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马来西亚米那亚大厦

roof-roof house
四、结语
杨经文先生的建筑在影响全世界的同时，在受到了很多方面不同的置疑，虽然在这些建筑中运用到的各种高技术在短时间内，是不可能被经济条件和现实情况所接受，但是杨经文先生的建筑，景观和气候之间相互作用，有机与无机的完美结合的生态设计理念，将会对现在的和将来的建筑设计产生深远的指导意义。
4). 建造费用: 590万英镑 5).技术指标: 高 63m，楼层数: 地上14层，地下1层建筑面积：6503平方米高圆柱体塔楼 6). 气候区：热带雨林气候
2、主要（生态）设计特征:
1). 空中花园从一个三层高的植物绿化护堤开始，沿建筑表面螺旋上升。 (平面中每三层凹进一次，设置空中花园，直至建筑屋顶） 2). 绿化种植为建筑提供阴影和富氧环境空间
二、米那亚大厦，马来西亚
3、设计能耗 1). 朝向
在热带地区，北向和南向的敞开为绝缘降低需求，深度隐藏( 构建) 可以为建筑热的一面提供阴影，大量的多层过渡空间提供了内部联系区域，同时促使空气流通。 2).墙体外部墙体应该进行可调整的打开穿透，就像过滤墙体应该提供热能和气候的保护，同时保证穿过式的空气流通,植物应当垂直种植，并产生氧气，有助于降低建筑温度。 3). 材料东西向使用铝天窗以降低太阳能的获取; 南北向使用深度连续窗户用于储存热量,轴形转换锯齿状梯田花园，这样的系统每年节省空调费用13590美金。
EDITT TOWER
2、杨经文其他代表作品
双顶屋位于马来西亚吉隆坡橡胶种植园附近。全年无明显季节变化，属热带雨林气候。
白天通常阳光普照，气候温暖，平均温度为26～ 32℃。太阳辐射严重。主导风向：南风和东南风。该建筑历时11年与1984 年完工，是杨经文生物气候设计理念贯彻到建筑的实验品。是把生态建筑态）设计特征:

明尼苏达大学2

明尼苏达大学中文名：明尼苏达大学英文名： University of Minnesota所在国家：美国建立时间：1851 年地理位置：密西西比河畔世界排名：87学生人数：64964 人学校网址：/ 学校性质：公立现任校长：Dr.Eric Kaler【School Profile 】The University of Minnesota is one of the most comprehensive public universitiesin the United States and ranks among the most prestigious, with a strong traditionof education and public service. The University of Minnesota was founded in1851locate at Mississippi River , early than Minnesota state . After 157 years ofdevelopment, It has become a five campuses, 370 special field of studies ，60,000students (of which 50,000 in the Twin Cities campus), and many well-known professorsand scholars of higher education research institution.University of Minnesota has a long history of relations with China. Back in 1914,began the first Chinese students studying in the University of Minnesota. Universityof Minnesota specifically to establish the "China Center" in 1979 is committed todeveloping exchanges and cooperation with China. Its ranking: As a world-classundergraduate University, graduate education and academic research institution, theUniversity of Minnesota's education budget in recent years reach up to $ 1.6 billion ,among all public universities in the United States ranks third (The firsttwo are UC Berkeley and the University of Michigan .) Ranking of World Universitiesin 2011 created by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic the University ofMinnesota(Twin Cities Campus) ranked the world's 28, the U.S. 20. That the largeDepartment of Chemical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Department of ComputerScience,Department of Economics, Department of Applied Economics, Department ofPsychology, Department of Education, applied mathematics, human resourcesmanagement, information management systems, forests, pharmacy and health systemmanagement and many other subjects always among the best in the nation.1.The case of Operations and Management Science Department：Operations and management science is the study of organizations that produce goods and services and the related management science methods that improve operations and organizations.2.which Institutes does the school have, the characteristics of some institutes ，which is the most famous subjects： Carlson School of management ，School of Humanities ，School of Law,Engineering and Technology College of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences ，School of Architecture Planning and Design College of Human Ecology ，School of Biological Sciences ，School of Education and Human Development ，School of Dental Medicine， School of Natural Resources ，College of Veterinary Medicine Pre-Nursing ，School of Sciences, College of Pharmacy continuing Education graduate ，School of Public HealthCarlson School of Management's mission is to promote the management tools in the development and progress of economic globalization, and promote technological innovation and social change. Carlson School of Management was established in 1919, is one of America's best business schools. According to statistics of 2007 Wall Street Journal, Carlson School of Business ranked the nation's 38 comprehensive, MBA has one end. Meanwhile, the Institute information management systems and medical management professionals in the U.S. ranked third and fourth.3.Department of Management Science and Operations' Research ： Carlson School Operations and Management Science research covers a broad range of topics, including strategic management of operations, quality management, technology management, service operations, supply chain management, simulation, and statistical quality control.4.Operations and Management Science Department's laboratories：Carlson Global Institute Joseph M. Juran Cente5.Well-known professor of Carlson ：Tony Haitao Cui，Seth Werner，Steve Spruth6.Find out one professor's blog : Tony Haitao Cui tcui@ 【Dissertations】The Benefit of Uniform Price for Branded VariantsYuxin ChenNew York University (NYU) - Department of MarketingTony Haitao CuiUniversity of Minnesota - Twin CitiesApril 30, 2009Abstract:The extensive adoption of uniform pricing for branded variants is a puzzling phenomenon considering that firms may improve profitability through price discrimination. In the paper, we incorporate consumers' concerns of price fairness into a model of price competition and show that uniform price for branded variants may emerge in equilibrium. Interestingly, we find that uniform pricing induced by consumers' concerns of fairness can actually help mitigate price competition and hence increase firms' profits. Furthermore, an individual firm may not have incentive to unilaterally mitigate consumers' concerns of price fairness to its own branded variants, which suggests the long-run sustainability of the uniform pricing strategy. As a result, fairness concerns from consumers provide a natural mechanism for firms to commit to uniform pricing which enhances their profits.The paper also studies how uniform pricing may affect firms' choices of channel structures. We show that with strong concerns of price fairness from consumers, competing firms are more likely to adopt integrated channels. The reason is that firms may not need to rely on decentralized channel structures to soften competition in the presence of fair-minded consumers because uniform pricing strategy itself mitigates price competition.{Chen, Yuxin and Cui , Tony Haitao , The Benefit of Uniform Price for Branded Variants (April 30, 2009).}A Price Discrimination Model of Trade PromotionsTony Haitao CuiUniversity of Minnesota - Twin CitiesJagmohan S. RajuUniversity of Pennsylvania - Marketing DepartmentZ. John ZhangThe Wharton School - Department of MarketingMarketing Science, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 779-795, 2007Abstract:Critics have long faulted the wide-spread practice of trade promotions as wasteful. It has been estimated that this practice adds up to $100 billion worth of inventory to the distribution system. Yet the practice continues. In this paper, we propose a price-discrimination model of trade promotions. We show that in a distribution channel characterized by a dominant retailer, a manufacturer has incentives to price-discriminate between the dominant retailer and smaller independents. While offering all retailers the same pricing policy, price-discrimination can be implemented through trade promotions as trade promotions induce different inventory-ordering behaviors on the part of retailers. Differences in inventory holding costs have been shown to be an important determinant of consumer promotions. Our analysis suggests that differences in holding costs are also potentially an important driver for the use of trade promotions. The implications from our model explain a number of anecdotal and/or empirically observed puzzles about how trade promotions are practiced. For example, our analysis explains why chain stores welcome trade promotions but independents do not. Our analysis outlines implications for managing trade promotions.{Cui , Tony Haitao , Raju, Jagmohan S. and Zhang, Z. John, A Price Discrimination Model of Trade Promotions (2007). }【学校概况】明尼苏达大学是美国最具综合性的高等学府之一，位居最富盛名的大学之列,具有优秀的教育和服务社会的传统。

全美最好大学城之蒙大拿州米苏拉

全美最好大学城之蒙大拿州米苏拉
地理环境
蒙大拿大学（The University of Montana）位于蒙大拿州西部风景如画的米苏拉(Missoula)市，这是一个小型友善的城市。

该市靠近山区，四周万山环抱，附近有便利的交通系统。

是喜欢大自然和户外活动，如远足、露营、攀山和滑雪的年轻人理想的去处。

蒙大拿大学所在的这个山城拥有最高比例的艺术、娱乐及休闲场所。

学生服务
有国际学生服务中心提供服务。

校内特殊设备包括商业及经济研究局、临床心理学中心、环境研究中心、地质研究中心、实验森林及牧场等。

运动设备包括休闲中心、游泳池、体育馆、高尔夫球场、回力球场、网球场。

世界名校-明尼苏达大学介绍

世界名校-明尼苏达大学介绍校名：University of Minnesota, Twin Cities(明尼苏达大学，双城校区)所在地：Minneapolis, Minnesota(明尼苏达州明尼阿波列斯市) 明尼苏达大学(University of Minnesota)始建于1851年，拥有五所校园，是美国最具综合性的高等学府之一，位居美国最富盛名的大学之列，也是明尼苏达州的宝贵财富。

明大是美国的赠地大学之一，具有优秀的教育和为社会服务的传统，也是美国重要的研究机构，有很多在美国和国际上享有盛名的学者。

2001年，明尼苏达大学被列为美国公立大学中最好的三所研究型大学之一，同时也是明尼苏达州的唯一一所研究型大学。

新知识、新产品、新服务源源不断地从这里推向市场。

作为世界一流的本科、研究生教育学府和学术研究机构，明大每年的教育预算高达16亿美元，在校学生近6万人，办学规模在美国所有公立大学中位居第三。

明尼苏达大学双城校园所拥有的325多个专业和3100多名教师为学生提供了无限的体验空间和学术契机。

明大的化工系、机械工程系、经济学系、应用经济学系、心理系、教育系、应用数学、人力资源管理、信息管理系统、森林、药学及医疗系统管理等多门学科在全美始终名列前茅。

明尼苏达大学的校友包括20位诺贝尔获奖者、1位前美国首席大法官、两位美国前副总统、以及多位排名美国财富500强的企业巨子。

人类历史上多项著名科研成果也诞生在明大校园，其中包括发明飞行记录器（黑匣子）、可收取式汽车安全带、心脏起搏器、心肺呼吸器和80多个新的农业作物品种等等。

明大在双城的校园位于明尼阿波利斯 (Minneapolis) 市和圣保罗 (St. Paul) 市的中心地带，这两个城市被人们合称为“双城”。

双城校园以其雄伟庄严的历史建筑和最尖端的设施闻名。

双城校园分布两地：一个横跨密西西比河，另一个则地处圣保罗市的起伏山峦之中。

学校由20所学院组成，有权授予161种学士学位、218种硕士学位、114种博士学位和5种专业学位，多于美国任何一所大学。

明尼苏达大学详细介绍

明尼苏达大学详细介绍明尼苏达大学双城分校(University of Minnesota, Twin Cities)，英语简称缩写UMN，是一所位于美国明尼苏达州明尼阿波利斯市与圣保罗市的国家级顶尖公立研究型大学。

明尼苏达大学的双城分校是整个明尼苏达大学系统中历史最为悠久且面积最为庞大的校园。

学校的心理、经济、数学、化学、化工、药学等专业位于全美顶尖、世界顶尖地位。

明尼苏达双城校区引是全美最具综合性的大学之一，为世界顶尖的本科、研究生教育学府和研究机构，双城分校傲居于全美十所最佳公立研究型大学之列。

自1851年建校至今，学校已拥有众多声名显赫的校友，包括25位诺贝尔奖获得者，1位前美国首席大法官，2位前美国副总统，以及多位名列美国财富500强的企业巨子。

许多世界顶尖的技术和发明在明大诞生：飞行记录器(黑匣子)、可收取式汽车安全带、心脏起搏器、心肺呼吸器等。

明大拥有肾脏移植机构。

一、基本数据联系方式UMN100 Church St. SEMinneapolis, MN 55455United States(612) 625-5000基本信息建校时间:1851男女同校:是学校性质:公立所在城市规模:大型城市学术校历表:Semester 基本宗教信仰:-特殊宗教信仰:-费用数据州内学费:$13,459州外学费:$18,709房租及伙食费:$8,412书费:$1,000学生组成数据全日制本科生:29,194在职本科生:5,618男性本科生:16,792女性本科生:18,020研究生总人数:17,745全日制研究生:9,500在职研究生:8,245二、助学金统计数据基本信息助学金申请表提交截止日期:March 1 (priority)学费担保计划:不提供预付学费计划:不提供学费分期付款计划:提供州内学费:$13,459州外学费:$18,709助学金联系方式电话:(612) 624-1111电子邮箱:helpingU@网站:/CostsAid/finaid.html补助/贷款联邦助学金机构助学金州助学金学生贷款总计?平均金额$5,418$3,808$2,244$6,595$6,936获助学金学生比例23%59%65%53%93%三、录取数据录取总体数据申请总人数:38,174男性申请者:18,182女性申请者:19,992录取总人数:18,900男性录取者:9,009女性录取者:9,891录取率:50%录取学生入学率:?29%招生办联系方式电话:(800) 752-1000电子邮箱:admissions@网站:/twincities/admissions.html申请信息录取开放:否是否为普通申请:否申请费:$45申请网站链接:/10477/login.asp 需了解的日期截止日期公告日期常规录取Rolling Rolling 务必回复May 1录取因素要求推荐不要求也不推荐绩点HS 范围HS 成绩单大学预修课程推荐信艺术作品集SAT/ACT托福新生入学数据新生入学总人数:5,514全日制项目男生人数:2,708全日制项目女生人数:2,793在职项目男生人数:8在职项目女生人数:5待定学生情况待定学生数:?暂无数据接受待定的学生数:?暂无数据待定学生入学数:?暂无数据转学学生情况转学申请数:7,729转学录取数:2,981待定学生入学数:1,949四、标准化考试数据标准化考试分数批判性阅读数学写作总分（满分）SAT (25th - 75th Percenti le)540 - 690620 - 74560 - 671720 - 2100 (2400)ACT (25th - 75th Percentile)24 - 3125 - 307 - 825 - 30 (36)基本信息Top 10% of HS Class:43%SAT/ACT是否必须:任选其一提交SAT的学生比例:14%提交ACT的学生比例:92%五、专业介绍专业结业证书副学士学位学士学位硕士学位博士学位农业--1643420农业事务--1702动物科学畜牧业--9163植物与种植学--1099作物与土壤研究--041食品科学与技术--15115园艺学--314-建筑与规划5-1869-建筑研究5-1824-规划与发展---45-艺术--3866758艺术史--2915艺术研究--13818-艺术、娱乐与媒体管理---3-设计与应用艺术--5165电影、视频与摄影--28--美术学--1--音乐--533743表演艺术--8625生物科学--35611397动物生物学---12 @生物化学与分子生物学--9023生物信息学---3211生物学--49281细胞生物学--936-生态、进化与种群物种学--203725微生物学--43211分子生物学---013神经科学和神经生物学--61013药理学与毒理学---417生理与病理学---11商务学99-6702072企业管理--4923-财务会计--19170-人力资源99-1041142管理科学与信息系统--37--市场营销0-289--通讯6-273714通信及传媒研究6-27225数码印刷传媒学---8-大众传播与媒体---79语言交流与措辞学0----计算机与信息科学0-1509015计算机科学0-1429015计算机系统0-8--信息研究学---00教育145-32347375教育研究28-15610422教育管理与监督13--3439特殊教育学20----教学84-16733514工程学3-688335107航空航天工程--76208农业与环境工程--1764生物工程--801110化学工程--121116土木工程测量0-5175计算机工程--2746-电子通讯工程0-12512038工程研究2--301工业工程技术1-5160化学工程与技术0-2035614塑料与材料工程--29211系统工程---10-环境科学0-15313保护与环境研究--312林业科学0-400-自然资源管理--11001卫生保健112-231333502沟通紊乱学--60384牙医学30-2429112诊断学--0--健康与医疗行政服务--0113干预与治疗专业0-7--医药与医学研究13-0101心理与社会健康服务11--0-护理学8-1259765视光学7----制药学---3166公共卫生学23--988康复治疗学--53945兽医学20-10898语言文学15-7463621英语--4612315语言与语言学研究15-4510区域性语言与文学研究--9362罗曼斯语0-14764法律---46229高级法律研究---46-法律与法规研究----229数学与统计学0-1947517计算与应用数学0--363数学--142239统计学0-52165宗教与哲学--3844哲学研究--2844宗教学--10--物理科学--1775445天文与天体物理学--902化学与化学工艺学--1283526地球科学--403体育活动研究---11-物理学--36814心理与咨询8-6046853临床与咨询心理学6--5121心理学--486724心理学研究2-118108休闲与健身0-277138运动科学--156128公园与娱乐--401-体育与健身管理0-810-服务--34--葬礼服务与殡仪馆学--34--技术行业与建设5-23--建筑施工验收5-23--社会科学与文学4-154311491地区与种族研究--37511消费品与商品零售--11--经济学--2112014消费者学---12食品和营养学--8698历史--144717人类发展学2---0政府与国际事务研究--450311人文科学---17-社会科学2-6045228社会服务6--2874公共事业1----公共政策、管理和社会工作5--2874。

玛利亚蒙台梭利

十三岁时，她选择了多数女孩不感兴趣的数学，进入米开朗基罗工科学校就读。且于 1886 年时以最优秀的成绩毕业，奠定了数学基础。中学毕业后，在进入国立达文奇工业技术学院，学习现代语言与自然科学。
十六岁（ 1886 年）进入工科大学，专攻数学。因后来发现对生物有兴趣，于1890年进入罗马大学读生物。读了生物，蒙特梭利觉得对医学有了浓厚的兴趣，她做了一个前所未有的决定 -- 学医。“女孩子学医”在当时保守的欧洲社会里，可谓荒谬与决不可能。但蒙台梭利不顾父亲的反对（中断经济上的资助）以及教育制度的限制,凭着她不屈不挠的努力，终于获准进入医学院研读。由于她是班上唯一的女生，时常单独留在解剖室做实验，与死尸独处：再加上家人的反对，沉重的压力，无人可倾诉。不过蒙台梭利却能愈挫愈勇，因而培养出异于常人的毅力，为她日后献身儿童教育，奠定了成功的基石。
蒙特梭利在担任助理医生期间（ 1896-1898），主要是治疗智障儿童。当时意大利把智障儿童与精神病患者一起关押在疯人院里。室内没有玩具，甚至没有任何可供儿童抓握和操作的东西；管理人员态度恶劣，根本不组织任何活动。蒙特梭利对这些儿童的处境深表同情。通过观察和研究，她深深感到，这种医疗方法只能加速儿童智力下降。
批评她在这个问题上纯属遗传决定论，其实并不尽然。纵观蒙台梭利的全部学说，
她认为儿童的心理发展既不是单纯的内部成熟，也不是环境、教育的直接产物，
而是机体和环境交互作用的结果，是“通过对环境的经验而实现的”（蒙台梭利：
《有吸收力的心灵》，1949年英文版，第97页）。蒙台梭利肯定，创造良好的
环境，采取正确的教育措施，及早进行教育，丰富儿童的经验，可以消除和防止
应时期内出现、消失，当它们出现时，能最有效地学习；忽视了敏感期的训练，

德国留学曼海姆大学的专业设置

德国留学曼海姆大学的专业设置学校名称：德国曼海姆大学Universität Mannheim所在位置：德国录取率：0.655曼海姆大学的前身是成立于1907年的贸易大学，1933年曾一度划归海德堡大学。

二战结束后作为国家经济大学再度开放，1967年正式改名曼海姆大学。

曼海姆大学的建筑主体坐落于当今世界规模最大、历史最悠久的巴洛克式城堡――帝候宫中，可谓一所城堡里的大学。

拥有11,500多名在校学生的曼海姆大学在德国只是中等规模的大学，但其经济学和社会科学专业闻名全欧。

曼海姆大学工商管理学院是德国、乃至欧洲最好的商学院，被誉为“德国的哈佛”。

在德国大学发展中心所做的最有名望大学评估中，曼海姆大学在工商管理、经济、社会学和政治学方面居领先地位。

毫无疑问，曼海姆大学是德国最优秀的大学之一。

作为德国南部巴符州的第二大城市(有31万住户)，曼海姆北接法兰克福、南通海德堡(Heidelberg)、卡尔斯鲁诺(Karlsruhe)等，有着比较重要的地理位置，二战期间曾被盟军炸成废墟。

曼海姆城位于莱茵河和尼卡河(Neckar River)交汇处，是德国光照最充分的地区之一，山清水秀，气候宜人。

得天独厚的自然条件吸引了大批高级人才。

很多知名教授都把退休后定居曼海姆做为自己人生目标之一。

曼海姆城内分为136个方形街区，街道垂直相交，街市酷似棋盘。

因此号称棋盘城。

城市的宣传口号也是“Leben im Quadrat”(live in quadrate)。

初来者在内城，最不用担心的就是迷路。

曼海姆人热情好客，令外来者有宾至如归的感觉。

德国排名前500位的公司中有一半设在曼海姆周围250公里范围内。

曼海姆距离大学城海德堡只有10分钟的火车路程。

专业设置曼海姆大学有5个学院，分别是经济学和法学学院(School of Economics and Law)、曼海姆工商管理学院(Mannheim BusinessSchool)、社会科学学院(Faculty of Social Sciences)、人文科学学院(School of the Humanities)、数学和信息科学学院(School of Mathematics and Computer Science)。

湄索旅游景点

湄索旅游景点
湄索（Mysore）是印度卡纳塔克邦的一座城市，拥有丰富的历史文化和壮丽的景点。

以下是一些湄索旅游景点的介绍：
1. 湄索宫殿（Mysore Palace）：湄索宫殿是湄索最著名的景点之一，也是印度最大的宫殿之一。

它建于14世纪，是由木材和砖石建筑而成的。

宫殿内部装饰华丽精美，展示了卡纳塔克邦的王室生活和历史。

2. 湄索动物园（Mysore Zoo）：湄索动物园是印度最古老和最大的动物园之一，位于湄索宫殿附近。

园内有来自全球各地的众多动物物种，例如白虎、非洲象、犀牛和猴子等。

3. 布鲁姆山（Chamundi Hill）：布鲁姆山是湄索最重要的地标之一，位于城市附近的山脉上。

山顶有一座巨大的雕塑，供奉着印度女神卡慕迪（Chamundeshwari）。

游客可以登山，参观山顶的神庙，并欣赏湄索市的美景。

4. 湄索景观花园（Brindavan Gardens）：湄索景观花园是一座美丽的公共花园，位于城市郊区的一条河流旁边。

花园内有各种花卉和植物，以及水池和喷泉。

每天晚上，花园会举行音乐喷泉秀，吸引大量游客前来观赏。

5. 斯塔费公园（St. Philomena's Cathedral）：斯塔费公园是一座壮观的天主教教堂，位于湄索市中心。

这座教堂建于20世纪，以哥特式风格建造，高达约50米。

教堂内部装饰豪华，是信徒和游客参观的著名地点之一。

除了以上景点，湄索还有许多其他的历史建筑、博物馆和文化中心，以及当地的传统市场和美食，都值得游客去探索和体验。

慕尼黑

慕尼黑的市中心广场。广场中
奥林匹克...aolinpike...

整个公园由33个体育场馆组成。 299米高的奥运塔已被改为电视塔。奥林匹克体育场建筑设计极富现代感，体育场半边有顶，是半透明的，全部是人造有机玻璃，面积广达7.5万平方米，造价超过1亿马克，是当时世界上最昂贵的，也是最大的屋顶。德国奥林匹克公园 (Olympic Park)，著名的慕尼黑奥林匹克公园是一组高度集中的特大型体育建筑群。这是1972 年奥林匹克运动会的举办场地，奥林匹克体育场是奥林匹克公园的核心建筑，建筑设计极富现代感，其主馆可容纳八万观众。可容纳1.4万人的体育馆、 2000人的游泳池都聚集在一张大帐篷式的屋顶下
玛利亚广场maliyagua
间是圣母玛利亚的雕像，广场的北面是高大的市政厅(Rathaus)， 1867-1908年建成，是新哥特式建筑，钟楼高85米，上有著名的玩偶报时钟，上午11点下午5点报时钟的玩偶伴随着音乐出来展现1568年威廉五世婚礼大典的场景。西北面很容易就能看到有两个绿圆顶钟楼的是圣母教堂(Frauenkirche)，是慕尼黑的象征建筑，为哥特式教堂，钟楼高99米，建于1468年。玛利亚广场周围保留了不少的古建筑，而在这里最吸引人眼球的必然是新市政厅(NeuesRatha us)。新市政厅位于玛利亚广场北侧，19世纪末建造......
宫廷啤酒馆gongtingp...
慕尼黑市中心的「宫廷啤酒
馆」（Hofbraeuhaus），不仅是啤酒之都慕尼黑最知名的啤酒馆，也是世界上最受尊崇的啤酒馆。四百多年来，「宫廷啤酒馆」的金字招牌被小心谨慎的维护着，慕尼黑人也因拥有这间壮丽的啤酒馆而自豪不已。话说1589年，已经担任巴伐利亚公爵十年的威廉五世（Wilhelm V，Duke of Bavaria 1579-1597 ），为二件事苦恼不已。一件事是为了建圣米歇尔教堂（St. Michaelkirche）送给耶稣会（Jesuits），已经耗掉宫廷许多经费，逼近破产边缘。

门萨智商测试的介绍

门萨智商测试的介绍门萨协会1946年成立于英国牛津，由大律师Roland Berrill及科学家Dr. Lance Ware创建，在全球100多个国家都有成员。

门萨协会的成员来自各个阶层，既有大学教授，也有服务员甚至囚犯。

成为门萨协会会员的唯一要求是通过一系列智力测试，证明自己的智商居同年龄人当中最高的2%之列。

Mensa为拉丁文，意谓圆桌，即门萨的成员就像坐在圆桌边，没有等级的分别。

也有翻译为曼莎。

门萨是一个国际性的组织，号称世界顶级智商俱乐部，最大特色为该会以智商为唯一入会标准。

协会从人类利益出发，确认、培养以及巩固人类智商;鼓励开发研究人的智力本能、特征和用途;为会员提供宝贵的智力刺激、交流和发展的机会。

六十多年的发展使门萨成为世界上最好的、最大的、最为成功的智商俱乐部。

至今，Mensa并没有官方的中文名称，门萨学会仅为非正式的坊间译名。

2021-2021年，希望出版社将Mensa授权的图书正式引入中国内地市场，并将其命名为门萨俱乐部。

他们貌不惊人，当中有商贾学者，也有主妇蓝领，因为一个简单的测验，便汇聚在一起，闲来一道饮茶、出游、聚会。

这些人兴趣不同，性情各异，但有一点，这些人普遍智商非凡。

他们走到一起，只因为他们聪明。

将他们拢在一起的这个圈子，叫门萨门萨的英文名称是MENSA，1946年成立于英国牛津，创始人是律师罗兰德贝里尔和科学家兼律师兰斯韦林。

当时，这两位自认聪明异常的人突发奇想，编制出一些高难试题以测试智商，受到广泛追捧。

兴奋之余，贝里尔和韦林干脆成立一个俱乐部，号召高智商的人士加入。

MENSA这个名字代表的是世界上10万名IQ值在130以上的智商精英分子，其标准差是97.725%这意味着作为门萨成员必须要比全世界大概98%的人群聪明。

这是一个智商精英俱乐部，到目前为止，中国大陆的国际门萨成员才有区区10名。

为什么要加入门萨，它的诱惑是什么?据了解，尝试进入门萨的人，都对自己的智力水平有相当的期待或自信。

明尼苏达大学声誉

明尼苏达大学立思辰留学360介绍，明尼苏达大学（明尼苏达大学双城校区）（University of Minnesota, Twin Cities），简称U of M或UMN，是一所位于美国明尼苏达州双城区（即明尼阿波利斯及圣保罗）的公立综合研究型大学，为明尼苏达大学系统历史最悠久，规模最大的分校，亦常被直接称为明尼苏达大学。

明尼苏达大学是美国高校十大联盟、美国大学协会的成员之一，也是国际21世纪学术联盟的成员大学之一, 为世界顶尖的本科、研究生教育学府和研究机构，被誉为“公立常春藤”。

明尼苏达大学也是美国最具综合性的高等学府之一，常年位居世界大学排行榜前列。

自1851年建校至今，学校已拥有众多声名显赫的校友，目前已有25位诺贝尔奖得主[1] ， 1位前美国首席大法官，2位前美国副总统，以及多位名列美国财富500强的企业巨子，具有优秀的教育和服务社会的传统。

许多世界顶尖的技术和发明在明大诞生：飞行记录器（黑匣子）、可收取式汽车安全带、心脏起搏器、心肺呼吸器等。

明大拥有肾脏移植机构。

声誉作为世界一流的本科和研究生教育学府和学术研究机构，明尼苏达大学2012年的教育预算高达25亿美元，在美国所有公立大学中位居第三，仅次于加州大学伯克利和密歇根大学。

明尼苏达大学的化工系、机械工程系、计算机系、经济学系、应用经济学系、心理系、教育系、应用数学、人力资源管理、信息管理系统、森林、药学及医疗系统管理等多门学科在全美始终位居前列。

在美国新闻和世界报道（US News & World Report）、美国国家研究委员会（The National Research Council）和多个权威的教育排名表上明尼苏达大学始终名列前茅。

明尼苏达大学的校友包括22位诺贝尔奖获得者，一位美国前首席法官，两位美国前副总统，以及多位美国500强企业的创始人。

许多世界顶尖的技术和发明在此诞生，包括飞行记录器（黑匣子）、可收取式汽车安全带、心脏起搏器、心肺呼吸器等。

中国教育部承认的法国公立大学

中国教育部承认的法国公立大学1) Université de Provence： Aix-Marseille 1艾克斯-马赛一大2) Université de la Méditerranée： Aix-Marseille2艾克斯-马赛二大3) Université de Droit, d’économie et des Sciences d’Aix-Marseille： Aix-Marseille 3艾克斯-马赛三大4) Université de Picardie Jules-Verne： Amiens亚眠大学5) Université d’Angers昂热大学6) Université d’Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse阿维尼翁大学7) Université de Technologie de Belfort-Montbéliard贝尔福-蒙贝利亚技术大学8) Université de Franche-Comté：Besançon弗朗什-孔泰大学（贝桑松大学）9) Université Bordeaux 1波尔多一大10) Université Victor Segalen： Bordeaux 2波尔多二大11) Université Michel de Montaigne： Bordeaux 3波尔多三大12) Université Montesquieu： Bordeaux 4波尔多四大13) Université de Corse Pascal Paoli科西嘉大学14) Université de Caen Basse： Normandie卡昂大学15) Université de Savoie-Chambéry-Annecy： Chambéry 萨瓦大学(尚贝里)16) Université d’Auvergne： Clermont-Ferrand 1克莱蒙费朗一大17) Université Blaise Pascal： Clermont-Ferrand 2克莱蒙费朗二大18) Université de Technologie de Compiègne贡比涅技术大学19) Université de Bourgogne： Dijon勃艮第大学(第戎)20) Université Joseph Fourier： Grenoble 1格勒诺布尔一大21) Université Pierre Mendès France： Grenoble 2格勒诺布尔二大22) Université Stendhal： Grenoble 3格勒诺布尔三大23) Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble格勒诺布尔国立综合理工学院24) Université de la Rochelle拉罗谢尔大学25) Université du Havre勒阿弗尔大学26) Université du Maine曼恩大学27) Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille—Lille 1里尔一大28) Université du Droit et de la Santé： Lille 2里尔二大29) Université Charles de Gaulle： Lille 3里尔三大30) Université d’Artois： Arras阿尔图瓦大学（阿拉斯）31) Université du Littoral： Dunkerque滨海大学（又译：利托拉尔大学）(敦克尔克)32) Université de Limoges利摩日大学33) Université de Valencienne et du Hainaut-Cambrésis瓦朗谢纳大学34) Université de Bretagne-Sud：南布列塔尼大学35) Université Claude Bernard： Lyon 1里昂一大36) Université Lumière： Lyon 2里昂二大37) Université Jean Moulin： Lyon 3里昂三大38) Université de Metz梅斯大学39) Université Montpellier 1蒙波利埃一大40) Université Montpellier 2： Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc蒙波利埃二大41) Université Paul Valéry： Montpellier 3蒙波利埃三大42) Univeristé de Haute-Alsace： Mulhouse上阿尔萨斯大学(米鲁兹)43) Université Henri Poincaré： Nancy 1南锡一大44) Université Nancy 2南锡二大45) Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine： Nancy 洛林国立高等理工学院(南锡)46) Université de Nantes南特大学47) Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis尼斯大学48) Université d’Orléans奥尔良大学49) Université François Rabelais： Tours图尔大学50) Université Panthéon-Sorbonne： Paris 1巴黎一大51) Université Panthéon-Assas： Paris 2巴黎二大52) Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle： Paris 3巴黎三大53) Université Paris-Sorbonne： Paris 4巴黎四大54) Université René Descartes： Paris 5巴黎五大55) Université Pierre et Marie Curie： Paris 6 巴黎六大56) Université Denis Diderot： Paris 7巴黎七大57) Université Vincennes-Saint-Denis:Paris 8 巴黎八大58) Université Paris Dauphine:Paris 9巴黎九大59) Université de Nanterre： Paris 10巴黎十大60) Université de Paris-Sud： Paris 11巴黎十一大61) Université Paris-Val de Marne： Paris 12 巴黎十二大62) Université Paris-Nord： Paris 13巴黎十三大63) Université d’Evry-Val d’Essonne埃夫里大学（巴黎）64) Université de Cergy-Pontoise塞吉-蓬图瓦兹大学65) Université de Marne-La-Vallée马恩-拉瓦雷大学66) Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-En-Yvelines 凡尔赛大学67) Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour波城大学68) Université de Perpignan佩皮尼昂大学69) Université de Poitiers普瓦提埃大学70) Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne兰斯大学71) Université de Rennes 1雷恩一大72) Université de Haute-Bretagne： Renne 2雷恩二大73) Université de Rouen鲁昂大学74) Université de Saint-Etienne圣太田大学75) Université Louis Pasteur： Strasbourg 1斯特拉斯堡一大76) Université Marc Bloch： Strasbourg 2斯特拉斯堡二大77) Université Robert Schuman： Strasbourg 3斯特拉斯堡三大78) Université de Toulon et du Var土伦大学79) Université Toulouse 1 Sciences Sociales图卢兹一大80) Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail： Toulouse 2 图卢兹二大81) Université Paul Sabatier： Toulouse 3图卢兹三大82) Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse图卢兹国立综合理工学院83) Université de Technologie de Troyes特鲁瓦技术大学84) Université de Bretagne Occidentale： Brest西布列塔尼大学85) Université de la Polynésie Française法国波利尼西亚大学(海外)86) Université des Antilles et de la Guyane安第列斯-圭亚那大学(海外)87) Université de la Réunion留尼汪大学(海外)88) Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie 新喀里多尼亚大学(海外)。

马来西亚玛尼帕尔国际大学

马来西亚马尼帕尔国际大学马来西亚玛尼帕尔国际大学（Manipal International University）隶属于玛尼帕尔国际高等教育大学，玛尼帕尔国际大学以商业管理、医学、工程为特色和优势、兼有建筑、通信、信息科学、生物技术等学科的国际化综合大学。

2018年QS世界大学排名701位，QS亚洲大学排名198位。

历史沿革玛尼帕尔高等教育学院，前身为玛尼帕尔大学，是一所私立研究机构，被认为是位于印度卡纳塔克邦Udupi 的玛尼帕尔大学城的大学。

玛尼帕尔高等教育学院在迪拜和芒格洛尔设有分校。

它还在锡金和斋浦尔设有姐妹校区。

玛尼帕尔是英联邦大学协会的成员。

1953 年，T。

M. A. Pai 创立了印度第一所私立医学院，Kasturba 医学院，五年后，玛尼帕尔理工学院成立。

Pai 去世后，Ramdas Pai 于1979 年接管了管理层。

最初所有学位都是由卡纳塔克大学达瓦德和后来的迈索尔大学颁发的。

从1980 年到1993 年，他们被芒格洛尔大学授予。

目前的组织结构于1993 年成立，当时玛尼帕尔玛尼帕尔高等教育学院被大学教育资助委员会认定为大学地位。

玛尼帕尔高等教育学院被认证为ISO 14001：2004 组织。

2007 年，它重新命名为玛尼帕尔大学。

法定名称仍然是玛尼帕尔高等教育学院。

2017 年11 月，教资会要求从名称中删除“大学” 一词，该学院又恢复原来的名称。

玛尼帕尔高等教育学院是高等教育卓越的代名词。

来自57 个不同国家的28,000 多名学生在这个庞大的大学城生活，学习和玩耍，坐落在卡纳塔克邦乌杜皮区的高原上。

它还拥有近2500 名教职员工和近10000 名其他支持和服务人员，他们为卫生科学，工程，管理，通信和人文科学等各种专业机构提供服务，这些专业机构遍布Wi-Fi 校园。

该大学在芒格洛尔和班加罗尔以及迪拜（阿联酋）和马六甲（马来西亚）的离岸校园设有校外课程。

芒格洛尔校区提供医疗，牙科和护理课程。

历届诺贝尔经济学奖获得者演讲词

10 Economic Sciences 19691. T HE L URES OF U NSOLVABLE P ROBLEMSDeep in the human nature there is an almost irresistible tendency to concen-trate physical and mental energy on attempts at solving problems that seem to be unsolvable. Indeed, for some kinds of active people only the seemingly un-solvable problems can arouse their interest. Other problems, those which can reasonably be expected to yield a solution by applying some time, energy and money, do not seem to interest them. A whole range of examples illustrating this deep trait of human nature can be mentioned.The mountain climber. The advanced mountain climber is not interested in fairly accessible peaks or fairly accessible routes to peaks. He becomes enthu-siastic only in the case of peaks and routes that have up to now not been con-quered.The Alchemists spent all their time and energy on mixing various kinds of matter in special ways in the hope of producing new kinds of matter. To produce gold was their main concern. Actually they were on the right track in prin-ciple, but the technology of their time was not advanced far enough to assure a success.The alluring symmetry problem in particle physics. Around 1900, when the theory of the atom emerged, the situation was to begin with relatively simple. There were two elementary particles in the picture: The heavy and positively charged PROTON and the light and negatively charged ELECTRON. Subsequently one also had the NEUTRON, the uncharged counterpart of the proton. A normal hydrogen atom, for instance, had a nucleus consisting of one proton, around which circulated (at a distance of 0.5. 10-18 cm) one electron. Here the total electric charge will be equal to 0. A heavy hydrogen atom (deuterium) had a nucleus consisting of one proton and one neutron around which circu-lated one electron. And similarly for the more complicated atoms.This simple picture gave rise to an alluring and highly absorbing problem. The proton was positive and the electron negative. Did there exist a positively charged counterpart of the electron? And a negatively charged counterpart of the proton? More generally: Did there exist a general symmetry in the sense that to any positively charged particle there corresponds a negatively charged counter-part, and vice versa? Philosophically and mathematically and from the view-point of beauty this symmetry would be very satisfactory. But it seemed to be an unsolvable problem to know about this for certain. The unsolvability, however, in this case was only due to the inadequacy of the experimental technology of the time. In the end the symmetry was completely established even experimentally. The first step in this direction was made for the light particles (because here the radiation energy needed experimentally to produce the counterpart, although high, was not as high as in the case of the heavy particles). After the theory of Dirac, the positron, i.e. the positively charged counterpart of the electron, was produced in 1932. And subsequently in 1955 (in the big Berkeley accelerator) the antiproton was produced.The final experimental victory of the symmetry principle is exemplified in the following small summary tableR. A. K. Frisch11Electric charge0-1Note. Incidentally, a layman and statistician may not be quite satisfied with the terminology, because the “anti” concept is not used consistently in connection with the electric charge. Since the antiproton has the opposite charge of the proton, there is nothing to object to the term anti in this connection. The difference between the neutron and the antineutron, however, has nothing to do with the charge. Here it is only a question of a difference in spin (and other properties connected with the spin). Would it be more logical to reserve the terms anti and the corresponding neutr to differences in the electric charge, and use expressions like, for instance counter and the corresponding equi when the essence of the difference is a question of spin (and other properties connected with the spin)? One would then, for in-stance, speak of a counterneutron instead of an antineutron.The population explosion in the world of elementary particles. As research pro-gressed a great variety of new elementary particles came to be known. They were extremely short-lived (perhaps of the order of a microsecond or shorter), which explains that they had not been seen before. Today one is facing a variety of forms and relations in elementary particles which is seemingly as great as the macroscopic differences one could previously observe in forms and relations of pieces of matter at the time when one started to systematize things by considering the proton, the electron and the neutron. Professor Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel prize winner 1969, has made path-breaking work at this higher level of systematization. When will this drive for systematization result in the discovery of something still smaller than the elementary particles?Matter and antimatter. Theoretically one may very precisely consider the existence of the “anti” form of, for instance, a normal hydrogen atom. This anti form would have a nucleus consisting of one antiproton around which circulated one positron. And similarly for all the more complicated atoms. This leads to the theoretical conception of a whole world of antimatter. In theory all this is possible. But to realize this in practice seems again a new and now really unsolvable problem. Indeed, wherever and whenever matter and anti-matter would come in contact, an explosion would occur which would produce an amount of energy several hundred times that of a hydrogen bomb of the same weight. How could possibly antimatter be produced experimentally? And how could antimatter experimentally be kept apart from the normal matter that surrounds us? And how could one possibly find out if antimatter exists in some distant galaxes or metagalaxes? And what reflections would the12 Economic Sciences 1969existence of antimatter entail for the conception of the “creation of the world”, whatever this phrase may mean. These are indeed alluring problems in physics and cosmology which - at least today - seem to be unsolvable problems, and which precisely for this reason occupy some of the finest brains of the world today.Travelling at a speed superior to that of light. It is customary to think that this is impossible. But is it really? It all depends on what we mean by “being in a certain place”. A beam of light takes about two million years to reach from us to the Andromeda nebula. But my thought covers this distance in a few seconds. Perhaps some day some intermediate form of body and mind may permit us to say that we actually can travel faster than light.The astronaut William Anders, one of the three men who around Christmas time 1968 circled the moon in Apollo 8 said in an interview in Oslo (2):“Nothing is impossible . . .it is no use posting Einstein on the wall and say: Speed of light-but not any quicker . . .30 nay 20, years ago we said: Impos-sible to fly higher than 50 000 feet, or to fly faster than three times the speed of sound. Today we do both.”The dream of Stanley Jevons. The English mathematician and economist Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) dreamed of the day when we would be able to quantify at least some of the laws and regularities of economics. Today - since the break-through of econometrics - this is not a dream anymore but a reality. About this I have much more to say in the sequel.Struggle, sweat and tears. This slight modification of the words of Winston Churchill is admirably suited to caracterize a certain aspect of the work of the scientists - and particularly of that kind of scientists who are absorbed in the study of “unsolvable” problems. They pass through ups and downs. Some-times hopeful and optimistic. And sometimes in deep pessimism. Here is where the constant support and consolation of a good wife is of enormous value to the struggling scientist. I understand fully the moving words of the 1968 Nobel prize winner Luis W. Alvarez when he spoke about his wife: “She has provided the warmth and understanding that a scientist needs to tide him over the periods of frustration and despair that seem to be part of our way of life” (3).2. A P HILOSOPHY OF C HAOS. T HE E VOLUTION TOWARDS A M AMMOTH S INGULAR T RANSFORMATIONIn the The Concise Oxford Dictionary (4) - a most excellent book - "philo-sophy"is defined as“love of wisdom or knowledge, especially that which deals with ultimate reality, or with the most general causes and principles of things”.If we take a bird’s eye-view of the range of facts and problems that were touched upon in the previous section, reflections on the “ultimate reality”quite naturally come to our mind.A very general point of view in connection with the “ultimate reality” I developed in lectures at the Institut Henri Poincaré in Paris in 1933. Subse-quently the question was discussed in my Norwegian lectures on statistics (5).R. A. K. Frisch 13The essence of this point of view on “ultimate reality” can be indicated by a very simple example in two variables. The generalization to many variables is obvious. It does not matter whether we consider a given deterministic, em-pirical distribution or its stochastic equivalence. For simplicity consider an empirical distribution.Let x 1 and x 2 be the values of two variables that are directly observed in aseries of observations. Consider a transformation of x 1 and x 2 into a new setof two variables y 1 and y 2. For simplicity let the transformation be linear i.e.The b’s and a’s being constants.(2.2)is the Jacobian of the transformation, as it appears in this linear case.It is quite obvious - and well known by statisticians - that the correlation coefficient in the set (y 1y 2) will be different from-stronger or weaker than-thecorrelation coefficient in the set (x 1x 2) (“spurious correlation”). It all dependson the numerical structure of the transformation.This simple fact I shall now utilize for my reflections on an “ultimate reality”in the sense of a theory of knowledge.It is clear that if the Jacobian (2.2)is singular, something important happens.In this case the distribution of y 1 and y 2 in a (y 1y 2) diagram is at most one-dimensional, and this happens regardless of what the individual observations x 1 and x 2 are - even if the distribution in the (x 1x 2) diagram is a completelychaotic distribution. If the distribution of x 1 and x 2 does not degenerate to apoint but actually shows some spread, and if the transformation determinant is of rank 1, i.e. the determinant value being equal to zero but not all its elements being equal to zero, then all the observations of y 1 and y 2 will lie on a straight linein the (y l y2) diagram. This line will be parallel to the y 1 axis if the first row ofthe determinant consists exclusively of zeroes, and parallel to the y 2 axis if thesecond row of the determinant consists exclusively of zeroes. If the distribution of x 1 and x 2 degenerates to a point, or the transformation determinant is of rankzero (or both) the distribution of y 1 and y 2 degenerates to a point.Disregarding these various less interesting limiting cases, the essence of the situation is that even if the observations x 1 and x 2 are spread all over the (x 1x 2)diagram in any way whatsoever, for instance in a purely chaotic way, the corresponding values of y 1 and y 2 will lie on a straight line in the (y 1y 2) diagramwhen the transformation matrix is of rank 1. If the slope of this straight line is finite and different from zero, it is very tempting to interpret y 1 as the “cause”of y 2 or vice versa. This “cause”,however, is not a manifestation of somethingintrinsic in the distribution of x 1 and x 2, but is only a human figment, a humandevice, due to the special form of the transformation used.What will happen if the transformation is not exactly singular but only14Economic Sciences 1969near to being singular? From the practical viewpoint this is the crucial question. Here we have the following proposition:(2.3)Suppose that the absolute value of the correlation coefficient r x i n(x1x2) is not exactly 1. Precisely stated, suppose that(2.3.1)0 1.This means that ε may be chosen as small as we desire even exactly 0, but it must not be exactly 1. Hence |rX|may be as small as we please even exactly 0, but not exactly 1.Then it is possible to indicate a nonsingular transformation from x1 and x2to the new variables y1 and y2with the following property: However small wechoose the positive, but not 0, number δ, the correlation coefficient rYi n(yl y2) will satisfy the relation(2.3.2) |rY|( 0R. A. K. Frisch 15 techniques. The latter is only an extension of the former. In principle there is no difference between the two. Indeed, science too has a constant craving for regularities. Science considers it a triumph whenever it has been able by some partial transformation here or there, to discover new and stronger regularities. If such partial transformations are piled one upon the other, science will help the biological evolution towards the survival of that kind of man that in the course of the millenniums is more successful in producing regularities. If “the ultimate reality” is chaotic, the sum total of the evolution over time - biological and scientific - would tend in the direction of producing a mammoth singular transformation which would in the end place man in a world of regularities. How can we possibly on a scientific basis exclude the possibility that this is really what has happened? This is a crucial question that con-fronts us when we speak about an “ultimate reality”. Have we created the laws of nature, instead of discovering them? Cf. Lamarck vs. Darwin.What will be the impact of such a point of view? It will, I believe, help us to think in a less conventional way. It will help us to think in a more advanced, more relativistic and less preconceived form. In the long run this may indirectly be helpful in all sciences, also in economics and econometrics.But as far as the concrete day to day work in the foreseeable future is con-cerned, the idea of a chaotic “ultimate reality” may not exert any appreciable influence. Indeed, even if we recognize the possibility that it is evolution of man that in the long run has created the regularities, a pragmatic view for the fore-seeable future would tell us that a continued search for regularities - more or less according to the time honoured methods - would still be “useful” to man.Understanding is not enough, you must have compassion. This search for regularities may well be thought of as the essence of what we traditionally mean by the word “understanding”. This “understanding”is one aspect of man’s activity. Another - and equally important - is a vision of the purpose of the understand-ing. Is the purpose just to produce an intellectually entertaining game for those relatively few who have been fortunate enough through intrinsic abilities and an opportunity of top education to be able to follow this game? I, for one, would be definitely opposed to such a view. I cannot be happy if I can’t believe that in the end the results of our endevaours may be utilized in some way for the betterment of the little man’s fate.I subscribe fully to the words of Abba Pant, former ambassador of India to Norway, subsequently ambassador of India to the United Arab Republic, and later High Commissioner of India to Great Britain:“Understanding is not enough, you must have compassion.” (6).3. A B RIEF S URVEY OF THE D EVELOPMENT OF E CONOMICS IN THE L AST C ENTURY Turning now to the more specifically economic matters, it is inevitable that I should begin by making a brief survey of the development of economics in the last century.In the middle of the 19th century John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) in his famous work “Principles of Economics”said that so far as general principles are concerned the theory of value and price was now completely elaborated.16 Economic Sciences 1969There was nothing more to add, he said, neither for himself nor any other author. To us with our relativistic view on knowledge and the development of science, it is difficult to understand that such a statement could be made. But to the generation that lived at that time these words by Mill appeared to be very close to the truth. In Mill’s “Principles” the ideas of Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-l823)and Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) had been knit together into an organic, logically and seemingly complete whole.Subsequent developments have thoroughly denounced Stuart Mill’s words. Two break-throughs have emerged in economic theory since the time of Stuart Mill.The classical theory of value - as we find it streamlined in Stuart Mill - was essentially a theory of production costs based on the thinking of the private entrepreneur. The entrepreneur will think about as follows: “If I could only cut my selling price I would be able to draw the customers to me. This, how-ever, is also the way my competitors think. So, there emerges a sort of gravita-tional force that pulls prices down. The cost of production is so to speak the solid base on to which the prices fall down and remain. Hence the cost of production is “the cause”of prices. This general viewpoint the classical economists applied with great sagacity to a whole range of commodities , to the relation between wages and profits and to the theory ofinternational prices etc.This theory contains, of course, an irrefutable element of truth. But it is too simple to give even a crude presentation of the forces at play. The economic process is an equilibrium affair where both technological and subjective forces. are at play. The subjective element was nearly left out by the classicists.On this point economic theory was completely renewed in the years between 1870 and 1890 when a number of Austrian economists headed by Karl Menger (1840-1921) undertook a systematic study of the human wants and their place in a theory of prices. Similar thoughts were expressed also by the Swiss Léon Walras (1834-1910) and the Englishman Stanley Jevons (1835-l882). This was the first break-through since Stuart Mill.The Englishman Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) subsequently did much to combine the subjective viewpoint and the cost of production viewpoint. This led to what we now usually speak of as the neo-classical theory.Neither the classicists nor the neo-classicists did much to verify their theo-retical results by statistical observations. The reason was partly that the statistics were poor, and partly that neither the classical nor the neo-classical theory was built out with the systematic statistical verification in view. The architec-tural plan of the theory had so to speak not made room for this verification. This fact was criticized by the German historical school under the leadership of Gustav Schmoller (1838-1917) and by the American institutionalists. These schools, however, had an unfortunate and rather naive belief in something like a “theory-free” observation.“Let the facts speak for themselves”. The impact of these schools on the development of economic thought was therefore not very great, at least not directly. Facts that speak for themselves, talk in a very naive language.A. A. K. Frisch17In the first part of the 20th century the picture changed. Partly under the influence of the criticism of the historical school and the institutionalists the theoreticians themselves took up a systematic work of building up the theory in such a way that the theory could be brought in immediate contact with the observational material. One might say that from now on economics moved into that stage where the natural sciences had been for a long time, namely the stage where theory derives its concepts from the observational technique, and in turn theory influences the observational technique.For the first time in history it now seemed that the work on the theoretical front in economics - now to a large extent mathematically formulated - and the work on the outer descriptive front should converge and support each other, giving us a theory that was elaborate enough to retain the concrete observatio-nal material, and at the same time a mass ofobservations that were planned and executed with a view to be filled into the theoretical structure.Of course, there had been forerunners for such a combination of economic theory, mathematics and statistics even earlier. It was represented by such men as Johan Heinrich von Thünen (1783-l850), Augustin Cournot (1801-1877), A. J. Dupuit (1804-1866) and Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810-1858). But from the first part of the 20ieth century the movement came in for full. This was the beginning of the econometric way of thinking. And this is what I would call the second break-through since Stuart Mill.A crucial point in this connection is the quantification of the economic concepts, i.e. the attempts at making these concepts measurable. There is no need to insist on what quantitative formulation of concepts and relations has meant in the natural sciences. And I would like to state that for more than a generation it has been my deepest conviction that the attempted quantification is equally important in economics.The quantification is important already at the level of partial analysis. Here one has studied the demand for such important commodities as sugar, wheat, coffe, pig iron, American cotton, Egyptian cotton etc.And the quantification is even more important at the global level. Indeed, at the global level the goal of economic theory is to lay bare the way in which the different economic factors act and interact on each other in a highly complex system, and to do this in such a way that the results may be used in practice to carry out in the most effective way specific desiderata in the steering of the economy.As long as economic theory still works on a purely qualitative basis without attempting to measure the numerical importance of the various factors, practically any “conclusion”can be drawn and defended. For instance in a depression some may say: A wage reduction is needed because that will increase the profits of the enterprises and thus stimulate the activity. Others will say: A wage increase is needed because that will stimulate the demand of the consumers and thus stimulate activity. Some may say: A reduction of the interest rate is needed because this will stimulate the creation of new enter-prises. Others may say: An increase of the interest rate is needed because that18Economic Sciences1969will increase the deposits in the banks and thus give the banks increased capacity of lending money.Taken separately each of these advocated measures contains some particle of truth, taken in a very partial sense when we only consider some of the obvious direct effects, without bothering about indirect effects and without comparing the relative strengths of the various effects and countereffects. Just as one would say: If I sit down in a rowing boat and start rowing in the ordinary way, the boat will be driven backwards because of the pressure exerted by my feet in the bottom of the boat.In a global analysis that shall be useful for practical applications in economic policy in the nation as a whole, the gist of the matter is to study the relative strengths of all relevant effects and countereffects, hence the need for quanti-fication of the concepts.This perhaps is the most general and most salient formulation of the need for econometrics. How far we would be able to go in this direction was of course another question. But at least the attempt had to be made if economics were to approach the state of an applied science.It goes without saying that econometrics as thus conceived does not exhaust all the contents of economics. We still need - and shall always need - also broad philosophical discussions, intuitive suggestions of fruitful directions of research, and so on. But this is another story with which I will not be concerned here (7). Let me only say that what econometrics - aided by electronic computers - can do, is only to push forward by leaps and bounds the line of demarcation from where we have to rely on our intuition and sense of smell.4. S OME H ISTORICAL N OTES ON THE F OUNDING OF T HE E CONOMETRIC S OCIETY In the files of the Oslo University Institute of Economics I have located a folder containing letters and copies of letters dating from the years when the plans for an econometric society took shape. Here are interesting ideas and opinions from outstanding people in different parts of the world. Most of these people have now passed away.One of them was my good friend professor Francois Divisia. His letter of 1 September 1926 from his home in Issy les Moulineaux (Seine) was handwritten in his fine characters, 8 pages to the brim with every corner of the paper used. Most of the letter contained discussions on specific scientific questions, but there were also some remarks of an organizational sort. He spoke for instance of his correspondence with professor Irving Fisher of Yale. About this he said: ”Je suppose qu'il s’agit d’une liste destinée àétablir une liason entre les écono-mistes mathématiciens du monde entier”.Whether this was an independent initiative on the part of Fisher in connection with a plan for a society, or it was an outcome of my previous correspondence with Fisher, I have not been able to ascertain, because the files are missing. Divisia continues:“Dans la politique, je ne suis pas très partisan des organismes internationaux . . .mais dans les domaines desinteresses comme celui de la science, j’en suis au contraire partisan sans restriction”.Answering Divisia in a letter of 4 September 1926 I said inter alia: “JeR. A. K. Frisch19 saisis avec enthousiasme l’idee d’une liste ou d’un autre moyen de communication entre les économistes mathematiciens du monde entier. J’ai eu moi-même l’idée de tâcher de réaliser une association avec un périodique consacré à ces questions. Il est vrai que les périodiques ordinaires tels que la Revue d’économie politique ou l’Economic Journal, etc. acceptent occasionnellement des memoires mathematiques, mais toujours est-il que l’auteur d’un tel memoire se trouve duns l’obligation de restreindre autant que possible l’emploi de symboles mathematiques et le raisonnement par demonstration mathematique.Je connais déjà plusieurs economistes-mathématiciens dans differents pays, et j'ai pensé érire un jour ou l’autre une lettre à chacun d’eux pour avoir leur opinion sur la possiblité d’un périodique, (que dites-vous d’une “Econometrica”?, la soeur du”Biometrika”.) Maintenant je serai heureux d’avoir votre opinion d’abord. Si vous pensez que cela vaut la peine on pourra peut-être commencer par former un cercle restreint qui s’adressera plus tard au public. Dans les années à venir j’aurai probablement l’occasion de voyager souvent en Amérique et en Europe, alors j'aurai l’occasion de faire la connaissance des économistes qui pourront s’intéresser à ce projet, et j’aurai l’occasion de faire un peu de propagande. Peut-être pourra-t-on obtenir l’appui d’une des grandes fondations américaines pour la publication du périodique.Voici une liste de quelque personnes que je connais par correspondance comme étant très intéressées au sujet de l’économie pure: Jaime Algarra, Professeur d’éc. pol. UniversitéBarcelone, L. von Bortkievicz, Professeur de Stat. Univ. Berlin, E. Bouvier, Prof. de S C. fin. Univ. Lyon, K. Goldziher, Prof. Techn. Hochschule, Budapest, K. G. Hagström, Actuaire, Stockholm, Charles Jordan, Docteur és S C., Budapest, Edv. Mackeprang, Dr. polit., Copenhague, W. M. Persons, Prof. de Stat. Harvard Univ. Cambridge. Mass. U.S.A., E. Slutsky, Moscou, A. A. Young, Prof. d’éc. polit., Harvard Univ. Cam-bridge. Mass. U.S.A., P. Rédiadis. Contreamiral, Athènes.”I mentioned also a number of others, among whom were: Anderson, Prof. Ecole Supérieure de Commerce, Varna, Bulgarie, Graziani, Prof. d’éc. pol. Univ. Napoli, Italie, Huber, Dir. de la Stat.gén. de la France, Paris, Ricci, Prof. Univ. Roma, Gustavo del Vecchio R. Univ. Commerciale, Trieste.In a letter of 22 September 1926 Divisia answered inter alia: “Je suis, vous le savez, tout à fait d’accord avec vous sur l’utilité d’une Association Internationale d’Éco-nomie pure et j'aime beaucoup le titre d’"Econometrica" auquel vous avez songé pour un périodique. Toutefois, avant de passer aux realisations, je pense qu’il est indispensable de réunir tout d’abord un certain nombre d’adhésions. .. . je me demande s’il ne serait pas aussi possible et opportun de s’aboucher à une organisation existente comme l’lnstitut international de statistique. . . .Enfin, d’ores et déjà, tout mon concours vous est acquis.”In a letter of 1 November 1926 I wrote to Divisia: “Mon départ pour l’Amérique a été ajourné de quelques mois. J’en ai profité pour écrire aux personnes suivantes: Bortkievicz, Université de Berlin, A. L. Bowley, London School of Economics, Charles Jordan,Université de Budapest, Eugen Slutsky, Moscou, pour avoir leur opinion sur l’utilité et la possibilité de réaliser d’abord un cercle restreint et plus turd peut-être une association formelle . . .J’ai trouvé que je n’ai pas pû expliquer la chose d’une meilleure fagon qu’en copiant certains passages de votre dernière lettre . . .C’est peut-être là une petite indiscretion dont je me suis rendu coupable.”The same day 1 November 1926 I wrote to the four persons in question. In。

明尼苏达大学MCNAMARA校友中心

mcnamar aaLumni cen T er , u niversi T y ofm inneso T a 明尼苏达大学MCNAMARA 校友中心项目名称：明尼苏达大学 MCNA MAR A 校友中心设计者：安托内·普雷多克建筑事务所执行设计者：K or su nsk y Krank Erickson 建筑事务所项目地点：美国明尼苏达州明尼阿波利斯建筑面积：21 367.70m 2（230 000 平方英尺）建成时间：2000 年158159明尼苏达大学M CNA M A R A校友中心位于校园大道和橡树街的交叉点，这里是学校的主要入口，是一个礼仪性的空间节点。

该中心的设计邀请来到校园的游客参观明尼苏达的标志——一张模糊的石像面孔以及当地的农庄。

纪念堂是由大片玻璃、花岗岩和木板构筑而成的，旁边有一个倾斜的铜制构筑物，紧挨北侧的办公大楼。

纪念堂是整幢建筑的中心，其形体是一个不规则的多面体，建筑表面由花岗岩板材拼接组合而成。

光滑的裂缝可以将阳光引入到大型开放空间内部。

纪念馆的地面向上升起，抽象地表达了明尼苏达州花岗岩地层与水相互作用的状态，也将建筑锚固在基地上。

进入大厅后，参观者面前是主题空间、阳台和楼梯相互交织的景象。

每层空间都包裹在铜质表皮里面，表达出强烈的虚实关系，而大厅的各表面都覆盖着镂空的木板。

建筑中的“纪念拱门”高16.764m（55 英尺），是将旧体育场的建筑构件改造之后建成的。

这座拱门像画一样被悬挂在建筑空间内部，犹如一扇通往过去的门，是文物展览空间的入口。

纪念馆位于校园内的节点空间，引导人流从花岗岩广场、树丛和水面前往校园内部。

在广场水平向的景观设计的衬托下，断裂的花岗岩石碑及纪念堂格外醒目。

校友中心内有四家机构：明尼苏达大学基金会、明尼苏达州医学基金会、校友会及校董事会，这四个部门相对独立，仅在公共空间和学生的参与下相互联系。

建筑内四个部分的视觉存在感都很强，与纪念馆关系紧密。

德国曼海姆大学地理位置介绍

德国曼海姆大学地理位置介绍学校名称：德国曼海姆大学Universität Mannheim所在位置：德国录取率：0.655曼海姆大学是德国最年轻的大学之一，成立于1967年，大学的前身是成立于1907年的曼海姆市立贸易专科高校，1933年曾一度关闭，1946年以国立经济专科高校之名重新开放，当时有学生545人。

1963年学校增设了法学系和哲学系，1967年大学正式更名为曼海姆大学，学生人数增加到3150人。

学校共有5大院系29个专业。

这5个院系为：社会科学系、数学信息学系、法学和国民经济学系、哲学系和企业管理学系。

其经济学和社会科学专业历史悠久，教育水平久享盛名。

选修企业管理、国民经济学、政治经济学、社会学专业的学生多达6500人。

曼海姆大学的企业管理专业在德国声望极高，在教学内容上偏重数理分析。

2003年《经济周刊》对工商管理专业的排名中，曼海姆大学位居第一；在国民经济学排名中其位居第二。

曼海姆大学也是一所国际化的大学，大约每十名学生中就有一名外国学生。

它还有众多国际教育项目，如跨地区国际商务专业，欧洲商务硕士以及双学位制等。

大学有研究所11个，曼海姆大学还与全球450多个学术机构建立了联系。

地理位置曼海姆大学位于曼海姆城内分为136个方形街区，街道垂直相交，街市酷似棋盘。

因此号称棋盘城。

今天曼海姆是一座地处要冲的工商业城市，也是文化教育中心。

1967年这里创办了曼海姆大学，其前身是一所经济学院。

该校现已扩大到8个系，1.2万名学生。

曼海姆的名胜首推帝侯宫。

这座德国最大的巴洛克式宫殿，规模宏大，气魄非凡。

此宫现为曼海姆大学宿舍。

城东环城大道东侧的水塔是曼海姆的象征，建于1888年，塔高60米，尖塔上塑海洋女神安菲特里忒。

阿默斯特学院与明尼苏达大学莫里斯分校本科教学质量对比

公立，男女合校
无
校园面积（单位：Km2)
4.6
0.53
市区郊区
郊区
城区
学生人数
本科生人数
1795
1856
研究生人数
学校集团
美国中西（北）部运动协会（UMAC）、公立文理学院理事会（COPLAC）、明尼苏达大学系统
认证机构
美国西北部学校及学院协会（NASC）
本科教学质量对比
阿默斯特学院与明尼苏达大学莫里斯分校本科教学质量哪个好?
院校信息
对比项
阿默斯特学院
明尼苏达大学莫里斯分校
院校名称英文
Amherst College
University of Minnesota, Morris, UMM
USNEWS排名
2
136
州
马萨诸塞州
明尼苏达州
城市
阿默斯特
阿默斯特
性质
私立，男女合校
2
136
注：上表师生比值X，也即表示该校师生比为1：X；如某校师生比为1:10，则上表便记为10。
上述排名，共统计有美国900所学校。
对比项
阿默斯特学院
明尼苏达大学莫里斯分校
四年毕业率
87%
54%
小班比例(<20)
70.7%
64.0%
中班比例(20-49)
27.4%
32.8%
六年毕业率
95%
新生保持率
98%
77%
新生住校比例
教授水平满意度
学生满意度
75%
教师博士学位比例
93%
师生比
8.0
13
国际学生比例
10%
11%
USNEWS排名