A Comparative Study of Kinship Systems in English and Chinese
专四阅读详解 2
星期2 TuesdayHappiness is nearly always a rebound from hard work.辛勤工作的报酬几乎总是幸福。
Beauty is a curious phenomenon, one of permeable, shifting boundaries. We may think we understand it, since we sense it effortlessly. In fact, it is a bundle of mysteries researchers are still uncovering.Consider the ancient proverb: beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Until about 30 years ago it seemed too obvious for scientists to bother with. When they finally tested it, their results startled them.On the one hand, the maxim is false. Facial beauty is the same throughout the world. In every tribe and culture, individuals will consider Marilyn Monroe, say, an attractive woman. It goes further. Males can identify good-looking men, and females charming women. Old and young, rich and poor, learned and ignorant, all agree on who is beautiful. So do people of every class and personality type.We don’t learn this response. We’re born with it. In one recent study, babies just 20 hours old recognized attractive faces and preferred them. So beauty is in our DNA. The eye of the beholder doesn’t matter.On the other hand, and this is where it gets interesting, the facial shell is just the foundation of beauty. We see the self in the face, every day, all the time, and we can’t distinguish the two.This blurring means that we gift the attractive with a large number of virtues. They seem more competent, likeable, happier, blessed with better lives and personalities. In one experiment, people predicted happier marriages and better jobs for them, and rated them lower on only one aspect: their caliber as parents. Another study found people consider them more amiable, happy, flexible, pleasure-seeking, serious, candid, outspoken, perceptive, confident, assertive, curious and active. They exert more control over their destiny, subjects felt, while the homely endure the world’s sudden change.It is calle d the “beautiful is good” stereotype, and it grants the attractive a parade of boons. Teachers consider them smarter and give them higher grades. Bosses promote them faster. In one tale in The Thousand and One Nights, a thief steals a coin-bag, and when the victim accuses him, people protest: “No, he’s such a handsome youth. He wouldn’t steal anything!” In fact, attractive people can shoplift with greater ease, since witnesses are less likely to report them. And when they do stand before the court, juries acquit them more readily and judges give them lighter penalties.1. The proverb “beauty is in the eye of beholder” means[A] that beauty can only be admitted when most people recognize it.[B] whether somebody is beautiful depends on the person who is looking.[C] that beauty can be measured according to the attractive eyes.[D] that beauty can be judged only by grown-ups.2. Which of the following can best substitute the word “caliber” in Para. 6?[A] Desire. [B] Curiosity. [C] Habit. [D] Competence.3. Which of the following is true about the beauty?[A] The beauty is more likely to shoplift.[B] The beauty inside is more important than facial beauty.[C] The beauty may still commit the same crime as the commons.[D] The beauty usually leads unpleasant life.4. The author’s attitude towards “beautiful is good” is[A] objective. [B] approving.[C] questioning. [D] critical.Text BIt’s Saturday afternoon and you would love to play a few rounds of golf, but fear that you might not get enough tee (高尔夫球座) time at the closest public links. Instead, you decide to go down to the athletic club a few blocks away. There, you enter a private room, press a button, and look at the large screen on the wall in front of you. The screen flickers, blinks, and presto(转眼间) — you are suddenly on one of the world’s great golf courses, perhaps St. Andrews in Scotland. You tee off on the plastic turf whacking your ball against the screen. A blurred copy of the ball slices or hooks down the fairway(平坦球道). Computers, infrared beams, and photo-optical detectors track the ball’s spin, speed, and direction. You are totally immersed in the three-dimensional computer generated world.Virtual reality is created by using display and control technology to surround its users with an artificial environment that mimics real life. Through the use of visual and sound effects, things that don’t exist can be made to appear to exist. Virtual realty allows users to manipulate objects on the screen so they can become full participants in the three-dimensional setting that envelops them.Already, virtual reality systems have many practical applications. Most notably, the technology is being used to make simulations of cars or buildings during the design phase, to provide instruction in technical subjects like engineering, and to introduce new surgical techniques. But this technology’s most advanced applications at the moment are in entertainment such as virtual reality golf and the virtual reality arcade game rooms sprouting up all over the world.The idea of using computers to render artificial but useful environments began as early as the 1960s, but the computer power needed to generate 3-D graphics was so costly that only government agencies such as U.S. national Aeronautics and Space Administration, along with a few university labs, could afford it. The field began to grow in the mid 1980s when Jaron Lanier coined the term “virtual reality” and founded VPI Research Inc., the first high-tech company dedicated to the virtual reality field. Since then companies world wide have come to recognize the technology’s commercial potential and have entered the market. In the U.S. for example, the aerospace giant Boeing has organized a company-wide steering committee to explore virtual reality’s potential applications.Current virtual reality research shows numerous potential applications of the interactive technology:EDUCATION: Educators say virtual reality can offer alternatives to the way students learn.Some educators, in fact, are already using virtual reality systems in the classroom. At Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, architectural students move around in an animated image of the Parthenon, examining that noble structure’s roof and columns.DESIGN: Architects are expected to be the biggest users of virtual reality design applications. One experimental system now allows an architect to move through the design of a virtual hospital in a virtual wheelchair to test access to doors, hallways, light switches, and other design elements.MEDICINE: Virtual reality is giving scientists the ability to work surrounded by images of molecules and other objects that once required an electronic microscope study. Researchers predict that surgeons in training will be able to practice on electronic corpses while experienced surgeons will benefit from new techniques developed from virtual reality applications.“Virtual reality offers another window, but one that a scientist can climb through to interact directly with scientific abstractions,” says Howard Rheingold, author of Virtual Reality. “Virtual reality has the potential to become a microscope of the mind.”5. By citing the example of golf, the author intends to[A] indicate that people love to play golf on Saturday afternoon.[B] suggest that people go to athletic clubs to play golf.[C] show how people play golf on the three-dimensional world.[D] introduce the topic of virtual reality.6. People can fully participate in the three-dimensional world because virtual reality makes[A] things which don’t exist app ear to exist.[B] users fall into an illusion.[C] it possible to manipulate objects on the screen.[D] users surrounded by an artificial environment.7. Now the most advanced applications of virtual reality are in[A] design. [B] entertainment.[C] education. [D] surgery.8. Why did the field of virtual reality begin to develop only in the mid 1980s?[A] The computer equipment needed in this field was so expensive.[B] Computer technology just started to grow at that time.[C] The idea didn’t occur to people’s mind at an earlier time.[D] J aron Lanier coined the term “virtual reality” then.9. According to passage, which of the following is NOT true?[A] Jaron Lanier contributed much to the development of virtual reality.[B] Students can learn in a new way through the application of virtual reality in education.[C] Virtual reality is supposed to be applied most widely in car designing.[D] Scientists are able to work in an artificial environment through virtual reality applications.Text CThomas Hardy’s impulses as a writer, all of which he indulged in his novels, were numerous and divergent, and they did not always work together in harmony. Hardy was to some degree interested in exploring his characters’psychologies, though impelled less by curiosity than by sympathy. Occasionally he felt the impulse to comedy (in all its detached coldness) as well as the impulse to farce, but he was more often inclined to see tragedy and record it. He was also inclined to literary realism in several senses of that phrase. He wanted to describe ordinary human beings: he wanted to speculate on their dilemmas rationally (and, unfortunately, even schematically); andhe wanted to record precisely the material universe. Finally, he wanted to be more than a realist. He wanted to transcend what he considered to be triviality of solely recording things exactly and to express as well his awareness of the mysterious and the strange.In his novels these various impulses were sacrificed to each other often inevitably. As Hardy did not care in the way that novelists such as Flaubert or James cared, therefore he took paths of least resistance. Thus one impulse often surrendered to a fresher one and, unfortunately, instead of exacting a compromise, simply disappeared. A desire to throw over reality a light might give way abruptly to the desire on the part of what we might consider a novelist-scientist to record exactly and concretely the structure and texture of a flower. In this instance, the new impulse was at least an energetic one, and thus its indulgence did not result in a relaxed style. But on other occasions Hardy abandoned a perilous, risky and highly energizing impulse in favor of what was for him the fatally relaxing impulse to classify and schematize abstractly. When a relaxing impulse was indulged, the style —that sure index of an author’s literary worth —was certain to become verbose. Hardy’s weakness derived from his apparent inability to control the comings and goings of these divergent impulses and from his unwillingness to cultivate and sustain the energetic and risky ones. He submitted to the first one and then another, and the spirit blew where it listed; hence the unevenness of any of his novels. His most controlled novel, Under the Greenwood Tree, prominently exhibits two different but reconcilable impulses — a desire to be a realist-historian and a desire to be a psychologist of love — but the slight interlocking of plot are not enough to bind the two completely together. Thus even this book splits into two distinct parts.10. Thomas Hardy wanted to do all the following EXCEPT[A] explore his characters’ psycholog y.[B] describe ordinary human beings.[C] take pains to effect a compromise among various impulses.[D] express his awareness of the mysterious and the strange.11. According to the passage, a writer’s style is[A] a reliable means to measure his/her literary merit.[B] most apparent in those parts of his/her works that are not realistic.[C] problematic when he/she attempts to follow perilous or risky impulses.[D] shaped primarily by his/her desire to classify and schematize.12. Which of the following methods is NOT used by the author in analyzing Hardy’s novels?[A] Comparing Hardy with other famous novelists.[B] Analyzing the development of Hardy’s impulses.[C] Affirming Hardy’s success while pointing out imbalance in his novels.[D] Trying to prove Hardy is a total failure as a writer.13. What’s the author’s view on Hardy’s novel Under the Greenwood Tree?[A] It shows Hardy’s novelistic im pulses more successfully than his other novels.[B] It is Hardy’s most thorough investigation of the psychology of love.[C] It does not exhibit any harsh or risky impulse.[D] It reveals Hardy’s interest in the ordinary human beings.14. Which of the following is the most appropriate title?[A] Under the Greenwood Tree: Hardy’s Ambiguous Triumph.[B] The Real and the Strange: The Novelist’s Shifting Realms.[C] Energy versus Repose: The Role of Ordinary People in Hardy’s Fiction.[D] Hardy’s Novelistic Impulses: The Problem of Control.Text DTony Ronzone likes to boast that he knows a word or two in several foreign languages. He might be better off if he didn’t try to use them all at once. A few weeks ago, Ronzone, director of international scouting for the NBA champion Detroit Pistons, appeared at a basketball clinic in Mexico, where he attempted to teach a young Spanish-speaking prospect how best to position himself around the rim. “Demand the qiu!” Ronzone shouted. “Get your cerveza under the basket!” Qiu is Chinese for ball. Cerveza means beer in Spanish. Ronzone may have confused cerveza with cabeza, Spanish for head, though he admits, “I’m not sure I knew that.”The irony that the world’s best international basketball scout is also the world’s worst student of foreign languages is not lost on Ronzone’s peers. “He can’t speak any language at all,” laughs John Hammond, the Pistons’vice president of basketball operations. “Yet he travels to those obscure places and builds lasting relationships with all kinds of people. It’s amazing.” Adds Donn Nelson, the president of basketball operations for the Dallas Mavericks and one of Ronzone’s old friends: “Tony’s success is a tribute to his personality. He’s just —I guess the word is unembarrassable.”Most people think of scouting as the ability to recognize talent. This —it turns out —is relatively easy. Good basketball players are usually quite tall, quite fast and quite skillful at shooting a basketball. The difficult part in a world of 6 billion people is actually finding those who are tall, fast and coordinated, and the extremely difficult part is finding them before the competition does. Ronzone has conquered this problem despite his afflicted tongue by building a global network of coaches, journalists and friends who tip him off to the location of the world’s most gifted young players.In order to stay in touch with more than 400 people on five continents in a meaningful way, one has to have a certain natural enthusiasm. “An uptight guy would not succeed at this job,” says Pistons president Joe Dumars. “Tony will try every single food and drink. He’ll smile. He’ll laugh. He’s easy to like.” It’s true. When Ronzone arrives in a country — friendless and unannounced —his strategy for expanding his network frequently consists of walking up to people, saying hello and starting to talk about basketball in his train-wreck sentences. More often than not, they talk back.As a rule, Ronzone looks for the same things most scouts look for: hand skills, shooting and footwork. Unlike most scouts, though, he never takes notes while evaluating players and usually refrains from asking a coach questions until a third or fourth meeting. “The big reason is respect,” he says, “Some guys go to practices and they focus on one pla yer and scribble a bunch of notes; it comes off arrogant.”With so many people helping him find talent and keep secrets, Ronzone now spends as much time maintaining contacts as scouting players. Some of the favors he does are fairly minor. When an Israeli journalist he knows asks for an interview with a Pistons player, Ronzone sets it up instantly. “It’s easy for me to do,” he says, “and there are a couple of players over there I really like. This guy could help me find out their contact info, or at least g et me some good falafel.”15. The example of cerveza is to show that Ronzone[A] can speak Chinese well, but he knows little Spanish.[B] is not sure he knew that.[C] can’t speak foreign languages well.[D] feels ashamed of his poor Spanish.16. According to Donn Nelson, Ronzone[A] never feels self-conscious.[B] is over-talkative.[C] is a boastful person.[D] likes traveling and meeting people.17. The hardest thing for a basketball scout is that[A] he must build a global network of coaches, journalists and friends.[B] he has to have the ability to recognize talent.[C] he must travel all over the world to look for the promising young players.[D] he has to find the gifted young players before they are found by other scouts .18. Ronzone is different from most basketball scouts in that[A] he is not a good foreign language learner.[B] he keeps in touch with many coaches all over the world.[C] he likes talking with people about basketball.[D] he makes a point of respecting players.19. Which of the following statements is NOT true?[A] An unsociable person is not suitable for Ronzone’s job.[B] When Ronzone talks with strangers about basketball, they often talk back.[C] Ronzone is so busy that he hardly has time to help his friends.[D] With the help of Ronzone, the Israeli journalist interviewed the Pistons player.20. What’s the author’s attitude towards Ronzone?[A] Critical. [B] Praiseful.语境词汇Text A1. maxim n.格言，座右铭2. gift sb with sth. 赋予某人某物，向某人赠送某物3. caliber n.才干；口径4. candid a.坦白的，率直的5. homely a.相貌平平的，平常的；使人感到舒适的6. a parade of boons 一系列的恩泽Text B1. tee time 开球的时间2. flicker v.闪动，闪烁3. presto int.转眼间4. tee off 开球5. turf n.草皮vt.用草皮覆盖；扔掉；赶走6. slice v.打削球，打斜切球；可切成薄片7. virtual reality 虚拟现实8. mimic v.模仿；戏弄，嘲弄a.模仿的，假装的9. simulation n.模拟，仿真10. arcade game 电子游戏11. sprout v.迅速出现；发芽n.新芽12. interactive technology 交互技术Text C1. indulge v.纵容；沉迷于2. divergent a.分开的，叉开的；有分歧的，不同的3. to some degree 在一定程度上4. farce n.笑剧，闹剧5. transcend v.超出，超越(经验、信念、描写能力等)的范围；胜过，优于6. triviality n.琐事7. compromise n.妥协，折中方法8. perilous a.危险的9. verbose a.冗长的，啰唆的10. reconcilable a.可调和的Text D1. better off 情况更好2. scout n.物色人才者；童子军；侦察员3. rim n.篮圈；(圆形物的)边缘v.给…装边框4. tribute n.颂词，称赞；贡品5. tip off 给…警告或暗示6. more often than not 多半，通常7. refrain from 忍住，节制8. come off 表现；结果；发生，举行9. contact info 联系信息，联系方式10. falafel n.沙拉三明治难句突破Text A1. On the other hand, and this is where it gets interesting, the facial shell is just the foundation of beauty.【分析】并列复合句。
24年英语4级作文
24年英语4级作文In the era of globalization, English has become an indispensable tool for communication. As a student preparing for the CET-4 exam, I am acutely aware of the significance of mastering this language.The journey to proficiency is not without its challenges. It requires dedication and a structured approach to learning. From expanding my vocabulary to understanding complex grammatical structures, each step is crucial in building a strong foundation.Listening comprehension is a key component of the exam, and it has been a particular focus of my studies. I practice by tuning into English news broadcasts and podcasts, which not only enhances my listening skills but also broadens my horizons.Reading comprehension is another significant aspect, where I engage with a variety of texts, ranging from academic articles to literary works. This helps me to grasp different writing styles and improve my analytical skills.The writing section of the exam tests my ability to express thoughts coherently and accurately. To excel in this, I regularly write essays on various topics, seeking feedback to refine my writing style.Lastly, speaking is an area where I aim to improve by participating in language exchange programs and conversation clubs. It's through these interactions that I gain confidence and fluency.In conclusion, the path to achieving a high score in the CET-4 exam is paved with consistent effort and a passion for learning. With each day, I strive to better myself, knowing that the journey is as important as the destination.。
中西文化下的礼貌用语分析
A Comparative Study of Polite Discourses betweenChinese and Western Cultures闫晶 2010103010231摘要：礼貌的表现方式在不同的文化中是达不相同的，它与某一特定社会群体的典型行为密切相关。
总的来说，礼貌用语中的称呼语、问候语与告别语、致谢语、抱歉语以及赞扬语在人们的日常生活中扮演着重要角色。
本文对中西礼貌用语进行了具体而详尽的比照与分析，并概括了不同文化之间的礼貌用语存在差异的原因，即是由于不同的历史文化背景和不同的价值取向造成的。
通过分析比较中西文化下的礼貌用语差异，人们可以更好的学习英语，同时对于跨文化交际有一个更深层次的了解。
关键词：礼貌用语；文化；价值取向Abstract:The expressive ways of politeness are different from culture to culture and are closely associated with the typical behaviors of some particular social groups. Generally, politediscourses such as address, greeting and leave-taking, thanks, apology and compliment play avital role in people’s daily life. This paper makes a detailed contrast and analysis to the politediscourses between Chinese and English cultures, and summarizes the reasons for thedifferences of the polite discourses— different historical and cultural background and differentvalue orientation. According to the analysis, people can learn English better as well as have adeeper understanding of cross-cultural communication.Key words:polite discourses; culture; value orientationIntroductionPeople all communicate with others all the time. No matter how well they understand each other, communication is hard. “Culture” is often at the root of communi cation challenges. The culture influences how people approach problems, and how they participate in groups and in communities. When they participate in groups they are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.People’s histori es are a critical piece of their culture. Historical experience—whether offive years ago or of ten generation back—shape who they are. Knowledge of your history can help you understand yourself and one another better. Exploring the ways in which various groups with our society have related to each other is the key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication. This thesis is intended to compare different expressive ways of politeness in Chinese culture with that in English culture to have a better understanding of the polite discourses with different cultures. Through the brief analysis, it can be concluded that it is the historical and cultural background and different value orientation that determines the dissimilarities of polite discourses under different cultural contexts. Learning the relationship between language and culture and how that influences communication and understanding will help people participate in groups in an easy and friendly way.1. The different expressive ways of polite discoursesThere are various languages with different meanings in the world. People from different cultures might misunderstand each other because they don’t have a good knowledge of the differences of politeness. Here are some detailed examples of polite discourses to analyze the behaviors in different cultures by which people can improve their ability to communicate with others.1.1 AddressThe forms of address in every language reflect social status of the speaker, of the addressee, of the relationship between them. As far as English and Chinese forms of address are concerned, each has a system of its own due to the different cultures they have derived from. Generally speaking, there three noticeable differences between Chinese and English address systems which are likely to cause problems for intercultural communication.First, a proper Chinese name is arranged in the order of surname plus given name(s). An English name, however, is arranged in reverse order from the Chinese. The English first name (equivalent to the Chinese given name), is a non-kin public address term. So, in English, the usual forms of address for the English teacher are as follows: Mr. Lewis, or Andrew. (not: Teacher Lewis, Mr. Andrew, etc )Second, some Chinese kinship terms have extended and generalized usage. This is not thecase of English counterparts. For example, a child may call a policeman 警察叔叔(police uncle), a young street peddler may address a middle-aged female customer as 大姐. Yeye (grandpa), nainai (grandma) can be used to address people who have no familiar relation with the addresser. We may say that in Chinese culture kin terms are widely used to address known or unknown people, with the appropriate use of kin terms reflecting a person’s politeness, respectfulness, and friendliness.The third difference is that most occupational titles can be used as address terms in Chinese, but their English equivalents are not necessarily used in the same manner. Look at a talk exchange which actually occurred between a Chinese student (C) and an English teacher (E): C: Teacher, how do you do?E: How do you do? Where do you teach?C: No, I’m not a teacher. I’m a student.Here, C was using “teacher”as an address term, which was interpreted by E as a self-introduction.The three differences also reveal the Chinese system of forms of address has been dominated by status and politeness norms for many years. In contrast, with the gradual rise of domestic ideology, and equality increasingly become prevalent in forms of address in English.1.2 Greeting and leave-takingPeople of different cultures have different ways of greeting and leave-taking. One can’t start a talk without greeting, and one can’t keep on the relationship without bidding farewell at leave-taking.Giving regards to others directly, this is characterized in English. English has “Good morning” and “Good afternoon”. In Chinese culture there are similar structures, such as “你身体好吗?”(How are you?) and “近来怎么样”(How are you keeping recently?). Commenting weather is the most often used in English, but when Chinese friends meet on street, they greet one another by saying “去哪呀?”(Where are you going?) around meal time, a common greeting is “吃过了吗?”(Have you had your meal?). These greetings, encoded as greeting in Chinese culture, are often decoded in Western culture, as preliminary to a requestfor information in the first case and to an invitation to a meal in the latter.In Western culture, it is common to indulge in a couple of minutes’ talk, as preparation for leaving. This maybe the along the lines of: “Well, it’s been lovely to see you again, but I must be going soon. I hope we’ll be able to get together again before long. While it is customary for the Chinese guest to say “慢走”, “走好”, etc. The host usually insists on seeing his guest off, while the guest tries to decline. Here again, what is considered as an act of politeness in Chinese culture might be regarded as a face-threatening act in Western culture. To Westerners,a smile and a gesture of farewell would be enough.1.3 ThanksHow to respond to thanks is also associated with cultural norms. Below is an example showing how Chinese native speakers and English native speakers may respond to thanks differently in the same situation.Chinese Customer: Thank you for your excellent service.English waiter: Don’t mention it.Chinese waiter: This is what I should do.The above example demonstrates that the Chinese response is associated with a sense of duty, which to the Chinese is a moral obligation. To say that what you have done is what you should do shows that you are modesty and courteous, since the response indicates that one need not to be thanked for what one should do. In comparison, the modesty and courtesy that the English native speaker’s response reflect is not linked with moral obligation. English may feel upset and offended since English’s interpretation of Chinese’s response is that Chinese is obliged to do so rather than do it willingly.1.4 ApologiesApologizing is a speech act addressed to the offended person’s face-needs and intended to remedy an offense and thus to restore the friendship between the two. However, people in different cultures have different ways of expressing apology.For the Chinese, apology most often occurs between people of unequal social status and it is usually the person with less power apologizes to the person with more power, e.g. students to their teachers, employees to employers. But for the native English speakers, an apology isnecessary whenever inconvenience or offence is made with little consideration of the status or social power of the people concerned. For example, a manager will say sorry if s/he has to answer a phone call during a conversation with his or her clerk.In responding to an apology in both English and Chinese, one can reject the need for apologizing. But in English society, what the hearer can not do is to accept the apology; whereas in Chinese society, it is perfectly polite to accept the apology by saying “我接受你的抱歉”。
英语哲学思想解读50题
英语哲学思想解读50题1. The statement "All is flux" was proposed by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. HeraclitusD. Socrates答案：C。
本题考查古希腊哲学思想家的观点。
赫拉克利特提出了“万物皆流”的观点。
选项A 柏拉图强调理念论；选项B 亚里士多德注重实体和形式；选项D 苏格拉底主张通过对话和反思来寻求真理。
2. "Know thyself" is a famous saying from _____.A. ThalesB. PythagorasC. DemocritusD. Socrates答案：D。
此题考查古希腊哲学家的名言。
“认识你自己”是苏格拉底的名言。
选项A 泰勒斯主要研究自然哲学；选项B 毕达哥拉斯以数学和神秘主义著称；选项C 德谟克利特提出了原子论。
3. Which philosopher believed that the world is composed of water?A. AnaximenesB. AnaximanderC. ThalesD. Heraclitus答案：C。
本题考查古希腊哲学家对世界构成的看法。
泰勒斯认为世界是由水组成的。
选项A 阿那克西美尼认为是气；选项B 阿那克西曼德认为是无定；选项D 赫拉克利特提出万物皆流。
4. The idea of the "Forms" was put forward by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. EpicurusD. Stoics答案：A。
这道题考查古希腊哲学中的概念。
柏拉图提出了“理念论”，即“形式”。
选项B 亚里士多德对其进行了批判和发展；选项C 伊壁鸠鲁主张快乐主义；选项D 斯多葛学派强调道德和命运。
5. Who claimed that "The unexamined life is not worth living"?A. PlatoB. AristotleC. SocratesD. Epicurus答案：C。
泰语称谓与汉语称谓对比
泰语称谓与汉语称谓对比摘要本论文就汉泰称谓语进行了两方面的对比，包括：汉泰亲属称谓语对比、汉泰社会称谓语对比。
其研究，对中泰学生学习对方的语言及从事中泰翻译者很有帮助。
因为语言翻译不仅仅是把双方语言的同义词对应就能解释真正的词义，文化背景及民族语言背景对语言影响更直接。
尤其是称谓语，与人有着直接的关系。
称谓语翻译除了把双方语言的同义词对应以外，还必须考虑语言背景的文化、民族、信仰、政治、宗教等客观因素，这样才能准确地对应和使用。
关键词：亲属称谓；社会称谓The Differences Between Thailanguage-ChineseAppellationAbstractTherefore,these are the topics that a comparative study of addressing terms in Chinese and Thailanguage systems,will need to cover.These is consist of kinship terms,social addressing terms.The outcome of this research will not only beusefull for people who are interested in Thai-Chinese language studies but also for China-Thai or Thai-China translators who are in need of clear translation methods against a general background of language, culture, belief, politics and religion.Key word: kin; sicial appellation目录前言 (1)第一章泰汉称谓语前人研究综述 (1)1.1 称谓语定义及分类 (5)1.2 泰语称谓语概述 (5)1.3 汉语称谓语概述 (6)第二章泰汉亲属称谓语对比...........................................2.1 泰语亲属称谓语的构成内容........................................2.1.1 血亲亲属 (8)2.1.2 姻亲亲属 (9)2.2 汉语亲属称谓语的构成内容........................................2.2.1 直系亲属 (10)2.2.2 旁系亲属 (10)2.2.3 外亲亲属 (10)2.2.4 姻亲亲属 (10)第三章泰汉社会称谓语对比..........................................3.1 通常称谓语 (12)3.2 职业称谓语 (12)3.3 姓名称谓语 (13)3.4 人称代词 (14)结论 (17)参考文献...........................................................致谢...............................................................前言本论文的主要研究目标是探讨泰语称谓与汉语称谓对比，对比它们的亲属称谓和社会称谓，分析汉泰称谓语的构成内容，以便学习汉泰语者及汉泰语翻译人员能更加准确地使用称谓语。
复旦大学研究生高级英语教师用书
《研究生高级英语教师用书》Advanced English for Graduate Students（Teachers’Book）UNIT ONEText: The Idea of a UniversityBackground InformationClark Kerr (1911-2003) was an American professor of economics and academic administrator.He was the first chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley and the twelfth president of the University of California (1958-1967).He is acknowledged as one of the architects of the modern public university —and, in particular, the American research university.In an era of unprecedented growth in American higher education, he recognized the distinct roles of community colleges, state universities and the ‘flagship’research universities, and he coined the term “multiversity”in an attempt to capture the reality of large universities that had evolved to be a “whole series of communities and activities held together by a common name, a common governing board and related purposes,”reflecting the wisdom and thoughtfulness of one of America’s preeminent higher education specialists.Key to ExercisesIII.Vocabulary StudyChoose the word or phrase that best completes each of the following sentences.1. B2. D3. A4. A5. C6. B7. D8. C9. C 10. AIV.ClozeThere are 10 blanks in the following passage.Fill in each blank with a proper word.1.relationship2.ability3.living4.farmers5.respond6.on7.benefits8.marry9.after10.towardTranslation of the Text大学的理想克拉克 克尔一个多世纪前, 红衣主教纽曼在参与建立都柏林大学时对“大学的理想”的阐述也许是最到位的。
结构类英语作文模板
结构类英语作文模板英文回答：Introduction。
Structuralism, a major school of thought in the social sciences, emerged in the late 19th century and has had a profound influence on various disciplines, including anthropology, linguistics, and sociology. Structuralism emphasizes the interconnectedness of elements within a system and the importance of understanding the underlying structures that shape human behavior and social organization.Key Concepts。
Structure: The underlying framework that organizes and gives meaning to a system. In structuralism, structures are not directly observable but can be inferred through the relationships between elements.Element: The individual components of a system, such as words in a language or kinship relations in a society.System: A set of elements that interact and are mutually dependent on each other. Structures provide the framework for how elements interact within a system.Binary Oppositions: Structuralism often relies on binary oppositions to contrast and compare elements. For example, in the study of language, sounds may be classified as either voiced or voiceless.Methodology。
中英姓氏对比研究(英语)
A Comparative Study on the Origin of Surnames between Chinese and English Culture中英姓氏起源的文化比较Abstract: Culture is the sum of the material wealth and spiritual wealth in the development of human and every nation has its own unique culture. Surnames, created by people’s cultural creation, which are also a special part of culture, have rich cultural connotat ion and can reflect a nation’s cultural characteristic in history, language, philosophy, ethics, morality, religions, customs, social customs, psychology and value system. A surname is a family name and many dictionaries define "surname" as a synonym of "family name". In the UK and the US, it is commonly synonymous with "last name", since it is usually placed at the end of a person's given name. But in Chinese culture, the surname is a very important part in one’s life, as saying “A man never changes his na me wherever he goes, nor his surname whenever he sits”. In both Chinese and English, there are a great number of diverse and interesting surnames. The article mainly expounds the origin of surnames, comparison of vocabulary of the two kinds of surnames, their similarities and differences between Chinese and English culture and their relationship with given name. Here I need to make the definition of the title. In this article, the “Chinese” means the Han nationality which uses Chinese as their mother tongue in the mainland, other minorities excluded. The “English” means the nations like the UK and the USA where English is used as a mother tongue, the other countries like Australia, New Zealand excluded. This article mainly uses comparative method to distinguish the two kinds of surnames. On the basis of this comparative study, we can reveal the internal cultural characteristics of Chinese and English deeply and thoroughly which is helpful for improving the understanding of and intensify the respect for other cultures. And it also promotes cross-cultural communication and deeply research into language rules.Key words: surname; culture; similarities and differences; cross-cultural communicationI. IntroductionSurname is not only a kind of symbols to distinguish one from another or one family from another, but also it is a high-density information symbol indicating the messages of a nation’s language, history, geography, religion and socialdevelopment. The communicators between different cultural backgroundscontacted each other initially by the change of surnames. The famous cross-cultural communication experts, Scollon and Scollon said that the surname is the beginning of the cross-cultural communication which is also the window ofunderstanding social culture and evaluation. (cited in Gao and Ren 2003)In Wangjun’s research (2004:44), she gave an example of the importance ofsurnames. One American businessman, writer and social observer called Robert.L. Shook(1977) conducted an experiment in which he asked 20 male friendswhether they wanted to date with a secretary called Harriett Finkelstein. 18friends out of 20 said that they did not have time. After one month, he askedthem again, but the girl’s name was Jill Conner. 16 of them wanted to date with the girl. Although they did not meet the girl, the first girl lost her chance only by her surname. Because the surname includes aesthetic value and religion value, it gives people the first emotional reaction by primacy effect. For the westerners, this can stir different response. But to the Chinese people, we will regard them as symbols because of diverse culture background.Because of various history and culture factors, different surname systems are formed by people at all times and in all over the world. The origins of surnames and the cultural meanings are discussed and analyzed in this paper to promote the cross-cultural communication.II. The origin of Chinese and English surnamesA.The origins of Chinese surnames1.The background information and reasons of theemergence of Chinese surnames.Chinese culture is extensive and profound so the Chinese surnames have unique formation and cultural connotation. Chinese people attach great importance to surnames and see them as a symbol of family heritage and family line. Wealways hear people who have a same surname say that we have the sameancestors, in which we can see the importance of surnames for Chinese people.The surname in China which began in matriarchal society represents the blood relationship of a race to distinguish the blood kinship when people got married.Fu Xi, the first of the Three Sovereigns of ancient China, wanted to avoid incest and have a better-birth so he set up the institution that people who had a same surname could not get married. This is a significant symbol of the progress of Chinese nation civilization. With the development of the society, the maledominated main position in the life and labor work. So the clan was man-centric and members of a clan had their surnames according to the male’s surname.(Zhou Deyuan, 1-3)Referring to Chinese traditional culture, the surnames are of great importance in people’s life and people even pay more attention to surnames than names.Because of the deep influence of Confucianism, people stress three principles and five virtues and the concept of family being supreme, so the surname is prior to name.(Zhou Deyuan, 2-5) In daily communication, if one asks another how to address, actually the one asks the other’s surname. This is totally different from English culture.2.The origins of Chinese surnamesOn the whole, there are 14 origins of Chinese surnames :(Zhou 3-10)1.In matriarchal society, people have their surnames following their mother.Because the Shennong Clan’s mother called Nudeng, so there are manysurnames in Chinese with Chinese character component with the Nu, like Ji,Jiang, etc.2.Form their surnames by fief. Ancient emperors and the feudal princes alwaysaward fiefs to their ministers and nobles so these offsprings would take the name of fief as their surname. For example, a son of King Zhao of Zhou got a fief called Weng and his offspring took Weng as their surname. In all thesurnames in China, the surname coming from fiefs is the largest part,reaching more than 200. Nowadays, these surnames break away from their genetic relationship of bloodline.3.Take the country’s name as one’s surname directly. For example, in Shangdynasty, there was a small country called Ruan where the surnames of the offspring were Ruan. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring-statesPeriod, there were many kingdoms like Qi, Lu, Jin, Song, Zheng, Wu, Yue, etc.All the names of these kingdoms became common surnames in later ages. e the birth places and the living places of families as surnames. In ancienttimes, Shun was born in Yao so his posterity used Yao as surname. Somefamiliar surnames like Pei, Lu, and Li have relations with living places.5.The official position and profession could be used as surnames. The officialpositions like Sima and Situ are also the surnames of a family. The familywhose surname is Chu always had an ancestor taking cook.6.Surnames that are given by the monarch. It is said that the name of theemperor in Xixia Dynasty was Li, which is given by the emperor of TangDynasty.7.Take the style of the ancestor as the surname. The son of Lu emperor’s stylewas Ziyou, so his offspring took You as a surname.8.Decide a surname by myths and legends. An official in Shun dynasty said thathe was the offspring of the dragon, so he took Long(dragon) as his surname.9.Take the names of metal as surnames. In China, there are surnames like Jin,Yin, Tong, Tie, etc. which are coming from metal names.10. Take the names of plants or animals as surnames. There are many surnameslike Mei(plum blossom) , Hua(flower), Xiong(bear), etc.11.Change a surname because of taboo or other reasons. The Ming emperor inHan Dynasty tabooed Zhuang, so the people who used Zhuang as a surname changed to Yan.12. Take the artistry or occupation as a surname. The surnames such as Wu,Tao, etc. are the example of occupation.13. According to the sequence of the brothers in a family, people decided theirsurnames. We all know the statement of “Bo, Zhong, Shu, and Ji”, which is the sequence of a family, can be used as a surname.14. The minority invading in China or its fusion brought in many surnames whichChinese people did not have before.To sum up, these 14 conditions comprise almost all the origins of Chinese surnames and we can find that the sources of surnames in Chinese culture are extensive.B. The origins of English surnames1.The background information and reasons of theemergence of English surnamesIf we want to trace the origin of English surnames, we must talk about thedevelopment track of English history. After the ancient Romans, the Angles,Saxons and Jutes invaded in England and made themselves as domination. They set up tribal society but the level of productive forces was low so the people did not have surnames. (Song Rongchao 2008) In 1066, the Normans’ conquerstimulated the process of English feudalism and brought in the advancedlanguage and culture, in which it terminated the times of no surnames. Because of the sharp increase of the population, the duplication of names was serious, so people needed to identify by having a surname. They used addition such asoccupation, living places, etc. after their names to identify. In 1538, the lawstipulated that the newborn infants must register their names after the baptism, and this movement promoted the stationary use universal access of surnames.Because only the nobility had surnames at first, so it was spelled as “sir name”and then evolved into “surname”. (Wang Ying 2001)2.The kinds of origins of English surnamesAccording to the origins of English surnames, there are 13 kinds of differentorigins:(Wang 2001)1.The surnames come from fathers’ names. This method is adding –son or –safter the father’s name, for example, Jackson and Williams.2.The surnames come from the ancestor’s physiological characteristics such asappearance and figure or lifestyle. For example, if a person called peter whois a strong man, people may call him “Peter the strong” and then his namemay become Peter Strong.3.Take the occupation or artistry as the surnames. The word “carter” is the cartdriver and it is also used as a surname. There are other surnames like Smith, Cook, etc.4.Take the place they live in as surnames. The surnames like Brook, Hill, Lake,etc. are coming from the natural areas they live.5.Surnames come from animals, like Bull, Fox, etc.6.The surnames that come from colors, like White, Black, etc. If one has redhair, he may be called Tom Red.7.The people’s names in the Bible or the names of believers in Christianity canbe used as surnames, such as John, James, etc.8.Take the nation as surnames, such as Angles, German, etc.9.Take the natural phenomenon as surnames such as Rain, Frost, etc.10.Take the plants as surnames such as Flower, Rose, etc.11.Take the body parts as surnames like Arms, Temple, etc.12.Take the weapons or currency as surnames such as Pound, Sword, etc.13.Take the official rank as surnames such as Judge, King, etc.There are 35000 surnames in the UK and US, and 200 of them are frequently-used. The top ten include Smith, Jones, Williams, Brown, Davis, Johnson,Anderson, Taylor, Thom and Evans which occupy almost half of the Englishpeople.III.The comparative analysis of the similarities and differences in English and Chinese surnamesA.The similarities of Chinese and English surnames1.The similarity of the reasons of emergenceWith the development of productive forces, the population is increasingand this needs the emergency of surnames. Both in the UK and US or inChina, the surnames did not emerge until feudalism began. After the sharpincrease of people, the society needed to use surnames to identify people.This is the inevitable trend of historical development.At the beginning of surnames, both in China and the UK, they were thesymbols of nobles, but they gradually went into plain citizens after a longtime.2.The similarity of the origins from culture perspectiveAlthough there are a lot of differences in culture, the origins of surnameshave many similarities.e the living place as surnames. The surnames in all the nations inthe world are closely linked to the places’ names. In Xia, Shang andZhou Dynasty, they carried out patriarchal clan system which mainlyperformance in the fiefs. So there are many surnames coming fromstates of fiefs. In the UK, the surnames come from the names of placeswhich are usually the birth places or living places including state, town,village, river, lake, forest, prairie, island, etc.2.Take occupations and skills as surnames. In ancient China, the mainroute to pass on the skills is transferring the skill from fathers to sons.So many surnames come into being because of the occupation. Thishappens to coincide with the UK. The most common surnames likeSmith, Carpenter, Carte, etc.3.Take the names or styles of the elder generation as surnames. Acousin of Confucius had a style called Qinlao, so the later generationstook Lao as surnames. In English culture, the surname “Johnson” iscoming from “John”, getting a surname by adding –son.4.Take colors as surnames. In the book Hundred Family Surnames, itincludes the surnames like Hong, Huang, Bai, etc. At the time,choosing colors as surnames in English are more common thanChinese. The surnames such as Red, Grey, Brown, White, etc. arecoming from colors to show the preference of the ancestors or thecolor of skin.5.Take the metals’ name as surnames. We can find the surnames like Jinand Tie very common in China. There are many surnames such as Gold,Silver, etc. used as surnames in English.6.Take the official positions or titles as surnames. The offspring ofofficials in Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasty took the official position astheir surnames, like Sima, Situ, etc. In English culture, the surnamessuch as King, Queen, etc. come from titles.7.Take the names of plants or fruits as surnames.e the names of animals as surnames. There exists many surnamessuch as Ma (horse), Niu (ox) coming from animals. So does Englishsurnames.9.Get the surnames from religion. There are surnames such as Pangu,which comes from a mythological figure called “Pangu”. In Englishculture, the surnames like James, Peter, etc. are the typical examplesof religion.3.The reason of the similaritiesFirst, the reason of the surnames is because all the surnames are thesocial culture development of human beings, so the Chinese and Englishsurnames are similar to some extent. The emergency of surnames is aninevitable trend of society and the human civilizations are familiar witheach other. Although in different parts on the earth, the people’sdevelopment and social progress are the same.Second, with the emerging of agricultural society, the productivity leapedforward. And we all know that the civilization is gradually developed withthe productivity, so the surnames, which are typical examples, developedin different countries.B.The differences between Chinese and English surnames1.The difference between the reasons of emergencyThe English surnames’ emergency is mostly depended on the foreignaggression and it did not appear until 11th century. But the Chinesesurnames are quite different from English surnames. We have a time-honored history with 5000 years and we have surnames as early as XiaDynasty. The Chinese surnames’ emergency mainly depended on owndevelopment rather than the invasion (Guan Yongli 59).2.The difference between origins from culture perspectiveFirst, the Chinese surnames which come from fiefs and states take a largepart in all the surnames and have little relationship with people’s givenname. But in the UK, surnames have a lot to do with the original names.Second, the Chinese will not alter their surnames only if they needed totaboo or had other peculiar reasons. On the contrary, the English peopleare glad to change their surnames and there are specialized agencies tochange surnames in European countries.3.The reason of differenceThese differences show the diverse culture backgrounds and individualvalue orientation. The English people wanted some symbols to identifyindividuals so that they created the surnames, which reveals theindividualism in western culture and represents their desire to pursuepersonal rights. However, due to collectivism and patriarchal clan system,the Chinese surnames serve as a tool of making a distinction betweendifferent families and will not alter optionally.IV.The conclusionThe surnames of a nation are restricted by many aspects such as culture, history and society and to some extent we can say the surname is a culture, a historyand a nationality. From the comparative study, we can find some of the origins of surnames are same in two cultures. We also can realize that the reason ofemergency of surnames is similar. However, on the other hand, these two kinds of surnames are different in vocabulary and value these show.The similarities which lie in the surnames in Chinese and English culture illustrate that the human cultures have the universality and homogeny so that all thenationalities can understand each other perfectly. But at the same time, owing to the particularity, nationality and heterogeneity, all the nationalities should have mutual respect and seek sameness but keep difference. The core of cross-cultural communication is to establish and understand how people from different cultures communicate with each other and that is the major function of thispaper. In the cross-cultural communication, if we can comprehend the surname culture and discover the implied information in names, it can improve the cultural sensitivity in cross-cultural communication, achieve better two waycommunication and enhance mutual understanding. In this paper, the main topic is the surname and the implication it has, so it is closely related to the deepculture and can help us search into the cultures deeply. After the comparativestudy, we can understand the English culture and history fully and have a deep love for our own culture.Reference:Shook, Robert L. Winning Images. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., 1977.周德元，《中华姓氏起源与内涵》。
Researches on the Differences of Kinship Systems
Sino-US English Teaching, June 2019, Vol. 16, No. 6, 235-239 doi:10.17265/1539-8072/2019.06.002Researches on the Differences of Kinship SystemsYAO Jiaying, WANG GuilianUniversity of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, ChinaKinship system is the way to determine the family members. Based on the Whorfian Hypothesis, this paper takesChinese and English kinship terms as the research object to make an analysis about the relationship betweenlanguage and culture from the perspective of sociolinguistics, expecting to find out the major differences andexplore the factors leading to them.Keywords: language, culture, kinship systemIntroductionLanguage is a system used to convey messages through various backgrounds. It can be symbolic and rule governed with bunch of traits. Culture is the “knowhow” that a person possesses through the task of daily life. The exact relationship between language and culture has long fascinated people with a variety of backgrounds and will continue to fascinate them, because it has been a long-standing claim that the structure of a language determines the way speakers of that language view the world.This paper takes the Whorfian Hypothesis as the theoretical framework to make a study on the relationship between language and culture from the perspective of kinship system.The Whorfian HypothesisBenjamin Lee Whorf, a student of Sapir, believes that the structure of a language influences how its speakers view the world. This idea is regarded as the Whorfian Hypothesis. According to Whorf (2004, p. 217), the background linguistic system (i.e., the grammar) of each language is not just a reproduction of the voicing ideas, but rather the shaper of ideas as well as the program and guide for the individual’s activity both mentally and emotionally. This opinion shows that language is not just a linguistic identification but a reflection of culture. Different people experience the world differently just because the languages they speak differ structurally. Whorf (2004, p. 217) also argued that no individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation. Thus, we hold the idea that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar, or can in some way be calibrated.From the above analysis, we can draw the conclusion that Whorf holds strongly the idea that the relationship between language and culture is that the structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. Next, we will examine this point from the perspective of kinshipYAO Jiaying, post-graduate student,Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.WANG Guilian, Associate Professor, Master, Foreign Language College, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology,Shanghai, China.RESEARCHES ON THE DIFFERENCES OF KINSHIP SYSTEMS236 system between English and Chinese.Analysis of Kinship SystemsAccording to Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary , “kin” refers to one’s family and relations. Kinship is an abstract linguistic form which represents the relationship chiefly concerned with blood and marital relationship. Besides, there are also other legal relations that constitute for the whole kinship system. Kinship can be seen as a tool to divide the whole society in various ranks or sections. As for kinship, it may be the keenest and most sustained interest which has great impact on human beings amid all the topics about anthropological linguistics. One of the most interesting ways in which people use language in daily life is to refer to various kinds of kin, and it is not surprising that there is considerable literature on the research of kinship terminology, describing how people use different words to refer to different relatives by blood and marriage. The study of different kinship terminology, especially in the aspects of ethnic and semantic connotations is not only useful for people to learn the culture difference, but also for better mutual communication. Based on the Whorfian Hypothesis, this paper will make a comparative study between Chinese and English kinship system from the perspectives of sociolinguistics.Addressing terms of appellation in English and Chinese differs a lot. Among various countries and nationalities, the clearest difference may be that between Eastern Asia and Western countries. The following part is to make a detailed analysis on this point from paternal and maternal sides.Paternal SideChinese traditional convention attaches much contact to this. Paternal side can be divided into five major parallel categories as followings: the children of father’s siblings’, father and father’s siblings, children and siblings’ children, father’s parents, and children’s children. This part is the most important and complex one, for example, “great-grandfather (great-grandmother)”, “sister-in-law”, “daughter-in-law”, “uncle (aunt)”, “cousin”, and “granddaughter-in-law”. As a convention, the relationship of marriage and blood tie are also included in this part. It can be divided into three categories. They are husband and husband’s siblings, husband’s parents, and children of husband’s siblings. It is less important than the one below. Also, it mainly includes “father (mother)-in-law”, “brother (sister)-in-law”, and “nephew (niece)”.In English, taking the word “cousin” for an example, it can refer to all the sisters and brothers in Chinese kinship system, without distinguishing the elder or the younger, males or females, even whether in mother’s clan or father’s clan. Similarly, the word “uncle”, “aunt”, “grandmother”, and “grandfather” also have vague meanings. It is changeable so that in different conditions they are called differently.Maternal SideMaternal side can be divided into three major categories. They are mother and mother’s siblings, ego and children of mother’s siblings, and (parents of) mother’s parents. This part is the second important part. It mainly includes “great-grandfather (great-grandmother)”, “uncle”, and “cousin”. It consists of the major kinship system with the paternal side. Similarly, this part can be divided in three categories: wife and wife’s siblings, wife’s parents, and children of wife’s siblings. Also, it is less important than the one below. Its main parts are “father (mother)-in-law”, “brother (sister)-in-law”, and “nephew (niece)”. Similarly, in English, a single word can refer to sisters and brothers in maternal side included in Chinese kinship system.RESEARCHES ON THE DIFFERENCES OF KINSHIP SYSTEMS 237Causes of the DifferencesOne interesting and fundamental way in which people use language in daily living is to refer to various kinds of kin. Different kinship systems differ a lot. Some systems are much richer than others, but all make use of such factors as sex, age, generation, blood, and marriage in their organization. When it comes to the topic, most of us want to figure out what lead to the differences. There are several reasons elaborated as follows. Different Cultural BackgroundAmong various countries and nationalities, the clearest difference may be that between Eastern Asia and Western countries. China has a culture of over 5,000 years, whereas some Western countries, such as America only have a few hundred years. In China, kinship system is so complicated and varied that sometimes even we ourselves do not have a clear classification of blood relatives, direct-related relatives, relatives by marriage, elders and the younger generation, the elderly and young, males and females, and close relatives and distant relatives. They are a really complex system, which includes the influence of the ancient history, political system, and many other factors inherited until now.Whereas it is not the same in Western countries, what they have been influenced for hundreds of years are individualism, independence, etc. which encourage them to achieve themselves. In English kinship system, as long as they are in the same generation, age seems not that important. On the contrary, in Chinese kinship system, age is very important and it even symbols the politeness and cultivation. If there are several children in a family, they are supposed to call each other with first brother (sister), or second brother (sister). The younger must show respect to the elder, let alone in different generations, such as grandfather and grandmother. The younger must show great respect to them to express politeness. It is a moral principle that everyone should follow. For example, brothers and sisters, no matter which is elder or younger, they are in the same level in a family. Similarly, uncle and aunt, or grandfather and grandmother, they are also in the same level in a family. Only the person with higher hierarchy can call the full name of the lower directly. For example, parents can call their children’s full name, while the children should not call their parents’ full name directly, which is because of the rule that the lower one cannot call the higher one’s full name. Because of this, there is a distinct division of hierarchic system in Chinese kinship system. While in Western countries, there is no such custom for them to obey. The elder and the younger are on the same level. Everyone can call each other’s full name; the Western countries’ children are becoming more and more casual to call their parents’ first name, which will be a very unpleasant thing in China and may indicate terrible relationship of parents and their children. In Western countries, kinship seems of no significance. They do not think the hierarchy division is a good way to show their individuality. That is to say, the Westerners tend to break the bounds of family hierarchy and it is universal for them to call each other’s name directly. It is a cultural difference about expressing in different ways.Address forms contain distinctive linguistic and culture features, which are a good example of politeness expressions. Also, there are some differences between them about the politeness norms of address. As for Chinese, it is known to us all that they are famous for their politeness and courtesy. It commonly includes two aspects in politely addressing. One is to show respect to the one you are talking to, the other is to remain modest, while in China, when the older neighbors of the addresser have no official titles or prestigious occupational titles, Westerners can address their first names Mr./Mrs./Ms., plus last name, or zero address forms. No one think it is strange. However, it is inappropriate for Chinese to address other’s first name withoutRESEARCHES ON THE DIFFERENCES OF KINSHIP SYSTEMS238 other honorific appellation. It is due to this that the use of assumed kinship systems differs from each other between English and Chinese.Different Political SystemAccording to Chinese old feudalism, the emperor was always the most powerful one. Also, the father’s power is the greatest in a family. In the patriarchal autocracy family, clan is the most powerful element for the existence of emperorship. Besides, there was an extreme strict hierarchical system in ancient feudalism. It also led to the distinct classification of the young and old, seniors and juniors, and close and distant.Among those English-speaking countries, they protest the democratic management from the country inside with the legal restraint. In social political life, the law protects the citizens, so that the citizens do not entirely depend on the families and clans. They are just a single person without any other accessories. Therefore, the status of families and clans in Chinese are far more important than in English. Also, the English are independent and individually not getting much contact with their families, blood ties, and marriages. Kinship system is not that important for them. Thus, the classification of kinship system is not as detailed as in Chinese. Different Economic ModeChinese traditional culture is a cultural form of agricultural economy as its main economy, that is, peasant culture. From ancient times, Chinese farmers were constrained on the farm land. The farm land was their life. As the peasant culture set family as a unit, men were tilling the farm and women were weaving. They could provide what they need to themselves under the Economic Net. Once leaving the family, neither men nor women can live or produce things. Under this condition, people attached more and more importance to family. That was why family was so dependable in their perception.In English-speaking countries, they pursue individualism and independence. In Britain, for example, most families are small families, unlike that in China with a great number of siblings in a family. They emphasize the independence of personality and the family members live dispersedly. Also, when children were very young, their parents focused on developing their independence and making decisions for themselves. The closest relatives are like this, let alone the relatives who are not close. Thus, the relation by blood, marriage, and so on seems impolite. Leading a life by oneself is the most significant one in their conventional concept.The patriarchal clan system refers to a kind of kinship system based on the blood tie, which aims to respect common ancestor and set the succession order and the different rights and obligations of the members of the different status. The patriarchal system established in the Western Zhou Dynasty. It set the patriarchal kinship, just like Confucian ritual system, so that the kinship system is very complex and varied. At the same time, an ancient Chinese society was also an autocratic society. After the Qin Dynasty unified the world, the world became one and the emperor was the largest parent. Thus, the family and clans became the nation’s shadow; patriarchal kinship became the social political relations’ basement.In English-speaking countries, especially the whole European civilization system, there is an inheritance relationship with the classical democracy in Ancient Greek. Ancient Greek democracy Athens is the main representative. Engels said that Athens was a highly developed country; the Democratic Republic was directly from the clan society “People”. They contracted with each other, rolled out the leaders and the country was different from China in sense, the country did not depend on the control of family to maintain the stability of the country. The most important is that in Europe, the kind of the people, for example, the paternal and maternal descent for relations are not divided; they have no distinctions. Therefore, there is no need to point outRESEARCHES ON THE DIFFERENCES OF KINSHIP SYSTEMS 239which relatives are father’s, and which ones are mother’s.ConclusionDuring this study, we have been more familiar with the different causes for the differences between English and Chinese kinship systems from the perspective of language and culture. In a word, knowing the related background of a country is very useful to analyze the difference between the Chinese kinship terms and the English kinship terms. We have learned that the Chinese culture concentrates more on the family and the interrelationship, while the English emphasizes more on the individual personality and equal relationship with each other. Knowing this can also help us communicate more easily with different people with different cultural backgrounds. Chinese kinship is clear and the age is related with the social status due to the effect of Confucianism. But English kinship terms have the semantic feature of generality. In English-speaking countries, after the Industrial Revolution, people reduced and even lost in the families. So, the kinship was very simple without so many siblings. Exploring its profound significance really matters a lot, which still remains a lot to probe into.ReferencesChen, H. (2010). English & Chinese kinship terms and their cultural roots. Overseas English, 10, 3-4.Liu, K., & Long, X. H. (2012). The research on the semantic features of English and Chinese kinship terms. Hei Longjiang: Technology Guide.Wardhaugh, R. (2004). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 215-227. Whorf, (2004). Language and Culture, Language, 217.Zhang, J. J. (2014). Research on translation of assumed kinship terms. School of Foreign Studies, 9, 288-292.。
浙江省网络课程平台-跨文化交际题库(附答案)
Course11.Intercultural competence is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, _______ and attitudes.【skills】2.Intercultural competence is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills and__________.【attitudes】3.Intercultural competence is the ability to communicate effectively and _____in intercultural situations base d on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes.【appropriately】4.Some scholars classify four kinds of intercultural communication. They are ______, interethnic communication, interregional communication and interracial communication.【Intelnational communication】5.Intercultural communication involves interaction between people whose cultural and _________symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.【perception】1.Taking pictures without asking is considered as violation of privacy in a certain cultural groups.【√】2.Communication barriers are caused by the same communication having different meaning in different cultures.【√】3.International communication takes place between such groups as African Americans and Latin Americans.【×】4.Different people may have different interpretations about what we say and behave because we have different values.【√】5.Intercultural communication involves interaction between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are similar to alter the communication event.【×】Course21.A person’s culture is ___________.【learned】2.Which of the descriptions below is NOT an accurate representation of the relationship between communication and culture?【. Culture and communication are not really related to each other】3.People learn the lessons of culture through __________.【.proverbs myths mass medla all the above】4.According to Edward Tylor, which one of the following is not included by the complex term of culture?【institution】1.The SPEAKING model is a model to analyze spoken and written texts.【×】2.Culture is transmitted from generation to generation to ensure that its crucial messages and elements are passed on.【√】3.Communication can simply refer to the act and process of sending messages among people to connect and interact with other human beings.【×】4.Failure in interaction arose because people in different cultures may choose similar rules and genres to conduct the dialogue.【×】5.Culture is dynamic, which is ongoing and subject to change.【√】6.Feedback is essential to good communication.【√】Course31.In China, as in other Asian societies that have accepted the teaching of Confucius, people are believed to be basically good, yet the ________has a lot of impact on them.【environment】2.Periodic increases in yang are accompanied by corresponding decreases in yin─this followed by an __________ cycle in which yin increases while yang decreases.【opposite】3.People who have the Taoist world view hold that the universe is best seen as an infinite system of elements and_______ in balanced dynamic interaction. Further, two of the forces present in this universe are good and evil.【forces】4.In the Bible story of Adam and Eve, God threw them out of the Garden of Eden because they ate the fruit from ___________.【the tree of knowledge】5.The traditional Western belief about human nature is that human beings are basically ______________.【evil】6.According to Christian teaching, all humans have been born with ___________.【original sin】1.Westerners don’t think we can perfect our nature even if we keep on doing good things.【×】2.Much of Europe also have a good/evil approach to human nature. They believe that while we might be born evil, through learning and education we can become good.【√】3.The traditional Western belief about human nature is that human beings are basically evil.【√】Intercultural conflicts are often caused by differences in value orientations.【√】5.People who have the Taoist world view hold that the universe is best seen as an infinite system of elements and forces in balanced dynamic interaction.【√】6.British anthropologist, Florence Kluckhohn, identified five orientations, five categories of beliefs and behaviors that are universal.【×】7.Buddhism maintains that people are born evil.【×】8.As a result of the rise of humanism in the West, the basic belief has changed to one of seeing humans as a mixture of good and evil. Everybody has both good side and bad side.【×】9.Yang and yin are cyclic; they are regularly repeated; they go through natural periods of balanced increase and decrease.【√】1.Case analysis：Lucia, a Native American college student, when one of her uncles passed away during the first week of school, was expected to participate in family activities. She traveled out of state with her family to his home, helped cook and feed other family members and attended the wake and the funeral. Then her aunt became ill, and she had to care for her. Thus, she missed the first two weeks of school. Some of her professors were sympathetic; others were not. Questions: What was troubling Lucia? Why did she feel troubled?【Lucia feels almost constantly torn between the demands of her collectivistic family and the demands of the individualistic professors and adminstration.】Course41.Being-in-becoming orientation stresses the idea of【development and growth】2.The Arab proverb “The eye cannot rise above the eyebrow” demonstrates ______________attitude.【authoritarian orientation】From former president Lyndon Johnson’s speech“Yesterday is not ours to recover, but tomorrow is ours to win or to lose.”，we can see Americans believe that they can _____________.【control and future】4.Most Latin cultures have the view that the__________ activity is the one that matters the most.【current】5.In present-oriented societies, the past and present often exist side by side. People don’t see any contradiction in that fact. They find it easier to combine __________ and modern ideas and enjoy whatever they have.【tradition】1.In present-oriented societies, the past and present don’t often exist side by side.【错】2.Cultural orientation of controlling nature can also be seen in what is most controversial today, bioengineering and genetic programming.【对】3.The Western approach doesn’t value technology, change and science.【错】4.Many Japanese believe that humans are dominating the nature.【错】5.In Western medicine, the human body is treated as an object that can be studied and then controlled.【对】Course51.C.B. Halverson created a Cultural Context Inventory for us to understand the bigger picture of the context. There are 4 components: Association, Interaction, Temporality, and _____________.【learning】2.America is a _________ culture.【low-context】3.High context communication is communication that places values on implicit information and ___________ cues in order to understand the message. 【nonverbal】4.High context communication is communication that places values on ____________ information and nonverbal cues in order to understand the message.【implicit】5.China is a _________________ culture.【high-context】1.High context communication “Relies heavily on subtle, often non-verbal cues to convey meaning, save face, and maintain social harmony. Communicators…discover meaning from the context in which a message is delivered.”【对】2.Networking is not important in high-context cultures.【错】3.Examples of high-context cultures include: Asian, African, Arab, Central European, and Latin American countries.【对】4.While high-context communication is a lens in which we can analyze how a message is being interpreted, we can categorize cultures according to generalizations about their communication patterns that influence their communication habits.【错】5.Intercultural communication is a type of communication that shares information across different cultures and societal groups.【对】Course61.In low-context cultures, the communication goal is the exchange of information, ideas, and opinions. When there is a disagreement, it is not _______.【personal】2.Adler & Elmhorts say low context communication “uses ______________ primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as clearly and logically as possible【language】3.The meaning of a statement in low context culture is in the __________________.【Words spoken】4.Examples of low-context cultures include: American, _______________, Scandinavian, and French.【German】5.Temporality illustrates low-context culture’s approach to time. Events and tasks are _____________and done at specific times【scheduled】6.In low-context cultures, space is compartmentalized and __________ is of the upmost importance.【privacy】7.In low-context cultures, the communication goal is the _______________ of information, ideas, and opinions. 【exchange】8.Low context communication is communicating information ____________ so the message is carried and the information is well determined.【indirectly】1.The low-context association also manifests in a task-oriented mindset where productivity relies on procedures and focusing on the end goal, as well as the identity being found in o ne’s self and their own accomplishments.【对】2.The meaning of a statement in low context culture is largely in the body language.【错】Course71.Most countries around the world are _______________ .【collectivistic】2.Collectivistic countries typically consist of people that can expect their relatives to look after them in exchange for _____________.【loyalty】3._______________ is the most important in a high power distance society.【respect】The fundamental issue in the Power Distance Dimension is how a society handles _____________ among people.【inequalities】5.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one circumstance or situation over another that distinguishes _____________ from each other.【countries】1.The Power Distance Dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power to be distributed unequally.【对】2.People feel comfortable with inequality and accept the unbalanced distribution of power in a society of high distance power.【对】3.Malaysia is a low distance power culture.【错】4.In societies with lower power distance, people accept a social hierarchy in which everybody has a role to play.【错】5.The first dimension is the Power Distance Dimension.【对】Course81.In the long-term orientation versus short-term orientation dimension, the ________ the score the more emphasis the country shows for long-term orientation.【higher】2.In a masculine society, people regard ______________ as more central to one’s life.【work】3.Countries exhibiting strong Uncertainty Avoidance need ___________ rules.【formal】4.A faminine society at large is more -oriented___________.【concensus】Russia is a typical example of indulgent culture.【错】2.Many countries in Latin America are feminine societies while Spain and Portugal both are categorized as masculine societies.【错】3.Masculinity represents a preference in society for achievement, power, and possessions.【对】4.Planning everything carefully, Germans are not keen on uncertainty.【对】5.Short-term orientation does not emphasize a respect for tradition.【错】6.Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.【对】Course91.the four ______ of Asia（亚洲四小龙）【tigers】2.a _________ in the path/way (拦路虎)【lions】3.teach _________ to swim （班门弄斧）【fish】4.Spring up like _________（雨后春笋）【mushrooms】5.One _______ does not make a summer. （独木不成林）【seallow】6.Spend money like _________（挥金如土）【water】7.a _________ movie （黄片）【red】a _________ day （吉日）【white】9.______Fraiday（灾难的一天）【black】10.________ at one’s job （无工作经验）【red】1.Although both dove and 鸽子refer to the same bird, they connotate different meanings.【错】2.The color of red is always associated with something dangerous and threatening in the West.【对】3.猫头鹰in Chinese symbolizes wisdom.【错】4.The number of eight is taken as a lucky number in Chinese as well as English.【错】5.Verbal communication is the communication or exchange of ideas that occurs through written words.【错】6.Like Chinese people, Americans associate the moon with their home.【错】7.A word’s denotation refers to its literal or dictionary meaning.【对】8.A word’s connotation refers to its assciated meaning.【对】9.In verbal communication, we find differences at phonemic, lexical, syntactic, discourse and pragmatic levels between different cultures.【对】10.Words of the same literal meaning from different cultures always have same associated meanings.【错】Course101.The westerners tend to focus on the stages of the discourse as the most crucial __________________.【opening】2._______________ tend to look for the crucial points to occur somewhat later.【the Chinese】3.When we talk to someone who is superior to you, we tend to use______________ , because it’s more indirect and more polite.【logical pattern】4.Discourse patterns greatly depend on ___________________ .【thought pattern】5.Some factors such as ________________, social distance and weight of imposition of a request influence the choice of induction and deduction.【power distance】6.English paragraph development is characterized by _________________, directness, clarity and logic.【linearity】1.We can never take a single word as discourse.【错】2.An English paragraph typically begins with a topic statement.【对】3.Induction is a reasoning process in which particular or minor points move forwards a general or major topic.【对】4.Discourse is naturally spoken or wirtten language in context.【对】Course111.For English native speakers, an apology is necessary whenever inconvenience or offence is made with little consideration of the __________ of the people concerned.【status】2.In English the offer is mostly in the form of a/an【question】3.In Chinese, the proper use of kinship terms to address others, strangers or relatives, can show a person’s _______________, respectfulness and friendliness.【politeness】1.A Chinese name is usually arranged in the order of given name plus surname.【错】2.Some family members might call each other by their first names in English speaking countries.【对】3.The Chinese host makes the offer directly like a command or a statement.【对】1.Li Ming was a Chinese student studying in the US. He was lost on his way to the post office, so when he saw an old lady about the same age as his grandmother, he went to her for help. Li Ming: Excuse me, Granfma, could you tell me how to get to the nearest post office? The lady: Are you talking to me, young man? I’m not your grandma! Question: Was it appropriate for Li Ming to use the kinship term “grandma” as a form of addressing to the lady in this conversation?【It is not acceptable to apply a kinship term to greet a stranger in English. Li Ming made a pragmatic transfer.】Course121.Nonverbal communication is simply known as the “_________ ” language or the “hidden dimension” of communication, however you and I already know all about it!【silent】2.An American poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson, once said “What you do speaks so loudly that I cannot hear what you say”. What we “do” is our ________________.【nonverbal communication】3.Ray Birdwhistell, an American anthropologist, estimates that 65 to 70 percent of the conversation is carried by ________________ communication.【nonverbalcommunication】1.Nonverbal communication can occur without the presence of words.【对】2.Body movements can include posture, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and other displays.【对】1.What is kinesics?正确答案:Kinesics, or body language, refers to all nonverbal codes, which are associated with body movements. Body movements can include posture, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and other displays.Course131.Time perceptions include: , willingness to wait, _______________ and interactions.【punctuality】2.Hall describes proxemics as having two main types of space: territory and ______________ space.【personal】1.How you are aware of time varies by culture and normative expectations of adherence to time.【对】2.M-Time cultures are typically task-oriented.【对】3.Personal space determines how we interact in the real world. Edward Hall postulates that there are 4 zones: intimate, personal, social, and public.【对】Course151．Racism is associated with oppression and power.【√】2．Most people assume that other people perceive, evaluate, and reason about the world in the same way that they do.【√】3．It is easy to get rid of cultural biases as they are bad.【×】4．People generally perceive their own experiences, which are shaped by their own cultural forces, as natural, human, and universal.【√】5．Racism is the tendency by group in control of _____________ to use it to keep members of groups who do not have access to the same kinds of power at a disadvantage.【power】6．Stereotypes are always negative.【×】7．Ethnocentrism is “the notion that the beliefs, values, norms, and practices of one’s own culture are __________ to those of others.”【正确的，最好的，superior】8．The consequence of stereotyping is that _______________ among the members of any one group may be ignored.【differences】9．Ethnocentrism tends to ____________ cultural differences.【highlight and exaggerate】10．The disadvantage of the human information processing is that it can create some ______________ to intercultural competence.【discrimination and racism obstacles】Course161.At any given moment, one has many ‘ ________ ’ that make up your identity.【facets】2.Mr. Portokalos, the father in the movie My Big Fat Greek Wedding hangs a _______ flag to show the family’s tribute to their heritage.【Greek】3.Cultural differences and distinguishing characteristics can __________________ one culture from another.【differentiate】4.Developing one’s involves learning about __________________ and accepting the traditions, heritage, language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a culture.【cultural identity】5.The stage of cultural identity achievement is characterized by a dear, confident acceptance of _____________ and an internalization of one's cultural identity.【oneself】1.During the stage of unexamined cultural identity, one’s cultural characteristics are taken for granted.【√】During the stage of an examiner cultural identity, once cultural characteristics ar e taken for granted.2.When children notice that some of their playmates have different colored skin, they may fear or feel superior to them like adults.【×】even when children may notice that some of their places have different color sche me. as they are not aware of the significance associated with the color scheme, th ey do not fear or feel superior to them.3.In the second stage, for some individuals, there might be a turning point or crucial event leading to this stage.【√】In the second stage,cultural identity research involves a process of exploration and questioning about one's culture and not to learn more about it.And to understand the imp lications of membership in that culture for some individuals,there might be a turning point of crucial event leading to the stage.4.Cultural identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.【√】or i'm American by saying that you have consciously or unconsciously formed your c ultural identity and which re fers to one sense of belonging to a particular culture or et hnic group.5.Cultural identities are static, fixed, and enduring within a changing social context.【×】Cultural identities are dynamic,so your cultural identity exists within a changing soci al context.Course171．Honeymoon phase is followed by adjustment phase when the person feels confused and uncomfortable.【×】2．Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse.【√】3．All through life people are confronted with new situations that require them to adjust their thinking and behavior【√】4．Adaptation is a process with ________________________ stages.【identifiable】5．When we are feeling confused, frustrated or tense because of intercultural misunderstandings, please remember that the feelings are _________________ .【only temporary】6．To adapt more successfully, we need to pay attention to differences within thenew culture: avoid making broad ________________ about everybody in the hostculture;【generalize Asians】7．To adapt more successfully, please be alert to signs of adaptation stress: health problems; loss of self-confidence; loneliness; sense of loss; severe homesickness; withdrawal from social contacts; negative feelings; behaving more_________________ than usual.【aggressively】8．The third stage of culture shock is characterized by gaining some _________________ of the new culture.【understanding】9．To adapt more successfully, please seek _____________ experiences within the new culture: if you like to watch football, watch football with people from the new culture; if you enjoy music, enjoy it with people form the new culture【positive】10．To adapt more successfully, please use your cross-cultural experience to increase your skills: Notice and ______________ the communication styles of people from the new culture【imitate】Course181．Sometimes reentry shock is even more difficult than culture shock.【√】2．When people return home to their original cultural contexts, the same processof adaptation occurs and may again involve culture shock.【√】3．Reentry shock can be depicted by the U-curve model.【×】4．The W-curve pattern suggests that when we return home, we must proceedthrough the four stages of the U-curve pattern once again.【√】5．The person who return home is the same person who left home.【×】6．There are two fundamental differences between the first and second U curves, related to issues of personal change and expectations. In the reentry phase, the sojourner has _______________ through the adaptation process.【has changed through】7．International students who return home also talk about how their friends and families expect them to be a little different (more educated) but basically the ___________________as before they went off to school.【same】8．In a new environment, one will lose all the familiar ____________ from his home culture.【similar cues from】9．Experiencing culture shock has a strong ___________________ to make people be multicultural or bicultural.【potential】10．There are two fundamental differences between the first and second U curves, related to issues of personal change and expectations. In the initial curve or phase, the sojourner is fundamentally _________________ and is experiencing new culturalcontexts.【unchanged】11．Experiencing culture shock gives the sojourners a chance to learn moreabout ___________________ and at the same time, other cultures.【themselves】12．The new environment makes demands for which one has no _________________responses.【ready-made】。
跨文化交际kinship-terms
A Comparative Study on Chinese and English Kinship TermsLanguage is not only one of the factors of social culture, but also the carrier of culture. Culture can not pass on from generation to generation without the storage and transmission of language. The use of language is limited by culture and different language also reflects different cultures.Nowadays, with the rapid development of science and communication technology, more and more people live and work in different social cultures. And people with different cultural backgrounds also have a close association today. In the process of world’s becoming to a global village, various kinds of culture s influence and infiltrate into each other. Cultural absorbing and fusion lead to a great influence on the Intercultural Communication. Successfully conducted in English, cross-cultural communication requires more than just language skills, but also needs to know the culture of English-speaking countries. Otherwise, it causes to the cultural differences in the actual communication process, inappropriate or unbecoming language scene mistakes, misunderstanding. Recently, address terms becomes one of the hottest topics in cross-cultural communication. On the one hand, as a mirror, it reflects social cultures; on the other hand, culture also decides and affects the usage of address terms in practical situations.Kinship terms as a part of address terms take an important part in our daily life. Kinship refers to the system of human relationship born of marriage, ties of blood and laws. [2]（Dai Qingxia戴庆厦：2004，139）One interesting way in which people use language in daily life contains various kinds of kinships. There is a considerable literature on kinship terminology, describing how people in different parts of the world call uncles, aunts, brothers, sisters, cousins and so on. Because kinship systems are so important in social organization, kinship systems are a universal feature of languages. Some systems are much ‘richer’ than others. But one can relate kinship systems with considerable confidence to the actual words that people use to describe a particular kin relationship. And it is necessary for us to make a contrast betweenChinese kinship terms and English kinship terms and do some study on it.I. Contrast of Kinship Terms1.1 Contrast of Kinship TermsOn the one hand, English and Chinese kinship addressing forms have two common points: one is that the quantities of both experience a process more or less; the other one is that some basic address words have the same meaning in both languages. On the other hand, most of their address words are different from each other, because they have different cultures and language forms.1.1.1Contrast of Blood Relation and Relations by MarriageSomeone will be wandering what is blood relation. Blood relation means a person related by birth rather than by marriage. Blood Relation Rule reflects that the kinship classifications require different address forms to kin on mother’s side. Marriage Relation Rule requires using two address systems to the members of the same clan and relation by marriage. There are too many address words in blood relation and relation by marriage in Chinese kinship terms. For example, yi fu(姨夫) (husband of mother’s sister ) belong to relation by marriage. While yi ma(姨妈)(mother’s sister ) belong to blood relation. From these examples, we can see Chinese complicated blood relation and relation by marriage. Chinese kinship is patriarchal, because China is a patriarchy society; but English is not.Chinese think that the differences between paternal and maternal relations are very important. The differences mean a lot to Chinese people and the real relationships, near or distant, inside or outside, between relatives. Ancient China was based on patriarchal descent, which refers to descent traced exclusively through the male line for purposes of group membership. So there are different terms for one’s paternal and maternal relations in China. For example, in China, in paternal grandfather is called zu fu (祖父)，while maternal grandfather is called wai zu fu(外祖父). Wai (外) in China means “distant” or “outside”. The terms for grandchildren are the same with them. Usually, paternal relations are more powerful than maternal relations in Chinese family structure.For English people, the difference between paternal and maternal is not clear. Thus father’s father and mother’s father are both grandfathers. Uncle is for both father’s brother and mother’s brother. In English, blood relation and relation by marriage are very simple class. Therefore, it’s hard to understand the relation between various relatives and address in English countries.1.1.2 Contrast of Elder-younger Relations and Seniority Order in the ClanIn Chinese kinship system, age is very important. Specific terms can be used to show their different ages. A typical example is the kinship terms bo fu (伯父)and shu fu（叔父）. The former is used to address one’s father’s elder brother, while the latter is f or one’s father’s younger brother. Chinese could hardly contain the mistake of elder-younger relations and seniority order. For example, if one’s father has more than one elder and younger brothers, he should call them: first bo fu （大伯父）, second bo fu （二伯父）, or first shu shu （大叔）, second shu shu （二叔）and so on to exhibit their order.Unlike the Chinese language, age is not a criterion to distinguish personal relationships or kinship terms in English. In English, there are only two kinship terms for siblings: brother and sister. They usually say “She is my sister”, whether she is younger or elder than them. Only when they say “she is my younger or elder sister”, they want to emphasize the age.1.2 Contrast of Derivatives of Kinship TermsThe grammatical relation among Chinese words depends on the factor that the forms of words are not changed. Add “儿”(an affix used to express endearment) after the address word, “小”(indicating younger age) before the address word to show intimacy. It is important that “Xiao” me ans younger in age or smaller in body size, and there is no concrete meaning for “Er”. This kind of use is very special, but quite conventional in China.However, in English-speaking countries, first names do not necessarily indicate intimacy, but merely a sign of equality and solidarity. They used “-y” and “-ie” or some phonemics to derive some new words showing affection in kinship terms, suchas mum-mummy, dad-daddy, nan-nanny/ nanna, daughter-daughtie, aunt-aunty/auntie.II. Reasons for the Difference in Kinship TermsAny association among people has diversities on language and cultural background. Because of the speakers in different languages have differences in country, historical background, life style, social culture, sense of value, morality and religion, these differences result in different modes of thinking, communication habits and the regulations of using languages which become a unique local culture between certain people.The reasons for the differences between English and Chinese kinship terms are very complicated. The following is a tentative illustration of those reasons: different social structures, different values and ethics.2.1 Differences in Social StructuresAncient China had been a feudal society for a long time in which agriculture was the domination. With the background of a long-term self-sufficient agricultural economic society, almost all the Chinese mainland residents live by farming which result in a great need of labor force. Therefore, three or four generations live together and form a big family. Sometimes a family will be made up of dozens or hundreds of people because of blood relation and relation by marriage. Since ancient times, Chinese culture bases on ethics, etiquette and family which results in a society living on pecking order. As the symbol of status, position and authority, kinship terms use different words to express differences among people. But, as for western countries, they are based on commercial business which results in a small family only with parents and juveniles.There are several persons in this kind of family and the relationship will not so complicate in which just needs some simple kinship terms to daily use.And in English speaking countries, Greek, the cradle of western culture, was an island which was the first to develop commercial economy and create a western business culture in the ocean countries. The Greeks who engaged in the commercial economy began to break away from blood ties and then formed a contractual relationship which was the core of the social structure. This kind of commercialeconomy determined the basic family social structure. The western social contractual social structure doesn’t care much about blood relationship, but pays more attention to interpersonal contract relationship, individual and emphasizing that everybody is equal. This kind of social structure is greatly different from China's social structure. Westerners don’t have so strict hierarchy and tend to form an equal pattern.2.2 Differences in Values“Every culture has its own values and a set of specific value systems.” [1]（SAMOV AR，PORTER，STEFANI：2000,60）. Values are contained at the bottom of culture, but reflected by surface cultures such as language. The Chinese people are deeply influenced by the Confucianism and they emphasize on family, respect for the old and care for the young, strive for harmony and obedience. And the kinship terms shaped in this kind of circumstance clearly show the pecking order between people. While in the western cultures, people advocate freedom and equality, pursue for unique personality and not care much about family. So the kinship terms tend to be simple.The differences in kinship terms between Chinese and English reflect different emphasis on culture value system, namely: collectivism and individualism. In the Chinese collectivism culture, people emphasize on social nature, the restraint of society and group on people, family values, the pursuit of harmony between interpersonal relationships. These concepts are reflected in family members and kinship terms. However, in western countries, people highly praise individualism in which people tend to be self-concentrated and advocate independent personality. No matter in family or in society, the sense of individual rights and equality is greatly reflected. They prefer call others names directly to show equal, friendly and intimate relationships. And the English kinship terms tend to be simple rather than complicated.2.3 Differences in Ethics“Language and speech have ethical close relationship. Ethics as the principles and standards which people should follow in the processing of interpersonal relationship is the law and instructions of interpersonal relationship. It must bereflected in language structure system which acts as the symbol of the world.”[3](Xuman 徐曼，2008:20)Chinese society is a society linked with blood relationship, so the relationships among people could not be equal. China’s culture is deeply influenced by the Confucianism. It stresses the harmonious human relationship and emphasizes human’s social characteristics. The Confucianism advocates people to sacrifice themselves individual for the sake of group or society. One important thought in Confucianism is ethics and morals, abiding “between father and son has closeness, ruler and subject has righteousness, husband and wife has differences, a relationship not only shows differences but also shows intimacy.Status within the family was codified in the famous five relationships between ruler and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, friend and friend. Kinship terms have certain forms to address others which with mandatory obligations and rights.On the contrary, in western countries, peoples’ ethics are influenced by the value concepts of English cultures and Christian faith, so they advocate freedom, independence and individuality which form the language ethics different from Chinese.III. SummaryEverybody is growing up in the social culture and culture shapes, constraints, and limits people's behavior. From the analysis of social culture, we can get that both the two languages of kinship terms contain rich social and cultural connotations. The kinship terms in Chinese are complicated and they have distinctions between different genders, ages, pecking, paternal and maternal relationships. But the kinship terms in English are simple. There are just distinctions between genders but the distinctions between ages, pecking, paternal and maternal relationships are obscure. The formations of the two kinship terms are influenced by their own cultures. So we can conclude that language doesn’t exist independently, but the product of social culture. Therefore, we must pay more attention to the differences in different countries, social structures, values and ethics in order to achieve a good communication and reduce or avoid cultural barriers in cross-cultural communication. But with the acceleration ofglobalization, two languages have signs of mixture in kinship terms and the kinship terms in Chinese also tend to be simple, it is a well-worth discussing topic.References[1]SAMOV AR，PORTER，STEFANI. Communication between cultures[M].Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Re-search Press，2000：60[2]戴庆厦.社会语言学概论[M].:商务印书馆，2004[3]徐曼.西方伦理学在中国的船舶及影响[M].：南开大学，2008。
平衡学术与运动的英语作文
平衡学术与运动的英语作文Balancing Academia and Sports.In today's fast-paced world, it is becomingincreasingly difficult to balance various aspects of life, especially when it comes to balancing academic pursuits with sports. While both play crucial roles in shaping an individual's identity and future, they often demand different sets of skills, time, and dedication. Thisarticle explores the challenges of balancing academics and sports, offering strategies to help students and athletes achieve a harmonious blend of the two.The Importance of Balance.First and foremost, it is essential to understand why balancing academics and sports is crucial. Academics provide knowledge, skills, and a foundation for future success in various fields. They foster critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and a sense of curiosity that isessential for personal and professional growth. On theother hand, sports instill values like discipline, teamwork, resilience, and leadership. They promote physical health, mental well-being, and social connections.Balancing the two, therefore, ensures that individuals can reap the benefits of both worlds. It allows them to develop a well-rounded personality,acquire a diverse set of skills, and prepare themselves for the challenges of thereal world.Challenges of Balancing Academia and Sports.However, balancing academics and sports is not always easy. There are several challenges that students andathletes face when trying to strike a balance.Time Management.The most significant challenge is managing time effectively. Both academics and sports require significant time and dedication. With exams, assignments, and otheracademic responsibilities, it can be difficult to find enough time to train and compete. Conversely, the demands of sports can often overshadow academic pursuits, leading to a neglect of studies.Conflicting Priorities.Sometimes, the priorities of academics and sports can conflict. For instance, a student may have a crucial exam on the same day as a crucial match. Such situations can create a dilemma, as the student has to choose between the two.Pressure and Stress.The pressure and stress associated with both academics and sports can also be overwhelming. The expectations of performing well academically and athletically can take a toll on an individual's mental health. The fear of failing in either aspect can lead to anxiety and stress, affecting their performance in both.Strategies for Achieving Balance.To overcome these challenges and achieve a balance between academics and sports, here are some strategies that can help:1. Plan Ahead.Planning ahead is crucial for balancing academics and sports. Create a schedule that allocates specific hours for studying, training, and resting. Ensure that you have enough time for both activities and adjust your schedule as needed.2. Prioritize Wisely.Understand that both academics and sports are important and deserve equal attention. However, it is essential to prioritize wisely based on your goals and commitments. If you are preparing for a crucial exam, for instance, you may need to allocate more time to studies. Similarly, if you have an important match approaching, you may need to focusmore on training.3. Learn to Say "No"It is essential to learn to say "no" to avoid over-committing yourself. Avoid taking on too many responsibilities that may hinder your ability to focus on academics and sports. Identify your priorities and stick to them.4. Seek Support.Seek support from family, friends, teachers, and coaches. Let them know about your challenges and ask for help when needed. They can provide encouragement, understanding, and practical assistance that can help you balance your life better.5. Take Breaks.Don't forget to take breaks and rest when needed. Both academics and sports require significant energy and effort.It is essential to give yourself time to recover and rejuvenate to avoid burnout. Take short breaks during long study sessions or training sessions to refresh your mindand body.6. Stay Motivated.Stay motivated and focused on your goals. Remindyourself of why you are pursuing both academics and sports and how they contribute to your overall development. Use visualization techniques and positive affirmations to stay motivated and inspired.In conclusion, balancing academics and sports is essential for personal and professional growth. It allows individuals to develop a well-rounded personality, acquirea diverse set of skills, and prepare themselves for the challenges of the real world. While it may be challenging, with the right strategies and support, it is entirely possible to achieve a harmonious blend of the two. Remember to plan ahead, prioritize wisely, seek support, take breaks,and stay motivated to strike the perfect balance between your academic and sports pursuits.。
小学上册第15次英语第二单元测验卷
小学上册英语第二单元测验卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The country known for its ancient ruins and temples is ________ (以古代遗址和庙宇闻名的国家是________).2.Which one is a vegetable?A. AppleB. CarrotC. BananaD. Grape3.What do you call the sound made by a cat?A. BarkB. MeowC. RoarD. TweetB4.The playground is ________ (适合孩子们).5.The ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphics as their form of ________.6.What do you call the action of using your senses to learn?A. ObservingB. ExperiencingC. NoticingD. AnalyzingA7.My favorite outdoor activity is _______ (活动). It keeps me healthy and _______ (快乐).8.She _____ (likes/dislikes) chocolate ice cream.9.The ____ has a fluffy tail and loves to dig.10.We visit the zoo to see ______ (动物).11.I have a toy ________ that looks like a dragon.12.What do we call the center of the solar system?A. EarthB. MoonC. SunD. Stars13.The first female governor in the U.S. was ________ (娜奈·亨利).14.The ______ helps with the production of hormones in the body.15.What do you call a sweet drink made from fruit?A. SodaB. JuiceC. MilkshakeD. WaterB16.My dad enjoys __________ (上网).17.The baby is ___ in the crib. (sleeping, running, jumping)18.The _____ (山) is high.19.What is the name of the famous clock tower in Italy?A. Big BenB. Leaning Tower of PisaC. Campanile di San MarcoD. ColosseumC20. A __________ is a landform created by the accumulation of glaciers.21.What is the color of an apple?A. OrangeB. PinkC. YellowD. Red22.What is the name of the famous American author known for "The Handmaid's Tale"?A. Margaret AtwoodB. Alice WalkerC. Toni MorrisonD. Sylvia PlathA23.What is the capital of Germany?A. MunichB. BerlinC. FrankfurtD. Hamburg24.My cat loves to chase after ______ (昆虫).25.The parrot says _______ (你好) in many languages.26.Australia is known as the __________. (大洋洲)27.The blanket is _______ (keeping) me warm.28.The hawk hunts with ______ (敏捷).29.What is the name of the famous scientist known for his work on the laws of motion?A. Isaac NewtonB. Albert EinsteinC. Galileo GalileiD. Johannes KeplerA30.I want to ___ a new friend. (make)31.Substances that speed up chemical reactions are called _______.32.What is the process of producing electricity using water?A. HydropowerB. Solar powerC. Wind powerD. Nuclear powerA33.The __________ (历史的交汇) creates understanding.34.My ________ (玩具) is a cherished memento.35.The __________ is a region known for its technological advancements.36. A rabbit's breeding season can lead to many ______ (幼崽).37. A ______ is a geological feature that rises abruptly.38.My sister enjoys painting ____.39.The _____ (car/bike) is red.40.What is the main component of the universe's visible matter?A. Dark MatterB. StarsC. GasD. Dust41.What is the largest mammal in the world?A. ElephantB. WhaleC. GiraffeD. HippopotamusB Whale42.What do bees produce?A. MilkB. HoneyC. JamD. Butter43.My toy __________ (乐器) lets me play along to my favorite songs.44.What is 5 x 2?A. 7B. 8C. 9D. 1045.The chemical symbol for cadmium is ______.46.What do you call a story with magical elements?A. MysteryB. FictionC. FantasyD. BiographyC47.What do you call a large body of water surrounded by land?A. LakeB. OceanC. RiverD. Pool48. A squirrel gathers _______ for its winter storage.49.Hydrogen bonds are responsible for many unique properties of _______.50.What do we call the time of year when plants start to grow?A. WinterB. SpringC. SummerD. FallB51.The capital city of Liberia is __________.52. A ______ is a type of rodent.53.What do you call the place where you can watch movies outdoors?A. TheaterB. Drive-inC. ParkD. RooftopB54.Planting trees can help improve air ______ in urban areas. (种树可以帮助改善城市地区的空气质量。
选择一门辅助专业英语作文
选择一门辅助专业英语作文Choosing a Supplementary Major: A Journey of Discovery and Growth.In the fast-paced world of today, where the boundariesof knowledge are constantly being pushed, it has become increasingly important for students to go beyond their primary field of study and explore other areas of expertise. This not only broadens one's horizons but also enhancestheir overall skillset, making them more marketable in the job market. I, too, have embarked on this journey of discovery, choosing to pursue a supplementary major that complements my primary field of study.My primary major is in Computer Science, a field that has revolutionized the way we live and work. However, I realized that while programming and algorithm design are essential skills, they are not the only ones that are needed to succeed in today's world. I wanted to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of technology on societyand the ethical implications that arise from it. This ledme to choose Philosophy as my supplementary major.Philosophy, often considered as the "queen of the humanities," deals with fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, and morality. It encourages critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and an open mind, skills that are invaluable in any field, but particularly relevant in the realm of technology. By studying Philosophy, I aim to gain a better understanding of the ethical and social implications of technological advancements, enabling me to make more informed decisions and contributepositively to society.The decision to pursue a supplementary major was not easy. It required careful consideration of my interests, goals, and the amount of time and effort that would be needed to successfully complete both majors. However, I am confident that this choice will be beneficial in the long run. The skills and insights I gain from studyingPhilosophy will complement my technical knowledge in Computer Science, making me a more well-rounded andinformed professional.Moreover, the process of exploring a new field has been incredibly rewarding. I have been introduced to new perspectives, ways of thinking, and ideas that have challenged and expanded my own. The discussions and debates in Philosophy classes have been thought-provoking and have helped me develop a more nuanced understanding of the world.In conclusion, choosing a supplementary major has beena transformative experience for me. It has not only broadened my horizons but has also given me the opportunity to delve deeper into areas that are of personal interestand importance. The skills and insights I gain from this additional field of study will be invaluable in my future career, enabling me to make a positive impact in the world.I encourage other students to also explore supplementary majors as a way to enhance their educational experience and prepare themselves for the challenges and opportunities of the future.。
英语留学考试题目及答案
英语留学考试题目及答案I. Multiple Choice Questions (选择题)1. Which of the following is NOT a reason for studying abroad?A. Exposure to a new cultureB. Improved language skillsC. Lower tuition feesD. Access to international networks2. What is the minimum score required for the TOEFL exam tobe considered for admission to most universities in theUnited States?A. 80B. 100C. 120D. It varies by university3. In the context of studying abroad, what does "I-20" refer to?A. An international student IDB. A form required for visa applicationC. A scholarship application formD. A health insurance policyII. Fill in the Blanks (填空题)4. The process of applying for a student visa involves completing a _______ form.5. The _______ is a standardized test used by universities to assess the English proficiency of non-native speakers.III. Reading Comprehension (阅读理解)Read the following passage and answer the questions:Passage:Studying abroad can be a life-changing experience. It offers students the opportunity to immerse themselves in a different culture, learn a new language, and gain a global perspective. However, the journey to study abroad is not always straightforward. It involves a series of steps such as researching universities, preparing for standardized tests like the TOEFL or IELTS, and applying for a student visa.Questions:6. What is the main purpose of studying abroad according to the passage?7. Which standardized tests are mentioned in the passage for English proficiency assessment?IV. Essay Writing (作文)8. Write an essay discussing the benefits and challenges of studying abroad. Include at least three points for each.Answers:I. 1. C 2. D 3. BII. 4. DS-160 5. TOEFL or IELTSIII. 6. The main purpose of studying abroad is to immerse oneself in a different culture, learn a new language, and gain a global perspective. 7. TOEFL and IELTS.IV. (Sample answer not provided as it requires an essay format which is beyond the scope of this format.)。
跨文化交际kinship terms#精选、
A Comparative Study on Chinese and English Kinship TermsLanguage is not only one of the factors of social culture, but also the carrier of culture. Culture can not pass on from generation to generation without the storage and transmission of language. The use of language is limited by culture and different language also reflects different cultures.Nowadays, with the rapid development of science and communication technology, more and more people live and work in different social cultures. And people with different cultural backgrounds also have a close association today. In the process of world’s becoming to a global village, various kinds of culture s influence and infiltrate into each other. Cultural absorbing and fusion lead to a great influence on the Intercultural Communication. Successfully conducted in English, cross-cultural communication requires more than just language skills, but also needs to know the culture of English-speaking countries. Otherwise, it causes to the cultural differences in the actual communication process, inappropriate or unbecoming language scene mistakes, misunderstanding. Recently, address terms becomes one of the hottest topics in cross-cultural communication. On the one hand, as a mirror, it reflects social cultures; on the other hand, culture also decides and affects the usage of address terms in practical situations.Kinship terms as a part of address terms take an important part in our daily life. Kinship refers to the system of human relationship born of marriage, ties of blood and laws. [2]（Dai Qingxia戴庆厦：2004，139）One interesting way in which people use language in daily life contains various kinds of kinships. There is a considerable literature on kinship terminology, describing how people in different parts of the world call uncles, aunts, brothers, sisters, cousins and so on. Because kinship systems are so important in social organization, kinship systems are a universal feature of languages. Some systems are much ‘richer’ than others. But one can relate kinship systems with considerable confidence to the actual words that people use to describe a particular kin relationship. And it is necessary for us to make a contrast betweenChinese kinship terms and English kinship terms and do some study on it.I. Contrast of Kinship Terms1.1 Contrast of Kinship TermsOn the one hand, English and Chinese kinship addressing forms have two common points: one is that the quantities of both experience a process more or less; the other one is that some basic address words have the same meaning in both languages. On the other hand, most of their address words are different from each other, because they have different cultures and language forms.1.1.1Contrast of Blood Relation and Relations by MarriageSomeone will be wandering what is blood relation. Blood relation means a person related by birth rather than by marriage. Blood Relation Rule reflects that the kinship classifications require different address forms to kin on mother’s side. Marriage Relation Rule requires using two address systems to the members of the same clan and relation by marriage. There are too many address words in blood relation and relation by marriage in Chinese kinship terms. For example, yi fu(姨夫) (husband of mother’s sister ) belong to relation by m arriage. While yi ma(姨妈)(mother’s sister ) belong to blood relation. From these examples, we can see Chinese complicated blood relation and relation by marriage. Chinese kinship is patriarchal, because China is a patriarchy society; but English is not.Chinese think that the differences between paternal and maternal relations are very important. The differences mean a lot to Chinese people and the real relationships, near or distant, inside or outside, between relatives. Ancient China was based on patriarchal descent, which refers to descent traced exclusively through the male line for purposes of group membership. So there are different terms for one’s paternal and maternal relations in China. For example, in China, in paternal grandfather is called zu fu (祖父)，while maternal grandfather is called wai zu fu(外祖父). Wai (外) in China means “distant” or “outside”. The terms for grandchildren are the same with them. Usually, paternal relations are more powerful than maternal relations in Chinese family structure.For English people, the difference between paternal and maternal is not clear. Thus father’s father and mother’s father are both grandfathers. Uncle is for both father’s brother and mother’s brother. In English, blood relation and relation by marriage are very simple class. Therefore, it’s hard to understand the relation between various relatives and address in English countries.1.1.2 Contrast of Elder-younger Relations and Seniority Order in the ClanIn Chinese kinship system, age is very important. Specific terms can be used to show their different ages. A typical example is the kinship terms bo fu (伯父)and shu fu（叔父）. The former is used to address one’s father’s elder brother, while the latter is for one’s father’s younger brother. Chinese could hardly c ontain the mistake of elder-younger relations and seniority order. For example, if one’s father has more than one elder and younger brothers, he should call them: first bo fu （大伯父）, second bo fu （二伯父）, or first shu shu （大叔）, second shu shu （二叔）and so on to exhibit their order.Unlike the Chinese language, age is not a criterion to distinguish personal relationships or kinship terms in English. In English, there are only two kinship terms for siblings: brother and sister. They usually say “She is my sister”, whether she is younger or elder than them. Only when they say “she is my younger or elder sister”, they want to emphasize the age.1.2 Contrast of Derivatives of Kinship TermsThe grammatical relation among Chinese words depends on the factor that the fo rms of words are not changed. Add “儿”(an affix used to express endearment) after the address word, “小”(indicating younger age) before the address word to show intimacy. It is important that “Xiao” means younger in age or smaller in body size, and there is no concrete meaning for “Er”. This kind of use is very special, but quite conventional in China.However, in English-speaking countries, first names do not necessarily indicate intimacy, but merely a sign of equality and solidarity. They used “-y” and “-i e” or some phonemics to derive some new words showing affection in kinship terms, suchas mum-mummy, dad-daddy, nan-nanny/ nanna, daughter-daughtie, aunt-aunty/auntie.II. Reasons for the Difference in Kinship TermsAny association among people has diversities on language and cultural background. Because of the speakers in different languages have differences in country, historical background, life style, social culture, sense of value, morality and religion, these differences result in different modes of thinking, communication habits and the regulations of using languages which become a unique local culture between certain people.The reasons for the differences between English and Chinese kinship terms are very complicated. The following is a tentative illustration of those reasons: different social structures, different values and ethics.2.1 Differences in Social StructuresAncient China had been a feudal society for a long time in which agriculture was the domination. With the background of a long-term self-sufficient agricultural economic society, almost all the Chinese mainland residents live by farming which result in a great need of labor force. Therefore, three or four generations live together and form a big family. Sometimes a family will be made up of dozens or hundreds of people because of blood relation and relation by marriage. Since ancient times, Chinese culture bases on ethics, etiquette and family which results in a society living on pecking order. As the symbol of status, position and authority, kinship terms use different words to express differences among people. But, as for western countries, they are based on commercial business which results in a small family only with parents and juveniles.There are several persons in this kind of family and the relationship will not so complicate in which just needs some simple kinship terms to daily use.And in English speaking countries, Greek, the cradle of western culture, was an island which was the first to develop commercial economy and create a western business culture in the ocean countries. The Greeks who engaged in the commercial economy began to break away from blood ties and then formed a contractual relationship which was the core of the social structure. This kind of commercialeconomy determined the basic family social structure. The western social contractual social structure doesn’t care much about blood relationship, but pays more attention to interpersonal contract relationship, individual and emphasizing that everybody is equal. This kind of social structure is greatly different from China's social structure. Westerners don’t have so strict hierarchy and tend to form an equal pattern.2.2 Differences in Values“Every culture has its own values and a set of specific value systems.” [1]（SAMOV AR，PORTER，STEFANI：2000,60）. Values are contained at the bottom of culture, but reflected by surface cultures such as language. The Chinese people are deeply influenced by the Confucianism and they emphasize on family, respect for the old and care for the young, strive for harmony and obedience. And the kinship terms shaped in this kind of circumstance clearly show the pecking order between people. While in the western cultures, people advocate freedom and equality, pursue for unique personality and not care much about family. So the kinship terms tend to be simple.The differences in kinship terms between Chinese and English reflect different emphasis on culture value system, namely: collectivism and individualism. In the Chinese collectivism culture, people emphasize on social nature, the restraint of society and group on people, family values, the pursuit of harmony between interpersonal relationships. These concepts are reflected in family members and kinship terms. However, in western countries, people highly praise individualism in which people tend to be self-concentrated and advocate independent personality. No matter in family or in society, the sense of individual rights and equality is greatly reflected. They prefer call others names directly to show equal, friendly and intimate relationships. And the English kinship terms tend to be simple rather than complicated.2.3 Differences in Ethics“Language and speech have ethical close relationship. Ethics as the principles and standards which people should follow in the processing of interpersonal relationship is the law and instructions of interpersonal relationship. It must bereflected in language structure system which acts as the symbol of the world.”[3](Xuman 徐曼，2008:20)Chinese society is a society linked with blood relationship, so the relationships among people could not be equal. China’s culture is deeply influenced by the Confucianism. It stresses the harmonious human relationship and emphasizes human’s social characteristics. The Confucianism advocates people to sacrifice themselves individual for the sake of group or society. One important thought in Confucianism is ethics and morals, abiding “between father and son has closeness, ruler and subject has righteousness, husband and wife has differences, a relationship not only shows differences but also shows intimacy.Status within the family was codified in the famous five relationships between ruler and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, friend and friend. Kinship terms have certain forms to address others which with mandatory obligations and rights.On the contrary, in western countries, peoples’ ethics are influenced by the value concepts of English cultures and Christian faith, so they advocate freedom, independence and individuality which form the language ethics different from Chinese.III. SummaryEverybody is growing up in the social culture and culture shapes, constraints, and limits people's behavior. From the analysis of social culture, we can get that both the two languages of kinship terms contain rich social and cultural connotations. The kinship terms in Chinese are complicated and they have distinctions between different genders, ages, pecking, paternal and maternal relationships. But the kinship terms in English are simple. There are just distinctions between genders but the distinctions between ages, pecking, paternal and maternal relationships are obscure. The formations of the two kinship terms are influenced by their own cultures. So we can conclude that language doesn’t exist independently, but the product of social culture. Therefore, we must pay more attention to the differences in different countries, social structures, values and ethics in order to achieve a good communication and reduce or avoid cultural barriers in cross-cultural communication. But with the acceleration ofglobalization, two languages have signs of mixture in kinship terms and the kinship terms in Chinese also tend to be simple, it is a well-worth discussing topic.References[1]SAMOV AR，PORTER，STEFANI. Communication between cultures[M].Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Re-search Press，2000：60[2]戴庆厦.社会语言学概论[M].北京:商务印书馆，2004[3]徐曼.西方伦理学在中国的船舶及影响[M].天津：南开大学出版社，2008 最新文件仅供参考已改成word文本。
血族关系和婚姻Kinship and Marriage
21A.100Prof. HoweKinship1. As an organizing principle for lifea. We tend to think of kin as something natural, biological or as having somebasis beyond culturei. For example, children reuniting with birth parentsb. Kinship is actually highly variable and artificial from one culture to thenextc. Kinship organizes groups larger than a single family or householdsd. It can be seen as a form of social engineering2. We need to start with basic assumptions:a. Lots of things are better done in groupsi. Fishing – in Amazon done by stunning the fish in the water andcollecting them as they float to the surfaceii. Hunting – before horses, plains Indians would herd buffalo off acliff or into a boxed canyoniii. Agricultureiv. Raising livestockv. Defenseb. Social organizationi. Network of people helps deal with:1. Inheritance2. Mutual assistance3. Performance of rituals4. Trust is key in these relationships3. Groups have requirements, in order to be sucessful:a. Organizationi. Rules of membership: Who’s in? Who’s out?ii. When groups become more desirable, how do you keepmembership exclusive?1. e.g. successful Indian Casinos need to regulate who is amember of their tribe.iii. Sometimes groups are mutually exclusive – every person issupposed to belong to only one1. Nations2. Defensive groupsb. Groups need to maintain continuity over timei. “Corporation”, meaning anything that exists beyond its individualmembersii. universities, churches, countriesc. Need ways to conceptualize group unificationi. What do all group members have in common?1. Blood2. nationality3. religiond. Rules inspiring loyaltye. Ways of making groups run effectively4. Many ways to fulfill these requirementsa. Bureaucracyi. a fairly new way of organizing in historyii. Requires writing, sometimes computersiii. Difficult in pre-modern settingsb. Formalization of age groupsi. Born into an age setii. You go through life with those people and they perform certain fxn within the society at each stage of life1. i.e. the Zulu had age-based armiesc. Kinship – we are all bloodi. See it in all sorts of pre-modern societiesii. We do it to some extentiii. This is a model, NOT real biologyiv. Arbitrary in many ways1. 19th century a big anthropological discovery was thatmeans of establishing kinship differ from one culture to thenext5. Forms of Kinship Organizationa. Bilateral or Cognatic kinshipi. There’s a single founding ancestor and every descendant,regardless of sex is a memberii. The Kuna have groups like thisiii. But this puts a single person into many groups simultaneouslyb. Patrilineal or Agnatic kinshipi. Only the males pass on group membershipii. This doesn’t mean that women aren’t members, they just don’t pass on their membership1. the Nuer have this system2. Euro-American cultures do this to some extent with passingon last names3. Royal inheritanceiii. These rules get bent1. Divorce or children out of wedlockiv. Memories of genealogy get faked or alteredv. Patrilineal systems turn up in societies around the world – very common with herding economies.1. Seem to be a bit more violence because brothers live withone anotherc. 2 distinctions: Clans vs. Lineagesi. a Clan is a descent group in which everyone claims beingdescended from a common ancestor but aren’t sure how theyconnect to other clan members or ancestorsii. a Lineage is a descent group in which not only do you know your ancestors, but you can trace all the connections between yourselfand other members of the lineaged. Lineages can be subdivided, nesting segmentse. Groups expand and contract depending on the situationf. 19th century saw the discovery of Matrilineal or Uterine kinshipi. only daughters pass on membershipii. This does NOT mean that the society was matriarchical1. i.e. the Iroquois had a matrilineal society, It was easier formany reasons:a. the men often went off to war or to hunt.b. The women dealt with much of the local business ofthe tribe.c. Also, since the lineage was preserved through thewomen, the men could marry out into white settlersociety and white men could marry into the tribe.Ultimately this helped to preserve the tribal lineage.g. Certain feminists have claimed that matrilineal societies are evidence of atime when Matriarchical societies were the normi. Get notions of “Goddess” worshipii. Much of this turns out not to be true.1. Men and women in many societies celebrate femalefertility, regardless of being partiarchical societiesh. Some societies are both Matrilineal and Patrilineali. Many kinship relationships have nothing to do with descent groupsi. For example sometimes it might be more beneficial to seek outyour mother’s brother, to whom you are still related, but who is ina different descent groupj. Kinship become the framework for many things in lifei. But rules are not staticii. You do have to work within the system1. But over time, especially during times of civil war, thingsthat were assumed to be rules, turn into preferences6. Marriagea. Many use marriage as a means of getting other things done – a socialmechanism, just like descent groupsb. Alliances can be built on marriage exchangec. Bilateral exchange:i. You can marry your mother’s brother’s daughter or your father’ssister’s daughterii. Many people are called “wife” and “sister” even though they might not be so,iii. This bilateral exchange sets up an even exchanged. Asymmetrical marriage exchange is much less commone. In the West, marriage is political especially in royal familiesf. Marriage debates are still going oni. Homosexual marriage1. The Nuer marry women to womenii. In France, they will issue a marriage licenses to a woman so that she can marry a dead man, if the two were engaged before he died.。
民族百科英语作文模板
民族百科英语作文模板Ethnological Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Guide。
Introduction。
Ethnology, a branch of anthropology, delves into the diverse cultural practices, social structures, and beliefs of human communities worldwide. An ethnological encyclopedia encapsulates this vast knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. This in-depth guide unveils the intricacies of human societies, illuminating their unique perspectives, traditions, and ways of life.Structure and Organization。
Ethnological encyclopedias typically follow a structured organization to facilitate efficient navigation and retrieval of information. They are often arranged alphabetically by cultural group or geographic region. Each entry provides a detailed account of a specific culture,encompassing:Demographics: Population size, language(s) spoken, geographic location, and any relevant historical or migration information.Culture: Beliefs and values, social organization, kinship systems, marriage customs, and rituals and ceremonies.History: Major historical events, cultural changes, and interactions with other cultures.Material Culture: Clothing, housing, tools, and technology, showcasing the practical aspects of everyday life.Art and Literature: Storytelling, music, dance, and artistic expressions, revealing the creative and aesthetic aspects of the culture.Religion and Spirituality: Religious beliefs,practices, and sacred texts.Economics and Subsistence: Economic systems, production practices, and modes of subsistence.Contemporary Issues: Challenges and changes facing the culture in the modern world.Scope and Coverage。