l i b r i u mAPPENDIX OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPSThis appendix is designed to explain how consumers can use their fixed incomes to create the most utility possible, given their own personal tastes and prices dictated by the market. It begins with the same styliz ed description of the consumer’s dilemma that your students have seen in the chapter, and it reaches the same results. In fact, only the method of description is different; the problem of maximizing satisfaction subject to a budget constraint is illustrated using a diagram.If your students are like mine, they will ask, “So, why bother?” To be sure, the graph will deal with the very simple case in which only two goods are involved. Y ou will need to argue that the model helps to describe consumer behavior in a simple case, and it can be used to untangle more difficult questions. The simple geometry will clarify the general nature of making choices over many goods in the face of scarcity. The content of the analysis is not confi ned to the two- good case that can be drawn on a piece of graph paper.It is important to impress upon your students that the geometric approach frees us from having to make the assump- tion that consumers’utility functions are cardinal. The geometry assumes, instead, that people can display their prefer- ences simply by ranking different possible combinations of goods. Constructing the geometry of consumer decision making requires only that consumers are able to express a preference between two or more alternatives; i.e., they are able to say which combination of goods they want. Students generally find this ordinal notion far easier to swallow thana theory that suggests that consumers are able to quantitatively evaluate consumption bundles.LEARNING OBJECTIVES1. Define an indifference curve and an indifference map.2. Explain why indifference curves may vary from one individual to the next.3. Show how it would be impossible for an indifference curve representing normal preferences to run in the southwest-to-northeast direction.4. Describe what is meant by a budget constraint.5. Explain how the budget constraint shifts when income changes or when one of the two prices changes. SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT1. Indifference curves for complementary goods should be L-shaped. Indifference curves between perfect substitutesshould be downward-sloping and linear, with slope = -1.2. See diagram (top of page 24).DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. Using an indifference map and a budget line, derive the law of downward-sloping demand.2. What is an indifference curve? Why is it convex to the origin? What is the significance of its slope at any point?2324 C HAPTER 5 A PPENDIX: G EOMETRICAL A NALYSIS OF C ONSUMER E Q UILIBRIUMFig ure5-1Will two indifference curves intersect? Why or why not?3. Using a set of indifference curves between food and clothing and a budget line, show the consumer’s new equilibri-um relative to her old equilibrium position when (a) her income increases, but both prices remain constant; (b) the price of food falls, but her income and other prices are fixed.4. The theory of consumer behavior may be applied to the choice between labor and leisure as wellas the choice among physical commodities. Each individual may choose between daily income and leisure (equal to 24 hours less the hours slept per day). Both income and leisure are positively valued. Derive the supply curve of labor forthe individual, using the indifference-curve analysis.ESSAY QUESTIONS1. Draw a budget constraint for an individual who has $400 to spend on sweaters and sweatshirts, when the price of asweater is $50 and the price of a sweatshirt is $30. If sweaters and sweatshirts are perfect substitutes, how does the consumer choose which to buy? Explain your diagram.2. Suppose the consumer in question 1 experiences a $100 decrease in her budget. How will this affect the budgetconstraint? Show in your diagram and explain.3. Suppose the consumer in question 1 notices that the price of a sweatshirt has increased to $50. How will this affectthe budget constraint? Show in your diagram and explain.4. Why do you need both an indifference map and a budget constraint to solve the consumer problem? What informa-tion do you get from the budget constraint that you do not have in the indifference map?5. Suppose you have an individual who loves jelly but who hates peanut butter. In fact, this consumer is allergic topeanut butter. Draw some indifference curves that represent these preferences over peanut butter and jelly.6. Suppose you have an individual who believes that Coke and Pepsi are perfect substitutes. That is, theconsumer gets exactly the same utility from consuming a can of Coke or a can of Pepsi. Draw some indifference curves that represent these preferences.7. Use an indifference map and a budget constraint to show why the tangency solution is preferred to any other pointon the budget constraint or under the budget constraint.。

萨缪尔森《经济学》第18版绪论

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2021/6/12
威廉·D·诺德豪斯教授是一位享誉世界的经济学家。他是耶鲁大学史特林经济学教授（Sterling professorship of Economics）。在耶鲁大学，史特林讲座（Sterling Chair）是教授职位中的最高荣誉讲座，仅有少数久负盛名的学者享有。在经济学系，只有诺贝尔奖经济学奖得主詹姆斯·托宾曾获此殊荣。他还是国家科学院院士和美国人文科学院院士。诺德豪斯教授被经济学界评为“美国最有影响的50名经济学家之一”。他还被由马克·布劳格 1983年创刊的，最有权威性的《经济学名人录》所收录。
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本章主要内容与结构
A、导言
❖ 撞钟为谁 ❖ 稀缺与效率：经济学的双重主题 ❖ 微观经济学与宏观经济学 ❖ 经济学的逻辑 ❖ 热切的心情，冷静的头脑
B、经济组织的三个经济问题
❖ 市场经济、指令经济和混合经济
C、社会的技术可能性
❖ 投入和产出 ❖ 生产可能性边界
2为何要学习经济学？ 3、经济学的主题是什么？ 4、经济学的两大分支？ 5、经济学的逻辑？ 6、经济组织的三个基本问题是什么？ 7、理解生产可能性边界并能灵活应用。
经济学
第十八版
保罗·萨缪尔森
威廉·诺德豪斯
2021/6/12
1
2021/6/12
作者简介
保罗-安-萨缪尔森（PAUL A SAMUELSON ）生于1915年，1970年诺贝尔奖获得者，他发展了数理和动态经济理论，将经济科学提高到新的水平。他的研究涉及经济学的全部领域。重要著作：《经济分析基础》（Foundations of Economic Analysis）；《经济学》（Economics）；《线性规划写经济分析》（Linear Programming and Economic Analysis），与多夫曼（Dorfman）及索洛合著；《经济学文选》（Readings in Economics）；《萨缪尔森科学论文选》（The Collected Scientific Papers of Paul A.Samuelson）。

萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案4

C H A P T E R 4A p p l i c a t i o n s o fS u p p l y a n d D e m a n dCHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPSIn Chapter 3 you explained the laws of supply and demand, and you familiarized students with the effects of changes in supply and demand. This leads naturally to the related question, “By how much?” How large are the responses to changes in the market, and on what does this responsiveness depend? This chapter introduces students to the concept of elasticity and exposes them to two types of elasticities: price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply. These concepts are difficult for students, particularly for those who have math anxiety. Emphasize the importance of percent- age changes in the numerator and denominator of the elasticity equations, and distinguish between price elasticity of demand and the slope of the demand curve. Do not hesitate to spend class time working through examples that illustratethe relationships between the price elasticity of demand and supply, and the demand and supply curves.The final section of the chapter provides students with the opportunity to apply market analysis and elasticity concepts in the arena of public policy-making. Distinguish carefully between the party who writes the check to the gov- ernment for a tax and the party who bears the economic burden of taxation. Just because taxes are often “paid” to the government by sellers does not mean that the sellers actually experience reduced incomes when new taxes are imposed. Price ceilings and price floors describe another type of government intervention into the operation of markets.LEARNING OBJECTIVES1. Define the term price elasticity of demand.2. Discuss the factors that determine whether price elasticity of demand is elastic, unitary-elastic, orinelastic, and compare consumer behavior in the short run and the long run. Describe elastic and inelastic regions that exist along any demand curve.3. Calculate price elasticity of demand using a method of averages, ant interpret your result.4. Explain, using diagrams, the relationship between total revenue and price elasticity of demand.5. Define the term price elasticity of supply.6. Discuss the factors that determine whether price elasticity of supply is elastic, unitary-elastic, orinelastic, and compare consumer behavior in the short run and the long run.7. Calculate price elasticity of supply using a method of averages, and interpret your result.8. Apply supply, demand, and elasticity concepts to the following situations and markets: (a) agriculture markets, (b)gasoline taxes, (c) minimum wages, and (d) energy price controls.SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT1. A good harvest shifts a fairly inelastic supply curve to the right. Equilibrium moves down alonga relatively inelastic demand curve to support a (much) lower price, and hence lower farm revenues.2. More price elastic: perfume and ice cream because they are closer to luxuries than necessities; chocolate icecream and automobiles because there are more substitutes for these goods than there are for ice cream and automobile tires, respectively.3. Demand would be inelastic, with E D = .5.4. Assume that demand and supply both show some price elasticity.a. Output and price up along supply curve (demand-curve shift), assuming apartments are normal goods.b. Output down and price (paid by renters) up along demand curve (supply shift).c. If this price is below equilibrium (which makes sense if the policy is to have an impact), this is a price ceiling,established to protect buyers. A shortage of apartments will result, with quantity demanded greater than quantity supplied.1516 C HAPTER 4: A PPLICATIONS OF S UPPLY AND D EMAND d. Output up and price down along demand curve (supply shift).e. Output down and price up along demand curve (supply shift).5. According to the text, a 10% increase in the minimum wage would decrease employment of teenagers between 1and 3 percent. The impact on the adult population is even smaller. Thus, income for teenagers and adults would rise. Thus, if I had to make a decision on increasing the minimum wage, and if raising wages for low-wage workers were important to me, I would certainly vote to increase the minimum.6. Minimum wages can increase the quantity of labor supplied and decrease the quantity of labor demanded. Abind- ing minimum wage therefore creates a surplus of labor. Price ceilings can have the opposite effect. A legal maximum interest rate can lead to a shortage of loanable funds, with lenders willing to supply fewer funds than demanders would like to borrow. See Figure 4-1 for an illustration of the impact of a minimum wage on the marketfor unskilled workers when the demand is relatively elastic for those workers. Area B is lost due to the minimumwage, area A is gained, resulting in smaller earnings overall.Figure 4-1 7. The $2000 tariff on imported automobiles will act like a tax in that market, shifting the supply curve to the left by the amount of the tariff and resulting in lower quantities exchanged at a higher price. This will encourage con- sumers to substitute into autos produced by domestic firms, increasing the demand for those cars. The price and quantity exchanged of autos produced by domestic firms will rise, resulting in greater revenues for domestic automakers. 8. a. Supply down by 5 percent with elasticity of 0.05 means that price must increase by 100 percent. b. Elasticity is a ratio of percentages; it is thus unitless. c. Supply down by 50 percent means that price must increase by 100 percent to keep the price elasticity equal to 0.5. Crime should increase if addicts steal to feed their habits. A successful rehab program would shift demand in; quantity would fall by 50 percent and price would stay the same (the shifts would match). d. This policy would shift the supply of pork to the left, raising market prices. If, as argued in this chapter, the demand for agriculture products is inelastic, higher prices will result in higher farm incomes. e. The income rectangle is larger after the minimum wage is increased. This tells us that the price elasticity of demand for unskilled workers if very low; changes in the wage have little impact on the quantity of these laborers demanded. 9. a. See diagram. Figure 4-2C HAPTER 4: A PPLICATIONS OF S UPPLY AND D EMAND 17b. The vacancy rate will fall, there will be a shortage of apartments at the ceiling price.Figure 4-3c. The government might subsidize landlords in order to provide higher compensation for apartments.d. Rent controls limit the amount of compensation that landlords can receive for their property. This limits theirwillingness to maintain property, thus giving rise to the concerns of the European critic.10. The demand curve is given by P = 6.56 -.08Q, the supply curve is perfectly elastic at a price of $2.40 and then at aprice of $2.80. See diagram. The appropriate constant elasticity demand curve is Q = 87.2P-59.Figure 4-4DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. Define the term elasticity. How does this concept help to explain the general shape and slope of a demand curve?2. True or false: The price elasticity of demand changes as price changes along a linear demand curve.Carefully explain your answer.3. If price elasticity of demand changes along a demand curve, how can we say that a demandcurve is relatively elastic or inelastic? Explain.4. It is easy to understand why a large harvest of corn should lower the per unit price. Explain how that could actuallylower the total receipts farmers get from the corn harvest.5. Oil prices increased more than tenfold between 1973 and 1981 as a result of strategies employed by OPEC, an inter-national cartel. Are you surprised that even the richest societies chose to conserve their oil and related energy products? How might people conserve and economize when gasoline, heating fuels, and electricity have become more expensive per unit? How might the increase in gasoline prices in summer 2000 affect behavior?6. “Any demand curve is almost certain to have both an elastic and an inelastic range.” Can you give an exception? Isit realistic through the range of all prices and quantities?7. How does the introduction of the time element affect price elasticities of supply and demand?18 C HAPTER 4: A PPLICATIONS OF S UPPLY AND D EMAND 8. “Knowing how to calculate the slope of a straight line enables you to calculate the elasticity for any point on anycurve.” Discuss the relationship between price elasticity of demand and the slope of the demand curve.9. What is the difference between the price elasticity of demand and the price elasticity of supply?10. Governments interested in maximizing their total revenue have often taxed products like salt, tobacco, andalcohol. What does this suggest about the elasticity of demand for these goods? Why would they be good targets for taxation?11. Evaluate the following charge: If the government grants an industry a subsidy of $1 per unit and the price does notfall by the full $1, then the industry is cheating the consumer.12. Under what circumstances might black markets arise? What can be done about them? Are black markets necessari-ly bad?13. Suppose the government wishes to set a lower bound on the price of wheat. Compare and contrast the methods itcan use to achieve this goal with respect to the what, how, and for whom questions.14. Many economists are against minimum-wage laws. Discuss why a legal minimum wage set above equilibriummay lead to unemployment. How do the price elasticities of demand and supply help to determine the extent of this unemployment? Can people who earn lower wages be helped in ways that will not lead to unemployment?(Think about both sides of the market as you answer this question.)15. According to some estimates, the total revenues from the sale of pornography in Denmark declined by 25 percent inthe year immediately following the liberalization of the censorship laws. From this evidence, some sociologists have determined that legalizing this type of activity reduces the demand for it. Do you agree?Why or why not? What effects on the supply side might be deduced?16. What factors are likely to make demand for a commodity either elastic or inelastic? What factorsare likely to influence elasticity of supply?17. How do you think a minimum-wage law might affect the market for unskilled labor? For skilled labor?ESSAY QUESTIONS1. The Brazilian government used to destroy a substantial portion of its coffee harvest to increase its revenue fromcoffee exports. What conditions are essential to make this type of policy economically beneficial for the country? 2. A witness in a recent congressional hearing argued that consumers budgeted a fixed amount of expenditure for theproducts of his industry. Assuming his statements to be correct, what is the elasticity of demand for the industry’s products? Why?3. On a straight-line demand curve, point out the ranges where demand is elastic, inelastic, and unitary elastic.Why does the elasticity vary along a straight-line demand curve? Draw a graph that relates these regions to the slope of a total revenue curve.4. Consider two markets, the apple market and the orange market. Draw a supply-and-demanddiagram for each market. Indicate the equilibrium price and quantity of P0 and Q0, respectively.a. If there were an outbreak of an apple disease, illustrate the new equilibrium price and quantity in the applemarket by P1, Q1.b. How might this affect the orange market? Show these effects on your diagram.Redraw the original diagram for the apple market. Now suppose the government wishes to encourage the production of apples and gives the producers of apples a subsidy of x dollars per apple.c. Indicate the new equilibrium price and quantity in the apple market by P2, and Q2, respectively.d. Explain whether the equilibrium price will increase or decrease by more or less than the amount of the subsidyper apple.e. Shade in the total subsidy the government will pay to the apple industry each period.f. Describe how this subsidy will be shared between consumers and producers.5. The supply and demand curves for wheat are very inelastic. Those for sugar are very elastic. If a sales tax of $1per unit is put on each of these goods, in which case will the incidence fall largely on the consumer and in which case largely on the producer? In which case is the revenue raised by the tax higher? Use diagrams to illustrate your answers.6. Elasticity is the same as slope. Comment on the validity of this statement.7. Explain the relationship between the elasticity of demand and revenue of a business.。

萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版18th课后概念.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPS In most advanced industrial countries, including the United States, government has grown dramatically over the past few decades. Spending is growing; tax receipts are growing (after a brief downturn; income-support programs and regulato-ry intervention into the marketplace have become a way of life. Farm-support payments exploded in the 1980s. Debate within your class may suggest the likely direction that this type of activity will take over the next few years, but every-one should be convinced that the days of anything remotely resembling widespread laissez-faire policy are long ernments take an active role in the marketplace.Much of the text covered thus far has presented the wide range of economic instruments with which government influences the everyday lives of its citizens. Y ou can certainly draw on the material that you have covered in previous chapters for examples and discussion topics as you work through this chapter. (This is, in fact, an excellent if not pain-less way to review. However, it is not the purpose of this chapter to reiterate. Instead, it is to investigate principles on which government policy actions are founded and to better understand the impact of this taxing and spending.The chapter begins with a discussion of the tools that governments use to achieve policy objectives. Functions of government are outlined, followed by a brief introduction to public choice theory. (Those who have used this book in previous editions will notice that this public choice section has been significantly shortened. The second section of the chapter addresses government expenditures at the federal, state, and local levels. The third section looks at various aspects of taxation, from principles underlying alternative tax schemes to the particular taxes that are collected at all lev-els in the United States. Finally, difficult issues surrounding tax incidence are explored.LEARNING OBJECTIVES1.Define how the three tools of government policy—taxes, expenditures and transfers, and regulation—can be used to affect economic behavior.2.Chronicle the changes in government spending, taxation, and regulatory activity over the past few decades,particularly in the United States.3.Explain and provide examples of the four major functions that government must consider: (a improve economic efficiency, (b reduce economic inequality, (c stabilize the economy using macroeconomic policies, and (d conduct international economic policy.4.Understand the genesis of public choice —the need to determine whether government is organized in a way that allows it to achieve its objectives.5.Describe the nature of the patterns of expenditure by local, state, and federal governments in the United States, and outline the recent evolution of those patterns into what we see today. Explain the difference between local and national public goods.6.Relate, on the basis of the patterns described above, the construction of an efficient system of fiscal federali sm and the blurring that necessarily occurs along the boundaries of the different levels of government. List the most impor-tant types of expenditures made at each level.7.Describe the conflicting principles of taxation—the benefit approach and the ability-to-pay approach—and the com-promise between the two that has been accomplished in the United States.8.Understand the difference between progressive and regressive taxation, and apply this distinction to differentiate the various taxes employed in the United States.77C H A P T E RG o v e r n m e n t T a x a t i o na n d E x p e n d i t u r e1678C HAPTER16: G OVERNMENT T AXATION AND E XPENDITURE9.Describe the character and importance of (a individual income taxes, (b sales taxes, (c excise taxes, (d payrolltaxes, and (e corporate income taxes, all paid at the federal level in the United States. Define the terms of the debate surrounding institution of a value-added tax or a flat tax.10.Describe the character and importance of (a property taxes, and (b sales and other taxes, all paid at the state andlocal levels in the United States.11.Describe sources of inefficiency in the tax system. Provide evidence to support the notion that Ramsey taxes aremore efficient than other sorts of tax programs.12.Define the term tax incidence. Explain why and how a tax might not fall on the economic agent identified in the taxcodes.SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT1.Taxes are collected in order to finance the affairs of government. Review the functions of government outlined inthe chapter and discuss the importance of those functions.2.These are difficult questions. Make your cases on the basis of cost, benefit and likelihood of success. Also, discussthe secondary incentives that your proposals might generate. High taxes and outright prohibition of these sorts of behaviors create underground economies and may generate illegal activities that have higher costs than the activities themselves.3.Think of taxes that are the sticks of disincentive designed to discourage certain sorts of behavior. Pollution taxesare fine examples. Strong lobby groups generally oppose these taxes because they would not be required if the targeted behaviors were not privately profitable. Even when the advocates of social welfare carry the day, lobbyists oppose taxes and favor direct controls. That way their clients get to do some of what they want for free.Consider, for example, the sulfur polluter. Let 100 tons per week be the target level of emission. With a standard, the polluter gets the first 100 tons free. With a tax designed to elicit 100 tons (say, $10 per ton, the polluter must pay $1000 for those 100 tons.4.Lump-sum taxes cause no changes in relative prices. That is, the price of apples relative to oranges is not changed,nor is the opportunity cost of one activity relative to another. One difficulty involved in implementing an endow-ment tax involves equity. Although these lump-sum taxes are efficient in an economic sense, they may make up a much larger portion of one household’s budget compared to another wea lthier household. Therefore, it might be considered inequitable to implement such a tax.5.Progressive federal taxes:personal income tax, death and estate taxes, corporation income tax. Roughly propor-tional (though mildly regressive due to maximum liabilities: payroll (social security tax. Regressive: excise taxes, highway tolls, customs duties.Trading the income tax for a consumption tax would likely be a move toward regressive taxation, since poorer peo-ple spend larger percentages of their incomes on items that carry a sales tax; in response to this observation, some argue that the consumption tax rate could be progressive. A universal sales tax could not incorporate such rate flexi-bility, though, and would be more regressive.6.This is a thought question for which there are many answers. Some initial ideas are as follows:a.An AIDS vaccine: Global—subsidize its production and distribution;b.Pollution controls designed to reduce acid rain: National/global—levy effluent charges or impose standards[with compensation (?];c.Coastal defenses against ocean storms: Local or national—make provision;d. A program directed at reducing factory noise in New Britain: Local—engage in regulation [based on nationalor international standards to maintain competitive position (?];e.CFC emissions reductions to prevent ozone depletion in the stratosphere: Global—impose absolute standardsor ban them [substitutes exist (?].7. a.Prices increase for consumers, with the tax being shared between consumers and producers. We would expectconsumers to pay more of the tax in the short run, when demand is relatively more inelastic.b.If labor supply is perfectly inelastic, the workers will bear the entire burden of any new payroll tax. If laborsupply is backward bending, the bur den of the tax will depend on the market’s current position on the curve.c.The corporation will pay the entire tax because any reduction in return will cause capital flight.8.Correlation does not imply causation. To analyze the experience correctly, you need a model that captures causality,a complete description of the tax cuts and how they were distributed, and some historical context to evaluate theimpact of changes in other economic variables.C HAPTER16: G OVERNMENT T AXATION ANDE XPENDITURE799.Average tax rates based on AGI: 0,1.5, 6, 9, 15, and l9 percent.Marginal tax rates based on the indicated jumps in AGI: 3, 11,11, 20, 21 percent. The tax is progressive on the basis of the adjusted gross income.Average tax rates based on T7: 0,15, 15, 15, 21, and 24 percent.Marginal tar rates based on the indicated jumps in TV: 15, 15, 15, 25, and 25 percent.A flat tax would simplify the tax code and make filing a less arduous task for most taxpayers. However, it wouldnot provide as progressive a tax scheme, and hence may lead to an increase in inequality in the distribution of income.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.Explain the difference between transfer expenditures by government and other expenditures. How should each betreated in evaluating the size of government?2.Describe in some detail the budget of the federal government for the current fiscal year. Look at data for the pastfew years to determine the time trends of each component. As you construct your review of recent history, be sure to cover at least two presidential administrations. Can you see any changes in the trends through the transitions?Also, use real, not nominal, figures in your analysis.3.From a global point of view, defense spending is a waste of resources. From a national point of view, defensespending might be a necessity. Discuss the distinction. Provide your own normative value judgment.4.Identify taxes that are important at the federal level and at the state and local levels. Which are progressive andwhich are regressive? Evaluate the suggestion by the Reagan administration that revenues for various social pro-grams be collected by the states and not by the federal government from an efficiency perspective. Do the same from an equity standpoint.5.Discuss the various proposals for tax reform that have surfaced recently. Concentrate particularly on the flat taxproposal and the value-added proposal. What sort of tax reductions might you have proposed in the 2000 election campaign, and how would you have supported your proposals?6.Should a citizen of Connecticut be asked to pay taxes to help a citizen of California? Of Rhode Island? Of India?Why or why not? If you answered “yes,” consider questions of implementation: What type of taxes should be used? Does it matter if the need for assistance elsewhere is related to what goes on in Connecticut? Can you quantify measures of “moral obligation” in terms of tax liability? Does “ability to pay” matter?7.Suggest how the following taxes are most likely to affect the distribution of income: (a a regressive tax, (b aproportional tax, (c a corporate income tax, (d an inheritance or estate tax, (e a sales tax, or (f a value-added tax.8.“Unequals should be taxed unequally” is a dictum that misses the essential questions of designing a tax system.What are those questions and how do they fit into the unequals dictum?9.What is meant by tax incidence? Why is it a topic of great interest? Try to reason out the possible incidence of thecorporation tax.10.What is meant by tax expenditure? Would you be in favor of eliminating these “expenditures?” Why? All of them?What, for example, would be the effect of eliminating the deductibility of mortgage-interest payments?11.Generate a list of things that government now does in the economic arena that it did not do 5, 10, or 15 years ago.Explore the genesis of one of the elements on that list, paying particular attention to its political dimension. Where did it get its support? How was it mobilized? Generate a second list of things that the government no longer does that it used to do, and explore their demise in a parallel fashion.12.List the various major roles that government plays in a mixed economy and discuss the likely trend of each over thenext half decade or so. Do election-year issues change those trends?13.What is meant by horizontal equity? Does it necessarily imply that married couples earning the same combinedincome should be taxed the same, regardless of whether the household contains one or two workers? Which family is better off? Which family, if any, has a higher income potentially? Why?ESSAY QUESTIONS1.List the principal expenditure items in the federal budget, and in the budgets of state and local governments.Indicate the relative importance of each. Produce a similar list of tax expenditures and compare the distributional aspects of the three lists.80C HAPTER16: G OVERNMENT T AXATION AND E XPENDITURE2.Suggest and support a tax reform by which the progressive properties of the corporate income tax can be maintainedwhile removing the inefficient taxation of corporate investment. (This is a difficult question of considerable con-troversy.3.Do some taxes actually promote efficiency? If not, why not? If so, explain how and provide a specific example.4.Describe an efficient system of fiscal federalism and compare it with (a the current structure and (b a structure thatwould move much of the tax collection burden to the states.5.Describe the distributional properties of (a the present tax structure of the United States, (b the present expenditurepattern of the United States, and (c the two halves of the equation taken together. How do your answers depend on assumptions of incidence and efficiency?6.With the design of tax systems in mind, contrast the ability-to-pay approach with the benefits approach. Relate bothapproaches to the structure of American taxation.7.“Some taxes serve primarily to pay for public goods. Some serve to raise revenues. Some serve to redistributeincome.” Explain and contrast. Give examples.pute the marginal tax rate for the 1999 federal income tax at different levels of affluence. Does it differ fromthe tax/income ratio? How?9.How do taxes affect the inequality of income distribution? Do government expenditures affect the inequality? Whyor why not? Give examples.10.Explain what it means for a tax to be progressive, proportional, or regressive. In which category does each of thesetypes of federal tax receipts fall?a.Excise taxes—tobacco, liquor, gasolineb.Payroll taxesc.Personal income taxesd.Corporation income taxese.Estate and gift taxes11.What types of taxes predominate at the state and local level? Are state and local taxes more or less progressive thanfederal taxes? What effect, then, does revenue sharing have on the overall progression of the tax system in the United States?12.“Even if the primary purpose of taxation is to finance government expenditures, taxation decisions cannot helpintruding into the realm of income redistribution.” Explain this statement.13.What does an economist m ean by the “final incidence” of a tax? Under what circumstances might the incidence ofthe corporate income tax be borne by the consumer? By the stockholder?14.What effects might a progressive tax structure have on risky investment? Discuss. How might the existence of taxexpenditures alter your conclusions? What expenditures are relevant?15.It has been said that the sole purpose of taxation is to raise the money needed to pay for government expenditure. Isthat a true statement, or are there more dimensions to the design of a system of taxation in, for example, the United States? Elaborate particulars.16.Some people have suggested that the growth of the government sector of our economy has been generated mostlyby wars and depressions. If you interpret the statement broadly to include the threat of war and the occurrence of severe recession, is the statement accurate? Which functions of government are caught in this interpretation?Which are missed?。

萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案7

C H A P T E R 7A n a l y s io f C o s tCHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPSThis chapter brings into focus the wide range of cost measures used by economists: total cost, fixed cost, variable cost, average total cost, averagefixed cost, average variable cost, and marginal cost.Minimum production costs for a firm are represented along a total cost schedule, which is a function of the level of output. Inputs used in theirleast-cost combination link the production function with the cost curves, andit is the abilityto adjust the employment of inputs that provides the distinction betweenthe two components of short-run total cost: variable cost and fixed cost.The major objective here is for students to obtain a solid understanding ofan economist’s perspective of cost accounting, so that subsequent descriptions of market structure will make sense. The student is expectedto use tables and diagrams to develop an understanding of both specific examples and more general representa- tions of cost concepts.Chapter 7 also provides a brief introduction to accounting practices.The introduction here is short, covering only two basic tools—the balancesheet and the income statement. The balance sheet is a snapshot of financial health; it reflects the economic condition of an economic entityat some prescribed point in time. The income statement, by wayof contrast, is a motion picture, reflecting growth over a given period oftime; it describes the path a firm takes between two different balance sheets. LEARNING OBJECTIVES1. Define and describe total cost, fixed cost, variable cost, marginal cost,and average cost, explaining what these measures of cost are designed to reflect and how they are related to one another.2. Derive the associated average and marginal cost statistics from total, fixed, and variable cost.3. Explain the link between productivity and cost.4. Demonstrate precisely why marginal cost always intersects averagecost at the minimum of any U-shaped average cost curve.5. Demonstrate why production costs are minimized when inputs arehired in combinations such that the ratios of their marginal products to their prices are all equal.6. Explain carefully the information that a balance sheet is intended toconvey. List the major categories appearing on the two sides of a balance sheet, and indicate the meaning (or definition) of each of those categories.7. List the major items appearing on an income statement. Indicate theinformation that an income statement is intended to convey.8. Explain the role of depreciation and opportunity cost in the correctand accurate construction of an income statement.9. Define the term opportunity cost and apply it to management decisions made by firms and individualsSUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT1. a. .344b. At the end of 1959 his average was .346. His average for 1960 was.316. Since his average in 1960 was below his lifetime average the 1960 average pulled his lifetime average down.2. MC and AVC do not change; TC, AC, and AFC shift up. Minimum occurs where MC = AC = $60 at 5 units.30 C HAPTER 7: A NALYSIS OF C OSTS3. AC above (below) MC means that the next increment lowers (increases) the average; i.e., AC is falling (climbing).Only when MC = AC is AC neither rising nor falling; i.e., it is at itsminimum.4. With a volunteer army the government must be concerned aboutattracting soldiers. People will agree to enlist only when the wages they are paid cover their opportunity costs. If service is compulsory, the government has no such constraints on its wage scheme.5. a. Fixed cost equals 15 × $12 = $180. MC is the cost of the labor required for each unit increase in output: $30,$25, $20, $30, $50, $70, $90. Variable cost is total labor times the wage: $30, $55, $65, $l05, $l55, $225, $315.b.Doubling the wage increases AC and MC (doubles, in fact, MC but notAC).c.Doubling productivity cuts MC and AC in half. (Factor prices andproductivity both influence cost curves.)6.a.Average costs are minimized when marginal cost equals average cost;AC is falling where MC is minimized.b.AFC = FC/output; FC is fixed so as output increases AFC falls.c.AC is rising whenever MC>AC, but AC is falling when MC<AC, evenif MC is rising.d.The absence of a market does not imply the absence of value.e.The least-cost rule collapses to this only in very special circumstances.The firm minimizes costs when theratios of marginal product to input price are equal for all inputs.7. The income statement would look something like:Net sales $10 millionLess: costs $9million Net income$1 million Less:dividends $0Addition to retained earnings $1 million8.Assets Liabilities and net worth(end of year, millions) (end of year, millions)1999 2000 1999 2000Liabilities 0$50$51NetworthTotal$50$51Total$50$51 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. Explain what is meant by the terms fixed cost, variable cost, marginal cost, and average cost.2. Define the following concepts of costs and discuss how they are related to one another: TC, VC, FC, MC, AC, AFC,AVC.3. Why is it that the MC curve always intersects the AC curve at theminimum point of the AC curve? Why is this important?4. “Opportunity cost is a construction of academia that has no relevanceto the daily life of a firm, an entrepreneur, or the average individual.”Discuss this statement and provide examples to illustrate your arguments.5. What is the purpose of the income statement? What steps are necessaryto translate a figure for sales into a figure for net earnings after taxes? A figure for sales to a figure for retained earnings? Explain.6. What is depreciation? Outline several ways in which it might becomputed for accounting purposes and for tax pur- poses. Can different tax accountings actually favor more rapid growth for a firm? Explain. 7. Does an income statement always provide a true summary of a firm’s cash transactions? Why or why not?8. What does a balance sheet show? Describe how the fundamental accounting identity comes into play.9. “The law of diminishing returns is a production principle; hence it hasnothing to do with the cost curves.” Is this statement true? Discuss.10. What are the opportunity costs of a new parking garage that your university is considering building? Explain.11. Is it true that in the long run fixed costs are always zero? Explain why or why not.ESSAY QUESTIONS1. Suppose that it is known that FC = $10 and that TVC = 0, 1, 5, 8, 15 forQ = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Derive a production table with columns depicting TC, FC, VC, MC, AC, AFC and AVC.C HAPTER 7: A NALYSIS OF C OSTS 312. Draw a U-shaped AC curve and then draw its corresponding MC curve. Describe the relationship between thesetwo curves. If marginal cost is rising, must it be above average costs? 3. Define the term marginal cost. What is the relationship betweendiminishing returns and the marginal cost curve? Explain.4. How is AC computed? How do AFC and AVC differ? Illustrate these relationships graphically.5. Why should price equal opportunity costs in a well-functioning market?6. “The concept of marginal cost has great importance for welfareeconomics. The resources of society are being efficiently allocated and used only if there is an equality of marginal costs across goods produced everywhere in the country.” Discuss why this statement is true.7.a.What is a balance sheet? Explain what it means for a balance sheet tobalance.b.What is an income statement? How, if at all, is it related to the balancesheet?c.Does a year-end addition to earnings retained in a business necessarilimply an equal increase in thecompany’s cash? Why or why not?8. The balance sheet of Simplified Corporation contains the followingitems: common stock $8000, inventory $700, cash $500, accountspayable $1000, plant and equipment (less allowance for depreciation) $7000, bonds payable$3000.a. Calculate retained earnings (the only item missing above).b. What other information would you need to calculate SimplifiedCorporation’s net earnings after taxes?c. Arrange these items in proper balance-sheet form.9. An oil company buys a tanker at a cost of $200 million. It is estimatedthat the tanker will be obsolete in 8 years and will have a scrap value of $1.6 million.a. If the straight-line method of depreciation is used, how muchdepreciation will be charged each year on the income statement?b. How will this asset be shown on the balance sheet at the end of 5years?10. Particular Engines Ltd. is incorporated as of January 1, 1985. It sells10,000 shares of common stock at $100 per share. It buys new a plant and equipment worth $500,000 and pays $250,000 for a small engine-manufacturing company whose net assets, consisting only of plant and equipment, are valued at $200,000. During the year, the company purchases $200,000 of material, pays wages of $100,000, and makes sales of $500,000-all in cash. It depreciates its plant and equipment on an assumed average life of 10 years. At year end, its inventory is valued at$50,000, and a dividend is paid of $50,000.Draw up (a) an income statement for 1985 for Particular Engines Ltd. and(b) a balance sheet as of December 31,1985.11. a. Arrange the following items into a balance sheet, under theappropriate headings and subheadings. (Figures refer to thousands of dollars.)Accounts Payable = 80 Accounts receivable = 120Cash = 40 Common stock = 150Inventories = 60 Plant and equip = 200Depreciation allowance =70 Retained earnings = ? Bondspayable = 50b. What is the net worth of the company?c. No dividend was paid during the last year. A stockholder suggestedthat retained earnings being what they were, a dividend of $50 should be declared. Comment.d. Bond interest of $5 was paid during this last year. Anotherstockholder suggested that if dividends were being passed over, then bond interest ought not to have been paid either. Comment on this suggestion.12. Discuss the sense in which depreciation allowances on the asset side ofthe balance sheet do or do not represent an available pool of liquid assets to retire debt or replace equipment. Compare and contrast asinking fund to retire debt with an allowance for depreciation.13. Explain the relationship between MC and AC. Explain what happens when MC equals AC.14. Explain what happens to AC when MC is greater than AC.15. Is it possible for AC to be falling and MC to be increasing?。

萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案18

CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPS This chapter applies the microeconomic theory that we have developed throughout the text to a “real world” problem:How does an economy decide how to use its natural resources? Societies have addressed this question for centuries,some deciding that nature is wild and in need of taming through technology, and others fearing the inherent power of nature and its mysterious forces. In either case, the situation calls for allocation of scarce resources, so economists should be able to provide some answers!Section I kicks off with discussion of Malthus and population growth, and the impact of increasing population on living standards and environmental quality. Section II presents some alternative ways of categorizing natural resources and describes market allocation mechanisms. The final section addresses the problem of externalities, which occur when production imposes costs on outside individuals or on society at large. When externalities occur, the market has failed because demand or supply cannot capture the true costs and benefits of actions. As we learned in the last two chapters,this tends to lead to a role for government in the marketplace.Chapter 18 ties together many of the themes that you have been developing all semester. It relies on an understand-ing of allocation through the market mechanism, on industrial structure and the impact of market failure on resource allocation, and on the role of government when externalities occur and those externalities extend beyond local, state, and national borders. Y ou can use this material as a sort of capstone to the course, and as a review of the concepts that you have taught.LEARNING OBJECTIVES1.Discuss reasons why the theory on overpopulation growth developed by Malthus has had such a great impact on the way people think about resource use. Explain why Malthus’s somewhat gloomy predictions have not come about.2.Describe the relationship between the economy and the environment, as well as the relationship between a country’s development and the quality of its natural environment.3.Differentiate between appropriable and inappropriable resources, and between renewable and nonrenewable resources. Explain how decisions concerning the optimal use of environmental resources differ depending on the category in which they fall.4.Review the path of resource prices over the past several decades. Respond to the notion that resource prices should tend to increase as population increases and demand for those resources shifts to the right.5.Define the term externality . Describe the mechanism by which inefficiencies develop in markets when external costs and benefits are present.6.Use cost-benefit analysis to find the socially efficient quantity of pollution that will occur. Construct a diagram that illustrates this decision-making process. Explain how contingent valuation might be used to place values on envi-ronmental resources.7.Review alternative government policies that are designed to correct externalities, such as emission fees, markets for pollution permits, private contracts, and liability rules. Compare the pros and cons of these alternatives.8.Discuss the difficult problems raised by global public goods .SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT1.Renewable resources are those whose services are replenished regularly; nonrenewable resources are fixed in total supply. Renewable = water, forests; nonrenewable = fossil fuels.87C H A P T E RP r o t e c t i n g t h eE n v i r o n m e n t1888C HAPTER18: P ROTECTING THE E NVIRONMENT 2.An inappropriable resource is one whose use is free to the individual but costly to society. Long Island Sound is aninappropriable resource, because firms can dump trash in it for free, but this dumping imposes a cost on the rest of society. This is inefficient, because externalities are imposed on a third-party group that must pay a portion of the production costs even though they may not be involved in the market transaction.pare the arithmetic progression 2,4,6,... with the geometric progression 2,4,8,16,32... As long as the multipleused in the geometric progression is greater than 1, the geometric progression will always be greater than the arithmetic progression. As the numbers get larger, any multiple of those numbers will get larger.Hence, with a geometric progression the difference between the numbers is getting larger; with an arithmetic pro-gression the difference between the numbers is constant.4.Food production per capita would be given by the equationFPC = Total Food Production / Total PopulationIf the numerator is increasing arithmetically while the denominator is increasing geometrically, by your answer to #4 above the food per capita will eventually fall.5.Yes, towns may have an incentive to compete for “high quality” residents using local public goods. Towns withgood schools and nice beaches will be more attractive to residents and firms that are looking to relocate. Towns want to attract residents and firms that are going to bring tax dollars and other inputs to enhance the life of the com-munity. This indicates that we should return responsibility for these local public goods to the hands of local policy-makers. However, in some areas, inner-city neighborhoods for example, it is difficult to return responsibility to the residents, who may be besieged by crime and other problems. In Hartford, Connecticut, for example, the local school board at one point turned responsibility for schools over to a private firm. The point here is that local author-ity in these areas is good but is not the answer for all communities.e your own judgment on these.7.This technique is not too reliable, since people have a tendency to overvalue an item that they do not actually haveto pay for.8. a.Although many economists in the U.S. like to rely on the market to solve problems, most are willing to agreethat externalities occur when markets fail. That is, environmental problems often occur when property rights are difficult, if not impossible, to define.b.Economists often recommend market solutions because they cause smaller distortions in the distribution ofresources than would occur in a setting with full information. However, this does not mean that many economists fail to recognize the need for government-mediated solutions in some cases.c.Economists often rely on the price mechanism because, as mentioned above, it leads to a more efficient alloca-tion of resources. However, economists do recommend other sorts of solutions, such as emissions fees, in some instances.d.The most difficult economic questions involve achieving a balance between these two goals in distributingresources. On the one hand, most economists want to “make the most” out of a system’s endowment of resources.On the one hand, many of us are concerned with distributing that endowment of resources in a fair way.9.See Figure 18-1. In this case, what is “best” for each country individually leaves the world with a level of pollutionthat is higher than the social optimum. In such cases, a cooperative solution is more efficient than the competitive solution.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.Review the ideas that Thomas Malthus had about population growth. What important factor did Malthus ignore?2.Consider the relationship between population and living standards. Think of some areas of the world that have highpopulations and poor living standards; think of some areas of the world that have high populations and high living standards.3.If a resource is inappropriable, will market failure always occur? Does the government always have to step in toallocate an inappropriable resource efficiently?4.Why is it that the prices of natural resources have not skyrocketed over the course of this century, as a greater worldpopulation is now demanding greater and greater amounts of these resources?5.What is the difference between public and private goods? Why can’t private markets provide a good like nationaldefense?C HAPTER18: P ROTECTING THE E NVIRONMENT89Figure 18-1e a diagram to illustrate the determination of a socially optimal level of pollution. Does this mean that societydesires some amount of pollution? Why would this be?pare alternative government policies designed to correct externalities. What are the pros and cons of each?8.Why have markets for tradeable pollution permits become a popular solution for pollution problems? Whathappens if a single firm buys all of the permits that exist?9.What is a global public good? Explain why these externalities are so difficult to manage. How did the KyotoProtocol attempt to deal with the problem of a global public good?10.David Roodman writes, “But if the market’s spontaneous origin has led many to underestimate its value, the mar-ket’s power has dazzled others into overlooking its shortcomings.” [The Natural Wealth of Nations. New York: W.W.Norton, 1998.] Interpret this statement. What have market forces done for the standard of living in the U.S.this century? What are the shortcomings of this progress?ESSAY QUESTIONS1.Throughout history, technology has had incredibly important impacts on the way that we live and work. In spite ofthe tremendous advantages technology brings, it also carries problems and responsibilities. What are some of these? Why might unchecked technological advance cause social problems?2.What is the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources? During the 1970s, OPEC, an internationaloil cartel, dominated the market for oil and controlled the world supply so as to keep prices high. What happened to this cartel? If oil is a nonrenewable resource, how did OPEC lose control over the world market?3.Why has the world price of oil not skyrocketed in this century, as more and more people are using this source ofenergy? What are the sources of the recent price increases that occurred in the spring 2000?4.Is health care a public good? Are significant externalities generated by the provision of health care? What are thenature of these externalities?5.If health care is a public good, why does government not provide health-care services for everyone? Explain.pare direct controls with economic incentives as alternative methods for government to use in limiting (or pro-moting) externalities. Which type of incentive do you find most appealing?7.State the Coase theorem. Why did Coase believe that private individuals could take care of externalities?8.What important assumptions underlie the Coase theorem? Do these assumptions characterize markets in the UnitedStates today? If so, should we get the government out of the business of regulating externalities and allow private markets to operate?9.Do you think that contingent valuation is a good way to place value on our natural resources? Do individuals havean incentive to be truthful?。

萨缪尔逊《经济学》第11章

价格动态下调步骤导致两个对手越来越低的价格。
共五十一页
B.1 基本概念
• 双寡头垄断的价格博弈 (duopoly price game) • 如果市场上的供给只由两个(liǎnɡ ɡè)企业提供，那么
就称之为一个双寡头垄断市场。 • 支付矩阵 (payoff table)：体现两个企业或两个人
B、博弈论
基本概念博弈论的一些重要例子
共五十一页
课前思考(sīkǎo)
• 1、“股市(ɡǔ shì)有风险，入市需谨慎”，“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”，日常生活中我们都听说过很多关于风险的说法，你是如何认识风险的呢？你认为风险与危险有区别吗？
• 2.现代经济社会，投保是一种十分常见的行为。你和你的家庭有参加过任何形式的保险吗？你认为保险为什么能减少你所可能遭遇的风险呢？
共五十一页
A.4 信息经济中的市场(shìchǎng)不灵
• 市场不灵的两个重要因素：道德风险和逆向选择
• 道德风险 (moral hazard)：当保险减小了个人躲避和防止风险的动力，从而扭曲了损失的原本概率时，便会发生道德风险。
• 逆向选择 (adverse selection)：当风险最大者成为最可能(kěnéng) 购买保险的人群，便会发生逆向选择。
例二博弈论中参与方的策略集合
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排列组合
• 排列：从n个不同元素中，任取m(m≤n)个元素，按照一定的顺序排成一列，叫做(jiàozuò)从n个不同元素中取出m个元素的一个排列．
• 组合：从n个不同元素中，任取m(m≤n)个元素并成一
组，叫做从 n个不同元素中取出m个元素的一个组合．
共五十一页
共五十一页
通过套期保值(bǎo zhí)分摊风险