paper (环境经济)
我国生态、环境、经济系统耦合协调测度方法综述
我国生态、环境、经济系统耦合协调测度方法综述杨玉珍【摘要】Coupling and coordinating ecology, environment and economy system are important paths to resolve problems of resource restriction and environment depravation. Coupling and coordinating methodologies of ecology, environment and economy systems are reviewed and evaluated in this paper. Methods used are classified into six categories as index addition and computation, variance and elasticity, system evolvement, system dynamics, data envelopment analysis, and structure equation model. The imperfect aspects in current study are pointed out.%实现生态、环境、经济系统的耦合与协调是应对资源约束、环境恶化等问题的重要路径.针对我国生态、环境、经济系统耦合协调测度方法进行综述,将其分为指数加成及计量分析法、变异系数和弹性系数法、模糊与灰色理论法、系统演化及系统动力学方法、数据包络分析法、结构方程模型法等类别,并指出当前研究有待完善之处.【期刊名称】《科技管理研究》【年(卷),期】2013(033)004【总页数】4页(P236-239)【关键词】生态经济学;综述;耦合;协调;方法测度【作者】杨玉珍【作者单位】河南师范大学经济与管理学院,河南新乡 453007【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F120.3耦合(Coupling)原是物理学中的概念，指两个或两个以上的体系或运动之间通过各种相互作用而彼此影响的现象。
环境保护与经济发展之间的关系英语作文
环境保护与经济发展之间的关系英语作文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1Certainly! Here is an essay of approximately 2,000 words on the relationship between environmental protection and economic development, written in English and from the perspective of an elementary school student:The Earth is Our HomeHi there! My name is Alex, and I'm 10 years old. Today, I want to talk to you about something really important – our planet Earth and how we can take care of it while still making sure our families have good jobs and enough money.Have you ever thought about how amazing the Earth is? It's the only planet we know of that has life on it. It's like a giant spaceship, carrying us through the universe, with everything we need to survive – air to breathe, water to drink, food to eat, and a warm place to live. Pretty cool, right?But here's the thing – our Earth is starting to get sick. And it's because of the way we humans have been treating it. We've beenpolluting the air with smoke from factories and cars, dumping trash and chemicals into the water, and cutting down too many trees. This is called damaging the environment, and it's making our planet unhealthy.You might be thinking, "But Alex, we need factories to make the things we use every day, like clothes, toys, and electronics. And we need cars to get to school and work. How can we stop doing those things?" That's a great question!The answer is that we don't have to stop doing those things altogether. We just need to find ways to do them that don't hurt the environment as much. For example, we can use clean energy sources like solar power and wind power instead of burning coal and oil, which create a lot of pollution. We can also recycle more of our trash and use less plastic, which takes a really long time to break down in nature.But wait, you might be thinking, "Isn't using clean energy and recycling more expensive? Won't that make it harder for people to have good jobs and earn enough money?" That's another excellent question!The truth is, protecting the environment and having a strong economy can actually go hand in hand. When we take care of the Earth, we're also creating new jobs and businesses. For instance,people are needed to build and operate wind farms and solar panels. We also need people to work in recycling plants and to make products out of recycled materials.And think about it this way – if we keep damaging the environment, it's going to cost us a lot of money in the long run. We'll have to pay to clean up pollution and deal with things like rising sea levels, droughts, and more extreme weather events caused by climate change. Not to mention, a lot of people could get sick from breathing dirty air or drinking polluted water, which would also cost a lot of money for medical care.So, protecting the environment is actually an investment in our future. It's like taking care of our spaceship, the Earth, so that it can keep taking us on this incredible journey through the universe for a long, long time.But you know what? We can't just leave it up to thegrown-ups to fix this problem. We kids have a big role to play too! Here are some things we can do to help:Reduce, reuse, and recycle! Whenever you can, try to use less plastic and paper, reuse things instead of throwing them away, and recycle as much as possible.Save energy! Turn off lights and electronics when you're not using them, and ask your parents to use energy-efficient light bulbs and appliances.Plant trees! Trees help clean the air and provide homes for lots of animals. You could even start a tree-planting club at your school!Learn more! Read books and watch videos about the environment and climate change. The more you know, the better you can help spread the word and come up with creative solutions.Be a voice for change! Write letters or make posters to raise awareness about environmental issues in your community. You can also encourage your parents, teachers, and other adults to make eco-friendly choices.Remember, we're all in this together – people from every country, every culture, and every generation. We all share this one beautiful planet, and it's up to us to take care of it.So let's get started today, taking small steps to make a big difference. Because at the end of the day, the Earth is our home –the only one we've got. And I don't know about you, but I wantto keep our spaceship in tip-top shape for many, many years to come!篇2The Environment and the Economy: Two Sides of the Same CoinHi there! My name is Jamie, and I'm a 10-year-old student who loves learning about our planet Earth. Today, I want to talk to you about something that's really important – the relationship between the environment and the economy.You might be wondering, "What does the environment have to do with the economy?" Well, let me explain!The environment is everything around us – the air we breathe, the water we drink, the plants and animals that live on our planet. The economy, on the other hand, is all about the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. At first glance, they might seem like two completely different things, but they're actually closely connected.Let me give you an example. Imagine a factory that makes toys. To produce those toys, the factory needs to use a lot of resources like plastic, metal, and energy. But when the factoryuses those resources, it also creates waste and pollution that can harm the environment. If the air and water around the factory become too polluted, it can make people sick, and that's not good for the economy because sick people can't work or buy things.On the other hand, if the factory finds ways to reduce its waste and pollution, it can help protect the environment. And a healthy environment is good for the economy because it means people are healthier, and they can work and spend money on things like toys!So, you see, when companies take care of the environment, it's good for the economy too. It's like a win-win situation!But it's not just about factories and pollution. The environment and the economy are connected in many other ways too. For example, if we overuse natural resources like forests, we might run out of them, and that can hurt industries that depend on those resources, like the paper and furniture industries.Or think about the impact of climate change. If the Earth gets too hot because of things like burning too many fossil fuels, it can cause droughts, floods, and other natural disasters. Thesedisasters can damage homes, businesses, and farms, which can really hurt the economy.That's why it's so important for us to find ways to protect the environment while still allowing the economy to grow. We need to use resources wisely, reduce waste and pollution, and find cleaner and greener ways to produce the things we need.But protecting the environment isn't just the responsibility of businesses and governments. We all have a role to play too! Even as kids, we can do our part by reducing, reusing, and recycling, saving energy and water, and learning about the environment.I know it might seem like a big challenge, but I believe that with teamwork and creativity, we can find ways to balance environmental protection and economic development. After all, we only have one planet, and we need to take care of it for ourselves and for future generations.So, let's all do our part to protect the environment while also supporting a strong and healthy economy. It's not an easy task, but it's one that's worth fighting for because our future depends on it!篇3The Importance of Protecting Our Planet While Growing Our EconomyHave you ever thought about how we can keep our planet healthy while also making sure everyone has enough money and resources? It's a big question that grown-ups spend a lot of time talking about. Some people think we have to choose between saving the environment or growing our economy and businesses. But I don't think it has to be one or the other – I think we can do both if we're smart about it!The environment is really important because it's like the house we all live in together on planet Earth. If the air gets too polluted or dirty, it makes it hard for plants, animals, and people to breathe. And if the water gets too dirty or poisonous, fish can't live in it and we can't drink it or use it to water crops that we eat. When forests get cut down, it destroys the homes of lots of different types of animals and plants. So taking care of the environment by keeping our air and water clean and protecting trees and plants is really important for all life on Earth.At the same time, we need businesses and economic growth to create jobs and make money so people can buy the food, clothing, and other things we need to live. Factories make useful products, but some of them release pollution into the air andwater that can harm the environment. Cutting down forests to clear land for new buildings, farms, or mines also damages nature. So you can see why some grown-ups think protecting the environment and growing the economy are two opposite things that can't go together.But here's what I think – we absolutely need to protect the environment because Earth is the only planet we have to live on. At the same time, we can't just stop economic growth altogether because then people won't have jobs or be able to buy basic things they need. The key is to find smarter ways to keep growing businesses and the economy, but in a way that doesn't damage the environment so much.One way to do this is by developing new "green" technologies that are less harmful to nature. Like solar panels that get their energy from the sun instead of burning polluting fossil fuels. Or electric cars that don't release exhaust fumes. Or wind turbines that generate electricity just from the wind blowing. Businesses can invest in these kinds of clean, renewable energy sources instead of continuing to rely so much on oil, gas, and coal which pollute the air.We can also recycle more things like plastic, glass, aluminum, and paper instead of just throwing them away as trash. Recyclingreduces waste and means we don't have to destroy as much nature to get fresh raw materials. Businesses could design products that last longer and are easier to repair instead of having to buy a totally new thing.Governments can pass laws that limit how much pollution factories are allowed to release into the air and water. Some places charge fees or taxes for activities that hurt the environment to encourage people and companies to find better alternatives. Protected areas like national parks and nature reserves can be set aside to keep those lands pristine and undamaged.Basically, what I'm trying to say is that we don't have to choose between a healthy environment OR a healthy economy. We can have both if we try hard enough! It will take cooperation between individuals, businesses, and governments. We have to be willing to change some old habits and ways of doing things. But coming up with creative solutions that allow us to keep developing and growing businesses in a sustainable way is possible. After all, there's no point in having lots of economic growth and money if the cost is destroying the rivers, air, and lands that we all depend on to survive.Let's all work hard together to protect the environment that every living thing needs to be healthy. At the same time, we can embrace new innovations that keep our economies productive and moving forward. If we're smart and determined, we can absolutely have a thriving economy AND a thriving environment here on our one and only planet Earth!篇4The Environment and the Economy: Two Sides of the Same CoinHi there! My name is Jamie and I'm 10 years old. Today I want to talk to you about something really important - the environment and the economy. These might seem like two totally different things, but they are actually super connected. Let me explain!We all know the environment is really important, right? It's the air we breathe, the water we drink, the trees and animals around us. Without a healthy environment, we couldn't survive. But a lot of times, human activities like factories, cars, and cutting down trees can hurt the environment by causing pollution and destroying habitats. That's where environmental protectioncomes in - it's about taking care of the environment so it stays clean and healthy.The economy is about money, jobs, businesses, and things like that. Countries need a good economy so people can work, earn money, and buy the things they need. Businesses need to make money to keep operating and hire people. So the economy is really important too!But here's the tricky part - protecting the environment and growing the economy don't always go together easily. Sometimes, factories and businesses do things that pollute the air and water or damage nature areas because it's cheaper than being environmentally friendly. And countries might feel like they have to choose between environmental rules that are strict but costly, or looser rules that are cheaper but worse for the environment.It's kind of like two kids arguing - one wants to keep playing in the park, and the other wants to go home because it's getting dark and messy. They both have good points, but they can't seem to agree!The good news is, we're starting to realize that we don't have to pick one or the other. We can find ways for the environment and the economy to work together and both be healthy! It's noteasy, but it's so important if we want to have a nice place to live and do fun things.Here are some of the ways we can make environmental protection and economic growth go hand-in-hand:Green Businesses and JobsImagine if companies made products or provided services that were good for the environment, instead of harmful? These "green businesses" could hire lots of people to do jobs like installing solar panels, building electric cars, or replanting trees. Then we could have a strong economy AND be protecting the planet at the same time! Win-win!Clean and Renewable EnergyBurning fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal causes a lot of pollution that's bad for the air, water, and climate. But we're getting better at harnessing renewable energy from the sun, wind, and even trash! If we use more clean energy sources, we can power our homes, schools, and businesses without spewing out too much pollution. It might cost more money at first, but in the long run it creates jobs and saves money while taking care of the environment.Sustainable Farming and ForestsI bet you didn't know that the food you eat and even the paper you write on is connected to the environment! When farms use too many chemicals or clear too many forests, it can really damage nature. But sustainable farming techniques likemixed crops and no pesticides are healthier for the soil and eco-systems. And managed forests where trees get replanted provide homes for wildlife while also giving us wood products we need. It's all about using natural resources wisely!Those are just a few examples, but I hope you can see how protecting the environment through things like clean energy, sustainable practices, and green jobs doesn't have to hurt the economy. In fact, it can actually create lots of new business opportunities and careers while also keeping our air, water, land, and animals healthy. We just need to be smarter about how we do things.At the end of the day, the environment and the economy need each other. A destroyed environment means an economy that can't function well because we'll run out of precious resources and people won't have clean air and water. But an economy that damages the environment for short-term profits isn't sustainable in the long run either. We have to find the right balance!So let's work together to develop newenvironmentally-friendly products, services, and practices that also create good jobs. Let's invest in renewable energy sources that don't pollute. Let's protect our forests, oceans, and wildlife habitats while still using some natural resources responsibly.The environment and the economy go together like two puzzle pieces. When we get it right, we'll have a healthy planet AND healthy places for people to work and businesses to operate. We're all in this together as planet Earthlings! With some cooperation and smart thinking, we can absolutely protect the environment while continuing to grow the economy in a sustainable way. The future is bright if we make the right choices today.篇5The Earth is Our HomeThe Earth is such an amazing place! It's the only planet we know of that has life. From the tallest mountains to the deepest oceans, our planet is filled with incredible plants, animals, and natural wonders. But the Earth is also our home, and we need to take really good care of it.A lot of grown-ups talk about the environment and the economy like they are two separate things. But I don't think that's true at all. The environment is where we live - the air, water, land, plants and animals. And the economy is about having enough food, homes, schools, hospitals and other things people need. They are totally connected!Some grown-ups say we have to hurt the environment to keep the economy strong. They think we need to cut down forests, pollute the air and water, and use up natural resources to make money and create jobs. But that doesn't make sense to me. If we damage the environment, we're messing up our own home! How can the economy be healthy if the place we live is getting sicker and sicker?Destroying nature is kind of like a family damaging their house to get money. They could knock down some walls to sell the bricks and beams. Or punch holes in the roof to get money for fixing leaks later. That's silly! Pretty soon, their house would be a wreck and they'd have no safe place to live. The environment is like the Earth's house - our house! We can't just break it and sell off the pieces.I think the environment and the economy actually help each other out. A healthy environment gives us all the food, water, air,and natural resources we need to not just survive, but thrive. We get fruits, vegetables, grains, and meats from plants and animals. We get drinking water, wood, metals and energy from natural resources. Without a healthy environment, the economy would grind to a halt!On the other hand, a strong economy gives us the money, technology and knowledge to protect the environment. With more resources, we can develop renewable energy instead of burning dirty fossil fuels that pollute the air. We can invest in cleaning up rivers, oceans and beaches. We can set aside land to preserve habitats for endangered animals. And we can educate people about how to conserve energy, reduce waste, and live more sustainable lifestyles.It's kind of like a cycle - a healthy environment allows us to have a strong economy, and a strong economy allows us to protect the environment. They go together! If we neglect one, we'll end up hurting the other too.I think grown-ups sometimes make this issue too complicated. At the end of the day, the Earth is our home. We all want clean air to breathe, fresh water to drink, safe food to eat, and beautiful natural places to explore and enjoy. Those basic needs require a healthy environment. So protecting theenvironment isn't a choice, it's a necessity if we want to survive and thrive on this amazing planet we call home.As kids, we get how important it is to take care of the place we live. When we make messes, our parents make us clean up. When we break something, we have to fix it or replace it. The same should go for Planet Earth! If we protect the environment, we're really just taking care of our home. And a well-cared for home provides us with all the things we need to be healthy and happy.So I don't think we have to pick between the environment or the economy. We need both to not just survive, but thrive as human beings. We are part of this planet's web of life. By protecting the environment, we're protecting ourselves and our future prosperity. Earth is our home. Let's take care of it together!篇6The Importance of Balancing Environment and EconomyHello, my name is Emma, and I'm a 10-year-old student. Today, I want to talk about something that's really important for our planet and our future – the relationship between environmental protection and economic development.I'm sure you've all heard about the environment and how we need to take care of it. We've learned about things like pollution, deforestation, and climate change in school. These are big problems that can harm the plants, animals, and even humans on Earth. But at the same time, we've also learned about the importance of having a strong economy. Our families need jobs and money to buy food, clothes, and other things we need to live.So, how do we balance these two things? How can we protect the environment while also allowing our economies to grow and develop? It's a tough question, but I think it's really important that we find a way to do both.Let me start by talking about the environment. The environment is like the big house that we all live in – it's our planet Earth. Just like we need to take care of our own homes and keep them clean and neat, we also need to take care of our planet. If we don't, it can become polluted, dirty, and even dangerous to live in.One of the biggest threats to the environment is pollution. Pollution is when we release harmful substances into the air, water, or land. This can come from things like factories, cars, and even our own homes. Pollution can make the air we breathe dirtyand can harm plants and animals. It can also contribute to climate change, which is causing our planet to get warmer and leading to things like melting ice caps and rising sea levels.Another big threat to the environment is deforestation. This is when we cut down too many trees, usually to make room for things like farms, roads, or buildings. Trees are really important because they help clean the air and provide homes for lots of animals. When we cut down too many trees, it can lead to problems like soil erosion, loss of animal habitats, and even more climate change.So, as you can see, protecting the environment is really important. But at the same time, we also need to think about our economies. Our economies are what allow us to have jobs, earn money, and buy the things we need to live. When economies are strong and growing, it means there are more jobs and more money for people to spend on things like food, clothes, and homes.However, some people think that protecting the environment and having a strong economy are two things that can't go together. They think that if we focus too much on protecting the environment, it will slow down our economies and make it harder for people to find jobs and earn money.But I don't think this has to be true. I believe that we can find a way to balance environmental protection and economic development. In fact, I think that protecting the environment can actually help our economies in the long run.Here's why: if we don't take care of the environment, it can lead to big problems that can actually hurt our economies. For example, if we let pollution get really bad, it can make people sick and cause them to miss work or spend money on medical bills. If we let deforestation continue, it can lead to things like soil erosion, which can make it harder for farmers to grow crops and earn money.On the other hand, if we focus on protecting the environment, it can actually create new jobs and industries. For example, we can develop new technologies for things like clean energy (like solar and wind power), electric cars, and recycling. These new industries can create lots of new jobs and help our economies grow in a way that's better for the environment.So, you see, it's not really a choice between the environment or the economy. We need to find a way to balance both because they're actually connected. If we take care of the environment, it can help our economies in the long run. And if we have strongeconomies, we'll have more resources to invest in things like clean energy and protecting our planet.But I believe it's really important that we try. After all, this is the only planet we have, and we need to take care of it for ourselves and for future generations. At the same time, we also need strong economies so that everyone can have a good life and provide for their families.So, let's work together to find that balance between environmental protection and economic development. Let's support leaders and businesses that are focused on sustainable growth – growth that doesn't harm the environment. Let's also do our part by reducing waste, recycling, and makingeco-friendly choices in our daily lives.It's a big challenge, but I know we can do it if we all work together. Our planet and our futures depend on it!。
分享经济环境下制造业产能分享的三群体演化博弈分析
第３０卷 第２期运 筹 与 管 理Ｖｏｌ．３０，Ｎｏ．２２０２１年２月ＯＰＥＲＡＴＩＯＮＳＲＥＳＥＡＲＣＨＡＮＤＭＡＮＡＧＥＭＥＮＴＳＣＩＥＮＣＥＦｅｂ．２０２１收稿日期：２０１８ １１ ２８基金项目：国家自然科学基金面上项目（７１４７２１３４，７２０７２１２５）；天津大学自主创新基金项目（２０１９ＸＳＣ ０００８）作者简介：郝家芹（１９８３ ），女，安徽寿县人，博士生，研究方向：分享经济、运营管理、库存控制及优化；通讯作者：赵道致（１９５６ ），男，江苏无锡人，博士生导师，研究方向：分享经济、运营管理，物流与供应链管理。
分享经济环境下制造业产能分享的三群体演化博弈分析郝家芹， 赵道致（天津大学管理与经济学部，天津３０００７２）摘 要：制造业产能分享的兴起，改变了传统的制造模式，打破了原有制造业系统的平衡。
为研究制造业产能分享参与群体的决策行为，在产能分享平台具有网络外部性、制造企业具有接入成本且博弈群体均具有有限理性的假设条件下，构建了“产能分享平台制造业产能所有企业 制造业产能需求企业”三个博弈群体的演化博弈模型。
运用演化博弈理论分析了模型的演化稳定策略，探讨了制造企业接入成本、产能分享平台的网络外部性系数等对此动态系统稳定性的影响，给出了演化稳定策略的经济和管理意义。
最后，用数值仿真对比分析不同参数变化对演化结果的影响，为产能分享平台和制造企业的行为决策提供理论参考依据。
关键词：分享经济；制造业产能分享；三群体演化博弈；演化稳定策略中图分类号：Ｆ２２４ 文章标识码：Ａ 文章编号：１００７ ３２２１（２０２１）０２ ０００１ ０７ ｄｏｉ：１０．１２００５／ｏｒｍｓ．２０２１．００３４Ｔｒｉｐａｒｔｉｔｅ ｐｌａｙｅｒｓＥｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙＧａｍｅＡｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｈｅＭａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇＣａｐａｃｉｔｙＳｈａｒｉｎｇｉｎｔｈｅＥｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔｏｆＳｈａｒｉｎｇＥｃｏｎｏｍｙＨＡＯＪｉａ ｑｉｎ，ＺＨＡＯＤａｏ ｚｈｉ（ＣｏｌｌｅｇｅｏｆＭａｎａｇｅｍｅｎｔａｎｄＥｃｏｎｏｍｉｃｓ，ＴｉａｎｊｉｎＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ，Ｔｉａｎｊｉｎ３０００７２，Ｃｈｉｎａ）Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：Ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅａｒｉｓｉｎｇｏｆｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇ，ｔｈｅｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｉｓｃｈａｎｇｅｄａｎｄｔｈｅｂａｌａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｓｙｓｔｅｍｉｓｂｒｏｋｅｎ．Ｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｔｈｅｄｅｃｉｓｉｏｎ ｍａｋｉｎｇｂｅｈａｖｉｏｒｏｆｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｓ，ａｎｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｇａｍｅｍｏｄｅｌｃｏｍｐｏｓｅｄｏｆｔｈｒｅｅｇａｍｅｐｌａｙｅｒｓｏｆ“ｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇｐｌａｔｆｏｒｍｓ———ｅｎｔｅｒｐｒｉｓｅｓｗｉｔｈｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｃａｐａｃｉｔｙ———ｅｎｔｅｒｐｒｉｓｅｓｄｅｍａｎｄｉｎｇｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｃａｐａｃｉｔｙ”ｉｓｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈｅｄｂａｓｅｄｏｎｔｈｅａｓｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｅｘｔｅｒｎａｌｉｔｙｏｆｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇｐｌａｔｆｏｒｍｓ，ａｃｃｅｓｓｉｎｇｃｏｓｔｏｆｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｅｎｔｅｒｐｒｉｓｅａｎｄｂｏｕｎｄｅｄｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｉｔｙ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｓｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｓｔｒａｔｅｇｙｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｄｅｌｉｓａｎａｌｙｚｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｇａｍｅｔｈｅｏｒｙ．Ｔｈｅｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅａｃｃｅｓｓｃｏｓｔｏｆｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｅｎｔｅｒｐｒｉｓｅｓａｎｄｔｈｅｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｅｘｔｅｒｎａｌｉｔｙｃｏｅｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇｐｌａｔｆｏｒｍｓｏｎｔｈｅｓｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｄｙｎａｍｉｃｓｙｓｔｅｍｉｓｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄ；ａｎｄｔｈｅｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃａｎｄｍａｎａｇｅｍｅｎｔｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｓｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｓｔｒａｔｅｇｙｉｓｇｉｖｅｎ．Ｆｉｎａｌｌｙ，ａｃｏｎｔｒａｓｔｉｖｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｒｅｓｕｌｔｓａｆｆｅｃｔｅｄｂｙｄｉｖｅｒｓｅｐａｒａｍｅｔｒｉｃｖａｒｉａｔｉｏｎｓｉｓｐｅｒｆｏｒｍｅｄｂｙｎｕｍｅｒｉｃａｌｓｉｍｕｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｉｓｐａｐｅｒｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓａｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｆｏｒｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇｐｌａｔｆｏｒｍｓａｎｄｔｈｅｂｅｈａｖｉｏｒｄｅｃｉｓｉｏｎｏｆｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｅｎｔｅｒｐｒｉｓｅｓ．Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：ｓｈａｒｉｎｇｅｃｏｎｏｍｙ；ｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｃａｐａｃｉｔｙｓｈａｒｉｎｇ；ｔｒｉｐａｒｔｉｔｅ ｐｌａｙｅｒｓｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｇａｍｅ；ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙｓｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｓｔｒａｔｅｇｙ０ 引言随着云计算、物联网、工业互联网等信息技术的发展，以使用权分享为主要特征、整合海量、分散化资源的分享经济（亦称为共享经济）［１］在全球得以快速发展。
Economics of the Environment：环境经济学的
Economics of the EnvironmentApEc 8602Spring 2001MW 12:30 - 1:45COB B36Professor Steve Polasky337E Classroom Office Building 503 EcologyPh: 625-9213 624-3663Email: spolasky@Course Outline/objective: The course is designed to apply the tools of economic analysis to environmental policy issues. In the first part of the course, we will study externalities and methods to regulate externalities under both complete and asymmetric information. In the second part of the course, we will study methods to measure non-market benefits from environmental amenities. Prerequisites: This course will use both economic theory and econometrics. The prerequisite for the course is a Ph.D. level sequence in microeconomic theory. Students should have also had a graduate level econometrics class.Course Requirements:Problem Sets 15%Paper 25%Midterm I 30%Midterm II 30%Texts: Most of the readings in the course will come from journal articles. These articles will be available in Waite Library. We will also use three texts.1. Hanley, N., J.F. Shogren and B. White. 1996. Environmental Economics in Theory andPractice. New York: Oxford University Press.2. Baumol, W.J. and W.E. Oates. 1988. The Theory of Environmental Policy, 2nd Edition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.3. Freeman, A.M. 1993. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values: Theory andMethods. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.1In addition, there are a number of good books that you might want to consider having if you intend to do environmental economics as a field. Some recommended books are:1. Braden, J. and C. Kolstad (eds.) 1991. Measuring the Demand for EnvironmentalQuality. Amsterdam: North Holland.2. Bromley, D. (ed.) 1995. The Handbook of Environmental Economics. Cambridge, MA:Blackwell Publishers.3. Cornes, R. and T. Sandler. 1986. The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods and Clubs.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.4. Cummings, R., D. Brookshire and W. Schulze. 1986. Valuing Environmental Goods.Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.5. Dorfman, R. and N.S. Dorfman (eds.). 1993. Economics of the Environment: SelectedReadings 3rd Edition. New York: Norton.6. Hausman, J.A. (ed.) 1993. Contingent Valuation: A Critical Assessment. Amsterdam:North-Holland Press.7. Johnansson, P.-O. 1987. The Economic Theory and Measurement of EnvironmentalBenefits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.8. Just, R., D. Hueth, and A. Schmitz. 1982. Applied Welfare Economics and Public Policy.Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.9. Kopp, R. and V.K. Smith (eds.) 1993. Valuing Natural Assets: The Economics ofNatural Resource Damage Assessments. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.10. Laffont, J. 1988. Fundamentals of Public Economics. Cambridge: MIT Press.11. Laffont, J.-J. and J. Tirole. 1993. A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation.Cambridge: MIT Press.12. Maler, K.-G. 1974. Environmental Economics: A Theoretical Inquiry. Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University Press.13. Mitchell, R. and R. Carson. 1989. Using Surveys to Value Public Goods: The ContingentValuation Method. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.14. Oates, W. 1992. The Economics of the Environment. Brookfield, VT: Edward Elgar.15. Portney, P.R. and R.N. Stavins (eds.) 2000. Public Policies for Environmental Protection,2nd Edition. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.16. Xepapadeas, A. 1998. Advanced Principles in Environmental Economics. Cheltenham,UK: Edward Elgar.Reading List(* indicates required readings)I. Introduction and Overview1. * Hanley, N., J.F. Shogren and B. White. 1996. Environmental Economics in Theory andPractice. Ch. 1.22. The Economist. Costing the earth: a survey of the environment. Sept. 2, 1989.3. Cropper, M. and W. Oates. 1992. Environmental economics: a survey. Journal of EconomicLiterature 30: 675-740.II. Externalities and Environmental Policy 1: Complete InformationA. Efficiency and the Welfare Theorems1. * Varian, H. 1992. Microeconomic Analysis, 3rd Edition. New York: Norton. Ch. 17-18.2. Dorfman, R. 1993. Some concepts from welfare economics. In Economics of theEnvironment: Selected Readings, R. Dorfman and N.S. Dorfman (eds.). New York: Norton.B. Public Goods, Externalities and Pigouvian Taxes1. * Hanley, N., J.F. Shogren and B. White. 1996. Environmental Economics in Theory andPractice. Ch.2 – 4.2. * Mas-Colell, A., M. Whinston and J. Green. 1995. Microeconomic Theory, Chapter 11.Oxford University Press.3. * Baumol, W. and W. Oates. The Theory of Environmental Policy, Ch. 2-4.4. Cornes, R. and T. Sandler. 1986. The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and ClubGoods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ch. 5-6.5. Bator, F. 1958. The anatomy of market failure. Quarterly Journal of Economics 47: 351-379.6. Samuelson, P.A. 1955. Diagrammatic exposition of the pure theory of public expenditure.Review of Economics and Statistics 37: 350-356.C. Nonconvexities1. * Baumol, W. and W. Oates. The Theory of Environmental Policy, Ch. 7 - 8.2. * Hurwicz, L. 1999. Revisiting externalities. Journal of Public Economic Theory 2: 225-245.3. Starrett, D.A. 1972. Fundamental nonconvexities in the theory of externalities. Journal ofEconomic Theory 4: 180-199.4. Baumol, W.J. and D. F. Bradford. 1972. Detrimental externalities and non-convexities of theproduction set. Economica 39: 160-176.5. * Helfand, G. and J. Rubin. 1994. Spreading versus concentrating damages: environmentalpolicy in the presence of nonconvexities. Journal of Environmental Economics andManagement 27: 84-91.3D. Entry and Exit1. Rose-Ackerman, S. 1973. Effluent charges: a critique. Canadian Journal of Economics 6:512-527.2. *Spulber, D. 1985. Effluent regulation and long-run optimality. Journal of EnvironmentalEconomics and Management 12: 103-116.3. Kohn, R.E. 1994. Do we need the entry-exit condition on polluting firms? Journal ofEnvironmental Economics and Management 27: 92-97.4. McKitrick, R. and R.A. Collinge. 2000. Linear Pigouvian taxes and the optimal size of apolluting industry. Canadian Journal of Economics 33: 1106-1119.E. Averting Behavior1. * Bird, P. 1987. The transferability and depletability of externalities. Journal ofEnvironmental Economics and Management 14: 54-57.2. * Shibuta, H. and Winrich, J. 1983. Control of pollution when the offended defendthemselves. Economica 50: 425-437.3. Smith, V.K. and W.Desvouges. 1986. Averting behavior: does it exist? Economics Letters29: 291-296.F. Property Rights and Bargaining1. * Coase, R. 1960. The problem of social cost. Journal of Law and Economics 3: 1-44.2. Demsetz, A. 1967. Toward a theory of property rights. American Economic Review 57:347-359.3. Libecap, G. 1989. Contracting for Property Rights. Cambridge University Press.G. Liability Rules1. * Segerson, K. 1995. Liability and penalty structures in policy design. In The Handbook ofEnvironmental Economics, D. Bromley (ed.). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.2. Menell, P. 1991. The limitations of legal institutions for addressing environmental risks. Journalof Economic Perspectives 5: 93-113.H. Tradeable Permits1. * Hanley, N., J.F. Shogren and B. White. 1996. Environmental Economics in Theory andPractice. Ch. 5.2. * Baumol, W. and W. Oates. The Theory of Environmental Policy. Ch. 12.3. Dales, J.H. 1968. Land, water, and ownership. Canadian Journal of Economics 1: 791-804.4. * Montgomery, D. 1972. Markets in licenses and efficient pollution control programs. Journalof Economic Theory 5: 395-418.45. * Oates, W., P. Portney and A. McGartland. 1989. The net benefits of incentive-basedregulation: a case study of environmental standard setting. American Economic Review 79:1233-1242.6. * Carlson, C., D. Burtraw, M. Cropper and K. Palmer. 2000. Sulfur dioxide control byelectric utilities: what are the gains from trade? Journal of Political Economy 108: 1292-1326.7. Hahn, R. 1984. Market power and transferable property rights. Quarterly Journal ofEconomics 99: 29-46.8. *C. Kling and J. Rubin. 1997. Bankable permits for the control of environmental pollution.Journal of Public Economics 64: 101-115.9. Rubin, J. 1996. A model of intertemporal emission trading, banking, and borrowing. Journalof Environmental Economics and Management 31: 269-286.10. Ellerman, A.D. et al. 2000. Markets for Clean Air: The U.S. Acid Rain Program. NewYork: Cambridge University Press.I. Political Economy and Environmental Policy1. * Buchanan, J. and G. Tullock. 1975. Polluters’ profits and political response: direct controlversus taxes. American Economic Review 65: 139-147.2. Cropper, M.L. 2000. Has economic research answered the needs of environmental policy?Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 39(3): 328-350.3. Hahn, R. 2000. The impacts of economics on environmental policy. Journal ofEnvironmental Economics and Management 39(3): 375-399.4. * Cropper, M. W. Evans, S. Berardi, M. Ducla-Soares and P. Portney. 1992. TheDeterminants of Pesticide Regulation: A Statistical Analysis of EPA Decision-making. Journal of Political Economy 100: 175-197.5. * Metrick, A. and M. L. Weitzman. 1994. Patterns of behavior in endangered speciespreservation. Land Economics 72(1): 1-16.6. Hamilton, J. 1993. Politics and social costs: estimating the impact of collective action onhazardous waste facilities. Rand Journal of Economics: 101-125.III. Externalities and Environmental Policy 2: Asymmetric InformationA. Optimal Regulation with Asymmetric Information1. * Baumol and Oates. 1988. The Theory of Environmental Policy. Ch 5, 13.2. * Mas-Colell, A., M. Whinston and J. Green. 1995. Microeconomic Theory. Ch. 14.3. Laffont, J.-J. and J. Tirole. 1993. A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation.Cambridge: MIT Press. Ch. 1.4. * Weitzman, M. 1974. Prices vs. quantities. Review of Economic Studies 41: 477-491.55. * Kwerel, E. 1977. To tell the truth: imperfect information and optimal pollution control.Review of Economic Studies 44: 595-601.6. * Lewis, T. 1996. Protecting the environment when costs and benefits are privately known.Rand Journal of Economics 27: 819-847.7. Roberts, M. and M. Spence. 1976. Effluent charges and licenses under uncertainty. Journalof Public Economics 5: 193-208.8. Spulber, D. 1988. Optimal environmental regulation under asymmetric information. Journalof Public Economics 35: 163-181.9. Farrell, J. 1987. Information and the Coase Theorem. Journal of Economic Perspectives 1:113-129.10. * Shavell, S. 1984. A model of the optimal use of liability and safety regulations. RandJournal of Economics 15: 271-280.11. Xepapadeas, A. Environmental policy under imperfect information: incentives and moralhazard. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 20: 113-126.B. Non-point Source Pollution1. * Segerson, K. 1988. Uncertainty and incentives for non-point pollution control. Journal ofEnvironmental Economics and Management 15: 87-98.2. Holmstrom, B. 1982. Moral hazard in teams. Bell Journal of Economics 13: 324-340.3. Cabe, R. and J. Herriges. 1992. The regulation of non-point source pollution under imperfectand asymmetric information. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 22:134-146.4. Shortle, J.S., R.D. Horan, and D.G. Abler. 1997. Research issues in nonpoint source waterpollution control. American Journal of Agricultural Economics: 571-585.C. Monitoring and Enforcement1. Becker, G. 1968. Crime and punishment: an economic approach. Journal of PoliticalEconomy 76: 169-217.2. * Kaplow, L. and S. Shavell. 1994. Optimal law enforcement with self-reporting of behavior.Journal of Political Economy 102: 583-606.3. * Mookherjee, D. and I.P.L. Png. 1994. Marginal deterrence in enforcement of law. Journalof Political Economy 102: 1039-1066.4. Harrington, W. 1988. Enforcement leverage when penalties are restricted. Journal of PublicEconomics 37: 29-53.5. * Swierzbinski, J.E. 1994. Guilty until proven innocent - regulation with costly and limitedenforcement. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 27: 127-146.6. Malik, A. 1993. Self-reporting and the design of policies for regulating stochastic pollution.Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 24: 241-257.67. * Polasky, S. and H. Doremus. 1998. When the truth hurts: endangered species policy onprivate land with incomplete information. Journal of Environmental Economics andManagement 35: 22-47.D. R&D and Environmental Regulation1. Jaffe, A.B., R.G. Newell and R.N. Stavins. 2001. Technological change and the environment.In The Handbook of Environmental Economics, K-G Maler and J. Vincent (eds.).Amsterdam: North Holland/Elsevier Science.2. * Milliman, S.R. and R. Prince. 1989. Firm incentives to promote technological change inpollution control. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 16: 52-57.3. * Laffont, J.-J. and J. Tirole. 1996. Pollution permits and compliance strategies. Journal ofPublic Economics 62: 85-125.4. * Laffont, J.-J. and J. Tirole. 1996. Pollution permits and environmental innovation. Journalof Public Economics 62: 127-140.5. * Jaffe, A.B. and R.N. Stavins. 1995. Dynamic incentives of environmental regulations: theeffect of alternative policy instruments of technological diffusion. Journal of EnvironmentalEconomics and Management 29: S43-S63.IV. Measuring Benefits and Costs of Environmental ImprovementA. Issues in Non-Market Valuation1. * Hanley, N., J.F. Shogren and B. White. 1996. Environmental Economics in Theory andPractice. Ch. 12.2. Krutilla, J.V. 1967. Conservation reconsidered. American Economic Review 57: 777-786.3. Smith, V.K. 1997. Pricing what is priceless: a status report on pricing non-market valuation ofenvironmental resources. In International Yearbook of Environmental and ResourceEconomics 1997/1998, H. Folmer and T. Tietenberg (eds.). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.4. Bockstael, N.B. and K.E. McConnell. 1993. Public goods as characteristics of nonmarketcommodities. Economic Journal 103: 1244-1257.B. Benefit-Cost Analysis1. * Dorfman, R. 1993. An introduction to benefit-cost analysis. In Economics of theEnvironment: Selected Readings, R. Dorfman and N.S. Dorfman (eds.). New York: Norton.2. * Arrow, K.J. et al. 1996. Is there a role for benefit-cost analysis in environmental, health, andsafety regulation? Science 272: 221-222.3. * Graham, D. 1981. Cost-benefit analysis under uncertainty. American Economic Review71: 715-725.4. Graham, D. 1992. Public expenditure under uncertainty: the net-benefits criteria. AmericanEconomic Review 82: 822-846.7C. Cost of Environmental Regulation1. * Jaffe, A.B., S.R. Peterson, P.R. Portney and R. Stavins. 1995. Environmental regulation andthe competitiveness of U.S. manufacturing. Journal of Economic Literature 33: 132-163.2. * Hazilla, M. and R.J. Kopp. 1990. The social cost of environmental quality regulations: ageneral equilibrium analysis. Journal of Political Economy: 853-873.3. * Porter, M.E. and C. van der Linde. 1995. Toward a new conception of the environment-competitiveness relationship. Journal of Economic Perspectives 9: 97-118.4. * Palmer, K., W.E. Oates and P.R. Portney. 1995. Tightening environmental standards: thebenefit-cost or the no-cost paradigm? Journal of Economic Perspectives 9: 119-132.D. Principles of Welfare Change Measurement1. * Johansson, P.-O. 1987. The Economic Theory and Measurement of EnvironmentalBenefits. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ch. 3-5.2. * Freeman, A.M. 1993. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values. Ch. 3-4.3. Willig, R. 1976. Consumer’s surplus without apology. American Economic Review 66: 589-597.4. Hausman, J. 1981. Exact consumer’s surplus and deadweight loss. American EconomicReview 71: 662-676.5. Morey, E. 1984. Confuser surplus. American Economic Review 74: 163-173.6. * Randall, A. and J.R. Stoll. 1980. Consumer's surplus in commodity space. AmericanEconomic Review 70: 449-455.7. * Hanemann, M. 1991. Willingness to pay and willingness to accept: how much can theydiffer? American Economic Review 81: 635-648.V. Revealed Preference MethodsA. Hedonic Models1. * Freeman, A.M. 1993. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values:Theory and Methods. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. Ch.11-12.2. Rosen, H. 1974. Hedonic prices and implicit markets: product differentiation in purecompetition. Journal of Political Economy 82: 34-55.3. * Harrison, D. and D. Rubinfeld. 1978. Hedonic housing prices and the demand for clean air.Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 5: 81-102.4. * Smith, V.K. and J.-C. Huang. 1995. Can markets value air quality? A meta-analysis ofhedonic property value models. Journal of Political Economy 103: 209-227.85. Roback, J. 1982. Wages, rents, and the quality of life. Journal of Political Economy 90:1257-1278.6. * Bartik, T. 1987. The estimation of demand parameters in hedonic price models. Journal ofPolitical Economy 95: 81-88.7. Mahan, B., S. Polasky and R.M. Adams. 2000. Valuing urban wetlands: a property priceapproach. Land Economics 76: 100-113.B. Travel Cost1. * Freeman, A.M. 1993. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values:Theory and Methods. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. Ch.13.2. * Bockstael, N., I. Strand and W. Hanemann. 1987. Time and the recreation demand model.American Journal of Agricultural Economics 69: 293-302.3. * Bockstael, N., M. Hanemann and C. Kling. 1987. Modeling recreational demand in amultiple site framework. Water Resources Research 23: 951-960.4. * Morey, E.R., R.D. Rowe and M. Watson. 1993. A repeated nested logit model of Atlanticsalmon fishing. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 75: 578-593.5. Kling, C.L. and C.J. Thompson. 1996. The implications of model specification for welfareestimation. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 78: 103-114.VI. Stated Preference MethodsA. Contingent Valuation1. * Freeman, A.M. 1993. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values:Theory and Methods. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. Ch. 5-6.2. Arrow, K.J., R. Solow, P. Portney, E. Leamer, R. Radner, and H. Schuman. 1993. Report ofthe NOAA panel on contingent valuation. Federal Register 58: 4601-4614.3. * Portney, P.R. 1994.The contingent valuation debate: why economists should care. Journalof Economic Perspectives 8: 3-18.4. * Hanemann, W.M. 1994. Contingent valuation and economics. Journal of EconomicPerspectives 8: 19-44.5. * Diamond, P. and J. Hausman. 1994. Contingent valuation: is some number better than nonumber? Journal of Economic Perspectives 8: 45-64.6. Kahneman, D. and J.L. Knetsch. 1992. Valuing public goods: the purchase of moralsatisfaction. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 22: 57-70.7. Harrison, G.W. 1992. Valuing public goods with the contingent valuation method: a critique ofKahneman and Knetsch. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 23: 248-257.8. Smith, V.K. 1992. Arbitrary values, good causes, and premature verdicts. Journal ofEnvironmental Economics and Management 22: 71-89.99. * Smith, V.K. and L.L. Osborne. 1996. Do contingent valuation estimates pass a “scope”test? A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 31: 287-301.B. Comparing or Combining Stated and Revealed Preference Methods1. * Brookshire, D. and D. Coursey. 1987. Measuring the value of a public good: an empiricalcomparison of elicitation methods. American Economic Review 77: 4554-556.2. * Cummings, R.G., S. Elliott, G.W. Harrison and J. Murphy. 1997. Are hypothetical referendaincentive compatible? Journal of Political Economy 105: 609-621.3. Cummings, R.G., G.W. Harrison and E.E. Rutstrom. 1995. Homegrown values andhypothetical surveys: is the dichotomous choice approach incentive-compatible? AmericanEconomic Review 85: 260-266.4. * Cameron, T.A. 1992. Combining contingent valuation and travel cost data for the valuationof nonmarket goods. Land Economics 68: 302-317.5. * Adamowicz, W., J. Louviere and M. Williams. 1994. Combining revealed and statedpreference methods for valuing environmental amenities. Journal of EnvironmentalEconomics and Management 26: 271-292.VII. Special TopicsA. Biodiversity and Endangered Species1. * Weitzman, M. L. 1998. The Noah’s Ark problem. Econometrica 66: 1279-1298.2. * Solow, A. and S. Polasky. 1994. Measuring biological diversity. Environmental andEcological Statistics 1: 95-1073. * Ando, Amy, Jeffrey Camm, Stephen Polasky and Andrew Solow. 1998. Speciesdistributions, land values and efficient conservation. Science 279: 2126-2128.4. * Montgomery, Claire A., Robert A. Pollak, Kathryn Freemark and Denis White. 1999.Pricing biodiversity. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 38: 1-19.5. * Simpson, R. David, Roger A. Sedjo and John Reid. 1996. Valuing biodiversity for use inpharmaceutical research. Journal of Political Economy 104: 163-185.6. Montgomery, Claire A., Gardner M. Brown, Jr. and Darius M. Adams. 1994. The marginalcost of species preservation: the case of the northern spotted owl. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 26: 111-128.7. Berrens, Robert P., David S. Brookshire, Michael McKee and Christian Schmidt. 1998.Implementing the safe minimum standards approach: two case studies from the U.S.Endangered Species Act. Land Economics 74: 147-161.10B. Climate Change1. *Nordhaus, W.D. 1991. To slow or not to slow – the economics of the greenhouse effect.Economic Journal 101: 920-937.2. Nordhaus, W.D. 1994. Managing the Global Commons: The Economics of ClimateChange. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.3. Schelling, T. 1992. Some economics of global warming. American Economic Review 82: 1-14.4. * Chichilnisky, G. and G. Heal. 1994. Who should abate carbon emissions: an internationalviewpoint. Economics Letters 44: 443-449.5. The Energy Journal, May 1999. Special issue on the costs of the Kyoto Protocol.6. * Goulder, L.H. and K. Mathai. 2000. Optimal CO2 abatement in the presence of inducedtechnical change. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 39: 1-38.7. * Chakravorty, U., J. Roumasset and K. Tse. 1997. Endogenous substitution among energyresources and global warming. Journal of Political Economy 105: 1201-1234.C. Trade and Environment1. * Hanley, N., J.F. Shogren and B. White. 1996. Environmental Economics in Theory andPractice. Ch.6.2. * Baumol and Oates. 1988. The Theory of Environmental Policy, Ch. 16.3. * Markusen, J.R. 1975. International externalities and optimal tax structures. Journal ofInternational Economics 5: 15-29.4. * Copeland, B. and M. Taylor. 1995. Trade and transboundary pollution. AmericanEconomic Review 85: 716-737.5. Copeland, B. and M. Taylor. 1994. North-South trade and the environment. QuarterlyJournal of Economics 109: 755-87.6. Chichilnisky, G. 1994. North-South trade and the global environment. American EconomicReview 84: 851-874.7. * Lopez, R. 1994. The environment as a factor of production – the effects of growth and tradeliberalization. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 27: 163-184.D. Growth, Development and Environmental Quality1. * Arrow, K.J. et al. 1995. Economic growth, carrying capacity and the environment. Science269: 520-521.2. * Grossman, G. and A. Kreuger. 1995. Economic growth and the environment. QuarterlyJournal of Economics 110: 352-377.3. * Selden, T. and D. Song. 1994. Environmental quality and development: is there a KuznetsCurve for air pollution emissions? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management27: 147-162.114. * Selden, T. and D. Song. 1995. Neoclassical growth, the J Curve for abatement, and theinverted U curve for Pollution. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 29: 162-169.5. Holtz-Eakin, D. and T. Selden. 1995. Stoking the Fires? CO2 emissions and economicgrowth. Journal of Public Economics 57: 85-101.6. * Stokey, N.L. 1998. Are there limits to growth? International Economic Review 39: 1-31.7. Environment and Development Economics 2(4), 1997. Special issue on the environmentalKuznets Curve.12。
世行 indicator description 译文
世行indicator description 译文
世界银行指标描述译文
世行指标是指世界银行发布的用于衡量和评估各国经济、社会、环境等方面发展状况的各类数据和指数。
这些指标有助于各国政府、国际组织、研究人员和公众了解全球发展状况，从而制定政策、进行研究和发展合作。
世行指标主要包括以下几类：
1. 经济指标：包括国内生产总值（GDP）、人均收入、通货膨胀率、财政赤字、外债等，用于衡量各国经济规模、增长速度和稳定性。
2. 社会指标：包括人口、寿命、教育程度、卫生状况、贫困率等，用于评估各国人民的生活水平和福利。
3. 环境指标：包括能源消耗、二氧化碳排放、水资源、土地利用、生物多样性等，用于了解各国环境保护和可持续发展状况。
4. 政治和经济风险指标：包括政治稳定性、政府治理、法治、腐败、贸易开放度等，用于评估各国政治和经济环境的风险。
5. 科技创新指标：包括研发投入、专利申请、互联网普及率、创新能力等，用于衡量各国的科技水平和创新能力。
6. 基础设施指标：包括交通、通信、能源、水资源等基础设施的建设和服务水平，用于评估各国的基础设施发展状况。
7. 企业经营环境指标：包括营商环境、市场准入、产权保护、融资难易程度等，用于了解各国企业经营的便利性和竞争力。
这些指标基于各国官方数据和国际组织数据，经过世界银行专业团队的整理和计算，以可视化的形式发布在世界银行官方网站上，供全球用户免费查阅和使用。
通过分析这些指标，可以更好地了解全球发展的趋势和各国之间的差距，为政策制定、国际合作和发展援助提供有力支持。
浅析企业营运能力分析-以宁德时代科技股份有限公司 工商管理专业
中文题目浅析企业营运能力分析—以宁德时代科技股份有限公司为例外文题目Analysis on the Analysis of EnterpriseOperational Capability—Taking Ningde TimesNew Energy Technology Co., Ltd. as anexample目录一、绪论...................................................................................................................................... - 1 -（一）研究背景.................................................................................................................. - 1 - （二）研究意义.................................................................................................................. - 1 - （三）文献综述.................................................................................................................. - 1 -1.国内文献研究状况.................................................................................................. - 1 -2.国外文献研究状况.................................................................................................. - 2 -（四）研究方法.................................................................................................................. - 2 -1.文献研究法.............................................................................................................. - 2 -2.案例分析法.............................................................................................................. - 2 -（五）本文创新点.............................................................................................................. - 2 - 二、营运能力分析的相关理论概述.......................................................................................... - 3 -（一）营运能力分析的概述.............................................................................................. - 3 - （二）营运能力分析的作用.............................................................................................. - 3 -1.有利于企业管理者改善当前的经营模式.............................................................. - 3 -2.有助于投资者进行投资决策.................................................................................. - 3 -3.有助于债权人进行信贷决策.................................................................................. - 3 -三、宁德时代的概括与战略分析.............................................................................................. - 4 -（一）宁德时代的概括...................................................................................................... - 4 -1.宁德时代公司简介.................................................................................................. - 4 -2.宁德时代主营业务概括.......................................................................................... - 4 -3.宁德时代的经营分析.............................................................................................. - 4 -（二）宁德时代的战略分析.............................................................................................. - 5 -1.宏观环境分析.......................................................................................................... - 5 -2. SWOT分析............................................................................................................... - 7 -四、宁德时代的财务研究分析.................................................................................................. - 8 -（一）与同行业横向比较.................................................................................................. - 8 -1.国轩高科.................................................................................................................. - 8 -2.亿纬锂能.................................................................................................................. - 8 -（二）宁德时代财务分析.................................................................................................. - 9 -1.营运能力分析.......................................................................................................... - 9 -2.盈利能力分析........................................................................................................ - 10 -3.偿债能力分析........................................................................................................ - 11 -五、宁德时代结论、建议及未来优势.................................................................................. - 12 -（一）宁德时代的结论.................................................................................................... - 12 - （二）宁德时代的建议.................................................................................................... - 13 -1.提高企业创新能力................................................................................................ - 13 -2.构建产业链协同，形成产业壁垒........................................................................ - 13 -3.开展多元化战略发展............................................................................................ - 13 -4.培育企业核心文化建设........................................................................................ - 13 -（三）未来优势................................................................................................................ - 14 -1.我国电动车行业正逐步从政策市场向消费市场转变........................................ - 14 -2.动力电池成本在下降，消费级乘用车平价在即................................................ - 14 -3.租赁市场和私人用车需求加大，动力电池需求增大........................................ - 14 - 参考文献.................................................................................................................................... - 16 - 致谢 ....................................................................................................................................... - 17 -浅析企业营运能力分析—以宁德时代新能源科技股份有限公司为例摘要：在当今世界汽车制造工业进行战略性转型的背景下,我国目前作为最大的动力电池制造商和出口国拥有的市场和发展契机是前所未有。
名词解释大全
9.易经(The Book of Changes)易是变化，经为方法，或说经典。即阐述变化的经书。易经是一部严谨的哲学著作，并能在科学的范围内用作术数占卜。又称《周易》，相传为周文王所著，成书于周代，故而称呼《周易》。实际《易经》是在中国历史中逐渐演化完成的一门学问。古代的象形字中，“易”字是由上边的“日”和下方的“月”共同组成的；用日月往复循环来形容“易”的循环、周流。就是周而复始。易代表简易、变动。研究、说明一种变动的规律和内涵。
17.金融危机又称金融风暴(The Financial Crisis) ，是指一个国家或几个国家与地区的全部或大部分金融指标（如：短期利率、货币资产、证券、房地产、土地价格、商业破产数和金融机构倒闭数）的急剧、短暂和超周期的恶化。
18.贸易逆差，Unfavorable Balance 0f Trade/trade deficit ，一国在一定时期内（如一年、半年、一个季度、一个月等）出口贸易总值小于进口贸易总值，即贸易逆差。又称“入超”、“贸易赤字”。 反映的是国与国之间的商品贸易状况，也是判断宏观经济运行状况的重要指标。 当一个国家出现贸易逆差时，即表示该国外汇储备减少，其商品的国际竞争力削弱，该国在该时期内的对外贸易处于不利地位。大量的贸易逆差将使国内资源外流加剧，外债增加，影响国民经济正常有效运行。因此，政府应该设法避免出现长期的贸易逆差。
34.老子主要指我国古代伟大的哲学家和思想家、道家学派创始人老子，其被唐皇武后封为太上老君，世界文化名人，世界百位历史名人之一，存世有《道德经 》 （又称《老子》），其作品的精华是朴素的辨证法，主张无为而治，其学说对中国哲学发展具有深刻影响。在道教中老子被尊为道祖。
有关环境保护的英语作文题目大全
有关环境保护的英语作文题目大全Environmental Protection Essay Titles.1. The Urgency of Climate Change: Impacts andMitigation Strategies.2. Exploring the Role of Renewable Energy in Sustainable Development.3. The Impacts of Deforestation on Biodiversity and the Environment.4. Sustainable Water Management: Challenges and Solutions.5. Eco-Friendly Practices in Agriculture for Environmental Preservation.6. The Importance of Waste Reduction and Recycling in Waste Management.7. Environmental Education: Empowering Individuals for Sustainable Choices.8. The Role of Government Policies in Promoting Environmental Protection.9. The Interconnection between Environmental Protection and Economic Growth.10. The Ethical Imperative of Climate Justice: Ensuring Equity in the Fight Against Climate Change.英文回答：1. The Urgency of Climate Change: Impacts andMitigation Strategies.Climate change is an urgent threat to our planet, with devastating impacts on human health, ecosystems, and economies worldwide. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial activities have significantlycontributed to the release of greenhouse gases, leading toa rise in global temperatures. These changes have resultedin more frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods, as well as rising sea levels and melting glaciers. To mitigate the effects of climate change, we need to transition to renewable energy sources, reduce emissions, and implement adaptation measures to protect vulnerable communities.2. Exploring the Role of Renewable Energy inSustainable Development.Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, offer a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. They have the potential to meet our energy needs without depleting finite resources or contributing to greenhousegas emissions. By investing in and promoting renewable energy, we can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, mitigate climate change, and create new jobs and economic opportunities.3. The Impacts of Deforestation on Biodiversity and theEnvironment.Deforestation, the clearing of forests for various purposes, has severe environmental consequences. It leadsto habitat loss for countless species, reducingbiodiversity and disrupting ecosystems. Trees play a vital role in regulating the climate, storing carbon, andproviding oxygen. Deforestation also increases soil erosion, degrades water quality, and contributes to global warming.4. Sustainable Water Management: Challenges and Solutions.Water is a precious resource essential for life. However, human activities, such as pollution, overuse, and climate change, have threatened our water security. Sustainable water management practices, including conservation, efficient irrigation techniques, and wastewater treatment, are crucial to ensure theavailability and quality of water for future generations.5. Eco-Friendly Practices in Agriculture forEnvironmental Preservation.Agriculture has a significant impact on the environment. Conventional farming practices often rely on synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, which can pollute soil, water, and air. Eco-friendly agricultural practices, such as organic farming, sustainable grazing, and agroforestry, promote soil health, reduce environmental pollution, and conserve biodiversity.6. The Importance of Waste Reduction and Recycling in Waste Management.Waste generation has become a major environmental challenge. The majority of waste, including plastic, paper, and organic materials, ends up in landfills or becomes litter, polluting our land and oceans. Waste reduction and recycling are essential practices for managing waste responsibly. By reducing consumption, composting organic waste, and recycling recyclable materials, we can conserve resources, protect ecosystems, and create a moresustainable waste management system.7. Environmental Education: Empowering Individuals for Sustainable Choices.Environmental education plays a crucial role in raising awareness, instilling values, and equipping individualswith the knowledge and skills necessary to make informed decisions about environmental issues. By integrating environmental education into curricula and promoting public campaigns, we can create informed and environmentally conscious citizens who contribute positively to a sustainable future.8. The Role of Government Policies in Promoting Environmental Protection.Government policies have a significant influence on environmental protection. Regulations, incentives, and investments can encourage sustainable practices, reduce emissions, and protect sensitive ecosystems. By implementing comprehensive environmental policies, governments can create a framework that supports businesses,communities, and individuals in working together to safeguard the environment.9. The Interconnection between Environmental Protection and Economic Growth.Environmental protection and economic growth are not mutually exclusive. Investing in environmental conservation can create new jobs, stimulate innovation, and lead tolong-term economic benefits. By transitioning to a circular economy, promoting green technologies, and empowering sustainable businesses, we can achieve both economic prosperity and environmental sustainability.10. The Ethical Imperative of Climate Justice: Ensuring Equity in the Fight Against Climate Change.Climate change has disproportionate impacts on vulnerable communities, including low-income households, marginalized groups, and developing countries. Climate justice acknowledges this inequality and calls for equitable solutions. It involves prioritizing the needs ofthose most affected by climate change, ensuring access to clean energy, adaptation measures, and financial assistance, and addressing the historical responsibilities of developed countries in contributing to climate change.中文回答：1. 气候变化的紧迫性，影响和缓解策略。
国民经济行业代码
国民经济行业代码以下是国民经济行业代码及行业名称：01 农、林、牧、渔业0110 种植业0190 其他农业02 林业0200 林业03 畜牧业0310 牲畜饲养放牧业0320 家禽饲养业0330 狩猎业0390 其他畜牧业04 渔业0410 海洋渔业0420 淡水渔业05 农、林、牧、渔服务业0510 农业服务业0520 林业服务业0530 畜牧兽医服务业0540 渔业服务业0590 其他农、林、牧、渔服务业06 采矿业0610 煤炭开采业0620 煤炭洗选业0710 天然原油开采业0720 天然气开采业0810 铁矿采选业0910 重有色金属矿采选业0930 轻有色金属矿采选业0950 贵金属矿采选业0960 稀有稀土金属矿采选业1010 土砂石开采业1020 化学矿采选业1030 采盐业1090 其他非金属矿采选业12 木材及竹材采运业1210 木材采运业1220 竹材采运业13 制造业1310 粮食及饲料加工业1320 植物油加工业1330 制糖业1340 屠宰及肉类蛋类加工业1350 水产品加工业1360 盐加工业1390 其他食品加工业1410 糕点、糖果制造业1420 乳制品制造业1430 罐头食品制造业1440 发酵制品业1450 调味品制造业1490 其他食品制造业1510 饮料制造业1520 酒精及饮料酒制造业1550 软饮料制造业1590 其他饮料制造业1610 烟草加工业1620 烟叶复烤业1630 卷烟制造业1690 其他烟草加工业1710 纺织业1720 纤维原料初步加工业1740 棉纺织业1760 毛纺织业1770 麻纺织业1780 丝绢纺织业1790 针织品业1810 服装制造业1820 制帽业1830 制鞋业1890 其他纤维制品制造业1910 皮革、毛皮、羽绒及其制品业1920 皮革制品制造业1930 毛皮鞣制及制品业In 1950.the feather and down products industry was established。
GEP核算实践探讨及研究展望
GEP核算实践探讨及研究展望张翎;刘金福;兰思仁;王文辉【摘要】主要针对GEP核算的起源、发展、不足等方面进行概括和分析，系统阐述了国内外GEP核算代表性的研究成果，指出不同时期所提出GEP核算机制的缺陷。
最后，提出国内GEP研究方向与发展趋势。
%By summarizing of the origin,deveLopment and weakness of GEP accounting,the representative research a-chievements of GEP accounting worLdwide were expounded and the deficiency of GEP accounting mechanism in differ-ent period were pointed out. FinaLLy,the direction and deveLopment tendency of domestic GEP were put forward in this paper.【期刊名称】《武夷科学》【年(卷),期】2014(000)001【总页数】5页(P141-145)【关键词】GEP;绿色GDP;生态系统生产总值;核算【作者】张翎;刘金福;兰思仁;王文辉【作者单位】福建农林大学，福建福州350002; 福建农林大学海峡自然保护区研究中心，福建福州350002;福建农林大学，福建福州350002; 福建农林大学海峡自然保护区研究中心，福建福州350002;福建农林大学，福建福州350002; 福建农林大学海峡自然保护区研究中心，福建福州350002;福清市林业局，福建福清350300【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F222.33GEP(Gross Ecosystem Production)即生态系统生产总值，由世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)提出，旨在建立一套能较好衡量生态系统总产值的，与国内生产总值GDP 相对应的核算体系。
环境经济学与生态经济学学科体系比较_吴玉萍
环境经济学与生态经济学学科体系比较吴玉萍 董锁成(中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所 北京 100101)摘要 环境经济学与生态经济学是两门具有姐妹血缘关系、但不能相互替代的新兴学科。
本文通过分析环境经济学与生态经济学的研究范畴,阐述其学科体系的差异性,从而界定各自的研究内容。
关键词 环境经济学 生态经济学 研究范畴 学科体系差异Comparing Environmental Economics with Ecological Economicsby Their Knowledge SystemsWu Yuping Dong Suocheng(Institute of Geographical Science and Natural Resources Research,CAS Bejing 100101)A bstract Environmental economics and ecological economics are two new sciences,which are kin but do not sub-stitute each other.This paper discusses the otherness of kno wledge system by analyzing their research category,in or-der to group their research content.Keywords environmental economics ecological economics research categor y otherness of knowledge system 环境经济学与生态经济学有着十分密切的关系,它们都是在现代经济迅速发展、人口不断增加、资源急剧耗损、生态环境严重破坏的条件下产生的,是两门具有姐妹血缘关系、但不能相互替代的新兴学科。
基于“课程思政”的《环境经济学》课程教学 改革
Creative Education Studies 创新教育研究, 2018, 6(6), 487-490Published Online December 2018 in Hans. /journal/ceshttps:///10.12677/ces.2018.66080Teaching Reform of EnvironmentalEconomics Course Based on “CourseIdeological Management”Yimin Wang, Xuyin Yuan, Yiping Li, Yi LiCollege of Environment, Key Laboratory of Integrated Management and Resource Development of ShallowLakes, Ministry of Education, Hohai University, Nanjing JiangsuReceived: Nov. 26th, 2018; accepted: Dec. 7th, 2018; published: Dec. 14th, 2018AbstractSustainable development is one of the important contents in the course of environmental eco-nomics, and it is an important starting point to realize the course reform of ideological education.Our paper took both the characteristics and key points of environmental economics course into consideration, and also, we combined the view of ecological economics with the conception of sustainable development to explore the relationships between the ecological environment and sustainable development. Therefore, we pointed out that the usage of sustainable development conception contributes to the development of human society. Through reforming the course con-tents and teaching forms, students can be trained to view the application and development of sus-tainable development in economic society based on the perspective of economics. Therefore, we wish to better improve the quality of teaching.KeywordsSustainable Development, Environmental Economics, Ideological Education, Teaching Reform基于“课程思政”的《环境经济学》课程教学改革汪宜敏，袁旭音，李一平，李轶河海大学浅水湖泊综合治理与资源开发教育部重点实验室，环境学院，江苏南京收稿日期：2018年11月26日；录用日期：2018年12月7日；发布日期：2018年12月14日汪宜敏 等摘要可持续发展是环境经济学课程的重要研究内容之一，是实现环境经济学“课程思政”改革的重要出发点。
资源 环境 经济学 论文
资源环境经济学论文Title: The Impact of Resource Management on Environmental and Economic SustainabilityAbstract:This paper examines the relationship between resource management, environmental sustainability, and economic development. With the increasing demand for resources and the growing concern for environmental degradation, it is crucial to understand how the management of resources can contribute to sustainable development. Through a review of existing literature and case studies, this paper discusses the importance of sustainable resource management practices in promoting environmental conservation, economic growth, and social well-being. The paper also explores the role of government policies, technological innovations, and corporate responsibility in achieving a balance between resource exploitation and conservation. Introduction:The depletion of natural resources and the degradation of the environment have become pressing global issues in recent years. The unsustainable exploitation of resources has led to ecological imbalances, climate change, and the loss of biodiversity. At the same time, the lack of proper resource management has hindered economic development and threatened the livelihoods of millions of people around the world. In response to these challenges, there is a growing recognition of the need for sustainable resource management practices that can ensure the long-term availability of resources while preserving the environment for future generations.Methods:This paper adopts a qualitative research approach by reviewing existing literature on resource management, environmental sustainability, and economic development. Case studies from various countries and regions are also included to provide practical insights into the impacts of different resource management strategies. The data collected are analyzed to identify key trends, challenges, and opportunities in achieving a balance between resource utilization and conservation.Results:The findings of this paper highlight the importance of sustainable resource management in promoting environmental and economic sustainability. Proper resource management practices, such as conservation, recycling, and renewable energy development, can help reduce environmental impacts and ensure the availability of resources for future generations. Moreover, sustainable resource management can also create new economic opportunities, such as green jobs, eco-tourism, and clean technology industries. However, achieving sustainable resource management requires a multi-faceted approach that involves government intervention, private sector engagement, and community participation. Conclusion:In conclusion, sustainable resource management plays a crucial role in ensuring environmental conservation and economic development. By adopting sustainable practices, such as resource efficiency, waste reduction, and ecosystem protection, countries can achieve a balance between resource utilization and conservation. This, in turn, can lead to long-term environmentalsustainability, economic growth, and social well-being. Moving forward, it is essential for policymakers, businesses, and individuals to work together to promote sustainable resource management practices and achieve a more sustainable future for all.。
资源与环境经济学本科专业的核心课程设计探微--基于美国91所高校类似专业的资料整理
资源与环境经济学本科专业的核心课程设计探微--基于美国91所高校类似专业的资料整理范巧【摘要】资源与环境经济学是教育部新设本科专业，目前尚无明确的人才培养核心课程规定，国内高校也无先例可循。
基于对美国91所样本高校资源与环境经济学相关专业的网络资料整理，结合对14所高校资源与环境经济学专业课程设置情况的重点考察，建议将资源与环境经济学本科专业的8门课程设置为核心课程，包括微观经济学、宏观经济学、计量经济学、发展经济学、资源经济学、环境经济学、资源与环境政策学、统计学。
还指出应根据人才培养的不同目标设定人才培养的其他专业课程。
%Resources and Environmental Economics is one of the new undergraduate majors in China. There is no accurate definition of core courses for this major either from Chinese Ministry of Education or universities. This paper investigated 91 universities in United States on how related majors designed their core courses. Conclusion reveals that main courses of this major include Microeconomics Macroeconomics Econometrics Development Economics Resource Economics Environmental Eco⁃nomics Resources and Environmental Policy and Statistics.【期刊名称】《教学研究》【年(卷),期】2015(000)003【总页数】6页(P75-80)【关键词】资源与环境经济学;本科专业;核心课程;美国高校【作者】范巧【作者单位】重庆科技学院法政与经贸学院，重庆 401331; 得州理工大学农业与应用经济系，美国得克萨斯州 79415-3270【正文语种】中文【中图分类】G642.0;G649自2012年9月14日教育部颁行《普通高等学校本科专业目录(2012年)》、《普通高等学校本科专业设置管理规定》等文件后，中国普通高校本科专业设置开始进入新的历史时期。
ICS国际标准分类法
International Classification for Standards(ICS)编码英文名称中文名称01GENERALITIES. TERMINOLOGY. STANDARDIZATION. DOCUMENTATION 综合、术语学、标准化、文献01.020Terminology (principles and coordination) 术语学(原则和协调配合)01.040Vocabularies 词汇01.040.01Generalities. Terminology. Standardization. Documentation (Vocabularies) 综合、术语学、标准化、文献 (词汇)01.040.03Sociology. Services. Company organization and management. Administration. Transport社会学、服务、公司(企业)的组织与管理、行政、运输 (词汇) (Vocabularies)01.040.07Mathematics. Natural sciences (Vocabularies) 数学、自然科学 (词汇)01.040.11Health care technology (Vocabularies) 医药卫生技术(词汇)01.040.13Environment and health protection. Safety (Vocabularies) 环保、保健与安全 (词汇)01.040.17Metrology and measurement. Physical phenomena (Vocabularies) 计量学和测量、物理现象 (词汇)01.040.19Testing (Vocabularies) 试验 (词汇)01.040.21Mechanical systems and components for general use (Vocabularies) 机械系统和通用件 (词汇)01.040.23Fluid systems and components for general use (Vocabularies) 流体系统和通用件 (词汇)01.040.25Manufacturing engineering (Vocabularies) 机械制造 (词汇)01.040.27Energy and heat transfer engineering (Vocabularies) 能源和热传导工程 (词汇)01.040.29Electrical engineering (Vocabularies) 电气工程 (词汇)01.040.31Electronics (Vocabularies) 电子学 (词汇)01.040.33Telecommunications. Audio and video engineering (Vocabularies) 电信、音频和视频技术 (词汇)01.040.35Information technology. Office machines (Vocabularies) 信息技术、办公机械设备 (词汇)01.040.37Image technology (Vocabularies) 成像技术 (词汇)01.040.39Precision mechanics. Jewelry (Vocabularies) 精密机械、珠宝 (词汇)01.040.43Road vehicle engineering (Vocabularies) 道路车辆工程 (词汇)01.040.45Railway engineering (Vocabularies) 铁路工程 (词汇)01.040.47Shipbuilding and marine structures (Vocabularies) 造船和海上建筑物 (词汇)01.040.49Aircraft and space vehicle engineering (Vocabularies) 航空器和航天器技术 (词汇)01.040.53Materials handling equipment (Vocabularies) 材料储运设备 (词汇)01.040.55Packaging and distribution of goods (Vocabularies) 货物的包装和调运 (词汇)01.040.59Textile and leather technology (Vocabularies) 纺织和皮革技术 (词汇)01.040.61Clothing industry (Vocabularies) 服装工业 (词汇)01.040.65Agriculture (Vocabularies) 农业 (词汇)01.040.67Food technology (Vocabularies) 食品技术 (词汇)01.040.71Chemical technology (Vocabularies) 化工技术 (词汇)01.040.73Mining and minerals (Vocabularies) 采矿和矿产品 (词汇)01.040.75Petroleum and related technologies (Vocabularies) 石油及有关技术 (词汇)01.040.77Metallurgy (Vocabularies) 冶金 (词汇)01.040.79Wood technology (Vocabularies) 木材加工(词汇)01.040.81Glass and ceramics industries (Vocabularies) 玻璃和陶瓷工业 (词汇)01.040.83Rubber and plastics industries (Vocabularies) 橡胶和塑料工业 (词汇)01.040.85Paper technology (Vocabularies) 造纸技术 (词汇)01.040.87Paint and colour industries (Vocabularies) 涂料和颜料工业 (词汇)01.040.91Construction materials and building (Vocabularies) 建筑材料和建筑物 (词汇)01.040.93Civil engineering (Vocabularies) 土木工程 (词汇)01.040.95Military engineering (Vocabularies) 军事工程 (词汇)01.040.97Domestic and commercial equipment. Entertainment. Sport (Vocabularies) 家用和商用设备、体育、文娱 (词汇) 01.060Quantities and units 量和单位01.070Colour coding 颜色编码01.075Character symbols 字符符号01.080Graphical symbols 图形符号01.080.01Graphical symbols in general 图形符号综合01.080.10Public information symbols 公共信息符号01.080.20Graphical symbols for use on specific equipment 专用设备用图形符号01.080.30Graphical symbols for use on mechanical engineering and construction drawings,diagrams, plans, maps and in relevant technical product documentation机械工程和建筑制图、图表、设计图、地图和相关的技术产品文件用图形符号01.080.40Graphical symbols for use on electrical and electronics engineering drawings, diagrams,charts and in relevant technical product documentation01.080.50Graphical symbols for use on information technology and telecommunications technicaldrawings and in relevant technical product documentation 电气工程和电子工程制图、示意图、图表和相关技术产品文件用图形符号信息技术和电信技术制图与相关技术产品文件用图形符号01.080.99Other graphical symbols 其他图形符号01.100Technical drawings 技术制图01.100.01Technical drawings in general 技术制图综合01.100.20Mechanical engineering drawings 机械工程制图01.100.25Electrical and electronics engineering drawings 电气和电子工程制图01.100.27Technical drawings for telecommunications and information technology fields 信息技术和电信领域用技术制图01.100.30Construction drawings 工程建设制图01.100.40Drawing equipment 制图设备01.100.99Other standards related to technical drawings 其他制图标准01.110Technical product documentation 技术产品文件01.120Standardization. General rules 标准化总则01.140Information sciences. Publishing 信息学、出版01.140.10Writing and transliteration 文字字体与文字转写01.140.20Information sciences 信息学01.140.30Documents in administration, commerce and industry 行政管理、商业和工业文件01.140.40Publishing 出版03 SOCIOLOGY. SERVICES. COMPANY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT.ADMINISTRATION. TRANSPORT社会学、服务、公司(企业)的组织和管理、行政、运输03.020Sociology. Demography 社会学、人口统计学03.040Labour. Employment 劳动、就业03.060Finances. Banking. Monetary systems. Insurance 金融、银行、货币体系、保险03.080Services 服务03.080.01Services in general 服务综合03.080.10Industrial services 工业服务03.080.20Services for companies 公司(企业)的服务03.080.30Services for consumers 消费者服务03.080.99Other services 其他服务03.100Company organization and management 公司(企业)的组织与管理03.100.01Company organization and management in general 公司(企业)的组织与管理综合03.100.10Purchasing. Procurement. Management of stock 订购、收购、仓库管理03.100.20Trade. Commercial function. Marketing 贸易、商业活动、市场营销03.100.30Management of human resources 劳动资源管理03.100.40Research and development 研究与开发03.100.50Production. Production management 生产、生产管理03.100.60Accountancy 会计03.100.99Other standards related to company organization and management 有关公司(企业)组织管理的其他标准03.120Quality 质量03.120.01Quality in general 质量综合03.120.10Quality management and quality assurance 质量管理和质量保证03.120.20Product and company certification. Conformity assessment 产品认证和机构认证、合格评定03.120.30Application of statistical methods 统计方法的应用03.120.99Other standards related to quality 有关质量的其他标准03.140Patents. Intellectual property 专利、知识产权03.160Law. Administration 法律、行政管理03.180Education 教育03.200Leisure. Tourism 娱乐、旅游03.220Transport 运输03.220.01Transport in general 运输综合03.220.20Road transport 道路运输03.220.30Transport by rail 铁路运输03.220.40Transport by water 水路运输03.220.50Air transport 航空运输03.220.99Other forms of transport 其他运输形式03.240Postal services 邮政服务07MATHEMATICS. NATURAL SCIENCES 数学、自然科学07.020Mathematics 数学07.030Physics. Chemistry 物理学、化学07.040Astronomy. Geodesy. Geography 天文学、大地测量学、地理学07.060Geology. Meteorology. Hydrology 地质学、气象学、水文学07.080Biology. Botany. Zoology 生物学、植物学、动物学07.100Microbiology 微生物学07.100.01Microbiology in general 微生物学综合07.100.10Medical microbiology 医学微生物学07.100.20Microbiology of water 水微生物学07.100.30Food microbiology 食品微生物学07.100.99Other standards related to microbiology 有关微生物学的其他标准11HEALTH CARE TECHNOLOGY 医药卫生技术11.020Medical Sciences and health care facilities in general 医学科学和保健装置综合11.040Medical equipment 医疗设备11.040.01Medical equipment in general 医疗设备综合11.040.10Anaesthetic, respiratory and reanimation equipment 麻醉、呼吸和复苏设备11.040.20Transfusion, infusion and injection equipment 输血、输液和注射设备11.040.30Surgical instruments and materials 外科器械和材料11.040.40Implants for surgery, prosthetics and orthotics 外科植入物、假体和矫形11.040.50Radiographic equipment 射线照相设备11.040.55Diagnostic equipment 诊断设备11.040.60Therapy equipment 治疗设备11.040.70Ophthalmic equipment 眼科设备11.040.99Other medical equipment 其他医疗设备11.060Dentistry 牙科11.060.01Dentistry in general 牙科综合11.060.10Dental materials 牙科材料11.060.20Dental equipment 牙科设备11.080Sterilization and disinfection 消毒和灭菌11.080.01Sterilization and disinfection in general 消毒和灭菌综合11.080.10Sterilizing equipment 消毒设备11.080.20Disinfectants and antiseptics 消毒剂和防腐剂11.080.30sterilized packaging 封装消毒11.080.99Other standards related to sterilization and disinfection 有关消毒和灭菌的其他标准11.100Laboratory medicine 实验室医学11.120Pharmaceutics 制药学11.120.01Pharmaceutics in general 制药学综合11.120.10Medicaments 药物11.120.20Medical materials 医用材料11.120.99Other standards related to pharmaceutics 有关制药学的其他标准11.140Hospital equipment 医院设备11.160First aid 急救11.180Aids for disabled or handicapped persons 残疾人用设备11.200Birth control. Mechanical contraceptives 人口控制、避孕器具11.220Veterinary medicine 兽医学13ENVIRONMENT. HEALTH PROTECTION. SAFETY 环保、保健与安全13.020Environmental protection 环境保护13.020.01Environment and environmental protection in general 环境和环境保护综合13.020.10Environmental management 环境管理13.020.20Environmental economics 环境经济13.020.30Environmental impact assessment 环境影响评定13.020.40Pollution, pollution control and conservation 污染、污染控制和保护13.020.50Ecolabelling 环境分类13.020.60Product life-cycles 产品寿命周期13.020.70Environmental projects 环境规划13.020.99Other standards related to environmental protection 有关环境的其他标准13.030Wastes 废物13.030.01Wastes in general 废物综合13.030.10Solid wastes 固态废物13.030.20Liquid wastes. Sludge 液态废物、污水13.030.30Special wastes 特殊废物13.030.40Installations and equipment for waste disposal and treatment 废物处置和处理设备与装置13.030.50Recycling 回收13.030.99Other standards related to wastes 有关废物的其他标准13.040Air quality 空气质量13.040.01Air quality in general 空气质量综合13.040.20Ambient atmospheres 环境空气13.040.30Workplace atmospheres 工作场所空气13.040.40Stationary source emissions 固定源排放限值13.040.50Transport exhaust emissions 移动源排放限值13.040.99Other standards related to air quality 有关空气质量的其他标准13.060Water quality 水质13.060.01Water quality in general 水质综合13.060.10Water of natural resources 天然水资源13.060.20Drinking water 饮用水13.060.25Water for industrial use 工业用水13.060.30Sewage water 污水13.060.50Examination of water for chemical substances 水的化学物质检验13.060.60Examination of physical properties of water 水的物理性质检验13.060.70Examination of biological properties of water 水的生物性质检验13.060.99Other standards related to water quality 有关水质的其他标准13.080Soil quality. Pedology 土质、土壤学13.080.01Soil quality and pedology in general 土质和土壤学综合13.080.10Chemical characteristics of soils 土壤的化学特性13.080.20Physical properties of soils 土壤的物理性质13.080.30Biological properties of soils 土壤的生物性质13.080.40Hydrological properties of soils 土壤的水文性质13.080.99Other standards related to soils quality 有关土质的其他标准13.100Occupational safety. Industrial hygiene 职业安全、工业卫生13.110Safety of machinery 机械安全13.120Domestic safety 家用品安全13.140Noise with respect to human beings 噪声(与人有关的)13.160Vibration and shock with respect to human beings 振动和冲击(与人有关的)13.180Ergonomics 人类工效学13.200Accident and disaster control 事故和灾害控制13.220Protection against fire 消防13.220.01Protection against fire in general 消防综合13.220.10Fire-fighting 灭火13.220.20Fire-protection 防火13.220.40Ignitability and burning behaviour of materials and products 材料和制品的阻燃性和燃烧性能13.220.50Fire-resistance of building materials and elements 建筑材料和构件的阻燃性13.220.99Other standards related to protection against fire 有关消防的其他标准13.230Explosion protection 防爆13.240Protection against excessive pressure 超压防护13.260Protection against electric shock 电击防护13.280Radiation protection 辐射防护13.300Protection against dangerous goods 危险品防护13.310Protection against crime 犯罪行为防范13.320Alarm and warning systems 预警和报警系统13.340Protective equipment 防护设备13.340.01Protective equipment in general 防护设备综合13.340.10Protective clothing 防护服装13.340.20Head protective equipment 头部防护设备13.340.30Respiratory protective devices 呼吸保护装置13.340.40Protective gloves 防护手套13.340.50Protective footwear 防护鞋袜13.340.99Other protective equipment 其他防护设备17METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT. PHYSICAL PHENOMENA 计量学和测量、物理现象17.020Metrology and measurement in general 计量学和测量综合17.040Linear and angular measurements 长度和角度测量17.040.01Linear and angular measurements in general 长度和角度测量综合17.040.10Limits and fits 公差与配合17.040.20Properties of surfaces 表面特征17.040.30Measuring instruments 测量仪器仪表17.040.99Other standards related to linear and angular measurements 有关长度和角度测量的其他标准17.060Measurement of volume, mass, density, viscosity 体积、质量、密度和粘度的测量17.080Measurement of time, velocity, acceleration, angular velocity 时间、速度、加速度、角速度的测量17.100Measurement of force, weight and pressure 力、重力和压力的测量17.120Measurement of fluid flow 流体流量的测量17.120.01Measurement of fluid flow in general 流体流量的测量综合17.120.10Flow in closed conduits 封闭管道中流量的测量17.120.20Flow in open channels 明渠中流量的测量17.140Acoustics and acoustic measurements 声学和声学测量17.140.01Acoustics measurements and noise abatement in general 声学测量和噪声抑制综合17.140.20Noise emitted by machines and equipment 机器和设备的噪声17.140.30Noise emitted by means of transport 运输工具的噪声17.140.50Electroacoustics 电声学17.140.99Other standards related to acoustics 有关声学的其他标准17.160Vibrations, shock and vibration measurements 振动、冲击和振动测量17.180Optics and optical measurements 光学和光学测量17.180.01Optics and optical measurements in general 光学和光学测量综合17.180.20Colours and measurement of light 颜色和光的测量17.180.30Optical measuring instruments 光学测量仪器17.180.99Other standards related to optics and optical measurements 有关光学和光学测量的其他标准17.200Thermodynamics and temperature measurements 热力学和温度测量17.200.01Thermodynamics in general 热力学综合17.200.10Heat. Calorimetry 热、量热学17.200.20Temperature-measuring instruments 温度测量仪器仪表17.200.99Other standards related to thermodynamics 有关热力学的其他标准17.220Electricity. Magnetism. Electrical and magnetic measurements 电学、磁学、电和磁的测量17.220.01Electricity. Magnetism. General aspects 电学、磁学一般特性17.220.20Measurement of electrical and magnetic quantities 电和磁量值的测量17.220.99Other standards related to electricity and magnetism 有关电学和磁学的其他标准17.240Radiation measurements 辐射测量19TESTING 试验19.020Test conditions and procedures in general 试验条件和规程综合19.040Environmental testing 环境试验19.060Mechanical testing 机械试验19.080Electrical and electronic testing 电工和电子试验19.100Non-destructive testing 无损检测19.120Particle size analysis. sieving 粒度分析、筛分21MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS FOR GENERAL USE 机械系统和通用件21.020Characteristics and design of machines, apparatus, equipment 机器、装置、设备的特性和设计21.040Screw threads 螺纹21.040.01Screw threads in general 螺纹综合21.040.10Metric screw threads 米制螺纹21.040.20Inch screw threads 英制螺纹21.040.30Special screw threads 特殊螺纹21.060Fasteners 紧固件21.060.01Fasteners in general 紧固件综合21.060.10Bolts, screws, studs 螺栓、螺钉、螺柱21.060.20Nuts 螺母21.060.30Washers, locking elements 垫圈、锁紧件21.060.40Rivets 铆钉21.060.50Pins, nails 销、钉21.060.60Rings, bushes, sleeves, collars 环、套管、管接头、承插21.060.70Clamps and staples 卡箍和U形环21.060.99Other fasteners 其他紧固件21.080Hinges, eyelets and other articulated joints 铰链、孔眼和其他关节连接件21.100Bearings 轴承21.100.01Bearings in general 轴承综合21.100.10Plain bearings 滑动轴承21.100.20Rolling bearings 滚动轴承21.120Shafts and couplings 轴和联轴器21.120.01Shafts and couplings in general 轴和联轴器综合21.120.10Shafts 轴21.120.20Couplings 联轴器、离合器、磨擦器21.120.30Keys and keyways, splines 键和键槽、花键21.120.40Balancing and balancing machines 平衡和平衡机21.120.99Other standards related to shafts and couplings 有关轴和联轴器的其他标准21.140Seals, glands 密封件、密封装置21.160Springs 弹簧21.180Housings, enclosures, other machine parts 机箱、外壳、其他机械部件21.200Gears 齿轮及齿轮传动21.220Flexible drives and transmissions 挠性传动和传送21.220.01Flexible drives and transmissions in general 挠性传动和传送综合21.220.10Belt drives and their components 带传动及其零件21.220.20Cable or rope drives and their components 缆索或绳索传动及其零件21.220.30Chain drives and their components 链传动及其零件21.220.99Other flexible drives and transmissions 其它挠性传动和传送21.240Rotary-reciprocating mechanisms and their parts 旋转-往复式机构及其部件21.260Lubrication systems 润滑系统23FLUID SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS FOR GENERAL USE 流体系统和通用件23.020Fluid storage devices 流体存储装置23.020.01Fluid storage devices in general 流体存储装置综合23.020.10Stationary containers and tanks 固定容器和罐23.020.20Vessels and containers mounted on vehicles 车载槽罐和容器23.020.30Pressure vessels, gas cylinders 压力容器、气瓶23.020.40Cryogenic vessels 低温容器23.020.99Other fluid storage devices 其他流体存储装置23.040Pipeline components and pipelines 管道部件和管道23.040.01Pipeline components and pipelines in general 管道部件和管道综合23.040.10Iron and steel pipes 铁管和钢管23.040.15Non-ferrous metal pipes 有色金属管23.040.20Plastics pipes 塑料管23.040.40Metal fittings 金属配件23.040.45Plastics fittings 塑料配件23.040.50Pipes and fittings of other materials 其他材料的管和配件23.040.60Flanges, couplings and joints 法兰、管接头及其连接件23.040.70Hoses and hose assemblies 软管和软管组件23.040.80Seals for pipe and hose assemblies 管和软管组件的密封23.040.99Other pipeline components 其他管道部件23.060Valves 阀门23.060.01Valves in general 阀门综合23.060.10Globe valves 球阀23.060.20Ball and plug valves 球闸阀和旋塞阀23.060.30Gate valves 闸阀23.060.40Pressure regulators 压力调节器23.060.50Check valves 止回阀23.060.99Other valves 其他阀门23.080Pumps 泵23.100Fluid power systems 流体动力系统23.100.01Fluid power systems in general 流体动力系统综合23.100.10Pumps and motors 泵和马达23.100.20Cylinders 缸23.100.40Piping and couplings 管道和管接头23.100.50Control components 控制部件23.100.60Filters, seals and contamination of fluids 过滤器、密封垫和流体杂质23.100.99Other fluid power system components 其他流体系统部件23.120Ventilators. Fans. Air-conditioners 通风机、风扇、空调器23.140Compressors and pneumatic machines 压缩机和气动机械23.160Vacuum technology 真空技术25MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING 机械制造25.020Manufacturing forming processes 制造成型过程25.040Industrial automation systems 工业自动化系统25.040.01Industrial automation systems in general 工业自动化系统综合25.040.10Machining centres 机械加工中心25.040.20Numerically controlled machines 数控机床25.040.30Industrial robots. Manipulators 工业机器人、机械手25.040.40Industrial process measurement and control 工业过程的测量与控制25.040.99Other industrial automation systems 其他工业自动化系统25.060Machine tool systems 机床装置25.060.01Machine tool systems in general 机床装置综合25.060.10Modular units and other devices 组合单元和其他装置25.060.20Dividing and tool-workpiece holding devices 分度和刀具/工件夹持装置25.060.99Other machine tool systems 其他机床装置25.080Machine tools 机床25.080.01Machine tools in general 机床综合25.080.10Lathes 车床25.080.20Boring and milling machines 镗床和铣床25.080.25Planing machines 刨床25.080.30Broaching machines 拉床25.080.40Drilling machines 钻床25.080.50Grinding and polishing machines 磨床和抛光机25.080.60Sawing machines 锯床25.080.99Other machine tools 其他机床25.100Cutting tools 切削工具25.100.01Cutting tools in general 切削工具综合25.100.10Turning tools 车刀25.100.20Milling tools 铣刀25.100.25Tools for planing and broaching machines 刨床、拉床用刀具25.100.30Drills, countersinks, reamers 钻头、锪钻、铰刀25.100.40Saws 锯25.100.50Taps and threading dies 丝锥和板牙25.100.60Files 锉刀25.100.70Abrasives 磨料磨具25.100.99Other cutting tools 其他切削刀具25.120Chipless working equipment 无屑加工设备25.120.01Chipless working equipment in general 无屑加工设备综合25.120.10Forging equipment. Presses. Shears 锻压设备、冲压机、剪切机25.120.20Rolling, extruding and drawing equipment 轧制、挤压和拉制设备25.120.30Moulding equipment 模制设备和铸造设备25.120.40Electrochemical machines 电化学加工机床25.120.99Other chipless working equipment 其他无屑加工设备25.140Hand-held tools 手持工具25.140.01Hand-held tools in general 手持工具综合25.140.10Pneumatic tools 气动工具25.140.20Electric tools 电动工具25.140.30Hand-operated tools 手动工具25.140.99Other hand-held tools 其他手持工具25.160Welding, brazing and soldering 焊接、钎焊和低温焊25.160.01Welding, brazing and soldering in general 焊接、钎焊和低温焊综合25.160.10Welding processes 焊接工艺25.160.20Welding consumables 焊接消耗品25.160.30Welding equipment 焊接设备25.160.40Welded joints 焊接接头25.160.50Brazing and soldering 钎焊和低温焊25.180Industrial furnaces 工业炉25.180.01Industrial furnaces in general 工业炉综合25.180.10Electric furnaces 电炉25.180.20Fuel furnaces 燃油炉25.200Heat treatment and coating 热处理25.220Surface treatment and coating 表面处理和涂覆25.220.01Surface treatment and coating in general 表面处理和涂覆综合25.220.10Surface preparation 表面预处理25.220.20Surface treatment 表面处理25.220.40Metallic coatings 金属镀层25.220.50Enamels 搪瓷25.220.60Organic coatings 有机涂层25.220.99Other treatments and coatings 其他处理和涂覆27ENERGY AND HEAT TRANSFER ENGINEERING 能源和热传导工程27.010Energy and heat transfer engineering in general 能源和热传导工程综合27.020Internal combustion engines 内燃机27.040Gas and steam turbines, Steam engines 燃气和蒸汽轮机、蒸汽机27.060Burners. Boilers 燃烧器、锅炉27.060.01Burners and Boilers in general 燃烧器、锅炉综合27.060.10Liquid and solid fuel burners 液体和固体燃料燃烧器27.060.20Gas fuel burners 气体燃料燃烧器27.060.30Boilers and heat exchangers 锅炉和热交换器27.070Fuel cells 燃料电池27.080Heat pumps 热泵27.100Power stations in general 电站综合27.120Nuclear energy engineering 核能工程27.120.01Nuclear energy in general 核能综合27.120.10Reactor engineering 反应堆工程27.120.20Nuclear power plants. Safety 核电站、安全27.120.30Fissile materials 裂变物质27.120.99Other standards related to nuclear energy 有关核能的其他标准27.140Hydraulic energy engineering 水力工程27.160Solar energy engineering 太阳能工程27.180Wind turbine systems and other alternative sources of energy 风力发电系统和其他能源27.200Refrigerating technology 制冷技术27.220Heat recovery. Thermal insulation 热回收、绝热29ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 电气工程29.020Electrical engineering in general 电气工程综合29.030Magnetic materials 磁性材料29.035Insulating materials 绝缘材料29.035.01Insulating materials in general 绝缘材料综合29.035.10Paper and board insulating materials 纸和纸板绝缘材料29.035.20Plastics and rubber insulating materials 塑料和橡胶绝缘材料29.035.30Ceramic and glass insulating materials 陶瓷和玻璃绝缘材料29.035.50Mica based materials 云母基材料29.035.60Varnished fabrics 涂层织物29.035.99Other insulating materials 其他绝缘材料29.040Insulating fluids 绝缘流体29.040.01Insulating fluids in general 绝缘流体综合29.040.10Insulating oils 绝缘油29.040.20Insulating gases 绝缘气体29.040.99Other insulating fluids 其他绝缘流体29.045Semiconducting materials 半导体材料29.050Conducting materials 导体材料29.060Electrical wires and cables 电线和电缆29.060.01Electrical wires and cables in general 电线和电缆综合29.060.10Wires 电线29.060.20Cables 电缆29.080Insulation 绝缘29.080.01Electrical insulation in general 电绝缘综合29.080.10Insulators 绝缘子29.080.20Bushings 套管29.080.30Insulation systems 绝缘系统29.080.99Other standards related to insulation 有关绝缘的其他标准29.100Components for electrical equipment 电工设备元件29.100.01Components for electrical equipment in general 电工设备元件综合29.100.10Magnetic components 磁性元件29.100.20Electrical and electromechanical components 电工和机电元件29.100.99Other components for electrical equipment 电工设备用其他元件29.120Electrical accessories 电工器件29.120.01Electrical accessories in general 电工器件综合29.120.10Conduits for electrical purposes 导线管29.120.20Connecting devices 连接装置29.120.30Plugs, socket-outlets, couplers 插头、插座、联接器29.120.40Switches 开关29.120.50Fuses and other overcurrent protection devices 熔断器和其他过载保护装置29.120.70Relays 继电器29.120.99Other electrical accessories 其他电工器件29.130.01Switchgear and controlgear in general 开关装置和控制器综合29.130.10High voltage switchgear and controlgear 高压开关装置和控制器29.130.20Low voltage switchgear and controlgear 低压开关装置和控制器29.130.99Other switchgear and controlgear 其他开关装置和控制器29.140Lamps and related equipment 电灯及有关装置29.140.01Lamps in general 电灯综合29.140.10Lamp caps and holders 灯头和灯座29.140.20Incandescent lamps 白炽灯29.140.30Fluorescent lamps. Discharge lamps 荧光灯、放电灯29.140.40Luminaires 照明设备29.140.50Lighting installation systems 照明安装系统29.140.99Other standards related to lamps 有关灯的其他标准29.160Rotating machinery 旋转电机29.160.01Rotating machinery in general 旋转电机综合29.160.10Components for rotating machines 旋转电机部件29.160.20Generators 发电机29.160.30Motors 电动机29.160.40Generating sets 发电机组29.160.99Other standards related to rotating machinery 有关旋转电机的其他标准29.180Transformers. Reactors 变压器、电抗器29.200Rectifiers. Convertors. Stabilized power supply 整流器、转换器、稳压电源29.220Galvanic cells and batteries 电池和蓄电池29.220.01Galvanic cells and batteries in general 电池和蓄电池综合29.220.10Primary cells and batteries 原电池和蓄电池29.220.20Acid secondary cells and batteries 酸性副电池及蓄电池29.220.30Alkaline secondary cells and batteries 碱性副电池及蓄电池29.220.99Other cells and batteries 其他电池和蓄电池29.240Power transmission and distribution networks 输电网和配电网29.240.01Power transmission and distribution networks in general 输电网和配电网综合29.240.10Substations. Surge arresters 变电站、电涌放电器29.240.20Power transmission and distribution lines 输电线路和配电线路29.240.30Control equipment for electric power systems 电力系统用控制设备29.240.99Other equipment related to power transmission and distribution networks 其他有关输电网和配电网的设备29.260Electrical equipments for working in special conditions 特殊工作条件用电气设备29.260.01Electrical equipments for working in special conditions in general 特殊工作条件用电气设备综合29.260.10Electrical installations for outdoor use 户外用电气设备29.260.20Electrical apparatus for explosive atmospheres 易爆环境用电气设备29.260.99Other electrical equipment for working in special conditions 特殊工作条件用其他电气设备29.280Electric traction equipment 电力牵引设备31ELECTRONICS 电子学31.020Electronic components in general 电子元件综合31.040Resistors 电阻器31.040.01Resistors in general 电阻器综合31.040.10Fixed resistors 固定电阻器31.040.20Protentiometer, variable resistors 电位器、可变电阻器31.040.30Thermistors 热敏电阻器31.040.99Other resistors 其他电阻器31.060Capacitors 电容器31.060.01Capacitors in general 电容器综合31.060.10Fixed capacitors 固定电容器31.060.20Ceramic and mica capacitors 陶瓷电容器和云母电容器31.060.30Paper and plastics capacitors 纸介电容器和塑料膜电容器31.060.40Tantalum electrolytic capacitors 钽电解电容器31.060.50Aluminium electrolytic capacitors 铝电解电容器31.060.60Variable capacitors 可变电容器31.060.70Power capacitors 电力电容器31.060.99Other capacitors 其他电容器31.080Semiconductor devices 半导体器件31.080.01Semiconductor devices in general 半导体器件综合31.080.10Diodes 二极管31.080.20Thyristors 晶体闸流管31.080.30Transistors 三极管31.080.99Other semiconductor devices 其他半导体器件31.100Electronic tubes 电子管31.120Electronic display devices 电子显示器件31.140Piezoelectric and dielectric devices 压电器件和介质器件31.160Electric filters 滤波器31.180Printed circuits and boards 印制电路和印制电路板31.190Electric component assemblies 电子器件组件31.200Integrated circuits. Microelectronics 集成电路、微电子学31.220Electromechanical components for electronic and telecommunications equipment 电子电信设备用机电零部件31.220.01Electromechanical components in general 机电零部件综合31.220.10Plug-and-socket devices. Connectors 插头和插座装置、连接器31.220.20Switches 开关31.220.99Other electromechanical components 其他机电零部件31.240Mechanical structures for electronic equipment 电子设备用机械构件31.260Optoelectronics. Laser equipment 光电子学、激光设备33TELECOMMUNICATIONS. AUDIO AND VIDEO ENGINEERING 电信、音频和视频技术33.020Telecommunications in general 电信综合33.030Telecommunication services. Applications 电信业务、应用33.040Telecommunication systems 电信系统33.040.01Telecommunication systems in general 电信系统综合33.040.20Transmission systems 传输系统33.040.30Switching and signalling systems 交换和信令系统33.040.35Telephone networks 电话网络33.040.40Data communication networks 数据通信网络33.040.50Lines, connections and circuits 线路、连接和电路33.040.99Other equipment for telecommunication systems 其他电话、电报和电信系统用设备33.050Telecommunication terminal equipment 电信终端设备33.050.01Telecommunication terminal equipment in general 电信终端设备综合33.050.10Telephone equipment 电话设备33.050.20Paging equipment 寻呼设备33.050.30Equipment for telex, teletext, telefax 用户电报、可视图文、传真设备33.050.99Other telecommunication terminal equipment 其他电信终端设备33.060Radiocommunications 无线通信33.060.01Radiocommunications in general 无线通信综合33.060.20Receiving and transmitting equipment 接收和发射设备33.060.30Radio relay and fixed satellite communications systems 无线中继和固定卫星通信系统33.060.40Cabled distribution systems 电缆分配系统33.060.60Mobile services, Terrestrial Trunked Radio(TETRA) 移动业务、地面无线中继线路33.060.65Mobile services, paging systems 移动业务、寻呼系统33.060.70Mobile services, Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications(DECT) 移动业务、数字增强无绳电信系统(DECT) 33.060.75Mobile services, Satellite 移动业务、卫星33.060.80Mobile servies, Global System for Mobile Communication(GSM) 移动业务、移动通信用全球系统(GSM) 33.060.99Other equipment for radiocommunications 其他无线通信设备33.080Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN) 综合业务数字网(ISDN)33.100Electromagnetic compatibility(EMC) 电磁兼容性(EMC)33.100.01Electromagnetic compatibility in general 电磁兼容性综合。
如何平衡经济与环境的关系,英语作文
如何平衡经济与环境的关系,英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1How to Balance the Economy and the EnvironmentWe live on a beautiful planet called Earth. It has gorgeous forests, towering mountains, and shimmering oceans. Unfortunately, human activities like manufacturing, transportation, and electricity production can pollute the air, water, and land. This pollution harms plants, animals, and people's health. At the same time, our economy relies on many of those same activities to create jobs and make money. So how can we protect the environment while still having a strong economy? It's a tricky balance, but I think it's possible if we're smart about it.First, we need to develop cleaner technologies. Instead of burning dirty fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, we should use more renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. These create little to no pollution. Scientists are also working on better electric car batteries, energy-efficient buildings, and manufacturing processes that don't release asmany chemicals. Governments can help by giving tax breaks to companies that use green tech and punishing polluters through fines or fees.We also must reduce waste by reusing, recycling, and composting. Throwing things in the landfill after one use is so wasteful! My family takes our plastic, glass, metal, and paper to the recycling center. We also compost our fruit and veggie scraps which turns them into nutrient-rich soil instead of rotting in a landfill and releasing methane, a potent greenhouse gas. At school, we have recycling bins and do litter clean-ups. I wish more places offered recycling and composting services to cut down on all that garbage.Protecting habitats and ecosystems is crucial too. Animals like whales, tigers, elephants, and gorillas are going extinct because we're destroying their homes by cutting down forests, draining wetlands, overfishing, and polluting. We need to create more parks, wildlife refuges, and marine protected areas where these creatures can thrive safely. I love going hiking, camping, and bird watching with my parents and hope those outdoor spots stay pristine.Individuals can do a lot through our daily choices. We can save electricity by turning off lights, unplugging devices we'renot using, and adjusting our thermostats. We can drive less by walking, biking, taking public transit, or carpooling. When we do drive, we shouldn't idle the engine unnecessarily. We can eat less meat since cattle farming produces methane and requires lots of land and water. When grocery shopping, we can buy local and organic produce with less packaging. We can donate used toys, clothes and furniture instead of tossing them. Taking shorter showers and fixing leaks prevents wasted water too. Small actions add up!Businesses have a big role as well. Instead of chasingshort-term profits at the expense of the planet, they need to operate sustainably. This could mean switching to renewable energy, using recycled materials, implementing better waste management, offering eco-friendly products, and employing sustainable manufacturing practices. It's not just good for the environment, it also saves money through energy efficiency and reduced waste disposal costs in the long run.While going green does require upfront investments in cleaner technologies and processes, it pays off tremendously. We get a healthier population from reduced pollution, safeguarded ecosystems teeming with biodiversity, and a secure future with stable climate and reliable resources. Developingrenewable energy sources also creates millions of new green jobs in fields like solar panel installation, wind turbine maintenance, and environmental engineering. And of course, having clean air, water, and landscapes is wonderful for outdoor recreation and tourism too. So many communities depend on pristine natural areas for their economies.Ultimately, we all share this one planet, so we must cooperate globally to protect it while upholding prosperous economies. Countries should collaborate on developing and sharing green technologies. We need international treaties and organizations to tackle issues like climate change, overfishing, and habitat loss that affect the entire world. Indigenous communities with deep ties to their lands can provide valuable wisdom on environmental stewardship. And young people like me must keep voicing our passion for a sustainable future.In my lifetime, I hope we can strike that ideal balance between economic opportunity and environmental preservation. We shouldn't have to choose between good jobs and a healthy planet - we can absolutely have both through smart policies, corporate responsibility, sustainable individual behavior, and global cooperation. Earth is an amazing place, and it's up to all of us to be responsible caretakers of our one and only home.篇2How to Balance the Economy and the EnvironmentOur planet Earth is amazing! It has huge forests, tall mountains, wide oceans, and so many different kinds of animals. But recently, the Earth hasn't been doing so well. Pollution, climate change, and habitat loss are hurting the environment in many ways. At the same time, we need a strong economy so people can have jobs, food, homes, and other important things. Balancing the economy and the environment is a big challenge, but it's really important for everyone to try!One of the main problems is that a lot of economic activities like manufacturing, transportation, and energy production cause pollution and damage the environment. Factories release chemicals and smoke into the air, cars and trucks create exhaust fumes, and burning coal for electricity produces greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. If we're not careful, we end up with dirty air, contaminated water, destroyed forests and natural areas, and declining numbers of animals and plants.But we also can't just stop all economic activities because then people wouldn't have jobs, income, or many of the products and services we need and enjoy. So we have to findways for the economy to keep growing and creating jobs and goods, but in a way that protects the environment from too much harm.Renewable Energy is ImportantOne thing that can really help is using more renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power instead of burning fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal. Those fossil fuels create a lot of pollution and greenhouse gases when they are burned. But renewable energy is cleaner and doesn't damage the environment nearly as much. Building more solar panel farms, wind turbines, and dams can create lots of new jobs too!Recycling and Reducing WasteAnother important step is for everyone to recycle as much as possible and cut down on waste. When we throw things away like plastic bottles, cans, paper, and food scraps, they end up in landfills or the ocean which is really bad for nature. But if we recycle those same items, the materials can be reused to make new things instead of having to constantly use new raw materials from the earth.We should also try to reduce how much stuff we use and waste in the first place. Things like bringing reusable bags to thegrocery store instead of using new plastic bags every time, using refillable water bottles rather than disposable ones, and buying quality items that will last a long time instead of cheap stuff that has to be replaced often.Sustainable Farming and LoggingThe way we grow food and harvest wood is also really important for protecting the environment. Huge industrial farms that use a lot of chemical pesticides and fertilizers can pollute the soil and water. And clearing huge areas of forests for timber or to create new farmland destroys the homes of countless animals and plants.A better approach is sustainable farming and logging practices that avoid harsh chemicals, prevent soil erosion, protect water sources, and preserve areas of forests and habitats. This could mean using organic farming methods, rotating crops, and planting trees to replace those that are cut down.Carbon Taxes and Clean TechnologyGovernments can help balance the economy and environment by creating rules and incentives that push businesses to be more environmentally friendly. One example is a carbon tax that charges companies money based on how muchgreenhouse gas pollution they create. This encourages them to use cleaner energy and production processes to avoid paying more taxes.The government can also offer grants, loans, and tax credits to companies that develop and use clean technologies that are better for the environment. This helps fund important research into things like renewable energy, electric vehicles, biodegradable plastics, and many other eco-friendly innovations.Personal Choices MatterOf course, protecting the environment isn't just about what businesses or the government does - regular people and families play a big role too! We can make lots of little choices each day that together add up to make a real difference.Using less electricity by turning off lights and unplugging devices, taking shorter showers to save water, walking or biking short distances instead of driving, and eating more vegetables and less meat can all help reduce our negative impact on the planet. Even simple things like picking up litter or planting a tree make the world a bit greener!We're All in This TogetherAt the end of the day, the economy and environment affect every single person on Earth. We depend on economic activities for jobs, products, transportation, energy, and so many parts of our modern lives. But those same activities too often harm the natural world through pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change. We need to find smart ways for economies to grow while being sustainable and respecting the environment we live in.It won't be easy and it will take cooperation between governments, businesses, organizations, communities, and individuals. But we're all part of this planet together, humans and nature. If we work hard to balance progress and conservation, develop greener technologies, and make eco-friendly choices, I'm confident we can ensure a healthy environment and thriving economy now and for future generations. Our amazing planet deserves for us to take good care of it!篇3How to Take Care of Our Earth and Our EconomyOur beautiful planet Earth is truly amazing! It has gorgeous blue oceans, towering green mountains, and forests filled with all kinds of cool animals. But our Earth is also facing some bigproblems because of how humans have been treating it. We need to find a way to keep growing our economy and creating jobs while also protecting the environment. It's a huge challenge, but I think if we work together, we can do it!One of the main issues is pollution from factories, power plants, cars, and trucks that burn fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal. This releases gases like carbon dioxide into the air, which is causing temperatures to rise and changing the Earth's climate. The warming temperatures are melting ice caps and glaciers, raising sea levels, and causing more extreme weather like hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires.Pollution is also harming forests, rivers, lakes, and oceans, which provide homes for amazing creatures like whales, polar bears, tigers, and elephants. Many animals are losing their habitats and going extinct because of deforestation, overfishing, mining, and other human activities that damage the environment.So what can we do to have a strong economy that creates lots of good jobs while also keeping our air, water, and land clean and protecting wildlife? It won't be easy, but here are some ideas that I think could help:First, we need to develop new clean energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and nuclear power that don't pollute as much as burning fossil fuels. If businesses and homes use more renewable energy, it will reduce greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. Scientists and engineers should keep working hard on inventing better technologies for capturing carbon from factories and power plants too.We also have to get better at conserving resources like water, forests, and minerals through recycling, efficient packaging, and sustainable farming and mining practices. Governments can provide tax breaks for companies that use less plastic and adopt eco-friendly manufacturing. And we should crack down harder on illegal activities like overfishing and poaching of endangered species.At home, families can help by using less electricity and gasoline, eating less meat, buying local produce, and recycling as much as possible. Walking, biking, or taking public transportation instead of driving helps too. Every little bit makes a difference!Cities should invest in better public transit systems and create more pedestrian zones and bike lanes to cut down on pollution from cars. Trees and green spaces can be planted inurban areas to absorb carbon dioxide and provide habitats for birds and small animals. Green roofs and rooftop gardens are cool features some cities are adding to reduce energy used for heating and cooling.In rural areas, we need to protect forests from being cut down for logging, mining, or cattle farming. Native communities are great stewards of the land and have traditional knowledge about sustainability that we should learn from. More national parks and wildlife reserves should be established as protected areas for endangered species.At school, we can start environmental clubs to pick up litter, organize recycling drives, and plant trees and gardens on campus. Classes can take field trips to learn about nature, farms, and sustainable businesses. With a little creativity, school cafeterias could cut down on food waste and single-use plastics too.I know these changes won't be easy, and a lot of people are worried it could hurt businesses and cost jobs. But we absolutely have to make protecting the environment a top priority if we want to keep our planet healthy for kids today and future generations. With hard work and smart policies from our leaders, I'm confident we can figure out ways for our economy to keepgrowing through sustainable development that doesn't wreck the Earth.The potential consequences of climate change are really scary - rising sea levels that flood coastal cities, fresh water shortages, failed crops leading to famines, mass extinctions of animals and plants, and more ferocious storms like hurricanes and tornadoes. But we have the ability to prevent a lot of this damage by taking action right now.Developing technologies for capturing carbon, shifting to renewable power, cleaning up pollution, saving habitats, and reducing waste will create a ton of new "green jobs" in exciting fields like solar and wind energy, sustainable construction, environmental consulting, conservation work, and more. Getting trained for those careers could provide employment for millions of people around the world.Transitioning to an economy focused on sustainability won't just help the environment - it will also create lots of opportunities for businesses to develop new products and services that are environmentally-friendly. Companies that lead the way in green tech and eco-friendly practices will be very successful. So protecting nature can actually boost economic growth in the long run, rather than holding it back.Kids like me are going to be dealing with environmental problems like climate change even more as we get older. So we have to persuade grown-ups that major changes are absolutely crucial right now, even though they will be difficult and expensive at first. With smart planning and action today, we can have a healthy planet and a healthy economy for generations to come.The future of the world is quite literally in our hands. Let's work together to build an economy that values sustainability and preserves the wondrous natural resources of our one-and-only planet Earth. I want my grandkids and great-grandkids to be able to enjoy all the amazing animals, plants, and natural environments that I'm lucky enough to experience today. Let's get to work!。
基于PEST模型的华为全球化市场环境分析
1全球通信产业现状分析经济全球化背景下，世界各生产要素及企业间竞争日趋激烈，企业生存发展必须拓展国际市场，华为这样的电信制造企业更是如此，面对竞争日趋激烈的国际、国内市场及同类企业的激烈竞争，华为更需要精确自身定位与现状，明确自身发展的优劣势，不断调整策略，不断地培养和挖掘自身全球竞争力，才能在全球市场上获得长足发展。
1.1我国通信产业发展现状国家层面，我国对通信产业发展始终持鼓励和支持态度，推行一系列互联网国家政策，提升互联网相关产业的竞争力，为通信技术产业提供了更加广阔的发展空间和更加便利的发展条件。
到去年底，我国乡村移动通讯普及率达98%以上，网络应用超4.5亿户，手机通讯规模居世界之首，上网人数已达9.04亿，占总人口的65%，并呈不断上升态势，对通信产业的覆盖与应用提出了更高要求。
同时，相关设备供应公司全球竞争地位进一步攀升，在不断发展中成功构建了全球化产业体系，创新研发能力也显著提升，以华为为代表的中国优势跨国公司正在崛起。
1.2国际通信产业发展现状据iResearch 统计，全球通信产业和电子商务交易总额到2022年将会达到27.4万亿美元。
当前，无论是七国集团还是20国集团国家，都积极出台政策鼓励各自通信企业的发展投资，支持各自公司加入行业全球化竞争。
华为主导的5G 时代来临，全球竞争力迅速上升，国际市场竞争日益加剧，加紧市场培育与拓展。
1.3华为在全球通信产业发展现状华为目前在我国甚至世界通信产业也位居前列，这得益于华为持续不断的科技创新、产品创新、制度创新，还有重要原因是华为对5G 技术的先导，具备强势竞争力，能够优先抢占国内国际市场，并且推出自主研发的“海思”芯片、“鲲鹏”系统，但同时由于国家对通信产业的大力支持，小米、vivo 、oppo 等品牌强势出击并瓜分国内市场，国内竞争加剧；国际上三星、微软、苹果等老牌通信企业巨头拥有稳定市场、领先独特的科技以及客户忠诚度。
华为在全球通信行业中机遇与挑战并存，但总体来讲机会大于挑战。
纸业专业英语词汇翻译(E)
纸业专业英语词汇翻译(E)纸业专业英语词汇翻译(E)纸业专业英语词汇翻译(E)eggshell book paper 蛋壳表面状整饰书籍用纸elastic paper 伸性（牛皮）纸elastic cable paper 电缆纸elastic cable fitting paper 电缆芯衬纸electrical paper 电气用纸electrical discharge recording paper 放电记录纸electrical insulating paper 电（气）绝缘纸electrical electro-chemical sensitive recording paper 电化学感应记录纸electrical-chemical telephotographic paper 电化学传真纸electrical-conductive paper 导电纸electrical-fax paper 直接法静电复印纸，氧化锌静电复印纸electrical-graphic paper 电谱纸electrical-photographic paper 静电复印纸electrical-photographic copy paper 电子感光复印纸electrical-photographic printing paper 电子印刷纸electrical-photographic recording paper 电子记录纸electrical-recording paper 电子记录纸electrical-sensitive paper 电敏金属纸electrical-sensitizing recording paper 电感记录纸electrical-static copying paper 静电复写纸electrical-telephotographic paper 电传真原纸electrical-thermosensitive recording paper 电热感记录纸electrolytic paper 电解纸electrolytic paper(for electroph-oresis) 电泳纸electrolytic capacitor paper 电解电容器纸electrolytic recording paper 电解记录纸embossed paper 提花纸，压印浮雕纸，压花纸blotting 压花吸墨纸blotting cover paper 压花封皮纸blotting glassine paper 提花玻璃纸blotting printing paper 压花印刷纸emery paper 钢砂纸enamel(ed) paper 铜版纸enamel book paper 涂布书籍纸enameled blotting paper 粘附在蜡光纸上的吸墨纸enameled postcard 涂布明信片卡片纸enameled end bands paper 卷简纸端都保护用纸end paper 环衬纸end leaf paper 环衬纸end leaves 环衬纸end sheet 环衬纸engish opacity paper 英国式不透明纸engraver's proving paper 凹版印刷校样纸enrober paper 糖果杯纸envelope-lining tissue 信封衬里薄纸envelope manila 马尼拉信封纸envelope paper 信封纸erasable parchment bond 可擦性仿羊皮纸esparto paper 西班牙草浆制成的纸张etching paper 雕刻用纸excelsior tissue paper 刨花纸excelsior wrapper 木丝包袭纸exercise book paper 练习本用纸expandable paper 伸性纸express fiber paper 货物包装纸express paper 货物包装纸extensible paper 伸性（牛皮）纸extra high bulk book paper 超松厚度书籍纸extras 超令纸extra strong paper 超强统extrusion coated paper 挤压涂布纸eggshell board 蛋壳纸板eleatrical board 电气用纸板eleatrical insulating board 电绝缘纸板eleatrical press board 电气绝缘压榨纸板electro-insulating board for air medium 空气介质电绝缘纸板embossed hard board 提花纤维板embossing board 提花纸板excelsior board 木丝板esparto board 西班牙草浆纸板extrusion coater 挤压式涂布机e folute e极瓦楞纸波形数（每天30厘米，96+-3个）early stage of cooking 蒸煮初期early wood 早材earth flax 石棉ease of solubility 易溶性easily hydrolyzable lindage 易水解的结合键eastern arbor-vitae(thuja occidentalis l.) 香柏，西方金钟柏eastern black walnut(juglans nigra) 黑胡桃eastern hemlock (tsuga laricina k. koch) 美国落叶松eastern red cedar (juniperus virginiana l.) 铅笔柏ebonise 假鸟木eony(wood) (diospyros ebenum) 鸟檀，鸟木ecentric growth 偏心年轮ecentric spindle 偏心轴eclipsed from 重叠形eco filter eco 白液澄清器ecology 生态学economic analysis 经济分析economic feasibility 经济合理性，经济可行性economizer 省煤器；省油器eddy 涡流eddy current 涡流edge 棱，边，边缘edge crush test 边缘压溃试验edge curl 卷边edge cutter 切边器edge doctor 边刮刀edge effect 边缘效应edge grain （木材）纵断面edge guide 纸幅校正器edge protector 边缘护体edge runner 碾磨机，碾子edge tear 边缘撕裂度edge tearing resistance 边缘撕裂强度edgewise compression strength （纸板）边缘抗压强度edgings 边材；纸边eduction pipe 排气管eductor 喷射器，引射器effective alkali 有效碱effective drying surface 有效表面；有效面积effective surface 有效表面；有效面积effervescence 泡腾；起泡（沫）effeciency 效率effeciency of drying 干燥效率effluent 废水，排出污水effluent disposal 废水处理effluent treatment 废水处理effluent treatment plant 废水处理车间effulgence 光泽egg carton 蛋品包装纸盒egg trap 蛋品包装用塑料纸板eggshell rinish 粗装饰；蛋壳状装饰eight mo octave 八开eject valve 排渣阀ejetor 喷射器ekcothern 纸板制品商业名称（供厨房用）elaborated product 加工产品elapsed time counter 越时计数器elastic calender bowl 弹性压光辊elastic fiber 弹性纤维elastic modulus 弹性模量，弹性模数elastic strength 弹性强度elasticity 弹性；弹力；弹性力学elastomer 弹性体elder(samrucus) 接骨木（属）election bristol 选票用纸electric circuit 电路electric conductor 导电体electric connector 电气接插件electric controller 电控制器electric comverter 变压器；变频器；转化器electric data processing 电力处理数据electric discharge 放电electric drive 电力驱动（装置）electric eye 光电池；电眼electric fuse 电熔丝，保险丝electric impedance 阻（电）抗，电阻electric insulation 电绝缘electric moisture meter 电力湿度计electric motor 电动机electric plate precipitator 电板除尘器electric power 电力；电功率electric power distribution 电力分布electric relay 继电器electric resistance 电阻electric saw 电锯electric utility 电气设施electric valve 电动阀门electrical conductivity 电导率electrical double layer 双电层electrical dust precipitation chamber 电气除尘室electrical dust precipitator 电沉降净化器electrical engineering 电工学electrical fiber 电绝缘纤维electrical precipitator 静电除尘器electrical presspahn 电气用纸板electrical properties 电性质electrical repair shop 电气修理工段electrical resistivity 电阻率electrode 电极electrodialysis 电渗析electrofax 电子传真复印；电子传真复印纸eletrograph 电记录器；电版机；电传照像图electrokinetic potential 电动势，动电势electrolysis 电解electrolyte 电解质；电离质；电解液electrolytic cell 电解（电）池electrolytic dissociation 电离（作用）electrolytic printing 电解印刷electromagnetic field 电磁场electron diffraction 电子衍射electronic consistency regulator 电子浓度调节器electronic control 电子控制electronic dirt counter 尘埃度电子测定仪electronic equipment 电子装置electronic instrument 电子仪器electronic microgage 电子厚度计electronic microscope 电子显微镜electronic probe 电子探头electronic probe sensor 电子探头传感器electronic speed regulator 电子调速器electro-osmosis 电渗electrophoresis 电泳electrophoretic mass transfer technique 电泳质量传递技术electrophoretic mobility 电泳淌度electrophotography 静电摄影electro-precipitation 电沉降净化electro-reel 电动（轴式）卷纸机electro-static charge 静电装料electro-static coating 静电涂布electro-staticfacsimile system 静电传真系统electro static gravure printing 静电照相凹版印刷electro-static latent image 静电潜像electro-static precipitator 静电除尘器electrostatic printing 静电印刷electrostatic recording 静电记录electrostatic transfer 静电转写electrostatography 静电记录electrostatics 静电学elementary fibril 原细纤维，原纤维elevator 提升机elm(ulmus) 榆属；榆树elongation 伸长率elongation at rupture 裂断时伸长率elrepho reflectance meter elrepho 白度计eluant 洗提液eluate 洗出液elution 洗提elutriate 淘选，淘析，淘洗elutriation 淘析，淘洗elutriation method 淘选法elutriator 淘析器elutriator 嵌入；埋置；灌封embosser 压纹机，压花机embossing 压花，印花embossing calender 印花压光机embossing capacity 压花能力embossing machine 印花机embossing roll 印花辊embryo 胚emergency pump 备用泵emergency repair 紧急修理emergency valve 安全阀emery 金刚砂emission 放射；发射；辐射emission spectroscopy 放射光谱学empirical formula 经验式emptying 放料；放空emptying device 放料装置emptying door 放料门emptying valve 放料阀emulsification 乳化作用emulsifier 乳化器emulsify 乳化emulsifying agent 乳化剂emulsifying tank 乳化槽emulsion 乳胶，乳液emulsion breaker 乳胶分解剂emulsion xanthation 乳态黄酸酯化enamel 搪瓷encapsulated emulsion 微囊化encode 编码encrust 结壳end band 卷筒纸端部用保护纸end crush test 垂直抗压强度试验end product 成品end (surface)hardness 端面硬度end wall 侧壁；端墙endless chain log haul-up （无端）链条拉木机endless felt 无端毛毯endless wire 无端铜网endless woven felt 无端毛毯endosperm （种子）内胚乳endothermal 吸热的endothermic 吸热的endothermic reaction 吸热反应endurance test 耐久试验energy consumption 能量消耗；动力消耗energy transfer 能量传递engelmann's spruce 恩氏云杉engine dyeing 机内染色engine sizing 机内施胶english finish 低光泽低平滑度装饰english plane (platanus acerifolia) 英国悬铃木english reel 英国式卷纸机engraver's bristol 凹版厚纸engraving roll 刻花辊，雕刻辊engraving steel 雕刻板enolic hydroxyl 烯醇羟基enriched water 浓白水entanglement 交织entering reel 待裁切纸卷，待退纸卷enthalpy 焓，热函entomology 昆虫学entrainment 雾沫entrainmentn separator 雾沫分离器entrapped air 留截空气entropy 熵entry end 入口端envelope 信封；外壳；外套；包皮envelope cartridge 信封纸envelope machine 信封制造机envelope manila 马尼拉信封纸environment （周围）环境environmental pollution 环境污染environmental protection 环境保护environmental stress cracking 环境应力分裂enzymatically liberated lignin 酵素游离木素enzyme 酶，酵素enzyme converted corn starch 酶化玉米淀粉enzyme treated starch 酶处理淀粉enzymolysis 酶解ephemeral 一年生epibromohydrin 表溴醇，3-溴-1，2-环氧丙烷epichlorohydrin 表氯醇，3-氯-1，2-环氧丙烷epidermal tissue 表皮组织epidermis 表皮epidermis cell 表皮细胞epimanool 表甘露糖醇epins （木材）扭纹斑epithelial cell 分泌；细胞层；沟周细胞epithelial parenchyma 上皮薄壁细胞epithelium 上皮epoxy resin 环氧树脂epsom salt 七水合硫酸镁；泻盐（商业名称）equalization basin 稳定糖equalizing basin 稳定糖equilibrirm concentration 平衡浓度equilibrirm moisture 平衡湿度equilibrirm water 平衡水equipment 设备equivalent weight （化合）当量erasability 耐擦性能erasable parchment bond 耐擦高级羊皮纸erasing quality 耐擦性能erasure 耐擦性erect 安装eremacarsis 缓慢氧化；（木材露天堆放）慢腐侵蚀erkensator 立式离心除砂机erosion 腐蚀；侵蚀er-we-pa former er-we-pa 成形器escape pipe 排气管；放空管esparto 西班牙草essential oil 香精油ester 酯ester group 酯基ester number 酯化值ester value 酯化值esterification 酯化（作用）etched roll 蚀刻辊ethane 乙烷ethanol 乙醇ethanol lignin 乙醇木素ethanolamine 乙醇胺ether 乙醚ether extract 乙醚抽出物ether soluble substance 乙醚可溶物etherification 醚化（作用）ethyl acetate 醋酸乙酯ethyl acrylate 丙烯酸乙酯ethyl alcohol 乙醇ethyl amine 乙胺ethyl cellulose 乙基化纤维素ethyl group 乙基ethyl meraptan 乙硫醇ethylated starch 乙基化淀粉ethylation 乙基化（作用）ethylene 乙烯；乙撑；次乙基ethylene group 乙烯基；乙撑基；次乙基ethylene diamine 乙（撑）二胺，乙二胺1，2 ethyleneimine 乙（撑）亚胺，吖丙啶，氮丙环eucalyptus (eucalyptus) 桉树属eucalyptus (eucalyptus globulus) 蓝桉eugenol 丁子香粉eureca refiner eureca 磨浆机european ash (fraxinus excelsior) 欧洲白蜡树european beech(fagus sylvatica l.) 欧洲山毛榉european birch(betrla alba. l) 欧洲桦european chestnut (castanes sativa mill.) 欧洲粟european fir (abies pectinata) 欧洲白冷杉european hophorn beam (ostrya carpinifolia) 欧洲铁木european horse-chestnut(aesculus hippocustanum) 欧洲七叶树european larch(larix decidua) 欧洲落叶松european lime (tilia vulganis) 欧洲椴木european plane(platanus acerifolia) 英国悬铃木european yew (taxus baccata) 欧洲紫杉eutrophication 营养质量鉴定试验evacuate 抽空evaluation 评价，评定evaluation test 评价试验evaporate 蒸发evaporated liquor 蒸发液evaporating capacity 蒸发能力evaporation 蒸发作用evaporation area 蒸发面积evaporation feed liquor 蒸发器进料evaporator 蒸发器evaporator man 蒸发工evaporator room 蒸发工段evaporator tank 蒸发槽even-aged forest 同龄材even-edged stand 同龄幼树even-side 双面同性evener plate 匀浆板evener (roll) 匀浆辊evergreen oak(quercus ilex l.) 常绿楮，常青栎evolution 展开；演变；进化ewnn solution 酒石酸钠溶液excavator 挖掘机；挖土机excelsior 刨花excelsior cutting machine 木丝机excelsior plate 木丝板excelsior wrapper 木丝包装纸excess air 过剩空气excessive cutting 过量裁切exchange capacity 交换能力exchange reaction 交换反应exchanger 交换器excited state 激发态excrescence burl 异状瘤（树病）exhaust 抽空；排气；使疲劳exhaust end 排出端；卸料端exhaust fan 排风机exhaust gases 排出气体exhaust hood 排气罩exhaust steam 排出蒸汽exhaust valve 排气阀；放气阀exhauster 排气机exharstion 排气；抽空；疲劳exit end 出口端exothermic 放热的exothermic reaction 放热反应expand 扩张；膨胀；延伸expandable box 可伸纸盒expandable mandrel 可伸支架，可伸骨架expander roll 展毯辊；舒展辊expanding shaft 胀缩（卷纸）轴expajnsion 膨胀expansion shell type heater 膨胀壳式加热器expansion trap 膨胀式除水器expansiveness 膨胀性能expansivity 膨胀性expediting setting 快速凝固experimental beater 实验室打浆机experimental paper machine 试验纸机experimental station 试验站experimentation 实验工作，试验（方法）exploded fibers 爆炸法纤维explosion chamber 扩散室；爆炸室exposed bark pocket 外夹皮express mill wrapper 货物包装纸expulsion of water 脱水extender 伸长器，拉伸器extensibility 伸长性extensible 可伸长extension 伸展，扩建；伸出部分extensometer 伸长计exterior plywood 耐风化胶合板external bus 外汇流条，外部总线external fibrillation 表面细纤维化，表面纤细化，表面帚化external protective tissue 表面防护薄纸external screw 阳螺丝external treatment 厂外处理exlinction coefficient 消光系数extra hour work 加班extract 抽提，萃取extract of log wood 洋苏木浸青extraction 抽提，萃取extraction chamber 碎浆机（排浆区）extraction -free wood 无抽提物木材试料extractor 抽提器，提取器extraction plate （碎浆机）底部筛板extractive 抽提物；萃取物extractive-free wood 无抽提物木材试料extractor roll 分离辊，剥纸辊extraneous components 杂质extruder 挤压机extruding laminator 挤压裱糊机extruding machine 挤压机extrusion 挤压extrusion coating 挤压涂布extrusion die 挤压模extrusion head 挤压器端部，挤压头exudation 渗出exudation of resin 树脂渗出eye screw 环首螺丝elastic paper 伸性（牛皮）纸elastic cable paper 电缆线elastic cable fitting paper 电缆芯衬纸electrical paper 电气用纸electrical discharge recording paper 放电记录纸electrical insulating paper 电（气）绝缘纸electro-chemical sensitive recording paper 电化学感应记录纸electrolytic paper 电解纸electrolytic paper(for electrophoresis) 电泳纸electrolytic capacitor paper 电解电容器纸electrolytic recording paper 电解记录纸embossed paper 提花纸，压印浮雕纸，押花纸embossed glassine paper 提花玻璃纸embossed printing paper 压花印刷纸emery paper 钢砂纸enamel(ed) paper 铜版纸enameled blotting paper 粘附在蜡光纸上的吸墨纸end paper 环衬纸english opacity paper 英国式不透明纸engraver's proving paper 凹版印刷校样纸enrober paper 糖果杯纸envelope paper 信封纸electro-conductive paper 导电纸electro-fax paper 直接法静电复印纸，氧化锌静电复印纸electro-graphic paper 电谱纸electro-photographic paper 静电复印纸electro-photographic copy paper 电子感光复印纸electro-photographic printing paper 电子印刷纸electro-photographic recording paper 电子记录纸electro-recording paper 电子记录纸electro-sensitive metallic paper 电敏记录纸electro-static copying paper 静电复写纸electro-sensitizing recording paper 电感记录纸electro-telephotographic paper 电传真原纸electro-thermosensitive recording paper 电热感记录纸esparto paper 西班牙草浆制成的纸张etching paper 雕刻用纸exercise book paper 练习本用纸expandable paper 伸性纸extensible paper 伸性（牛皮）纸extrusion coated paper 挤压涂布纸electrographic process （复制）电显影法easy bleach pulp 易漂浆esparto pulp 西班牙草浆eucalyptus pulp 桉木浆exploded pulp 爆炸法纸浆export pulp 出口纸浆embossed cigarettetissue 罗纹卷烟纸electrolytic tissue 电解用薄纸envelope lining tissue 信封衬里薄纸excelsior tissue 高级薄纸external protective tissue 表面保护用纸ec embedded costs插入成本的缩写ecf elemental chlorine free无元素氯（漂白）的缩写edta ethylene eiamine tetraacetic acid乙二胺四乙酸的缩写epc experimental prismatic calcite实验棱镜方解石的缩写erv estimated replacement value预计取代值的缩写esp electrostatic precipitator静电滤尘器的缩写esp emergency shutdown procedure事故停机程序的缩写eva ethylene vinyl acetate乙烯乙酸乙烯酯的缩写espra empire state paper research associates国立造纸研究会的缩写evoh ethylene-vinyl alcohol乙烯-乙烯醇的缩写eurocell 欧洲林产品有限公司的司标纸业专业英语词汇翻译(E) 相关内容:。
托福满分范文paperbookseconomicfactor
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经济因素对于一个国家或地区的发展至关重要。
本文将探讨经济因素如何影响一个国家或地区的发展，并以中国为例进行分析。
首先，经济因素对于一个国家或地区的基础设施建设、教育和医疗等公共服务的提供有着重要的作用。
例如，一些欠发达国家由于缺乏资金投入，在基础设施建设方面落后，导致了交通不便、电力不稳定等问题。
而在发达国家，由于经济繁荣，政府可以投入更多资金用于公共服务的提供，为民众创造更好的生活条件。
其次，经济因素也对于一个国家或地区的产业结构和国际竞争力产生影响。
一个国家或地区若经济发展迅速，能够吸引更多的外商投资，促进本土企业与国际市场接轨。
这样就会带来更多的机会和利益，提升国际声誉和竞争力。
以中国为例，中国在改革开放之后，通过扩大对外贸易、吸收外资等方式积极融入全球经济体系，在国际上逐渐成为一个重要的经济大国。
同时，中国政府也通过投资基础设施、加强教育和医疗等公共服务的提供，为国家发展提供了坚实的基础。
尽管经济因素对于国家或地区的发展有着至关重要的作用，但是应该注意到的是，经济的发展不能仅仅以GDP增长作为唯一标准。
发展经济需要考虑的因素是多方面的。
例如，环境保护、社会公平和人权等问题都应该在经济发展中得到足够的重视。
综上所述，经济因素对于国家或地区的发展具有极其重要的作用。
在中国这个例子中，中国政府通过投资基础设施、加强国内外贸易等
手段，使得中国得以快速发展。
然而，在经济建设中，我们也应该注意到其他方面的问题，以确保经济能够更好地服务于人民的需求。
资源与环境经济学专业本科人才培养方案
资源与环境经济学专业本科人才培养方案（Resource and Environment Economics 020104T）一、培养目标资源与环境经济学专业培养德、智、体、美全面发展，适应社会主义市场经济需要，具备扎实的经济学理论基础，系统掌握资源与环境经济学的基本理论与分析方法，具有资源与环境领域的专业技能，熟悉资源环境政策及相关法规，熟练运用计算机技术开展资源与环境经济系统的分析、评价和管理工作；学生毕业后能够在资源环境领域的企业事业单位、政府部门、研究机构等从事资源核算与管理、环境评价、项目管理等方面工作的“应用型、复合型、创新型”的高级专门人才。
二、培养规格基本要求本专业培养的学生毕业时应具备以下方面的知识和能力：1.具有较坚实的自然科学与人文科学基础，掌握马列主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和科学发展观的基本原理；具有优秀的人文素养和职业操守，及良好的思想品德、社会公德和职业道德；2.具有一定的体育和军事基本知识，达到国家规定的大学生体质健康和军事训练合格标准，养成良好的体育锻炼习惯和健康生活方式，具有健全的心理和健康的体魄，能够履行建设祖国和保卫祖国的神圣义务。
3.较系统地掌握本专业所需的理论基础与分析方法，兼有经济学、环境科学、资源科学的交叉优势，着重培养学生提出问题、分析问题和解决问题的能力。
4.具有良好的计算机应用技能，至少掌握一种以上本专业核心分析软件；具有综合应用各种手段（包括外语）查询资料、获取信息的基本能力。
5.掌握一门外语，能熟练运用外语开展对外交流与合作；5.具有良好的学习能力、实践能力、创新精神和就业竞争力，较强的表达、人际交往和团队协作能力。
三、专业核心课程本专业核心课程有：经济学导论、微观经济学、宏观经济学、计量经济学、环境与资源经济学、环境学、环境评价学、环境规划与管理、环境资源法学、产业经济学、经济地理学、工程项目管理。
四、学制及学期安排基本修业年限为四学年，每学年分上、下两个学期。
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生态补偿（ecological compensation）定义：使生态影响的责任者承担破坏环境的经济损失；对生态环境保护、建设者和生态环境质量降低的受害者进行补偿的一种生态经济机制。
生态补偿（Eco-compensation）是以保护和可持续利用生态系统服务为目的，以经济手段为主调节相关者利益关系的制度安排。
更详细地说，生态补偿机制是以保护生态环境，促进人与自然和谐发展为目的，根据生态系统服务价值、生态保护成本、发展机会成本，运用政府和市场手段，调节生态保护利益相关者之间利益关系的公共制度。
生态补偿的概念尽管已有一些针对生态补偿的研究和实践探索，但尚没有关于生态补偿的较为公认的定义。
综合国内外学者的研究并结合我国的实际情况，对生态补偿的理解有广义和狭义之分。
广义的生态补偿既包括对生态系统和自然资源保护所获得效益的奖励或破坏生态系统和自然资源所造成损失的赔偿，也包括对造成环境污染者的收费。
狭义的生态补偿则主要是指前者。
从目前我国的实际情况来看，由于在排污收费方面已经有了一套比较完善的法规，急需建立的是基于生态系统服务的生态补偿机制，所以在我们的研究中采用了狭义的概念。
生态补偿应包括以下几方面主要内容：一是对生态系统本身保护（恢复）或破坏的成本进行补偿；二是通过经济手段将经济效益的外部性内部化；三是对个人或区域保护生态系统和环境的投入或放弃发展机会的损失的经济补偿；四是对具有重大生态价值的区域或对象进行保护性投入。
生态补偿机制的建立是以内化外部成本为原则，对保护行为的外部经济性的补偿依据是保护者为改善生态服务功能所付出的额外的保护与相关建设成本和为此而牺牲的发展机会成本；对破坏行为的外部不经济性的补偿依据是恢复生态服务功能的成本和因破坏行为造成的被补偿者发展机会成本的损失。
狭义的生态补偿的概念与目前国际上使用的生态服务付费（Payment for Ecosystem Services，PES）或生态效益付费（Payment for Ecological Benefit，PEB）有相似之处，在本文中我们把它们作为同意语对待。
理论基础生态经济学、环境经济学与资源经济学理论，特别是生态环境价值论、外部性理论和公共物品理论等为生态补偿机制研究提供了理论基础。
1.生态环境价值论长期以来，资源无限、环境无价的观念根深蒂固地存在于人们的思维中，也渗透在社会和经济活动的体制和政策中。
随着生态环境破坏的加剧和生态系统服务功能的研究，使人们更为深入地认识到生态环境的价值，并成为反映生态系统市场价值、建立生态补偿机制的重要基础。
Costanza等人和联合国千年生态系统评估（MA）的研究在这方面起到了划时代的作用。
生态系统服务功能是指人类从生态系统获得的效益，生态系统除了为人类提供直接的产品以外，所提供的其他各种效益，包括供给功能、调节功能、文化功能以及支持功能等可能更为巨大。
因此，人类在进行与生态系统管理有关的决策时，既要考虑人类福祉，同时也要考虑生态系统的内在价值。
生态补偿是促进生态环境保护的一种经济手段，而对于生态环境特征与价值的科学界定，则是实施生态补偿的理论依据。
2.外部性理论外部性（externality）理论是生态经济学和环境经济学的基础理论之一，也是生态环境经济政策的重要理论依据。
环境资源的生产和消费过程中产生的外部性，主要反映在两个方面，一是资源开发造成生态环境破坏所形成的外部成本，二是生态环境保护所产生的外部效益。
由于这些成本或效益没有在生产或经营活动中得到很好的体现，从而导致了破坏生态环境没有得到应有的惩罚，保护生态环境产生的生态效益被他人无偿享用，使得生态环境保护领域难以达到帕累托最优。
庇古认为，当社会边际成本收益与私人边际成本收益相背离时，不能靠在合约中规定补偿的办法予以解决。
这时市场机制无法发挥作用，即出现市场失灵，而必须依靠外部力量，即政府干预加以解决。
当它们不相等时，政府可以通过税收与补贴等经济干预手段使边际税率（边际补贴）等于外部边际成本（边际外部收益），使外部性“内部化”。
构建这种外部性内部化的制度，就是生态补偿政策制定的核心目标。
3.公共物品理论人们普遍认为，自然生态系统及其所提供的生态服务具有公共物品属性。
纯粹的公共物品具有非排他性（non-excludability）和消费上的非竞争性（non-rivalrousness）两个本质特征。
这两持续林业的分类经营与生态补偿个特性意味着公共物品如果由市场提供，每个消费者都不会自愿掏钱去购买，而是等着他人去购买而自己顺便享用它所带来的利益，这就是“搭便车”问题。
如果所有社会成员都意图免费搭车，那么最终结果是没人能够享受到公共物品，因为“搭便车”问题会导致公共物品的供给不足。
但是，公共物品并不等同于公共所有的资源。
共有资（common resources）是有竞争性但无排他性的物品。
在消费上具有竞争性，但是却无法有效地排他，如公共渔场、牧场等，则容易产生“公地悲剧”问题（tragedy of the commons）。
即如果一种资源无法有效地排他，那么就会导致这种资源的过度使用，最终导致全体成员的利益受损。
生态环境由于其整体性、区域性和外部性等特征，很难改变公共物品的基本属性，需要从公共服务的角度，进行有效的管理，重要的是强调主体责任、公平的管理原则和公共支出的支持。
从生态环境保护方面，基于公平性的原则，区域之间、人与人之间应该享有平等的公共服务，享有平等的生态环境福利，这是制定区域生态补偿政策必须考虑的问题。
生态补偿的形式1、实行谁破坏谁补偿的原则。
这项原则要求补偿和破坏主体相一致，一个主体在经济建设过程中破坏了生态环境，有义务进行修复补偿。
但是不要求必须在原地修复补偿，如果在经济区的破坏是不可避免的，允许到生态区进行修复补偿。
这并不意味着在经济区可以随意破坏，不进行任何修复。
必须努力把破坏降到最低限度，只是在经济区无法完全修复的部分，才到生态区进行修复补偿。
投资者和建设者在项目上马之前就必须做好补偿安排和预算，投资总额必须包含适当比例的补偿费用。
2、自行补偿和委托补偿。
实行谁破坏谁补偿原则，主要是指破坏者必须履行补偿义务，支付补偿投资或成本。
既可以由经济区的破坏者直接到生态区进行修复补偿，也可以委托专门机构或生态区进行修复补偿，并由前者承担全部费用。
例如，修建高速公路给生态环境造成一定破坏，可以由高速公路的建设者进行异地修复补偿，也可以由投资者和建设者向有关单位交纳一定的补偿金，由后者专门进行异地修补补偿。
可以成立专门从事生态修复补偿的实体，按照不同的破坏类型、范围和程度进行异地修复补偿。
3、等量补偿和加倍补偿。
为了从总体上保持生态平衡，应当区分不同的情况，实行等量补偿和加倍补偿。
等量补偿就是破坏量和补偿量相等。
例如，在一生态补偿原理与应用个地方破坏1公顷森林或草地，在另一个地方营造1公顷森林或草地。
有些破坏可能没有明确的计量单位，可以通过综合测算相关生态功能来进行等量补偿。
加倍补偿就是补偿量大于破坏量。
例如，在一个地方砍伐5棵树，在另一个地方种植10棵树并保证成活。
对表2中一般保护区的破坏可以实行等量补偿，但是对全面保护区和重点保护区或重点保护对象的破坏，应当实行加倍补偿。
4、治理补偿。
对生态环境的某些破坏不易实行异地补偿，如排放各种污染物，除了就地治理之外，还可以进行异地治理。
破坏者向专门机构交纳一定费用，在治理控制区或其他区域进行异地治理，对整个生态环境可以起到某种修复作用。
可以在表2所列的治理控制区划出部分区域，专门用于异地治理和修复补偿。
国内案例在生态补偿的实践方面所开展的工作可以概括为几个方面，一是由中央相关部委推动，以国家政策形式实施的生态补偿；二是地方自主性的探索实践；三是近几年来初步开始的国际生态补偿市场交易的参与。
总体而言，目前的实践工作主要集中在森林与自然保护区、流域和矿产资源开发的生态补偿等方面。
流域的生态补偿：在浙江、广东等地的实践中，还探索出了“异地开发”的生态补偿模式。
为了避免流域上游地区发展工业造成严重的污染问题，并弥补上游经济发展的损失，浙江省金华市建立了“金磐扶贫经济开发区”，作为该市水源涵养区磐安县的生产用地，并在政策与基础设施方面给予支持。
2003年，该区工业产值5亿元，实现利税5000万元，占磐安县财政收入的40%。
浙江还有另外5个市、县也开展了或将要开展类似的做法。
国外案例国际上“生态补偿”比较通用的是“生态服务付费”（PES）或生态效益付费（PEB）。
从各国实施PES的具体情况来看，许多案例是围绕森林生态系统的生态服务展开的。
国外森林生态补偿除政府支付外，很多情况下是通过市场机制实现的。
2002年出版的“Silver Bullet or Fools Gold”对当时287例森林生态服务交易进行了分析，发现这些交易可分为4种生态服务类型，其中75例碳储存交易，72例生物多样性保护交易，61例流域保护交易，51例景观美化交易。
另外还有28例属于“综合服务”交易。
目前的实际交易案例已多达300个以上，遍布美洲、加勒比海、欧洲、非洲、亚洲以及大洋洲的许多国家和地区。
在与农业生产活动相关的生态补偿方面，瑞士、美国通过立法手段，以补偿退耕休耕等措施来保护农业生态环境。
欧盟也有类似的政策和做法。
上世纪50年代，美国政府实施了保护性退耕计划；80年代实施了相当于荒漠化防治计划的“保护性储备计划”；纽约州曾颁布了《休依特法案》，恢复森林植被。
在这些计划和法案的实施过程中，政府为计划实施（成本）和由此对当地居民造成的损失提供补贴。