国际贸易第二章19712
《国际贸易理论、政策与实务》第2章
2.1.2 亚当·斯密的绝对利益模型
所谓绝对利益或者说绝对优势(Absolute Advantage)，是指在某 一商品生产上，一国所耗费的劳动成本绝对低于另一国，在生产 效率上占有绝对优势。
斯密的绝对利益说指明，一国出口的是那些在本国进行生产比较 有效率的商品，而进口的是在国外进行生产比较有效率的商品。 这样贸易双方国家较之各自闭关自守时能交换到更多的商品量， 从而都从贸易中获得绝对的好处。
商品 A B C D E 国家
I
23 4 7 8
II
1 2 3 8 10
以商品C为标准 I国商品成本比较: 2/4<3/4<7/4<8/4 II国商品成本比较: 1/3<2/3<8/3<10/3 比较结论：I国可出口D、 E商品, II国可出口A、B商品
2、生产可能性边界曲线 将机会成本与生产函数结合起来,可做出生产可能性边界曲线图
较利益理论的结论有何影响？ 8.用几何图形分析分别说明来自交易和来自分工的利益。
谢谢大家！
2.4.5李嘉图模型中的国际贸易类型的分析
图2-10 国际贸易的分工类型
商品1的均衡相对价 格和产量由相对供 给与需求曲线的交 点决定。与此对应 的商品1的相对价格 位于两国贸易前的 商品1相对价格之间， 在这种情况下，两 国各自生产具有比 较优势的商品
名词术语
国际分工理论 绝对成本 比较成本 生产费用 递增成本 机会成本 比较利益
在第1种情况下,2国生产y1,y2并出口皆有绝对利益,但按机会成 本,1国生产y2,2国生产y1皆具比较利益;据此相互分工交换对双方 都有利。
在第2种情况下, 2国生产y1,y2并出口皆有绝对利益,但按机会成 本,1国生产y1,2国生产y2皆具比较利益;据此相互分工交换对双方 都有利。
国际贸易实务课第五版(第二章 )
FOB VESSEL （┉ named port of shipment ）与《 2010通则 》的解释 基本相近 。 《2010通 则》与《 1990年美 国对外贸 易定义修 订本》差 异： ①交货 地点：比 如在纽约 船上交 货，应表 示为FOB VESSEL NEWYORK 。如规定 为FOB NEWYORK ，则卖方 有权在纽 约市的内 陆运输工 具上交 货，不负 责交到纽 约港口的 船上 ②风险 划分界限 ③出口 手续的办 理
E.FOB Vessel(n amed port of shipment )-船上交 货（指定 装运港） F.FOB(na med inland point country of importat ion)-进 口国指定 内陆地点 交货
③ FAS (Free Along Side) 在运输工 具旁交货
（3）FOB 的变形 （租船运 输时，装 船费用的 划分）
FOB liner terms FOB 班轮 条件 买方承担 装船费用
FOB under tackle FOB吊钩 下交货 买方承担 装船费用
FOB stowed FOB理舱 卖方承担 装船费用
FOB trimmed FOB平舱 卖方承担 装船费用 （4）个 别国家对 FOB 的不 同解释： 案例:某进口公司于1991年从美国进口特种异型钢材200公吨，每公吨按900美圆FOB Vessel New York成交 国银行向对方开出了一张金额为18万美圆的信用证，对方接到信用证后称“信用证已收到，但金额不足， 签证费，由你方另行电汇”。我方接电后认为这是美方无理要求，回电指出“按FOB Vessel条件成交，卖 》中有规定”。美方又回电“成交时并未明确规定按《通则》办，根据我们的商业习惯及《1990年美国对
《国际贸易》第二章习题及答案
《国际贸易》第二章习题及答案第二章国际分工与世界市场一.单项选择题1．（）以国际分工形成和发展的决定性因素。
A．自然条件B．生产关系C．社会生产力D．上层建筑2．（）是国际分工产生和发展的基础。
A．自然条件B．生产关系C．社会生产力D．上层建筑3．二战后，国际分工向（）过渡和发展。
A．垂直型B．水平型C．垂直型和水平型D．水平型和混合型4.国际分工的形成始于（）。
A.第一次科技革命以后B.机器大工业建立以后C.第二次世界大战以后D.第一次世界大战以后5.世界自由市场价格形成的客观基础是（）。
A.国际供求关系B.买卖双方的约定C.各国政府间的协商 D.各国资源的禀赋6.可以对国际分工起到推进或延缓双重作用的是（）。
A.上层建筑B.资本流动C.社会生产力D.社会制度7.在资本主义原始积累时期，国际分工主要是在（）之间进行的。
A.发达国家与发展中国家B.发达国家与发达国家C.发展中国家与发展中国家D.宗主国与殖民地8.单位商品的国际价值量的高低与劳动生产率成反比，与劳动强度（）。
A.成反比B.相同C.成正比D.不相关9.宗主国与殖民地之间的分工最初出现于国际分工的（）。
A.萌芽阶段B.形成阶段C.发展阶段D.深化阶段10.为国际分工的发展奠定了物质基础的是（）。
A.国际资本的流动B.国际服务贸易的发展C.大机器工业的建立D.黄金二、多项选择题1.国际分工是（）A.国际贸易的基础B.国际市场的基础C.国际贸易的产物D.国际市场的产物E.旧的国际经济秩序的重要组成部分2.影响国际分工形成与发展的因素包括（）A.社会生产力B.社会生产关系C.自然条件D.资本流动 E.上层建筑3.对于生产力与国际分工的关系，下列说法中正确的有（）A.生产力的发展决定了国际分工的产品内容B.各国生产力水平决定了其在国际分工中的地位C.生产力对于国际分工的形成起决定作用D.国际分工是生产力发展的必然结果4.对外贸易的乘数作用表现为（）。
国际贸易理论和实务第二章 国际贸易基本理论-PPT课件
第二节 亚当.斯密的绝对优势理论
Adam Smith简介 1723-1790, 经济学之父，古典学派自由贸 易理论的创始人 之一 1776年出版《An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations》（国民财富的性质和原因的研究） 简称《国富论》 。 在其代表作《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》 一书中提出了绝对优势理论。
第二章
国际贸易基本理论
第一节 重商主义对外贸易学说
• 重商主义是15-17世纪欧洲资本原始积累 时期，代表商业资本利益的经济思想和政 策体系，该思想揭示了贸易保护的必要性， 是最早的贸易保护理论。
• 重商主义认为货币是财富的唯一形态，可 分为早期和晚期。
早期的重商主义 重商主义（ Mercantilism ） 晚期的重商主 的观点是货币差 义的观点是贸 额论 盛行于15世纪-18世纪， 易差额论 早期(15世纪-----16世纪中期) 晚期(16世纪中期-----17世纪中期) 观点：货币是财富的唯一形态
三、比较优势论的论证
分工前:
毛呢
劳动量 产量 劳动量
酒
产量
英国 葡萄牙
100 90
1 1
120 80
1 1
分工后，（两国劳动投入量不变）
毛呢 英国 葡萄牙
（100+120） ÷100＝2.2
酒 （进口）
（90+80） ÷80＝2.125
（进口）
• 按照1：1进行国际交换后， 毛呢 英国 葡萄 牙
毛呢 英国
葡萄牙
1．5（比分工前多1 单位）
酒 1（进口）
2（比分工前多2 单位）
1（进口）
第二章国际贸易基本理论
1
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理论 假设 (lǐlùn)
供给方面
两个国家、两种产品、一种生产要素投 入(劳动力)，即这是一个2×2×1模型。
投入的边际产量是固定的。
生产的规模报酬不变。
需求 方面
(xūqiú)
收入预算约束，即对两种产品的消费需 求受制于收入水平，不可能借债消费。
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理论(lǐlùn)假设（续）
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比较利益 理论 (lìyì)
理论背景
如果一个国家连一个成本优势的商品都 没有，而另一个国家两种商品都具有成 本优势，那么双方还会发生贸易吗?即使 进行(jìnxíng)贸易，贸易双方都能获得利益吗? 各国还会实行自由贸易吗?
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主要 内容： (zhǔyào)
创立者：大卫·李嘉图（David Ricardo） 著名(zhùmíng)的英国经济学家，是资产阶 级古典经济学的完成者
代表作：《政治经济学及赋税原理》 （Principles of Political Economy and Taxation）(1817年)
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比较(bǐjiào)利益论的主要假设前提
1. 只有两个国家，生产两种商品(shāngpǐn)；
2. 自由贸易； 3. 劳动在国内具有完全的流动性，但在两国之间则完
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主要 内容 (zhǔyào)
创立者：亚当(yà dānɡ)·斯密（Adam Smith）(1723-1790)
代表作： 《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》 （Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations），简称《国富论》（The Wealth of Nations）
第2章国际贸易理论
一、重商主义学说
（二）重商主义学说的主要内容
货币平衡论 早期重商主义 主张禁止货物进口， 以防止贵金属外流。
贸易平衡论
晚期重商主义
要求发展对外贸易， 出发点是对外贸易所 吸引进来的货币多于 出去的货币。
国际贸易理论与实务（第3版）陈岩
一、重商主义学说
1. 早期重商主义
古典贸 易理论
比较优势论
大卫.李嘉图
H-O模型 新古典 （现代） 贸易理 论
赫克歇尔 俄林
1.两种或两种以上要素投入 2.边际成本递增 3.商品和要素市场完全竞争 4.固定规模报酬(无规模经济)
资源禀赋不同
特殊要素贸 易模型
保罗.萨缪尔森
当代贸 易理论 模型
规模经济贸 易模型
保罗.克鲁格曼
1.产品生产具有规模经济 2.不完全竞争的商品市场 3.竞争的要素市场
国际贸易理论与实务（第3版）陈岩
国际贸易的主要理论模型
主要理论模型
绝对优势论
主要理论贡献者
亚当.斯密
关键假设
1.劳动是唯一的要素投入 2.固定的产品边际成本 3.商品和要素市场完全竞争 4.固定规模报酬(无规模经济 5.不考虑需求
决定贸易 模式的因素
生产技术绝对不同 (绝对劳动生产率差) 生产技术相对不同 (相对劳动生产率差)
国际贸易理论与实务（第3版）陈岩
二、古典国际贸易理论
• 绝对利益学说的主要内容是: – 1. 国际分工是建立在一个国 家所拥有的自然优势和获得 这种优势的基础上的。 斯密 认为各国因地域和自然条件 不同而形成的商品成本的绝 对差异是国际贸易发生的原 因。 – 2. 主张自由贸易。
（2）从非洲输往美洲的主要是奴隶。
海闻《国际贸易》第二章. 国际贸易理论
重商主义的贸易观点 斯密绝对优势贸易理论 大卫· 李嘉图的比较优势理论
大米 （人均产量） 小麦 (人均产量) 50/100=0.5 100/100=1.0
中国 美国
100/100=1.0 80/100=0.8
从劳动生产率角度：中国每人每年生产1吨大米，美国每人每年 只生产0.8吨,中国具有生产大米的绝对优势,而美国则具有生产小 麦的绝对优势
21
表2.3 中国和美国的生产成本 (aLj)
17
（2） 生产和贸易模式
根据绝对优势贸易理论，各 国应该专门生产并出口其具有 “绝对优势”的产品，不生产但 进口其具有“绝对劣势” 的产品；
18
绝对优势的衡量有两种办法：
（1）用劳动生产率，即用单位要素投入的 产出率来衡量 ： Q L 高--绝对优势
j
（2）用生产成本，即用生产一单位产品所 需的要素投入数量来衡量 ：a L Q 低—绝对优势
22
(3)、贸易所得
中 国 美 国 合计
大米
小麦
25
大米
40
小麦
50
大米
90
小麦
75
分 工 前 分 工 后
生产量 交换比 例 消费量 生产量 交换比 例 消费量
50 1：0.5 50 100
1：1.25 25 0 40 0 50 100 90 100 75 100
1：1
50 50 +25 50 +10 50 100 100
国际贸易理论与实务课件-第二章
图2-5中纵轴正方向表示出口量，负方向 表示进口量；横轴T表示时间。to为美国开 始生产时间，t1为美国开始出口和欧洲开 始进口时间，t2为发展中国家开始进口时 间，t3为欧洲国家开始出口时间， t4为美 国开始进口时间， t5为发展中国家开始出 口时间。
※产品生命周期理论是一个动态理论。 其动态含义表现为：
都可按“有利取重，不利择轻” 的原则进行国际分工和国际贸易， 都可以得到实际利益。
比较成本理论（V）
局限性
缺乏动态分析 通过分工获得的比较利益不一定体
现一国的长远利益。 未能揭示支配国际交换的规律。
国际贸易理论体系简图
古典国际 贸易理论
现代国际 贸易理论
绝
比
对
较
成
成
本
本
理
理
论
论
要 素 供 给 比 例 理 论
里昂惕夫之谜 （Leontief Paradox）
美国出口商品和进口替代商品对国内资 本和劳动力的需要量
1947年
1951年
出 口 进口替代 出 口 进口替代
资本（美元） 2550780 3091339 2256800 2303400
劳动（人/年） 182.313
人平均年 资本量
13991
170.004 18184
173.91 12977
167.81 13726
里昂惕夫之谜 （Leontief Paradox）
对里昂惕夫之谜的解释： 劳动力不同质 要素密集度逆转 存在关税及贸易壁垒 自然资源稀缺
战后国际贸易理论（Ⅱ）
国际贸易新要素理论
人力资本理论：它认为人力资本是劳动力与资 本结合而形成的一种新的生产要素。人们通过 对劳动力进行投资，可以提高其素质，从而影 响一国参与国际分工的比较优势。
国际贸易英语第二章讲义
国际贸易英语第二章讲义International Trade TheoriesChapter 2 Modern Trade Theories (1)In Chapter 2 and 3 we have discussed the benefits from trade. In this and the next two chapters, our discussion will be focused on providing the theoretical basis for international trade by introducing the most popular modern trade theories, such as the theories of mercantilism, absolute advantage and comparative advantage, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of factor endowments, the Leontief paradox, the product life-cycle theory and the “Gravity” model of trade by Andrew Rose and some other new trade theories.Mercantilism(1) ConceptMercantilism can be defined in various ways but most popularly it is defined as a sort of economic doctrine seeking to secure a nation’s supremacy over other states by the accumulation of precious metal (silver and gold) and by exporting the largest possible quantity of products while importing as little as possible.(2) Historical backgroundThis doctrine or theory representing the first stage in the development of modern trade theory, arose during the period 1500-1800 in Europe (mainly in Britain and France) with the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism. The quick growth of capitalism called for accumulation of currency and expansion of market.(3) Major view points of mercantilists and criticism of mercantilismAccording to the mercantilists like Thomos Mun (157-1641), the central question was how a country could regulate its domestic and international affairs so as to promote its own interests. The solution lay in a strong foreign trade sector. If a nation could achieve a favorable trade balance (trade surplus or a surplus of exports over imports), it would make a lot of money in the form of gold and silver. Such revenues would contribute to increased spending and a rise in domestic output and employment.To achieve a trade surplus the mercantilists like Thomos Mun advocated governmental regulation of trade. Tariffs, quotas and other commercial policies (even monopolization) were proposed by mercantilists to minimize imports in order to protect a nation’s trade position. In 1630, Thomos Mun —the mercantilist English writer was quoted as saying: “The ordinary means therefore to increase our wealth and treasure is by foreign trade, wherein we must observe the rule: to sell more to strangers yearly than we consume of theirs in value.”By the 18th century, the economic policies of the mercantilists were under strong attack. For example, David Hume expressed his disagreement with mercantilists by saying that a favorable trade balance was possible only in the short run, for over time it would automatically be eliminated. Adam Smith also opposed the theory of mercantilism with the theory of free trade and international division of labor.(4) Is mercantilism dead?The answer is no. It is still living and working in developed countries.Some trade experts say Japan is a neo-mercantilist nation because its government, while publicly supporting free trade,simultaneously seeks to protect certain segments of its economy from more efficient foreign competition. This example shows the theory of mercantilism remain in practice today. But modern version of mercantilism differs from the original in that today the accumulation of convertible currency instead of gold and silver is often the goal of governments.Absolute AdvantageThe second modern theory explaining why nations trade is Adam Smith’s absolute advantage. This theory of absolute advantage also represents the first stage in the development of modern trade theories.(1) DefinitionWhen country A can produce a unit of a good with less labor than countryB we say that country A has an absolute advantage in producing that good.(2) Major views of this theoryAdam Smith (1723-1790), one of the most influential classical economists was a leading advocate of free trade on the grounds that it promoted the international division of labor. According to his theory of absolute advantage, nations could concentrate their production on goods they could make most cheaply, with all the consequent benefits of the division of labor.In further explaining his principle of absolute advantage he used some suppositions. “In a two-country two-product world”, h e said, international trade and specialization will be beneficial when one country has an absolute cost advantage (that is, it can produce a good using fewer resources) in the production of one product, whereas the other country has about cost advantage in the other product. For nations to benefit fromthe international division of labor, each nation must have a kind of goods that it is absolutely more efficient in producing than its trading partner.Smith felt it was far better for a country to import goods that could be produced overseas more efficiently than to manufacture them itself. Countries would import goods in the production of which they had an absolute disadvantage against the exporting country. They would export goods in the production of which they had an absolute advantage over the importingcountry.More of his theory of absolute advantage can be found in his landmark book The wealth of Nations written in 1776 in which Adam Smith attacked the mercantilist assumption that trade was a zero-sum g ame. In Smith’s opinion each nation had some sort of absolute advantage in the production of certain goods. If it could specialize in the production of them and then exchange the goods with each other, every country would receive a benefit.(3) Illustration of the theory of absolute advantageSuppose there it’s a two-country, two-product world in which Ghana produces cocoa and South Korea rice. Assume that Ghana and South Korea both have 200 units of resources and that these resources can be used to produce either. Further imagine that in Ghana (due to its favorable climate, goods soil and ready access to world shipping routes) it takes 10 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 20 units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, Ghana could produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 10 tons of rice and no cocoa, or some combination of rice and cocoa in between the two extremes.Similarly imagine that in South Korea it takes 40 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 10 units of resourcesto produce one ton of rice. Thus, South Korea could produce 5 tons of cocoa and no rice, 20 tons of rice and no cocoa, or some combination between the two extremes. Clearly, Ghana has an absolute advantage in the production of cocoa and South Korea has an absolute advantage in the production of rice as shown in the following figure.So it is mutually beneficial for Ghana and South Korea to sell the product in the production of which they have absolute advantage.Comparative Advantage(1) DefinitionComparative advantage can be defined in the following two ways:a. According to the theory of comparative advantage, it makes sense for a country to specialize in the production of those goods it produces most efficiently and to buy the goods that it produces less efficiently from other countries, even if this means buying goods from other countries that it could produce more efficiently itself.b. A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other good is lower in that country than it is in other countries.(2) Chief points of viewIn explaining why nations trade, David Ricardo (1772-1823) developed the trade principle of comparative advantage. According to this principle, even if a nation has an absolute disadvantage in the production of both goods relative to its trading partner, a basis for mutually beneficial trade may still exist. The less efficient nation should specialize in and export the good in which it is comparatively less inefficient (where its absolutedisadvantage is least). The more efficient nation should specialize in and export that good in which it is comparatively more efficient (where its absolute advantage is greatest). Absolute productive efficiency was thus not a crucial factor governing the basis for international trade, according to Ricardo. The Ricardian model or principle of comparative advantage is today the most famous and influential principle of economics.(3) Illustration of the principle of comparative advantageThe operation of comparative advantage principle can be shown by thefollowing figure:Assume that Ghana is more efficient in the production of both cocoa and rice, that Ghana has an absolute advantage in the production of both goods. And that in Ghana it takes 10 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, given its 200 units of resources, Ghana can produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 15 tons of rice and no cocoa, or any combination between on its PPF.In South Korea it takes 40 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 20 units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, South Korea can produce 5 tons of cocoa and no rice, 10 tons of rice and no cocoa or any combination on its PPF.Again assume that without trade each country uses half of its resources to produce rice and half to produce cocoa. Thus, without trade, Ghana will produce 10 tons of cocoa and 7.5 tons of rice, while South Korea will produce 2.5 tons of cocoa and 5 tons of rice. In light of Ghana’s absolute advantage in the production of both cocoa and rice why should it trade with South Korea? The answer is: Although Ghana has an absolute advantage in the production of both goods, it has comparativeadvantage only in the production of cocoa. In other words Ghana can produce 4 times as much cocoa as South Korea, but only 1.5 times as much rice. Ghana is comparatively more efficient at producing cocoa than it is at producing rice. In such a case when Ghana specializes in the production of cocoa and sell it in exchange for South Korea’s rice which it is more efficient at producing, there is still mutually beneficial trade.(4) Comparison between the theory of absolute advantage and the theory of comparative advantageAfter comparison we’ll find Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage is more advanced than Smith’s theory of absolute advantage. According to Smith’s view, the product exported by a country must be a good which the exporting country has absolute advantage to produce and the cost of producing it must be absolutely lower than the same good of another country. But David Ricardo took Adam Smith’s theory of absolute advantage one step further. In his opinion not necessarily every country has to produce all sorts of goods. What a nation should do is to concentrate its efforts and resources on producing those goods high can generate more advantage and bring about less disadvantages. Under such conditions international trade would result in international division of labor and specialization beneficial to all countries. In addition, Ricardo particularly stressed labor productivity and argued that differences in labor productivity between nations underlie the notion of comparative advantage.Despite the differences between the two theories they have something in common. Both Smith and Ricardo emphasized the supply side of the market and the fact that the immediate basis for trade stemmed from cost differences. Actually Ricardo’stheory of comparative advantage was developed on the basis of Smith’s theory of absolute advantage.New Words1.doctrine 学说，理论2. feudalism 封建主义3. to regulate （依法）管理4. interests 利益（单数interest表示“利息”）5. to advocate 拥护，提倡6. to observe 遵守7. segment 部门 8.version 说法，看法9. convertible 可兑换的 10. to underlie 构成（理论、政策等）的基础11. monopolization 垄断Useful Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions1. to provide a basis for 为……提供根据2. to secure supremacy over sb. 获得超过某人的霸权3. to call for 要求，需要4. to contribute to 对……起一分作用5. to be quoted as saying“……” 被引述时这样说道“……”6. to consume of sth. 消费某物7. under strong attack 受到强有力的打击8. to express disagreement with sb. 表示对某人的不同意9. in the short run 在短期内（＝in the short term）10. relative to 与……相比较11. in light of 按照，根据12. to take sth. One step further 比……高出一筹13. to concentrate sth. on sth. else 将某事集中于某事ExercisesI. Answer the following Questions:1. What is meant by the theory of absolute advantage?2. Can you give a good illustration of comparative advantage?3. Why is comparative-advantage theory more popular advantage?4. What is mercantilism? What are its main view points?5. In what way is the modern version of mercantilism different from the original one?6. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the theory of absoluteadvantage and the theory of comparative advantage?II. Translate the following into English”1.李嘉图认为每个国家不一定要生产各种商品，而应集中力量生产那些利益较大或不利较小的商品然后通过国际贸易互相获益。
国际贸易实务第02章
仲裁机构对申请进行审查并决定是否受理立案。 若受理立案，则通知双方当事人并组成仲裁庭进 行审理。
开庭审理与裁决作出
在开庭审理过程中，双方当事人可以陈述事实、 提供证据并进行辩论。最终由仲裁庭根据事实和 法律作出裁决结果。
06
国际贸易实务案例分析
成功案例分享：如何顺利完成一笔进出口交易
充分了解市场需求
信用证（Letter of Credit, L/C）：信用证是指开证银行应申请人（买方）的要求并按其指 示向受益人开立的载有一定金额的、在一定的期限内凭符合规定的单据付款的书面保证文件。 信用证是一种银行信用，是国际贸易中最主要、最常用的支付方式。
各类支付工具使用方法和注意事项
汇票（Draft）
汇票是出票人签发的，委托付款人在见票时或者在指定日期无条件支付确定的金额给收款 人或者持票人的票据。使用汇票时需注意出票人和付款人的资信，以及汇票的真伪和有效 性。
规定不可抗力事件的范 围、通知和证明等内容。
规定争议解决方式、仲 裁机构或法院等内容。
合同履行过程中注意事项
严格履行合同义务
按照合同约定全面履行自己的义务， 包括交付标的物、支付价款等。
02
关注合同履行进度
及时了解合同履行情况，确保合同按 照约定时间节点顺利推进。
01
寻求专业帮助
在合同履行过程中遇到复杂或专业问 题时，可以寻求专业律师或相关机构 的帮助和支持。
合同条款模糊不清
在签订合同时，未对关键条款进行明 确约定或存在歧义，导致双方理解不 一致，引发争议和诉讼。
应对风险能力不足
在面对汇率波动、政策变化等风险时， 缺乏有效的应对措施和调整能力，导 致交易失败或损失扩大。
案例讨论：提高应对复杂局面能力
国际贸易英语第二章讲义教学内容
International Trade TheoriesChapter 2 Modern Trade Theories (1)In Chapter 2 and 3 we have discussed the benefits from trade. In this and the next two chapters, our discussion will be focused on providing the theoretical basis for international trade by introducing the most popular modern trade theories, such as the theories of mercantilism, absolute advantage and comparative advantage, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of factor endowments, the Leontief paradox, the product life-cycle theory and the “Gravity” model of trade by Andrew Rose and some other new trade theories.Mercantilism(1) ConceptMercantilism can be defined in various ways but most popularly it is defined as a sort of economic doctrine seeking to secure a nation’s supremacy over other state s by the accumulation of precious metal (silver and gold) and by exporting the largest possible quantity of products while importing as little as possible.(2) Historical backgroundThis doctrine or theory representing the first stage in the development of modern trade theory, arose during the period 1500-1800 in Europe (mainly in Britain and France) with the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism. The quick growth of capitalism called for accumulation of currency and expansion of market.(3) Major view points of mercantilists and criticism of mercantilismAccording to the mercantilists like Thomos Mun (157-1641), the central question was how a country could regulate its domestic and international affairs so as to promote its own interests. The solution lay in a strong foreign trade sector. If a nation could achieve a favorable trade balance (trade surplus or a surplus of exports over imports), it would make a lot of money in the form of gold and silver. Such revenues would contribute to increased spending and a rise in domestic output and employment.To achieve a trade surplus the mercantilists like Thomos Mun advocated governmental regulation of trade. Tariffs, quotas and other commercial policies (even monopolization) were proposed by mercantilists to minimize imports in order to protect a nation’s trade position. In 1630, Thomos Mun —the mercantilist English writer was quoted as saying: “The ordinary means therefore to increase our wealth and treasure is by foreign trade, wherein we must observe the rule: to sell more to strangers yearly than we consume of theirs in value.”By the 18th century, the economic policies of the mercantilists were under strong attack. For example, David Hume expressed his disagreement with mercantilists by saying that a favorable trade balance was possible only in the short run, for over time it would automatically be eliminated. Adam Smith also opposed the theory of mercantilism with the theory of free trade and international division of labor.(4) Is mercantilism dead?The answer is no. It is still living and working in developed countries.Some trade experts say Japan is a neo-mercantilist nation because its government, while publicly supporting free trade, simultaneously seeks to protect certain segments of its economy from more efficient foreign competition. This example shows the theory of mercantilism remain inpractice today. But modern version of mercantilism differs from the original in that today the accumulation of convertible currency instead of gold and silver is often the goal of governments.Absolute AdvantageThe second modern theory explaining why nations trade is Adam Smith’s absolute advantage. This theory of absolute advantage also represents the first stage in the development of modern trade theories.(1) DefinitionWhen country A can produce a unit of a good with less labor than country B we say that country A has an absolute advantage in producing that good.(2) Major views of this theoryAdam Smith (1723-1790), one of the most influential classical economists was a leading advocate of free trade on the grounds that it promoted the international division of labor. According to his theory of absolute advantage, nations could concentrate their production on goods they could make most cheaply, with all the consequent benefits of the division of labor.In further explaining his principle of absolute advantage he used some suppositions. “In a two-country two-product world”, he said, international trade and specialization will be beneficial when one country has an absolute cost advantage (that is, it can produce a good using fewer resources) in the production of one product, whereas the other country has about cost advantage in the other product. For nations to benefit from the international division of labor, each nation must have a kind of goods that it is absolutely more efficient in producing than its trading partner.Smith felt it was far better for a country to import goods that could be produced overseas more efficiently than to manufacture them itself. Countries would import goods in the production of which they had an absolute disadvantage against the exporting country. They would export goods in the production of which they had an absolute advantage over the importing country.More of his theory of absolute advantage can be found in his landmark book The wealth of Nations written in 1776 in which Adam Smith attacked the mercantilist assumption that trade was a zero-sum game. In Smith’s opinion each nation had some sort of absolute advantage in the production of certain goods. If it could specialize in the production of them and then exchange the goods with each other, every country would receive a benefit.(3) Illustration of the theory of absolute advantageSuppose there it’s a two-country, two-product world in which Ghana produces cocoa and South Korea rice. Assume that Ghana and South Korea both have 200 units of resources and that these resources can be used to produce either. Further imagine that in Ghana (due to its favorable climate, goods soil and ready access to world shipping routes) it takes 10 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 20 units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, Ghana could produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 10 tons of rice and no cocoa, or some combination of rice and cocoa in between the two extremes.Similarly imagine that in South Korea it takes 40 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 10 units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, South Korea could produce 5tons of cocoa and no rice, 20 tons of rice and no cocoa, or some combination between the two extremes. Clearly, Ghana has an absolute advantage in the production of cocoa and South Korea has an absolute advantage in the production of rice as shown in the following figure.So it is mutually beneficial for Ghana and South Korea to sell the product in the production of which they have absolute advantage.Comparative Advantage(1) DefinitionComparative advantage can be defined in the following two ways:a. According to the theory of comparative advantage, it makes sense for a country to specialize in the production of those goods it produces most efficiently and to buy the goods that it produces less efficiently from other countries, even if this means buying goods from other countries that it could produce more efficiently itself.b. A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other good is lower in that country than it is in other countries.(2) Chief points of viewIn explaining why nations trade, David Ricardo (1772-1823) developed the trade principle of comparative advantage. According to this principle, even if a nation has an absolute disadvantage in the production of both goods relative to its trading partner, a basis for mutually beneficial trade may still exist. The less efficient nation should specialize in and export the good in which it is comparatively less inefficient (where its absolute disadvantage is least). The more efficient nation should specialize in and export that good in which it is comparatively more efficient (where its absolute advantage is greatest). Absolute productive efficiency was thus not a crucial factor governing the basis for international trade, according to Ricardo. The Ricardian model or principle of comparative advantage is today the most famous and influential principle of economics.(3) Illustration of the principle of comparative advantageThe operation of comparative advantage principle can be shown by the following figure:Assume that Ghana is more efficient in the production of both cocoa and rice, that Ghana hasan absolute advantage in the production of both goods. And that in Ghana it takes 10 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 3113 units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, given its 200 units of resources, Ghana can produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 15 tons of rice and no cocoa, or any combination between on its PPF.In South Korea ittakes 40 units of resources to produce one ton of cocoa and 20 units of resources to produce one ton of rice. Thus, South Korea can produce 5 tons of cocoa and no rice,10 tons of rice and no cocoa or any combination on its PPF.Again assume that without trade each country uses half of its resources to produce rice and half to produce cocoa. Thus, without trade, Ghana will produce 10 tons of cocoa and 7.5 tons of rice, while South Korea will produce 2.5 tons of cocoa and 5 tons of rice. In light of Ghana’s absolute advantage in the production of both cocoa and rice why should it trade with South Korea? The answer is: Although Ghana has an absolute advantage in the production of both goods, it has comparative advantage only in the production of cocoa. In other words Ghana can produce 4 times as much cocoa as South Korea, but only 1.5 times as much rice. Ghana is comparatively more efficient at producing cocoa than it is at producing rice. In such a case when Ghana specializes in the production of cocoa and sell it in exchange for South Kore a’s rice which it is more efficient at producing, there is still mutually beneficial trade.(4) Comparison between the theory of absolute advantage and the theory of comparative advantageAfter comparison we’ll find Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantag e is more advanced than Smith’s theory of absolute advantage. According to Smith’s view, the product exported by a country must be a good which the exporting country has absolute advantage to produce and the cost of producing it must be absolutely lower than the same good of another country. But David Ricardo took Adam Smith’s theory of absolute advantage one step further. In his opinion not necessarily every country has to produce all sorts of goods. What a nation should do is to concentrate its efforts and resources on producing those goods high can generate more advantage and bring about less disadvantages. Under such conditions international trade would result in international division of labor and specialization beneficial to all countries. In addition, Ricardo particularly stressed labor productivity and argued that differences in labor productivity between nations underlie the notion of comparative advantage.Despite the differences between the two theories they have something in common. Both Smith and Ricardo emphasized the supply side of the market and the fact that the immediate basis for trade stemmed from cost differences. Actually Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage was developed on the basis of Smith’s theory of absolute advantage.New Words1.doctrine 学说，理论2. feudalism 封建主义3. to regulate （依法）管理4. interests 利益（单数interest表示“利息”）5. to advocate 拥护，提倡6. to observe 遵守7. segment 部门8.version 说法，看法9. convertible 可兑换的10. to underlie 构成（理论、政策等）的基础11. monopolization 垄断Useful Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions1. to provide a basis for 为……提供根据2. to secure supremacy over sb. 获得超过某人的霸权3. to call for 要求，需要4. to contribute to 对……起一分作用5. t o be quoted as saying“……” 被引述时这样说道“……”6. to consume of sth. 消费某物7. under strong attack 受到强有力的打击8. to express disagreement with sb. 表示对某人的不同意9. in the short run 在短期内（＝in the short term）10. relative to 与……相比较11. in light of 按照，根据12. to take sth. One step further 比……高出一筹13. to concentrate sth. on sth. else 将某事集中于某事ExercisesI. Answer the following Questions:1. What is meant by the theory of absolute advantage?2. Can you give a good illustration of comparative advantage?3. Why is comparative-advantage theory more popular advantage?4. What is mercantilism? What are its main view points?5. In what way is the modern version of mercantilism different from the original one?6. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the theory of absolute advantage and thetheory of comparative advantage?II. Translate the following into English”1.李嘉图认为每个国家不一定要生产各种商品，而应集中力量生产那些利益较大或不利较小的商品然后通过国际贸易互相获益。
国际贸易实务课件 第二章 国际贸易理论
三、要素比例学说（要素禀赋论）
现代国际贸易理论的新开端 创始人：赫克歇尔和俄林
Eil Heckscher,1879-1952
Bertil Ohlin ,1899-1979
三、要素比例学说（要素禀赋论）
三、要素比例学说（要素禀赋论）
要素密集度（factor intensity） TF/LF > TC/ LC
Example: 如果粮食生产需要 80 名工人 和 200 英亩土地，而生产棉布需要 20 名 工人和 20 英亩土地，那么粮食生产就是土 地密集型的，而棉布生产是劳动密集型的。
补充：主要产品类别基于要素密集度的分类
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二、比较优势理论
比较优势的概念： 如果一个国家生产一种产品的机会成
本（用其他产品来衡量）低于在其他国家 生产该种产品的机会成本的话，则这个国 家在生产该种产品上就拥有比较优势。 解释：
比较优势与国际贸易的基本原理：
如果每个国家都生产机会成本相对低的产 品，贸易会对双方国家都有利
在南美玫瑰具有相对低的机会成本. 在美国电脑具有相对低的机会成本.
三、重商主义的贸易政策
1、货币政策： ➢ 颁布法令禁止货币输出 ➢ 想方设法吸收外国货币 ➢ 重商主义晚期时，准许输出适量货币，以期获
得更多货币 2、对外贸易垄断政策 ➢ 不许其他国家插手经营自己的与固定市场之间
的交易 如： 葡萄牙—东方；西班牙—美洲
三、重商主义的贸易政策
3、奖出限入政策 ➢ 进口方面：禁止奢侈品的输入，一般制成品的进
国际贸易理论
国际贸易理论的基本框架 重商主义 绝对优势论和比较优势论 要素禀赋理论 幼稚产业保护论 里昂惕夫之谜 产品生命周期理论 规模报酬递增理论 战略性贸易政策理论
国际贸易实务(第二章：国际贸易理论)
◆2、Adam Smith及其经典之作
1723-1790, 经济学之父。 1776年出版《An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations》 《国民财富 的性质和原因的研究》。
斯密３岁父亲去世,与母相依为命，终身未 娶。
传记： “他的舅舅幸运地为世界挽救了一 个天才，正是这样一个天才创造了经济学； 否则这个社会将多了一名算命先生，少了一 个经济学家”。
国家什么绝对优势都没有，如此理论， 它们就不能参与国际贸易；如果参与能 否获利？这些国家获利的源泉在哪里？
13
第二节 比较优势贸易理论 Comparative Advantage Theory
14
１、 David Ricardo
1772-1823 英国人，古典政治经济学的集大成者。 27岁时第一次接触经济学，Smith的著作《国富 论》激励了家资百万的股票经纪人成为一名经 济学家 。他是17个孩子中的老三，14岁时被他 父亲雇用在自己所开股票交易所工作，所以， “他所受到的正规教育是一个伟大的经济学家 所受到的最贫乏的教育”。21岁与家庭决裂， 40岁离开商界，1817年出版了的主要代表作 《Principles of Political Economy and Taxation》 《政治经济学及赋税原理》
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三、比较优势贸易模型
（一）生产模式
1单位鞋 1单位酒
A国
2小时 4小时
B国
12小时 6小时
20
分工后（专业化生产，总产量增加）
鞋
酒
A国
3单位
B国
3单位
21
交换结果(1:1)（在两国劳动总投入不变情况下)
第2章国际贸易 国际贸易理论与实务课件
• 根据比较优势理论，德国在麻布的生产上 处于相对优势，而英国则在毛呢的生产上 处于相对优势。所以，贸易格局应该是英 国生产并出口毛呢以交换德国的麻布。
国际分工后
按比较优势原则进行国际分工，英德两国集中生产 的产品量如下：
毛呢
麻布
英国 德国
20码
40码
产品总量由于分工而增加了：毛呢的量虽仍为 20码，但麻布的量却由35码增至40码。
英德两国间商品的交换比例，应在两国国内交换比 例的上下限之间。
在没有国际分工时，英德两国国内的商品交换比例由商品的劳
动成本决定。所以，在英国国内，毛呢与麻布的交换比例为 10∶15，即10码的毛呢换15码的麻布，因为它们所含的劳动量 相等。在德国国内，毛呢与麻布的交换比例为10∶20，即10码 毛呢换20单位码。
18世纪60年代，英国开始了产业革命。新兴的资 产阶级为了从海外市场获得更多的廉价原料并销售其 产品，迫切要求扩大对外贸易，而一系列贸易保护政 策却严重束缚了对外贸易，阻碍了资本主义大工业的 发展。
这种要求，必然要反映到经济思想上来。这就是重商主义衰落 和古典学派兴起的大背景。 古典学派提出了“自由放任”的口号，在理论上为资本主义的 自由发展铺平了道路。
历史背景： 1815年，英国实施《谷物法》，提高对农业的保护 力度。规定国产谷物平均价达到或超过某种限度时 方可进口,目的是维护土地贵族的利益，结果导致了 谷物价格的飞涨，从而损害了资产阶级的利益。资 产阶级需要更为彻底的理论来武装自己。
围绕《谷物法》存废展开的激烈论争； 既然英国能比他国更便宜地生产粮食，何需进口？
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三、比较优势论的例证
假定世界上只有英国和葡萄牙两个国家，两国只生产呢绒和 酒两种产品。生产1个单位呢绒，英国需要投入100单位劳动， 葡萄牙则需要投入90单位劳动；生产1单位酒，英国需要投入 120单位劳动，葡萄牙则需投入80单位劳动。在分工前，英 国和葡萄牙在上述投入情况下共可以生产2单位呢绒和2单位 酒。
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奴一样，双手抱住他心爱的钱袋，用嫉妒和猜忌的目光打量着自己 的邻居。”
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晚期重商主义的贸易政策
以国家管制对外贸易政策为主要手段，实现 国内贵金属存量的增加。
（1）利用关税和法令适当限制制成品和奢 侈品进口。
• 柏拉图的分工学说
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– 古希腊思想家柏拉图（Plato,-427~347） 所处时代特征：城邦国，每个城邦国的经 济都相对单一，经济互补性很强。
– 柏拉图主要观点：
• 1、每个人都有多方面的需求，但人生来 只有某种才能，因此一个人不可能自足 自立。
• 2、一人做几件事，不如一人专心做一件 事，如果一人专门作一种他最感兴趣的 事情，他生产出来的必定较好较多。所 以一国要有专门从编辑课事件 更行各业的人。 13
代表人物是托马斯•孟。
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早期重商主义的贸易政策
通过直接管制汇率和贵金属的交易，来实现国内贵 金属存量的增加。
-禁止金银出口 -禁止出口商接受外国非金银货币 -汇率由官方直接控制，实行固定汇率制 -外国商人离境时只能带走商品，不能带走本国货币。
• 英国在爱德华四世统治期间，即1461年到1483年间，就将输出金 银定为大罪，与叛国罪相提并论 。
2、国际分工的作用
1）国际分工是国际贸易的基础，各国国际分工的形式和 格局决定了该国对外贸易的结构。
2）可以产生专业化效应、规模经济效应、竞争效应。对 世界生产力的发展和资源有效配置有明显促进作用。
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二、国际分工的产生和发展
1、萌芽阶段（16-18世纪中叶）
2、形成阶段（18世纪60年代到19世纪60年代）
第一次工业革命的完成，确立了资本主义经济体 系，加快了商品经济的发展，促进了国际分工的 形成。
3、发展阶段（19世纪中叶到二战）
第二次工业革命时期，垄断代替了自由竞争，资 本输出成为主要的经济特征，整个世界的国际分 工格局发生变化。
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4、二战后国际分工的新发展
特点：
• 发达国家之间的分工居于主导地位
编辑课件15Fra bibliotek期重商主义 晚期重商主义
又称重金主义或货币 差额论。流行于1516世纪。其贸易政策 主张的鲜明特征是， 强调限制进口甚于鼓 励出口，禁止金银输 出。
其代表人物是英国的 威廉•斯塔福。
也称贸易差额论。盛 行于16到17世纪下半 叶。重视长期的贸易 顺差，允许对某些地 区的逆差，但必须最 终保证货币回流。
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2、重商主义的核心观点
• 认为金银或货币是财富的唯一形式，一国拥 有货币的多寡代表该国的富裕程度。
• 对外贸易是获取额外贵金属或货币的主要源 泉，因而是增加一国财富的重要途径。
• 增加国民财富的贸易政策应该是多卖少买乃 至不买。
在具体贸易政策重心上，不同时代的重商主义者的 主张，则是不同的，由此而使重商主义的发展，呈现 出了早期与晚期两个阶段。
二、亚当·斯密的绝对优势理论
三、大卫·李嘉图的比较优势理论
四、多个国家或多种产品的贸易模式
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一、 亚当·斯密之前的贸易思想
（一）早期的分工交换思想 （二）重商主义的贸易观点：
货币差额论 贸易差额论 （三）重农学派的贸易观点
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（一）早期的分工交换思想
• 荷马史诗《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》描述：一 个奴隶等于四条公牛，一个铜三角鼎等于二十 条公牛，这里间接表现出当时人们已经意识到 交换的好处。
指发达国家与发展中国家之间制造业与农业、矿业的分
工。这种分工的特点是，发展中国家资源与发达国家的
工业品进行不等价交换。
• 水平型国际分工
指经济发展水平基本相同的国家之间的横向分工。主
要指发达国家之间在工业部门上的分工。它有专业化与
规模经济的特点，一般也体现为产业内贸易。
• 混合型国际分工
指垂直型与水平型混合起来的国际分工。包括一国与
（2）限制原料出口，以保证国内加工业的 发展。
具体措施有：鼓励中转贸易
• 产业内部分工逐步增强
• 发达国家与发展中国家的分工形式发生变化
• 区域性经济组织内部分工加强
• 从垂直分工向水平分工发展
• 国际服务分工逐步形成
• 国际分工的基础发生变化
• 国际分工格局出现多层次：新兴工业化国家、
地区性分工、跨国公编司辑课件的兴起
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• 垂直型国际分工
它是经济发展水平不同的国家之间的纵向分工，主要
发达国家的水平分工和与发展中国家的垂直分工。
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三、国际分工发展的制约因素
1、自然条件 2、社会生产力发展水平（决定性因素） 3、人口与生产规模 4、资本国际化 5、生产关系 6、经济贸易政策
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我国的国际分工地位如何呢?
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• 劳动力资源丰富且成本低廉依然是中国参与新 一轮国际分工的优势所在，也是跨国公司向中 国转移劳动密集型生产环节的基本动因，由此 决定了中国在国际生产分工体系中充当全球加 工厂的现实地位。
• 提高国际分工地位的途径？
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国际贸易分工理论主要研究问题
国与国为什么要进行贸易？
——贸易利益的驱动
国与国之间为什么能够进行贸易？
供给角度（成本）：技术、要素禀赋、生产规模 需求角度：收入、偏好
贸易格局如何？
贸易产生哪些影响？
（商品的价格、生产、消费和社会福利等）
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第二节 古典贸易理论 一、斯密之前的贸易思想
（二）重商主义（Mercantilists) 15-17世纪流行于欧洲的经济思想。
1、产生背景：15世纪末，资本主义的生产方 式在西欧萌发，封建庄园瓦解，商品经济发展， 各国国内的统一市场形成，世界市场在一定的 范围内形成。 西欧各国采取措施， 鼓励发展 对外贸易。早期的资本主要是以商品资本的形 态出现，重商主义应运而生。
第二章 古典贸易理论
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第一节 国际分工的基本内容
一、国际分工的含义与作用
1、国际分工的含义
➢ 指世界各国生产货物与服务的劳动分工，是社会分工发 展的结果。
一国生产力的发展，首先产生了国内的社会分工，进行 商品和服务的交换。当社会分工发展到一定阶段，国民 经济内部分工超越了国家界限就形成了国际分工，表现 为各国的货物和服务等商品的国际交换。