Kuhn's Notion of Theory Choice and the Dual-Process Theory of Cognition
2024年高中英语哲学思想单选题30题
2024年高中英语哲学思想单选题30题1.Which of the following is a famous quote by Plato?A."I think, therefore I am."B."The unexamined life is not worth living."C."To be is to be perceived."D."Knowledge is power."答案：B。
解析：选项 A 是笛卡尔的名言“我思故我在”；选项B 是苏格拉底的名言，柏拉图是苏格拉底的学生，经常引用苏格拉底的话；选项C 是贝克莱的名言“存在就是被感知”；选项D 是培根的名言“知识就是力量”。
2.What does the term "metaphysics" refer to?A.The study of moral values.B.The study of the nature of reality.C.The study of human behavior.D.The study of language.答案：B。
解析：“metaphysics”指的是形而上学，是对现实本质的研究；选项A 是伦理学的研究内容；选项C 是心理学等学科的研究内容；选项D 是语言学的研究内容。
3.Who is considered the father of Western philosophy?A.Socrates.B.Plato.C.Aristotle.D.Pythagoras.答案：A。
解析：苏格拉底被认为是西方哲学之父；柏拉图是苏格拉底的学生；亚里士多德是柏拉图的学生；毕达哥拉斯是古希腊数学家、哲学家，但不是西方哲学之父。
4.The statement "Man is the measure of all things" is attributed to which philosopher?A.Protagoras.B.Democritus.C.Heraclitus.D.Sophocles.答案：A。
reader-response-theory
• 5 the ideal reader • Proposed by J. Culler • Someone who has possessed , or rather
internalized ,the literary conventions , the mastery of which would enable him to perform literary readings acceptable to other readers, for such conventions constitute the very institution of literature itself.
“horizon of expectations,” “the set of cultural ,ethical, and literary expectations of a work’s readers in the historical moment of its appearance.
7/15/2024
The messenger of the gods
A theory that sees history as a living dialogue between past , present and future ,and seeks patiently to remove obstacles to this endless mutual communication.
7/15ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ2024
The implied reader
• Against these “limitations“，Iser’s concept of the reader stands as a good contrast.
the naming theory举例
1、An example of the naming theory.命名理论举一个例子。
2、Kripke's other thoughts, for example, the theory of naming and the theory of essence, have close relation to this kind of inevitability. 克里·普克的其他思想，如历史因果命名理论、本质理论无不与这种必然观密切相关。
3、Stevens slaw and fuzzy sets theory was used to observe the influence of partial, global or naming of figures in similarity judgment in the current work. 以不同基本形状构成的几何图形为材料，研究了图形的部件形状、整体结构和名称对相似判断的影响。
4、Making use of Austin's performativity theory, the author discusses naming and spiritual evocation with a focus on the close link between names and spirits in shamanic rituals. 本文利用奥斯汀的言语施为理论，讨论呼名唤神的行动意义，尤其是萨满仪式中名字与神灵之间的密切联系。
哲学科学全书纲要的英文名
哲学科学全书纲要的英文名## Outlines of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences.The Outlines of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences (Grundlinien der Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften) is a work by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, first published in 1817. It is a systematic exposition of Hegel's philosophical system, and it is considered one of the most important works in the history of philosophy.The Outlines is divided into three parts:1. Logic.2. Philosophy of Nature.3. Philosophy of Spirit.Logic is the first part of the Outlines, and it dealswith the most basic concepts of philosophy, such as being, nothingness, and becoming. Hegel argues that these concepts are not static, but rather they are in a constant state of flux and change. He also argues that the laws of logic are not arbitrary, but rather they are based on the nature of reality itself.Philosophy of Nature is the second part of the Outlines, and it deals with the natural world. Hegel argues that nature is not a separate realm from spirit, but rather itis a manifestation of spirit. He also argues that the lawsof nature are not fixed and immutable, but rather they are constantly evolving.Philosophy of Spirit is the third and final part of the Outlines, and it deals with the human spirit. Hegel argues that the human spirit is the highest form of reality, and that it is the goal of all history. He also argues that the human spirit is not a static entity, but rather it is in a constant state of development.The Outlines is a complex and challenging work, but itis also a rewarding one. It is a work that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be studied and debated today.## Hegel's Philosophical System.Hegel's philosophical system is based on the idea that reality is a constantly evolving process of becoming. He argues that all things are in a state of flux and change, and that there is no such thing as a static or unchanging reality.Hegel also argues that the laws of logic are not arbitrary, but rather they are based on the nature of reality itself. He believes that the laws of logic are the laws of thought, and that they are therefore the laws of reality.Hegel's philosophical system is often referred to as idealism, because it emphasizes the importance of the mind and spirit. Hegel argues that the mind is the source of all reality, and that the world is a product of the mind.Hegel's idealism is not solipsism, however. He does not believe that the world is simply a product of our own imagination. Rather, he believes that the world is a real and independent entity, but that it is also a product of the mind.Hegel's philosophical system is a complex and challenging one, but it is also a powerful and persuasive one. It is a system that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be studied and debated today.## The Outlines in the History of Philosophy.The Outlines was first published in 1817, and it was immediately recognized as a major work of philosophy. It was quickly translated into several languages, and it was soon being studied and debated by philosophers all over the world.The Outlines had a profound influence on thedevelopment of philosophy in the 19th century. It was one of the main sources of inspiration for the idealist movement, and it also helped to shape the development of Marxism.In the 20th century, the Outlines continued to be studied and debated by philosophers. It was a major source of inspiration for the existentialist movement, and it also helped to shape the development of analytic philosophy.The Outlines is still a major work of philosophy today. It is a work that is studied and debated by philosophersall over the world. It is a work that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be a source of inspiration for philosophers today.。
英语哲学思想解读50题
英语哲学思想解读50题1. The statement "All is flux" was proposed by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. HeraclitusD. Socrates答案：C。
本题考查古希腊哲学思想家的观点。
赫拉克利特提出了“万物皆流”的观点。
选项A 柏拉图强调理念论；选项B 亚里士多德注重实体和形式；选项D 苏格拉底主张通过对话和反思来寻求真理。
2. "Know thyself" is a famous saying from _____.A. ThalesB. PythagorasC. DemocritusD. Socrates答案：D。
此题考查古希腊哲学家的名言。
“认识你自己”是苏格拉底的名言。
选项A 泰勒斯主要研究自然哲学；选项B 毕达哥拉斯以数学和神秘主义著称；选项C 德谟克利特提出了原子论。
3. Which philosopher believed that the world is composed of water?A. AnaximenesB. AnaximanderC. ThalesD. Heraclitus答案：C。
本题考查古希腊哲学家对世界构成的看法。
泰勒斯认为世界是由水组成的。
选项A 阿那克西美尼认为是气；选项B 阿那克西曼德认为是无定；选项D 赫拉克利特提出万物皆流。
4. The idea of the "Forms" was put forward by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. EpicurusD. Stoics答案：A。
这道题考查古希腊哲学中的概念。
柏拉图提出了“理念论”，即“形式”。
选项B 亚里士多德对其进行了批判和发展；选项C 伊壁鸠鲁主张快乐主义；选项D 斯多葛学派强调道德和命运。
5. Who claimed that "The unexamined life is not worth living"?A. PlatoB. AristotleC. SocratesD. Epicurus答案：C。
Krashen's theory of SLA
2.1 IntroductionStephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing intheories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study ofnon-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the UnitedStates and Canada. This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory ofsecond language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research andteaching since the 1980s. Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five mainhypotheses:l the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,l the Monitor hypothesis,l the Natural Order hypothesis,l the Input hypothesis,l and the Affective Filter hypothesis.1). The Acquisition-Learning HypothesisKrashen (1982) has a rgued that “Learning cannot become acquisition and that fluency in a second orforeign language is due to what learners have acquired, not what they have learned (Brown, 2000:278).Acquisition, according to Krashen, is a subconscious process whereas learning is an active and consciousprocess involving the memorization of many formal linguistic rules. Krashen believed that second languagelearners should attempt to acquire linguistic rules subconsciously and in a natural way much like a childacquires his or her L1.The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory andthe most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquiredsystem' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconsciousprocess very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requiresmeaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers areconcentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious processwhich results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.2). the Monitor HypothesisThe Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines theinfluence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs therole of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function whenthree specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance.According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correctdeviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor'use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners whohave not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learnersthat use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile canhelp to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts areunder-users, while introverts andperfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.3).The Natural Order Hypothesis:Kr ashen’s Natural Order Hypothesis states that second language learners “acquire the rules of alanguage in a predictable sequence” (Lightbown and Spada,1993:27-28). The Natural Order Hypothesisalso states that even though some of the rules in a language are easy for the learner to memorize, theserules or often most difficult for the learner to acquire. Krashen’s view regarding the natural acquisition ofcertain structures has been supported in morpheme studies and it is from these studies that Krashenattempts to bolster support for his Natural Order Hypothesis.The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino,1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, therewere statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of languageacquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that alanguage program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejectsgrammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.4).The Input HypothesisThis is perhaps the most important of Krashen’s five hypotheses. The thrust of the input hypothesis isthat in order for language acquisition to take place, the acquirer must receive comprehensible inputthrough reading or hearing language structures that slightly exceed their current ability (Brown, 2000:278). However, it is important that the acquirer not receive input that exceeds his or her level of competence. It iscrucial that the acquirer receive input that is comprehensible and challenging enough to lead toimprovements in linguistic competence. The input hypothesis has been outlined by Krashen as follows:The input hypothesis makes the following claim: a necessary (but not sufficient) condition to move fromstage i + l is that the acquirer understand input that contains i+ l, where “understand” means that theacquirer is focused on the meaning and not the form of the message (Krashen,1982: 21). Furthermore, it is essential not to focus on explicit grammatical structures or learning activities but rather to occupy classroom time with ac quisition tasks or activities. Krashen argues, “The input hypothesis relates to acquisition, notlearning” (Krashen, 1982:21). In this regard, many EFL/ESL instructors can better serve their studentsSL learning needs by introducing various tasks in the classroom. The input hypothesis also states that anacquirer must not be forced to speak too early. That is, a certain amount of comprehensible input must bebuilt up before the acquirer is required to speak in a classroom (Brown, 2000:278). According to Krashen,many second language learners will go through what is referred to by some as a silent period when learners gradually receive and build enough comprehensible input so that they can start to produce their own structures.The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learnerimproves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that isone step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i',then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'.Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.5). The Affective Filter HypothesisFinally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variablesinclude: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation,self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' theaffective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition.In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect isnecessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.Comprehensible input will occur during the language acquisition process when that acquirer’s affectivefilter is down or low. The Affective Filter Hypothesis states that:A learner who is tense, angry, anxious, or bored will screen out input, making it unavailable for acquisition.Thus, depending on the learner’s state of mind or disposition, the filter limits what is noticed and what isacquired. The filter will be up or operating when the learner is stressed,self-conscious or unmotivated. Itwill be down when the learner is relaxed or motivated (Lightbown and Spada, 1993: 28).Again, as previously stated, this hypothesis has found a lot of support from those within the EFL/ESL fieldas it makes perfectly good practical sense for instructors to try and create a low-stress, anxiety free andrelaxing language learning environment for those people attempting to acquire a second language. ManyEFL/ESL instructors truly believe that students learn better in environments that are free from stress orwhere they feel uncomfortable.2.2 STRENGTHSEven though Krashen’s innatist model of SLA has received an abundance of criticism, it has been popular with many people teaching in the EFL/ESL fields. The input hypothesis seems to be simple for second language instructors to follow and teachers are able to base some of their teaching methodology on Krashen’s fivehypotheses (Brown, 2000:281).First, Krashen argues that grammar should not be taught in the classroom and that the formal rules orstructures of the language are not necessary to aid in comprehensible input.Krashen has also been attacked on this point to which he states that we use our knowledge of the world as well as context and other extra linguistic devices to aid comprehension and can subconsciously acquire the formal structures through this process:…our assumption has been that we first learn structures then practice using them in communication, andthis is how fluency develops. The input hypothesis says the opposite. It says we acquire by “goin g formeaning” first, and as a result, we acquire structure (Krashen, 1982:21).The writer agrees with Krashen in that learners are better served if instructors can provide learners withopportunities with which to practice the grammar that they have acquired in the classroom. It is alsoimportant for instructors to encourage learners to use context and their knowledge of the world to help learners with comprehension, new vocabulary and grammar.Krashen also advocates the use of communicative tasks in the classroom, with which many professionallanguage teachers also agree. However, at times students, especially adult students who are generallymore cognitively advanced than child learners, can benefit from more explicit grammatical explanations and direct vocabulary definitions.Krashen further argues that it is important for language learners to be exposed to structures that areslightly above their level of ability. Krashen feels that in order for L2 acquisition to occur and for learners toimprove their L2 competence, learners must attempt to understand language that slightly exceeds theircurrent ability:We acquire by understanding language that contains structure a bit beyond our current level ofcompetence (i + l). This is done with the help of context or extra-linguistic information (Krashen, 1982:21).EFL students in Taiwan have studied English grammar extensively. However, it is interesting to note thatmost of these students make routine mistakes on structures which they know the rules for when speaking.Chinese students will, during classroom conversation, regularly omit the s that must be attached to thethird – person singular form of verbs. The students indeed know the rules governing the third – personsingular, as they have studied English grammar ad nauseam in high school.Unfortunately, most of these learners are not able to apply the rules during conversation. Mistakes include, “He live with his sister” or “She go to work at 8 o’clock.” Lightbown (Brown, 2000: 275) states that,“Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interaction.”Chinese students have learned and know many of the formal grammatical rules; however, they have nottruly acquired the structures.These errors may also represent the fossilization phenomenon that occurs in most L2 learners. Thisoccurs during adult L2 acquisition in which the linguistic competence of the L2 learners does not progresswith respect to particular language structures.Lightbown similarly claims that, “For mos t adult learners, acquisition stops –“fossilizes” – before thelearner has achieved native-like mastery of the target language (Brown, 2002:275).2.3 CRITICISMSWhile Krashen’s input hypothesis has received quite a bit of support from practitioners within the EFL field and contributed towards EFL/ESL classroom teaching methodologies, his theoretical views have received some harsh criticisms.For instance, McLaughlin, a psychologist, has attacked Krashen’s Monitor Model by arguing, “Krashenhas not produced any evidence in support of his claims but has simply argued that ‘certain phenomenacan be viewed from the perspective of his theory (Mangubhai, 2003:4.9)”.Similarly, Lightbown and Spada (1998:29) state that, “…the theory has also been seriously criticized forfailing to meet certain minimum standards necessary in scientific research and writing.”Firstly, the Monitor Hypothesis has been attacked primarily because there is no clear evidence to show us ‘monitor’ use (Lightbown and Spada, 1993:27).Scholars have not been able to determine language that has been produced by the learned system and the acquired system.Krashen’s claim that learning does not lead to acquisition is problematic for many scholars as this impliesthat spontaneous language has been acquired and not learned. As a result, Krashen has been accused of providing a circular definition of the terms learned and acquired systems (Lightbown and Spada, 1993:27).Secondly, Krashen has not produced any clear, empirical evidence that more output, written or oral, resultsin more language acquisition. This challenges Krashen’s silent period assertion in which Krashen arguesthat SLA acquirers go through a period of acquiring sufficient comprehensible input in order to finallyproduce intelligible SL utterances.Thirdly, according to Gregg (1984), we need clearer definitions of acquisition/subconscious andlearning/conscious (Brown, 2000: 279). Gregg argues that Krashen has used these terms with a certainsense of recklessness and has argued that it is very difficult to distinguish between what is conscious andwhat is unconscious:Krashen plays fast and loose with his definitions…If unconscious knowledge is capable of being brought toconsciousness, and if conscious knowledge is capable of becoming unconscious – and this seems to be areasonable assumption – then there is no reason whatever to accept Krashen’s claim, in the absence of evidence. And there is an absence of evidence (Brown, 2000:280).Another aspect of Krashen’s input Hypotheses is that h e claims that the use of care – taker talk or foreigner – talk (FT) is beneficial to the learner as it aids comprehension.…foreigner – talk and teacher – talk are not made for the purpose of language teaching, but are madefor the purpose of communication, to help the second language acquirer understand what is being said(Krashen, 1982:25).Many EFL schools view foreigner – talk as ungrammatical and are concerned that students may complainif teachers speak to students using such modified speech. According to Meisel (1980):“Ungrammatical FT is generally felt to imply a lack of respect… However, it may not be the presence ofungrammatical modifications per se that arouse negative responses in learners, but their awareness ofbeing addressed in a sp ecial manner” (cited in Ellis, 2002: 254).Grammatical FT, on the other hand, has been seen as useful in supplying simple input (Ellis, 2002: 254).At any rate, it is widely believed that SL learners need exposure to a broad range of input so that they canincrease their communicative competence.Krashen argues that explicit error-correction has very little or no effect at all upon learner's long-termlinguistic competence. Lightbown (1985) has stated that, “Isolated explicit error correction is usuallyin effective in changing language behavior” (Brown, 2000:276). As Lightbown and Spada (1993:115) point out, “Excessive error correction can have a strong negative effect on motivation.”Finally, there is also some concern that input does not last long enough to promote the development ofconfidence in the acquirer and, as well, we have not seen any evidence indicating as to what the acquirerdoes with the input (Mangubhai, 2003:4.9).In addition, Krashen’s concept of i + l has been attacked as a result of the fact that scholars do not have a very clear understanding of what the various learning stages are in second language acquisition.2.4 The Role of Grammar in Krashen's ViewAccording to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their language programs. It should be clear,however, that examining irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the targetlanguage is not language teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics.The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) iswhen the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced that the study of formal grammar isessential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements forcomprehensible input and perhaps with the students' participation the classroom becomes an environmentsuitable for acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the students'conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium.This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students' progress, but in reality theirprogress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well.2.5 SUMMARYKrashen's input hypothesis holds quite a bit of appeal among EFL instructors and has stressed theimportance of communicative tasks in the SLA classroom. As well, the input hypothesis is very easy tounderstand and to apply within the SL classroom.For instance, according to the Affective Filter Hypothesis, SL acquirers are able to make better use of inputif their affective filters are low. EFL students who are relaxed and able to learn English in a stress – freeenvironment will be able to learn better and enjoy their second language learning experience much more.Many EFL/ESL language instructors have seen the merit of the affective-filter hypothesis and strive tomake their classrooms more relaxed for second language learners and to make the language lessons more enjoyable for learners in attempts to reduce the levels of anxiety among students.This aspect of Krashen’s theory, not surprisingly, has received support even from Krashen’s critics. We have also seen through Krashen’s theory that many EFL programs over emphasize the importance ofgrammar and do not utilize enough communicative tasks in order to develop the learners competence.Also, the input hypothesis is simple – perhaps too simple. The simplistic nature of Krashen’s inputhypothesis has led to a fair amount of criticism for not being scientific enough.As mentioned previously, many scholars demand more evidence from Krashen in order to support thevarious claims that he makes under the five central hypotheses which constitute his input hypothesis.For example, Krashen’s definition of the terms acquisition and learning is not satisfactory. Overall,however, the input hypothesis is an interesting and relevant SLA theoretical perspective that has had animpact on SLA learning and EFL/ESL teaching practices.。
高考英语人类学研究单选题30题
高考英语人类学研究单选题30题1.Anthropology is the study of human beings and their _____.A.culturesB.naturesC.charactersD.habits答案：A。
本题考查人类学的定义。
Anthropology（ 人类学）是研究人类及其文化的学科，选项A“cultures” 文化）符合题意。
选项B“natures”（ 本性）、选项C“characters”（ 性格）和选项D“habits”（ 习惯）都不是人类学主要研究的内容。
2.Who is considered the father of modern anthropology?A.Charles DarwinB.Sigmund FreudC.Bronislaw MalinowskiD.Karl Marx答案：C。
Bronislaw Malinowski 布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基）被认为是现代人类学之父。
选项A“Charles Darwin”（ 查尔斯·达尔文）是生物学家。
选项B“Sigmund Freud” 西格蒙德·弗洛伊德）是心理学家。
选项D“Karl Marx”（ 卡尔·马克思）是哲学家、政治经济学家。
3.In anthropology, fieldwork is essential for understanding different _____.A.societiesnguagesC.religionsD.climates答案：A。
在人类学中，田野调查对于理解不同的社会至关重要。
选项A“societies”（社会）符合题意。
选项B“languages”（语言）、选项C“religions”（宗教）和选项D“climates”（气候）虽然也可能在人类学研究中涉及，但不是田野调查的主要目的。
4.The main method used in anthropological research is _____.A.experimentationB.observationC.theory buildingD.literature review答案：B。
routine练习题
routine练习题一、词汇练习1. 选择正确的单词填空：1. I usually _______ to work bus.2. She _______ her homework every evening.A. doesB. doC. does not doD. doesn't do3. They _______ a movie last night.A. watchB. watchesC. watchedD. watching2. 选择正确的词组：1. I _______ (go, going) to the gym this morning.2. He _______ (be, is) late for school again.3. She _______ (do, does) her homework every day.3. 选择正确的形容词：1. This is a _______ (good, bad) book.2. She is a _______ (smart, silly) girl.3. The weather is very _______ (hot, cold) today.二、语法练习1. 选择正确的时态：1. I _______ (go, went) to the park yesterday.2. She _______ (be, was) happy when she received the gift.3. They _______ (do, did) their homework last night.2. 选择正确的语态：1. The teacher _______ (teach, is taught) Mr. Wang.2. The book _______ (write, is written) a famous author.3. The letter _______ (send, is sent) to her last week.3. 选择正确的连词：1. I _______ (go, am going) to the movies, _______ (because, because of) I have free time.2. She _______ (like, likes) coffee, _______ (but, but) she doesn't like tea.3. I _______ (finish, finished) my homework, _______ (so, so) I can go out now.三、阅读理解1. 阅读短文，回答问题：1. What is the main idea of the passage?2. Who is the main character in the story?3. What happens at the end of the passage?2. 阅读文章，判断正误：1. The story is about a boy who goes to the park every weekend.2. The boy meets his friends at the park and they play games together.3. The boy goes home after playing games with his friends.3. 阅读文章，找出关键信息：1. What is the author's favorite color?2. Why does the author like this color?3. What does the author think about other colors?四、写作练习1. 介绍动物的名字和种类。
尤金·奈达
总结
尤金· 尤金·奈达博士是当代西方最著名的翻译理论家和语言 学家之一。五十多年的实践与翻译理论研究, 学家之一。五十多年的实践与翻译理论研究,使奈达博 士在翻译研究领域取得了巨大的成就。 士在翻译研究领域取得了巨大的成就。其理论不仅对西 方国家也对亚洲国家特别是中国产生了巨大的影响。 方国家也对亚洲国家特别是中国产生了巨大的影响。他 被公认为是最具影响力的当代翻译理论家。 被公认为是最具影响力的当代翻译理论家。奈达博士的 翻译理论在实践中不断得到补充和完善, 翻译理论在实践中不断得到补充和完善,其发展大致可 以划分为三个阶段:描写语言学阶段、 以划分为三个阶段:描写语言学阶段、交际学阶段及符 号学阶段。 号学阶段。其翻译理论本质也从当初的描述性转变成规 约性。20世纪80年代初林武书 世纪80年代初林武书、 约性。20世纪80年代初林武书、谭载喜等人将奈达翻译 理论引入中国前, 理论引入中国前,人们主要关注的是中国传统的翻译理 特别是严复的翻译三字准则,即信、 论,特别是严复的翻译三字准则,即信、达、雅。而自奈 达翻译理论介绍入中国以来, 达翻译理论介绍入中国以来,中国翻译学者对其产生了 极大的兴趣。 极大的兴趣。
He graduated summa cum laude from the University of California in 1936. After graduating he attended Camp Wycliffe, where Bible translation theory was tuaght. In 1937, Nida undertook studies at the University of Southern California, where he obtained a Master’s Degree in New Testament ’ Greek in 1939. In 1943 Nida received his Ph.D. in Linguistics from the University of Michigan, he was ordained as a Baptist minister, and he married Althea Lucille Sprague. The couple remained married until Althea Sprague Nida's death in 1993. In 1997, Nida married Dr. Elena Fernandez, a translator and interpreter.
The_Skopos_theory[整理版]
![The_Skopos_theory[整理版]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/986dc4fa79563c1ec4da71c3.png)
The_Skopos_theory[整理版]The Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer anddeveloped in Germany in the late 1970s and which oriented a more functionally andsocioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation,but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, translation has a purpose, and the word“Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation翻译目的论(Skopos Theory)是一种崭新的翻译理论模式。
是德国功能派翻译学家Reiss、Vermeer和Nord等从翻译行为的目的性出发提出的一种翻译理论。
它的建立可以追溯二十世纪六七十年代，该理论将研究聚集在翻译过程中的各种目的的选择上。
具体说来，它包括三个原则:目的原则(Skopos rule)，连贯原则(Coherence rule)，忠实原则(Fidality rule)。
其中核心原则为目的原则“:任何翻译行为都是由翻译的目的决定的，简而言之，就是…翻译的目的决定翻译的手段?。
”这个目的可以理解为:译者的目的，译文的交际目的以及使用某种翻译手段所要达到的目的。
由于言语交际是一种有目的的活动，它传递说话人的意图，因此要确定话语意义，就必需充分考虑说话人的意图，交际场合，听话人的背景知识，态度等语境因素。
外刊阅读练习：生物学和金融界的不稳定性
最牛英语口语培训模式：躺在家里练口语，全程外教一对一，三个月畅谈无阻！洛基英语，免费体验全部在线一对一课程：/ielts/xd.html（报名网址）Biology and financial instability生物学和金融界的不稳定性The molecules of mayhem混乱的分子The Hour Between Dog and Wolf: Risk-Taking, Gut Feelings and the Biology of Boom and Bust. By John Coates.狗和狼之间的那一刻：冒险、直觉和繁荣与萧条的生物学。
由约翰·科茨。
The financial crisis was caused by many things: greedy bankers, a glut of Chinese savings,shoddy regulation, an obsession with home ownership—take your pick. John Coates, once a trader on Wall Street and now a neuroscientist at Cambridge University, presents yet another culprit: biology, or, more precisely, the physiology of risk-taking. Financial traders, he says, are influenced by what is going on in their bodies as well as in the markets. Two steroid hormones—testosterone and cortisol—come out in force during the excesses of bull and bear markets.导致金融危机的因素有好几个：贪婪的银行家、中国的大笔储蓄、具误导性的监管制度、对拥屋的痴迷——任你挑选。
范畴论参考书
范畴论参考书范畴论是一个相当深奥和广泛的数学领域，涉及到许多不同的主题和概念。
以下是一些参考书籍，可以帮助你深入了解范畴论的不同方面：•Emily Riehl的《Category Theory in Context》：这本书被许多人认为是最好的基础范畴论教材之一。
它以一种清晰、易懂的方式介绍了范畴论的基本概念，并提供了许多实际应用的例子。
•Mac Lane和Moerdijk的《Sheaves in Geometry and Logic》：这本书主要介绍了topos的理论，是范畴论在几何学和逻辑学中的重要应用。
•Yau和Johnson的《2-Dimensional Categories》：这本书专注于2-category的理论，是范畴论的一个高级主题。
•Scott Balchin的的《A Handbook of Model Categories》：这本书是关于model category 的参考资料，对于想要深入研究这一领域的读者来说非常有用。
•Markus Land的《Introduction to Infinity-Categories》：这本书介绍了(∞,1)-category的理论，是范畴论中的另一个重要主题。
此外，还有一些书籍可以帮助你更好地理解范畴论的应用：•David Spivak的《Category Theory for the Sciences》：这本书将范畴论应用于科学领域，展示了范畴论在科学研究和建模中的重要作用。
•Spivak和Brendan Fong合著的《An Invitation to Applied Category Theory Seven Sketches in Compositionality》：这本书进一步探讨了范畴论在应用领域中的应用，提供了许多实际的例子和案例研究。
最后，如果你对范畴论的基础感兴趣，还可以参考以下书籍：•Tom Leinster的《Basic Category Theory》：这本书是一本很好的入门教材，适合初学者了解范畴论的基本概念。
评库恩的科学史观
评库恩的科学史观李醒民（中国科学院《自然辩证法通讯》杂志社，北京100039）内容提要托马斯•库恩是当今世界知名的学者，他因其科学哲学名著《科学革命的结构》(1962年)而名满天下。
其实，库恩是从物理学转向科学史，并进而转向科学哲学的。
由于他明确提出并详尽阐述了科学共同体的概念，因此也有人把他列为与默顿传统无关的三位科学社会学代表人物之一(其他两位是普赖斯和本•戴维)。
正因为库恩的研究横跨了较为广阔的领域，具有多角度的视野，因而他对科学史论也有比较深刻的洞见，从而形成了他独树一帜的科学史观。
本文拟对此作一简要评述。
关键词库恩科学史科学史观一、科学史的沿革和涵义库恩在为《国际社会科学百科全书》(1968年)撰写的条目“科学的历史”中指出，科学史作为一门独立的专门学科，至今仍然是正在从漫长的和多变的史前阶段浮现出来的领域。
从1950年起，最初也只是在美国，这个学科中的大多数最年轻的专业人员，才开始把这个领域作为职业性学术专业而受到教育，或者才开始把它作为全时性学术职业。
他们的先辈人大都是历史学家，研究科学史只是业余爱好。
因此，他们的目标和价值观念主要来自其他领域。
由此可见，科学史作为一门独立学科是比较年轻的。
但是，它的历史沿革却源远流长，甚至可以追溯到文艺复兴乃至古典的古代。
由此一直到近代，撰写科学发展史的大多数作者是职业科学家，而且往往是第一流的科学家，历史常常是他们从事教学的副产品。
除了科学史所固有的感染力外，他们发现这是说明科学专业概念的途径和确立传统的手段，也是吸引学生的一种方法。
库恩认为，这是编史学(historiography，其一意指历史著作，尤指立足于批判性地审查原始资料、从权威的材料中选择可列举的项目，并把这些综合到将接受批判方法的检验的叙述中去的历史著作，或指历史著作的原则、理论和沿革；其二意指历史著作的成品，即历史的本文)的第一个主要传统。
编史学的第二个主要传统是，编史目的具有更为明确的哲学性。
EssayWriting-2014
EssayWriting-2014Introductory Notes: Clyde Kluckhohn (1905-1960) was professor of anthropology at Harvard University. The following passage, adapted from his book Mirror for Man, defines what anthropologists mean by culture and explains culture’s influence on how people think, feel, and behave.One of the interesting things about human beings is that they try to understand themselves and their own behavior. While this has been particularly true of Europeans in recent times, there is no group which has not developed a scheme or schemes to explain human actions. To the insistent human query “why?” the most exciting illumination anthropology has to offer is that of the concept of culture. Its explanatory importance is comparable to categories such as evolution in biology, gravity in physics, disease in medicine.Why do so many Chinese dislike milk and milk products? Why during World War II did Japanese soldiers die willingly in a Banzai charge that seemed senseless to Americans? Why do some nations trace descent through the father, others through the mother, still others through both parents? Not because different peoples have different instincts, not because they were destined by God or Fate to different habits, not because the weather is different in China and Japan and the United States. Sometimes shrewd common sense has an answer that is close to that of the anthropologist: “because they were brought up that way.”By “culture”anthropol ogy means the total life way of a people, the social legacy individuals acquire from their group. Or culture can be regarded as that part of the environment that is the creation of human beings.This technical term has a wider meaning than the “culture” of history and literature. A humble cooking pot is as much a cultural product as is a Beethoven sonata. In ordinary speech “people of culture”are those who can speak languages other than their own, who are familiar with history, literature, philosophy, or the fine arts. To the anthropologist, however, to be human is to be cultured. There is culture in general, and then there are the specific cultures such as Russian, American, British, Hottentot, Inca. The general abstract notion serves to remind us that we cannot explain acts solely in terms of the biological properties of the people concerned, their individual past experience, and the immediate situation. The past experience of other people in the form of culture enters into almost every event. Each specific culture constitutes a kind of blueprint of all of life’s activities.A good deal of human behavior can be understood, and indeed predicted, if we know a people’s design for living. Many acts are neither accidental nor due to personal peculiarities nor caused by supernatural forces nor simply mysterious. Even we Americans who pride ourselves on our individualism follow most of the time a pattern not of our own making. We brush our teeth on arising. We put on pants---not a loincloth or a grass skirt. We eat three meals a day---not four or five or two. We sleep in a bed---not in a hammock or on a sleep pelt. I do not have to know individuals and their life histories to be able to predict these and countless other regularities, including many in the thinking process of all Americans who are not incarcerated in jail or hospitals for the insane.To the American woman a system of plural wives seems “instinctively” abhorrent. She cannot understand how anywoman can fail to be jealous and uncomfortable if she must sh are her husband with other women. She feels it “unnatural” to accept such a situation. On the other hand, a Koryak woman of Siberia, for example, would find it hard to understand how a woman could be so selfish and so undesirous of feminine companionship in the home as to wish to restrict her husband to one mate.Some years ago I met in New York City a young man who did not speak a word of English and was obviously bewildered by American ways. By “blood”he was American, for his parents had gone from Indiana to China as missionaries. Orphaned in infancy, he was reared by a Chinese family in a remote village. All who met him found him more Chinese than American. The facts of his blue eyes and light hair were less impressive than a Chinese style of gait, Chinese arm and hand movements, Chinese facial expression, and Chinese modes of thought. The biological heritage was American, but the cultural training had been Chinese. He returned to China.Another example of another kind: I once knew a trader’s wife in Arizona who took a somewhat devilish interest in producing a cultural reaction. Guests who came her way were often served delicious sandwiches filled with a meat that seemed to be neither chicken nor tuna fish yet was reminiscent of both. To queries she gave no reply until each had eaten his or her fill. She then explained that what they had eaten was not chicken, not tuna fish, but rich, white flesh of freshly killed rattlesnakes. The response was instantaneous, often violent vomiting. A biological process is caught in a cultural web.All this does not mean that there is no such thing as raw human nature. The members of all human groups have about thesame biological equipment. All people undergo the same poignant life experiences, such as birth, helplessness, illness, old age, and death. The biological potentialities of the species are the blocks with which cultures are built. Some patterns of every culture crystallize around focuses provided by biology: the difference between the sexes, the presence of persons of different ages, the varying physical strength and skill of individuals. The facts of nature also limit culture forms. No culture provides patterns for jumping over trees or for eating iron ore. There is thus no “either-or” between nature and that specia l form of nurture called culture. The two factors are interdependent. Culture arises out of human nature, and its forms are restricted both by human biology and by natural laws.Essay TopicTo what extent does Kluckhohn explain the differences and similari ties among the world’s peoples? What do you think about his views? Use examples from your own experience, reading or observation in developing your essay.。
Thomas Samuel Kuhn
Thomas Samuel KuhnThomas Samuel Kuhn was born on July 18, 1922, in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. He received a Ph. D. in physics from Harvard University in 1949 and remained there as an assistant professor of general education and history of science. In 1956, Kuhn accepted a post at the University of California--Berkeley, where in 1961 he became a full professor of history of science. In 1964, he was named M. Taylor Pyne Professor of Philosophy and History of Science at Princeton University. In 1979 he returned to Boston, this time to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as professor of philosophy and history of science. In 1983 he was named Laurence S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy at MIT.Of the five books and countless articles he published, Kuhn's most renown work is The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, which he wrote while a graduate student in theoretical physics at Harvard. Initially published as a monograph in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, it was published in book form by the University of Chicago Press in 1962. It has sold some one million copies in 16 languages and is required reading in courses dealing with education, history, psychology, research, and, of course, history and philosophy of science. Structure has also generated a good deal of controversy, and many of Kuhn's ideas have been powerfully challenged (see Weinberg link below).Throughout thirteen succinct but thought-provoking chapters, Kuhn argued that science is not a steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge. Instead, science is "a series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions" [Nicholas Wade, writing for Science], which he described as "the tradition-shattering complements to thetradition-bound activity of normal science." After such revolutions, "one conceptual world view is replaced by another" [Wade].Although critics chided him for his imprecise use of the term, Kuhn was responsible for popularizing the term paradigm, which he described as essentially a collection of beliefs shared by scientists, a set of agreements about how problems are to be understood. According to Kuhn, paradigms are essential to scientific inquiry, for "no natural history can be interpreted in the absence of at least some implicit body of intertwined theoretical and methodological belief that permits selection, evaluation, and criticism." Indeed, a paradigm guides the research efforts of scientific communities, and it is this criterion that most clearly identifies a field as a science. A fundamental theme of Kuhn's argument is that the typical developmental pattern of a mature science is the successive transition from one paradigm to another through aprocess of revolution. When a paradigm shift takes place, "a scientist's world is qualitatively transformed [and] quantitatively enriched by fundamental novelties of either fact or theory."Kuhn also maintained that, contrary to popular conception, typical scientists are not objective and independent thinkers. Rather, they are conservative individuals who accept what they have been taught and apply their knowledge to solving the problems that their theories dictate. Most are, in essence, puzzle-solvers who aim to discover what they already know in advance - "The man who is striving to solve a problem defined by existing knowledge and technique is not just looking around. He knows what he wants to achieve, and he designs his instruments and directs his thoughts accordingly."During periods of normal science, the primary task of scientists is to bring the accepted theory and fact into closer agreement. As a consequence, scientists tend to ignore research findings that might threaten the existing paradigm and trigger the development of a new and competing paradigm. For example, Ptolemy popularized the notion that the sun revolves around the earth, and this view was defended for centuries even in the face of conflicting evidence. In the pursuit of science, Kuhn observed, "novelty emerges only with difficulty, manifested by resistance, against a background provided by expectation."And yet, young scientists who are not so deeply indoctrinated into accepted theories - a Newton, Lavoisier, or Einstein - can manage to sweep an old paradigm away. Such scientific revolutions come only after long periods of tradition-bound normal science, for "frameworks must be lived with and explored before they can be broken." However, crisis is always implicit in research because every problem that normal science sees as a puzzle can be seen, from another perspective, as a counterinstance and thus as a source of crisis. This is the "essential tension" in scientific research.Crises are triggered when scientists acknowledge the discovered counterinstance as an anomaly in fit between the existing theory and nature. All crises are resolved in one of three ways. Normal science can prove capable of handing the crisis-provoking problem, in which case all returns to "normal." Alternatively, the problem resists and is labeled, but it is perceived as resulting from the field's failure to possess the necessary tools with which to solve it, and so scientists set it aside for a future generation with more developed tools. In a few cases, a new candidate for paradigm emerges, and a battle over its acceptance ensues - these are the paradigm wars.Kuhn argued that a scientific revolution is a noncumulative developmental episode in which an older paradigm is replaced in whole or in part by an incompatible new one. But the new paradigm cannot build on the preceding one. Rather, it can only supplant it, for "the normal-scientific tradition that emerges from a scientific revolution is not only incompatible but actually incommensurable with that which has gone before." Revolutions close with total victory for one of the two opposing camps.Kuhn also took issue with Karl Popper's view of theory-testing through falsification. According to Kuhn, it is the incompleteness and imperfection of the existing data-theory fit that define the puzzles that characterize normal science. If, as Popper suggested, failure to fit were grounds for theory rejection, all theories would be rejected at all times.In the face of these arguments, how and why does science progress, and what is the nature of its progress? Kuhn argued that normal science progresses because members of a mature scientific community work from a single paradigm or from a closely related set and because different scientific communities seldom investigate the same problems. The result of successful creative work addressing the problems posed by the paradigm is progress. In fact, it is only during periods of normal science that progress seems both obvious and assured. Moreover, "the man who argues that philosophy has made no progress emphasizes that there are still Aristotelians, not that Aristotelianism has failed to progress."As to whether progress consists in science discovering ultimate truths, Kuhn observed that "we may have to relinquish the notion, explicit or implicit, that changes of paradigm carry scientists and those who learn from them closer and closer to the truth." Instead, the developmental process of science is one of evolution from primitive beginnings through successive stages that are characterized by an increasingly detailed and refined understanding of nature. Kuhn argued that this is not a process of evolution toward anything, and he questioned whether it really helps to imagine that there is one, full, objective, true account of nature. He likened his conception of the evolution of scientific ideas to Darwin's conception of the evolution of organisms.The Kuhnian argument that a scientific community is defined by its allegiance to a single paradigm has especially resonated throughout the multiparadigmatic (or preparadigmatic) social sciences, whose community members are often accused of paradigmatic physics envy. Kuhn suggested that questions about whether a discipline is or is not a science can be answered only when members of a scholarly community who doubt their status achieve consensus about their past and present accomplishments.Thomas Kuhn was named a Guggenheim Fellow in 1954 and was awarded the George Sarton Medal in the History of Science in 1982. He held honorary degrees from institutions that included Columbia University and the universities of Notre Dame, Chicago, Padua, and Athens. He suffered from cancer during the last years of his life. Thomas Kuhn died on Monday, June 17, 1996, at the age of 73 at his home in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was survived by his wife and three children。
阿尔钦 不确定性 演化与经济理论
正文：经济学分析中一个重要修正，便是纳入了不完全信息和不确定预见作为经济学的一个公理。
这一修正摒弃掉了“利润最大化”，使得经济分析不再依赖于那些可预测的——在教科书中常被粗略的假设为近似的——个体行为。
除去这些改变，众多分析概念常常只与这些行为本身的存续有关系，因为这些概念不是建立在这样那样的动机和预见之上的。
这篇文章所提倡的方法具体表现在生物进化和自然选择的原则上，即，将经济系统当作一种“选择采纳机制”，在那些在寻求功利过程中发生的探究行动中进行选择。
由此产生的分析——和传统的行为分析一样——也适用于那些常被当作偏离了规范经济行为的行动（译者注：即后文所说的试错行为和模仿性“创新”）。
这一分析方法剔除了“精确预期”和“固态知识”这两个不真实的假说，其更广泛的适用性为经济学研究提供了动力。
本文将进行的阐释如下：首先，需要明确的是，“利润最大化”有一个方面的简要阐述被普遍忽略了，即，当预见具有不确定性的时候，“利润最大化”作为某一具体行动的指导是没有什么意义的。
其次，建设性的发展起自一个环境选择原理的引入，这个环境选择原理是一个后验的经济体系，其最适宜行为依据的是“实现净利润”而非“利润最大化”准则。
这表明了即使在没有丝毫个体理性、预见性或者动机性的极端随机行为模型中，经济学家也能够通过对传统分析工具进行的一些修正，来预测和解释事件。
再次，在普遍存在不确定性和不完全信息的世界中，环境选择这一现象和一类个体的动机性行为相融合。
对照利润最大化的追求，在净利润追求过程中的那些适应性、模仿性和试错性行为将被更好的利用。
最后，本文将讨论基于这些原理的一些影响及推测。
【1】我很感激?Stephen Enke博士的批评和启发，这引导我在完善了本文的内容和阐释。
?I.利润最大化并非是行动的指导当今经济分析中，经济行为严重依赖于理性单位所做的决定，即在传统假设中，理性个体总是谋求一个完美的最优情况【2】。
这个最优情况有两个众所周知的准则：利润最大化和效用最大化【3】。
803科学哲学参考书目
803科学哲学参考书目以下是一些科学哲学的参考书目：1. 《科学革命的结构》（The Structure of Scientific Revolutions），作者：托马斯·库恩（Thomas Kuhn）2. 《目的论与科学进展》（Teleological and Scientific Progress），作者：尼古拉斯·朗（Nicholas Rescher）3. 《科学之路》（The Road to Reality），作者：罗杰·彭罗斯（Roger Penrose）4. 《自然科学方法论》（Methodology of the Natural Sciences），作者：卡尔·波普尔（Karl Popper）5. 《科学大革命》（The Scientific Revolution），作者：史蒂文·雄纳（Steven Shapin）6. 《科学哲学入门》（An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science），作者：约黑恩·伍特（Yehuda Rav）7. 《哲学原理》（Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience），作者：玛克斯·贝内特（Max Bennett）和彼得·P.霍尔根斯（Peter S. Hacker）8. 《科学、过去和未来》（Science, Past and Future），作者：科尔勒基兰（Karl Popper）9. 《科学的逻辑》（The Logic of Scientific Discovery），作者：卡尔·波普尔（Karl Popper）10. 《科学、解释和现实》（Science, Explanation, and Reality: The Philosophy of Causality），作者：张潘昌（Chang Zhang Pan）这些书籍涵盖了科学哲学的各个方面，包括科学发展的结构、科学方法论、科学如何推进和解释现实等。