机械设计及其自动化 外文翻译 数控机床
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译204机电一体化
附录INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY（From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACTMachinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development.Key word：integration of machinery ，technology，present situation ，product t，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management system has had the huge change, caused the industrial production to enter into “the integration of machinery” by “the machinery electrification” for the characteristic development phase.1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology,computer technology, information technology, sensing observation and control technology, electric power electronic technology, connection technology, information conversion technology as well as software programming technology, according to the system function goal and the optimized organization goal, reasonable disposition and the layout various functions unit, in multi-purpose, high grade, redundant reliable, in the low energy consumption significance realize the specific function value, and causes the overall system optimization the systems engineering technology .From this produces functional system, then becomes an integration of machinery systematic or the integration of machinery product. Therefore, “integration of machinery” covering “technology” and “product” two aspects .Only is, the integration of machinery technology is based on the above community technology organic fusion one kind of comprehensive technology, but is not mechanical technical, the microelectronic technology as well as other new technical simple combination, pieces together .This is the integration of machinery and the machinery adds the machinery electrification which the electricity forms in the concept basic difference .The mechanical engineering technology has the merely technical to develop the machinery electrification, still was the traditional machinery, its main function still was replaces with the enlargement physical strength .But after develops the integration of machinery, micro electron installment besides may substitute for certain mechanical parts the original function, but also can entrust with many new functions, like the automatic detection, the automatic reduction information, demonstrate the record, the automatic control and the control automatic diagnosis and the protection automatically and so on .Not only namely the integration of machinery product is human's hand and body extending, human's sense organ and the brains look, has the intellectualized characteristic is the integration of machinery and the machinery electrification distinguishes in the function essence.2. Integration of machinery development condition integration of machinery development may divide into 3 stages roughly.20th century 60's before for the first stage, this stage is called the initial stage .In this time, the people determination not on own initiative uses the electronic technology the preliminary achievement to consummate the mechanical product the performance .Specially in Second World War period, the war has stimulated the mechanical product and the electronic technology union, these mechanical and electrical union military technology, postwar transfers civilly, to postwar economical restoration positive function .Developed and the development at that time generally speaking also is at the spontaneouscondition .Because at that time the electronic technology development not yet achieved certain level, mechanical technical and electronic technology union also not impossible widespread and thorough development, already developed the product was also unable to promote massively. The 20th century 70~80 ages for the second stage, may be called the vigorous development stage .This time, the computer technology, the control technology, the communication development, has laid the technology base for the integration of machinery development . Large-scale, ultra large scale integrated circuit and microcomputer swift and violent development, has provided the full material base for the integration of machinery development .This time characteristic is :①A mechatronics word first generally is accepted in Japan, probably obtains the quite widespread acknowledgment to 1980s last stages in the worldwide scale ;②The integration of machinery technology and the product obtained the enormous development ;③The various countries start to the integration of machinery technology and the product give the very big attention and the support. 1990s later periods, started the integration of machinery technology the new stage which makes great strides forward to the intellectualized direction, the integration of machinery enters the thorough development time .At the same time, optics, the communication and so on entered the integration of machinery, processes the technology also zhan to appear tiny in the integration of machinery the foot, appeared the light integration of machinery and the micro integration of machinery and so on the new branch; On the other hand to the integration of machinery system modeling design, the analysis and the integrated method, the integration of machinery discipline system and the trend of development has all conducted the thorough research .At the same time, because the hugeprogress which domains and so on artificial intelligence technology, neural network technology and optical fiber technology obtain, opened the development vast world for the integration of machinery technology .These research, will urge the integration of machinery further to establish the integrity the foundation and forms the integrity gradually the scientific system. Our country is only then starts from the beginning of 1980s in this aspect to study with the application .The State Council had been established the integration of machinery leading group and lists as “863 plans” this technology .When formulated “95” the pla n and in 2010 developed the summary had considered fully on international the influence which and possibly brought from this about the integration of machinery technology development trend .Many universities, colleges and institutes, the development facility and some large andmiddle scale enterprises have done the massive work to this technical development and the application, does not yield certain result, but and so on the advanced countries compared with Japan still has the suitable disparity.3. Integration of machinery trend of development integrations of machinery are the collection machinery, the electron, optics, the control, the computer, the information and so on the multi-disciplinary overlapping syntheses, its development and the progress rely on and promote the correlation technology development and the progress .Therefore, the integration of machinery main development direction is as follows:3.1 Intellectualized intellectualizations are 21st century integration of machinery technological development important development directions .The artificial intelligence obtains day by day in the integration of machinery constructor's research takes, the robot and the numerical control engine bed intellectualization is the important application .Here sai d “the intellectualization” is to the machine behavior description, is in the control theory foundation, the absorption artificial intelligence, the operations research, the computer science, the fuzzy mathematics, the psychology, the physiology and the chaos dynamics and so on the new thought, the new method, simulate the human intelligence, enable it to have abilities and so on judgment inference, logical thinking, independent decision-making, obtains the higher control goal in order to .Indeed, enable the integration of machinery product to have with the human identical intelligence, is not impossible, also is nonessential .But, the high performance, the high speed microprocessor enable the integration of machinery product to have preliminary intelligent or human's partial intelligences, then is completely possible and essential.In the modern manufacture process, the information has become the control manufacture industry the determining factor, moreover is the most active actuation factor .Enhances the manufacture system information-handling capacity to become the modern manufacture science development a key point .As a result of the manufacture system information organization and structure multi-level, makes the information the gain, the integration and the fusion presents draws up the character, information measure multi-dimensional, as well as information organization's multi-level .In the manufacture information structural model, manufacture information uniform restraint, dissemination processing and magnanimous data aspects and so on manufacture knowledge library management, all also wait for further break through.Each kind of artificial intelligence tool and the computation intelligence method promoted the manufacture intelligence development in the manufacture widespread application .A kind based on the biological evolution algorithm computation intelligent agent, in includes thescheduling problem in the combination optimization solution area of technology, receives the more and more universal attention, hopefully completes the combination optimization question when the manufacture the solution speed and the solution precision aspect breaks through the question scale in pairs the restriction .The manufacture intelligence also displays in: The intelligent dispatch, the intelligent design, the intelligent processing, the robot study, the intelligent control, the intelligent craft plan, the intelligent diagnosis and so on are various These question key breakthrough, may form the product innovation the basic research system. Between 2 modern mechanical engineering front science different science overlapping fusion will have the new science accumulation, the economical development and society's progress has had the new request and the expectation to the science and technology, thus will form the front science .The front science also has solved and between the solution scientific question border area .The front science has the obvious time domain, the domain and the dynamic characteristic .The project front science distinguished in the general basic science important characteristic is it has covered the key science and technology question which the project actual appeared.Manufacture system is a complex large-scale system, for satisfies the manufacture system agility, the fast response and fast reorganization ability, must profit from the information science, the life sciences and the social sciences and so on the multi-disciplinary research results, the exploration manufacture system new architecture, the manufacture pattern and the manufacture system effective operational mechanism .Makes the system optimization the organizational structure and the good movement condition is makes the system modeling , the simulation and the optimized essential target .Not only the manufacture system new architecture to makes the enterprise the agility and may reorganize ability to the demand response ability to have the vital significance, moreover to made the enterprise first floor production equipment the flexibility and may dynamic reorganization ability set a higher request .The biological manufacture view more and more many is introduced the manufacture system, satisfies the manufacture system new request.The study organizes and circulates method and technique of complicated system from the biological phenomenon, is a valid exit which will solve many hard nut to cracks that manufacturing industry face from now on currently .Imitating to living what manufacturing point is mimicry living creature organ of from the organization, from match more, from growth with from evolution etc. function structure and circulate mode of a kind of manufacturing system and manufacturing process.The manufacturing drives in the mechanism under, continuously by one's own perfect raise on organizing structure and circulating mode and thus to adapt the process of[with] ability for the environment .For from descend but the last product proceed together a design and make a craft rules the auto of the distance born, produce system of dynamic state reorganization and product and manufacturing the system tend automatically excellent provided theories foundation and carry out a condition .Imitate to living a manufacturing to belong to manufacturing science and life science of\"the far good luck is miscellaneous to hand over\", it will produce to the manufacturing industry for 21 centuries huge of influence .The research contents which imitates to living a manufacturing has two aspects currently:1: Facing to the imitating of life livings a manufacturingStudy general regulation and model of biological phenomenon, for example the organization structure of the information processing technique, living creature intelligence, living creature type of artificial life, cell auto machine, living creature and circulate the evolution of mode and living creature and tend excellent mechanism etc.2: Face to make of imitating and livinging manufacturing The research imitates to living manufacturing system of from organize mechanism and method ,such as: Based on full information sharing biological modelling principle of design, based on multi-autonomy unit coordination distributional control and based on evolution mechanism optimization strategy; Research biological modelling manufacture concept system and foundation, for example: Biological modelling space formal description technique and information mapping relations, biological modelling system and evolutionary process order of complexity gauging device. The mechanical biological modelling and the biological modelling manufacture is mechanical discipline and so on science and life sciences, information science, materials science high fusions, its research content including growth forming craft, biological modelling design and manufacture system, intelligent biological modelling machinery and biological forming manufacture and soon .At present does the research work mostly will be the front exploring work, has the bright basic research characteristic, if holds the opportunity to study, possibly will have the revolutionary breakthrough .From now on will be supposed to pay attention the research area will have the biology to process technical, the biological modelling manufacture system, based on the fast prototype technique of manufacture organization engineering, as well as with bio-engineering correlation key technologies foundation and so on. Since 3 modern technique of manufacture trend of development 1990s, the various countries all has carried on the technique of manufacture research and the development as the national key technologies gives priority to development, like US's advanced technique of manufacture plans AMTP, Japan's intelligence technique of manufacture (IMS) international cooperation plan, South Korea's high-level modern technology national plan (G--7), Germany's manufacture 2000 plans with European Economic Community's ESPRIT and BRITE-EURAM plan. Along with high technology and new technology and so on electron, information unceasing development, the market demand personalization and the diversification, future the modern technique of manufacture development general trend will be to the precision, the flexibility, the network, the virtualization, intellectualized, the green integration, the globalization direction develops. The current modern technique of manufacture trend of development has following nine aspects approximately: (1) Information technology, the management technology and the processing technology close union, the modern manufacture production pattern can obtain develops unceasingly. (2) Design technology and method more modernized. (3) Formation and the technique of manufacture precision, the manufacture process realize the low energy consumption. (4) New special processing method formation. (5) Develops new one generation ultra precise, the supervelocity manufacture equipment. (6) Processing craft develops by the technique for the engineering science. (7) Implements the non-pollution green manufacture. (8) In manufacturing industry widespread application virtual reality technology. (9) Makes humanist.3.2 Modular modulations are one item important and the arduous project .Because the integration of machinery product type and the manufacturer are many, but the development and the development have standard mechanical connection, electrical connection, power connection, the environment connection integration of machinery product unit are an item extremely complex also are the extremely important matters .If the development collection deceleration, theintelligent velocity modulation, the electrical machinery in a body power unit, have function and so on vision, imagery processing, recognition and range finder control units, as well as each kind can complete the model operation the mechanism .Thus, may use the standard unit to develop the new product rapidly, simultaneously also may expand the scale of production .This need formulates each standard, in order to various parts, unit match and connection .As a result of the conflicts of interest, very will be difficult to formulate international or the domestic this aspect standard in the near future, but might through set up some big enterprises to form gradually .Obviously, the advantage which from the electrical product standardization, the seriation brings may affirm, regardless of is to produces the standard integration of machinery unit the enterprise to produce the integration of machinery product the enterprise, the formalization will give the integration of machinery enterprise to bring the happy future.3.3 Network 1990s, the computer technology and so on the prominent achievement is the networking .Networking starting with the rapid development for the science and technology, the industrial production, political, the military, the education magnanimous act person daily life has all brought the huge transformation .Each kind of network the global economy, the production links up into a single stretch, enterprise's competition will also globalize .Once the integration of machinery new product develops, so long as its function is original, the quality is reliable, very quick can the best-selling whole world .As a result of the network popularization, is on the rise based on network each kind of long-distance control and the surveillance technology, but long-distance control terminal device itself is the integration of machinery product .The field bus and the local area network technology was the domestic electric appliances network has become the situation, (home net) connected using the family network each kind of domestic electric appliances take the computer as the central computer integration electrical appliances system (computer integrated appliance system, CIAS), caused the people at home to share the inconvenience and the joy which each kind of high-tech brought .Therefore, the integration of machinery product faces the network direction to develop without doubt.3.4 Microminiaturized microminiaturization emerge in the end of 1980s, refers is the integration of machinery to the miniature machine and the microscopic domain development tendency .Overseas name it micro electron mechanical system (MEMS), makes a general reference the geometry size not to surpass 1-3CM theintegration of machinery product, and to micron, nanometer level development .The micro integration of machinery product volume small, consumes energy few, the movement is flexible, in aspects and so on biological medical service, military, information has the incomparable superiority .The micro integration of machinery development bottleneck lies in the micro mechanical technology, the micro integration of machinery product processing uses the fine processing technology, namely ultra precise technology, it including photoetching technology and etching technology two kinds.3.5 green industries lived developed for the people have brought the huge change .The material is at the same time rich, the life is comfortable; On the other hand, the resources reduce, the ecological environment receives the serious pollution .Therefore, the people appeal the protection environment resources, the return nature .The green product concept arises at the historic moment under this kind of call, the green is the time tendency .The green product in its design, the manufacture, the use and in the destruction life process, conforms to the specific environmental protection and the human health request, harmless or the harm are extremely few to the ecological environment, the resources use factor is extremely high .The design green integration of machinery product, has the broad development future .The integration of machinery product green mainly is refers, when use does not pollute the ecological environment, after the abandonment can recycle the use. One of3.6 Systematized systematization performance characteristics is the system architecture further uses open style and the patternizing main line structure .The system may the nimble configuration, carry on tailors and the combination willfully, simultaneously seeks realizes the multi-subsystem coordination control and the synthesis management .Second performance is the correspondence function big enhancement, generally besides RS232, but also has RS485, the DCS personification .The future integration of machinery will even more pay great attention to the product and human's relations, the integration of machinery personification will have two meanings .One is, the integration of machinery product finally user is a human, how entrusts with the integration of machinery product person's intelligence, the emotion, the human nature appears more and more importantly, specially the opposite party uses the robot, its high-level boundary is the man-machine integration .Another imitates the biological mechanism, develops each kind of mechanical and electrical body colored product .In fact, manyintegration of machinery products all are developed animal's inspiration.4. Conclusions in summary, the integration of machinery appearance is not isolated, it is many science and technology development crystallization, is the social productive forces develops the certain stage inevitably request .Certainly, also has with the integration of machinery related technology very many, and along with the science and technology development, the tendency which each kind of technology will fuse mutually more and more is obvious, the integration of machinery technology broad prospects for development more and more will be also bright.机电一体化摘要机电一体化是现代科学技术发展的必然结果,本文简述了机电一体化技术的基本概要和发展背景。
机械设计及其自动化外文翻译数控机床
英文】High-speed machining the development ofHigh-speed machining is oriented to the 21st century a new high-tech, high-efficiency, High-precision and high surface quality as a basic feature, in theautomobile industry, aerospace, Die Manufacturing and instrumentation industries gained increasingly widespread application, and has made significant technical and economic benefits. contemporary advanced manufacturing technology an important component part 。
High-speed machining is to achieve high efficiency of the core technology manufacturers, intensive processes and equipment packaged so that it has a high production efficiency. It can be said that the high-speed machining is an increase in the quantity of equipment significantly improve processing efficiency essential to the technology. High-speed machining is the major advantages : improve production efficiency, improve accuracy and reduce the processing of cutting resistance。
机械设计制造及其自动化毕业设计外文翻译
英文原文名Automatic production line PLC control中文译文：自动化生产线自动上料站的PLC控制自动生产线是由工件传送系统和控制系统，将一组自动机床和辅助设备按照工艺顺序联结起来，自动完成产品全部或部分制造过程的生产系统，简称自动线。
二十世纪20年代，随着汽车、滚动轴承、小电机和缝纫机和其他工业发展,机械制造业开始出现在自动生产线,第一个是组合机床自动线。
在20世纪20年代,第一次出现在汽车工业流水生产线和半自动生产线,然后发展成自动生产线。
第二次世界大战后,在机械制造工业发达国家,自动生产线的数量急剧增加。
采用自动生产线生产的产品应该足够大,产品设计和技术应该是先进的、稳定的和可靠的,基本上保持了很长一段时间维持不变。
自动线用于大,大规模生产可以提高劳动生产率,稳定和提高产品质量,改善劳动条件,降低生产区域,降低生产成本,缩短生产周期,保证生产平衡、显著的经济效益。
自动生产线的一个干预指定的程序或命令自动操作或控制的过程,我们的目标是稳定、准确、快速。
自动化技术广泛用于工业、农业、军事、科学研究、交通运输、商业、医疗、服务和家庭,等自动化生产线不仅可以使人们从繁重的体力劳动、部分脑力劳动以及恶劣、危险的工作环境,能扩大人的器官功能,极大地提高劳动生产率,提高人们认识世界的能力,可以改变世界。
下面我说下它的应用范围：机械制造业中有铸造、锻造、冲压、热处理、焊接、切削加工和机械装配等自动线，也有包括不同性质的工序，如毛坯制造、加工、装配、检验和包装等的综合自动线。
加工自动线发展最快,应用最广泛的机械制造。
主要包括:用于处理盒、外壳、各种各样的部件,如组合机床自动线;用于加工轴、盘部分,由通用、专业化、或自动机器自动专线;转子加工自动线;转子自动线加工过程简单、小零件等。
1.确保节拍时间:无论什么样的产品,都必须完成的时间生产。
2.单元过程:只有一个产品,单位部分处理、组装、加工和材料。
外文翻译Numerically Controlled (NC) Machines
本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译毕业设计（论文）题目：剪叉式物流液压升降台外文题目：Numerically Controlled (NC) Machines译文题目：数控机床学生姓名：张龙专业：机械设计制造及其自动化指导教师姓名：张凯评阅日期：正文内容小四号字，宋体，行距1.5倍行距。
Numerically Controlled (NC) MachinesWith automatics, programming is expensive and can be justified only for long production runs. However, with machines incorporating feedback control, programs can be provided in the form of punched tapes or punched cards, which are relatively inexpensive to produce compared with disc and drum cams. These machines are known as numerically controlled (NC) machines and can be used economically in small-batch production.As the name implies, numerical control involves control on the basis of numerical information that specifies the relative position of the tool and workpiece. From the block diagram for a machine-tool control system in Fig. 12 it can be seen that two essential elements are added to an otherwise standard machine.The first added element is a means of driving the machine table or toolholder by a servomotor, and hence the motion of the tool or workpiece depends on the signal passed to the servomotor. The second added element is a transducer that continuously monitors the position of the tool or workpiece. The signal from the transducer is compared with that obtained from the tape, and any difference (or error) is converted to analog form, amplified, and used to drive the servomotor until the tool or workpiece position agrees with the position specified by the information on the tape.Fig. 12: Feedback loop for one axis of a machine-tool control system There are two basic types of NC systems: the point-to-point, or positioning, system and the continuous-path, or contouring, system. The point-to-point system would be applied, for example, to a vertical-drilling machine. If control of the two horizontal-motion axes of the table supporting the workpiece is arranged, the machine can be programmed to locate and then drill a specified pattern of holes. In the point-to-point system the path of the tool relative to the workpiece between holes is not important, and only the coordinates of the end point of each motion of the table are specified. The continuous-path system would be applied, for example, to a vertical-milling machine that was required to end mill a complicated shape, such as cam or pocket in a workpiece. In the continuous-path system the position of the tool relative to the workpiece must be continuously controlled while workpieces are being machined.With continuous-path, or contouring, systems the position of the tool relative to the workpiece is specified by a series of coordinates, and the control system is designed to follow a path between these points by interpolation. Some machines follow a straight-line path (linear interpolation); others follow a curved path (circular or parabolic interpolation).Numerical control can be applied to motions along or about any axis,·but two or three-axis control systems are the most common. In general, vertical-milling machines and lathes utilize continuous-path, or contouring control. Vertical-drilling machines jig borers, and small milling machines often use positional control.One sophisticated form of NC machine is known as the machining center. This machine is generally a vertical-milling machine with several axes of control and with automatic tool-changing facilities. The tools are usually held in a rotary magazine, and tool changes are commanded by the punched tape. Thus, with a machining center a complicated workpiece can be completely machined on all faces except the base through a combination of milling, drilling, boring, facing, reaming, and tapping operations. This type of system is therefore most suitable for the batch production of main components.A further refinement of numerical control is adaptive control. This type of system can adapt itself to the prevailing circumstances. These circumstances are measured by the system itself and might include the power required for the machining operation, the wear of the cutting tool or grinding wheel, the forces generated, or the onset of chatter or instability. The system ideally would be designed for automatic adjustment of the feed, speed, or tool position to produce components at minimum cost and within the tolerance specified. Such a system would be very expensive and has not yet found wide application.A relatively simple adaptive control system would automatically vary the cutting speed and feed in such a way as to maximize metal-removal rates without exceeding predetermined cutting forces and power consumption. Systems of this type are relatively inexpensive and can machine under near-optimum conditions.数控机床伴随着自动化产生，只有在长期的生产运行中，编程的价格很昂贵，同时又是合理的。
外文翻译--数控机床的核心及动力测量值的几何误差
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系部：机械工程系专业：机械工程及自动化姓名：学号：外文出处：Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 4222(2000) • 0277-786X!附件： 1.外文资料译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文数控机床的核心及动力测量值的几何误差摘要在这篇论文中，介绍了一个用于测量数控机床上所有动力学方面几何误差的系统，并且给出了一些实验结果。
这些实验结果表明了一些静态与动态误差特性间的重要差异。
通过关于在动态信号运动或暂停时的分析，会发现数控机床上一些错误的方法。
另外，用这个系统任何一种形态的轮廓误差可以被直接地测量而不需要用到一个球型金属块或者别的什么装置，它可以提供一个简单而又实用的估计数控机床轮廓误差的方法。
关键词：机床用具度量衡几何误差动态测量1．序言在过去的几年中，机床的校准对于机床的制造方和使用方来说变得愈加重要，每个国家都有它承认的标准去评估数控机床的性能[1~3]。
然而，在这些标准中几乎所有的几何误差都是在静态或类似静态的情形下被测量出的。
换句话说，机器的轴被移动到特定的位置，停止转动的时候被测量记录的。
这个过程明显很耗费时间，也可能很耗费劳力。
现今很多如惠普5529A激光测量系统和雷尼绍激光干涉系统的现代化测量系统提高了校准效率。
这些校准包括自动收集信息，自动调调整校准部分程序和机械补偿参数。
这些工具可以简化校准过程，费较小的劳力。
但是他们也不能克服只能在静态情况下测量的限制。
很长的测量周期加购买测量器械的花费使得整个校准过程异常昂贵。
如果机械很大而且可能出现误差的地方又多的话将会花费更多。
众所周知，一台三轴机床有21处可能出现几何误差的地方需要测量。
另外，当数控机床在工作状态加工零件时，机床的静态几何误差并不是表现出来的那么正确。
机床是由机械部分、电部分和数字化部分等组成，每个组成部分都在一定的条件下起作用，比如速度，加速度，摩擦力，牵引力，能量变化等。
机械工程外文翻译
外文资料原文及译文学院：机电工程学院专业：机械设计制造及其自动化班级：学号：姓名：Mechanical engineering1.The porfile of mechanical engineeringEngingeering is a branch of mechanical engineerig,itstudies mechanical and power generation especially power and movement.2.The history of mechanical engineering18th century later periods,the steam engine invention hasprovided a main power fountainhead for the industrialrevolution,enormously impelled each kind of mechznicalbiting.Thus,an important branch of a new Engineering –separated from the civil engineering tools and machines on thebranch-developed together with Birmingham and the establishment of the Associantion of Mechanical Engineers in1847 had been officially recognized.The mechanicalengineering already mainly used in by trial and error methodmechanic application technological development intoprofessional engineer the scientific method of which in theresearch,the design and the realm of production used .From themost broad perspective,the demend continuously to enhance theefficiencey of mechanical engineers improve the quality of work,and asked him to accept the history of the high degreeof education and training.Machine operation to stress not onlyeconomic but also infrastructure costs to an absolute minimun.3.The field of mechanical engineeringThe commodity machinery development in the develop country,in the high level material life very great degree is decided each kind of which can realize in the mechanical engineering.Mechanical engineers unceasingly will invent the machine next life to produce the commodity,unceasingly will develop the accuracy and the complexity more and more high machine tools produces the machine.The main clues of the mechanical development is:In order to enhance the excellent in quality and reasonable in price produce to increase the precision as well as to reduce the production cost.This three requirements promoted the complex control system development.The most successful machine manufacture is its machine and the control system close fusion,whether such control system is essentially mechanical or electronic.The modernized car engin production transmission line(conveyer belt)is a series of complex productions craft mechanization very good example.The people are in the process of development in order to enable further automation of the production machinery ,the use of a computer to store and handle large volumes of data,the data is a multifunctional machine toolsnecessary for the production of spare parts.One of the objectives is to fully automated production workshop,three rotation,but only one officer per day to operate.The development of production for mechanical machinery must have adequate power supply.Steam engine first provided the heat to generate power using practical methods in the old human,wind and hydropower,an increase of engin .New mechanical engineering industry is one of the challenges faced by the initial increase thermal effciency and power,which is as big steam turbine and the development of joint steam boilers basically achieved.20th century,turbine generators to provide impetus has been sustained and rapid growth,while thermal efficiency is steady growth,and large power plants per kW capital consumption is also declining.Finally,mechanical engineers have nuclear energy.This requires the application of nuclear energy particularly high reliability and security, which requires solving many new rge power plants and the nuclear power plant control systems have become highly complex electroonics,fluid,electricity,water and mechanical parts networks All in all areas related to the mechanical engineers.Small internal combustion engine,both to the type (petrol and diesel machines)or rotary-type(gas turbines andMong Kerr machine),as well as their broad application in the field of transport should also due to mechanical enginerrs.Throughout the transport,both in the air and space,or in the terrestrial and marine,mechanial engineers created a variety of equipment and power devices to their increasing cooperation with electrical engineers,especially in the development of appropration control systems.Mechanical engineers in the development of military weapons technology and civil war ,needs a similar,though its purpose is to enhance rather than destroy their productivity.However.War needs a lot of resources to make the area of techonlogy,many have a far-reaching development in peacetime efficiency.Jet aircraft and nuclear reactors are well known examples.The Biological engineering,mechanical engineering biotechnology is a relatively new and different areas,it provides for the replacement of the machine or increase the body functions as well as for medical equipment.Artficial limbs have been developed and have such a strong movement and touch response function of the human body.In the development of artificial organ transplant is rapid,complex cardiac machines and similar equipment to enable increasingly complex surgery,and injuries and ill patients life functions can besustained.Some enviromental control mechanical engineers through the initial efforts to drainage or irrigation pumping to the land and to mine and ventilation to control the human environment.Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning plant commonaly used reverse heat engine,where the heat from the engine from cold places to more external heat.Many mechanical engineering products,as well as other leading technology development city have side effects on the environment,producing noise,water and air pollution caused,destroyed land and landscape.Improve productivity and diver too fast in the commodity,that the renewable natural forces keep pace.For mechanical engineers and others,environmental control is rapidly developing area,which includes a possible development and production of small quantities of pollutants machine sequnce,and the development of new equipment and teachnology has been to reduce and eliminate pollution.4.The role of mechanical engineeringThere are four generic mechanical engineers in common to the above all domains function.The 1st function is the understanding and the research mechanical science foundation.It includes the power and movement of therelationship dynamics For example,in the vibration and movement of the relationship;Automatic control;Study of the various forms of heart,energy,power relations between the thermodynamic;Fluidflows; Heat transfer; Lubricant;And material properties.The 2nd function will be conducts the research,the desing and the development,this function in turn attempts to carry on the essential change to satisfy current and the future needs.This not only calls for a clear understanding of mechanical science,and have to break down into basic elements of a complex system capacity.But also the need for synthetic and innovative inventions.The 3rd function is produces the product and the power,include plan,operation and maintenance.Its goal lies in the maintenance either enhances the enterprise or the organization longer-tern and survivabilaty prestige at the same time,produces the greatest value by the least investments and the consumption.The 4th function is mechanical engineer’s coordinated function,including the management,the consultation,as well as carries on the market marking in certain situation.In all these function,one kind unceasingly to use the science for a long time the method,but is not traditional orthe intuition method tendency,this is a mechanical engineering skill aspect which unceasingly grows.These new rationalization means typical names include:The operations research,the engineering economics,the logical law problem analysis(is called PABLA) However,creativity is not rationalization.As in other areas,in mechanical engineering, to take unexpected and important way to bring about a new capacity,still has a personal,marked characteristice.5.The design of mechanical engineeringThe design of mechanical is the design has the mechanical property the thing or the system,such as:the instrument and the measuring appliance in very many situations,the machine design must use the knowledge of discipline the and so on mathematics,materials science and mechanics.Mechanical engineering desgin includeing all mechanical desgin,but it was a study,because it also includes all the branches of mechsnical engineering,such as thermodynamics all hydrodynamics in the basic disciplines needed,in the mechanical engineering design of the initial stude or mechanical design.Design stages.The entire desgin process from start to finish,in the process,a demand that is designed for it and decided to do the start.After a lot of repetition,thefinal meet this demand by the end of the design procees and the plan.Design considerations.Sometimes in a system is to decide which parts needs intensity parts of geometric shapes and size an important factor in this context that we must consider that the intensity is an important factor in the design.When we use expression design considerations,we design parts that may affect the entire system design features.In the circumstances specified in the design,usually for a series of such functions must be taken into account.Howeever,to correct purposes,we should recognize that,in many cases the design of important design considerations are not calculated or test can determine the components or systems.Especially students,wheen in need to make important decisions in the design and conduct of any operation that can not be the case,they are often confused.These are not special,they occur every day,imagine,for example,a medical laboratory in the mechanical design,from marketing perspective,people have high expectations from the strength and relevance of impression.Thick,and heavy parts installed together:to produce a solid impression machines.And sometimes machinery and spare parts from the design style is the point and not the other point of view.Our purpose is to make those you do notbe misled to believe that every design decision will need reasonable mathematical methods.Manufacturing refers to the raw meterials into finished products in the enterprise.Create three distinct phases.They are:input,processing exprot.The first phase includes the production of all products in line with market needs essential.First there must be the demand for the product,the necessary materials,while also needs such as energy,time,human knowledge and technology resourcess . Finall,the need for funds to obtain all the other resources. Lose one stage after the second phase of the resources of the processes to be distributed.Processing of raw materials into finished products of these processes.To complete the design,based on the design,and then develop plans.Plan implemented through various production processes.Management of resources and processes to ensure efficiency and productivity.For example,we must carefully manage resources to ensure proper use of funds.Finally,people are talking about the product market was cast.Stage is the final stage of exporting finished or stage.Once finished just purchased,it must be delivered to the users.According to product performance,installation and may have to conduct furtherdebugging in addition,some products,especially those very complex products User training is necessary.6.The processes of materials and maunfacturingHere said engineering materials into two main categories:metals and non-ferrous,high-performance alloys and power metals.Non-metallic futher divided into plastice,synthetic rubber,composite materials and ceramics.It said the production proccess is divided into several major process,includingshape,forging,casting/ founding,heat treatment,fixed/connections ,measurement/ quality control and materal cutting.These processes can be further divide into each other’s craft.Various stages of the development of the manufacturing industry Over the years,the manufacturing process has four distinct stages of development, despite the overlap.These stages are:The first phase is artisanal,the second Phase is mechanization.The third phase is automation the forth Phase is integrated.When mankind initial processing of raw materials into finished products will be,they use manual processes.Each with their hands and what are the tools manuslly produced.This is totally integrated production take shape.A person needs indentification,collection materials,the design of a productto meet that demand,the production of such products and use it.From beginning to end,everything is focused on doing the work of the human ter in the industrial revolution introduced mechanized production process,people began to use machines to complete the work accomplished previously manual. This led to the specialization.Specialization in turn reduce the manufacture of integrated factors.In this stage of development,manufacturing workers can see their production as a whole represent a specific piece of the part of the production process.One can not say that their work is how to cope with the entire production process,or how they were loaded onto a production of parts finished.Development of manufacting processes is the next phase of the selection process automation.This is a computer-controlled machinery and processes.At this stage,automation island began to emerge in the workshop lane.Each island represents a clear production process or a group of processes.Although these automated isolated island within the island did raise the productivity of indivdual processes,but the overall productivity are often not change.This is because the island is not caught in other automated production process middle,but not synchronous with them .The ultimate result is the efficient working fast parkedthrough automated processes,but is part of the stagnation in wages down,causing bottlenecks.To better understand this problem,you can imagine the traffic in the peak driving a red light from the red Service Department to the next scene. Occasionally you will find a lot less cars,more than being slow-moving vehicles,but the results can be found by the next red light Brance.In short you real effect was to accelerate the speed of a red Department obstruction offset.If you and other drivers can change your speed and red light simultaneously.Will advance faster.Then,all cars will be consistent,sommth operation,the final everyone forward faster.In the workshop where the demand for stable synchronization of streamlined production,and promoted integration of manufacturing development.This is a still evolving technology.Fully integrated in the circumstances,is a computer-controllrd machinery and processing.integrated is completed through computer.For example in the preceding paragraph simulation problems,the computer will allow all road vehicles compatible with the change in red.So that everyone can steady traffic.Scientific analysis of movement,timing and mechanics of the disciplines is that it is composed of two pater:staticsand dynamics.Statics analyzed static system that is in the system,the time is not taken into account,research and analysis over time and dynamics of the system change.Dynameics from the two componets.Euler in 1775 will be the first time two different branches: Rigid body movement studies can conveniently divided into two parts:geometric and mechanics.The first part is without taking into account the reasons for the downward movement study rigid body from a designated location to another point of the movement,and must use the formula to reflect the actual,the formula would determine the rigid body every point position. Therefore,this study only on the geometry and,more specifically,on the entities from excision.Obviously,the first part of the school and was part of a mechanical separation from the principles of dynamics to study movement,which is more than the two parts together into a lot easier.Dynamics of the two parts are subsequently divided into two separate disciplines,kinematic and dynamics,a study of movement and the movement strength.Therefore,the primary issue is the design of mechanical systems understand its kinematic.Kinematic studies movement,rather than a study of its impact.In a more precise kinematic studies position,displacement,rotation,speed,velocity and acceleration of disciplines,for esample,or planets orbiting research campaing is a paradigm.In the above quotation content should be pay attention that the content of the Euler dynamics into kinematic and rigid body dynamics is based on the assumption that they are based on research.In this very important basis to allow for the treatment of two separate disciplines.For soft body,soft body shape and even their own soft objects in the campaign depends on the role of power in their possession.In such cases,should also study the power and movement,and therefore to a large extent the analysis of the increased complexity.Fortunately, despite the real machine parts may be involved are more or less the design of machines,usually with heavy material designed to bend down to the lowest parts.Therefore,when the kinematic analysis of the performance of machines,it is often assumed that bend is negligible,spare parts are hard,but when the load is known,in the end analysis engine,re-engineering parts to confirm this assnmption.机械工程1.机械工程简介机械工程是工程学的一个分支，它研究机械和动力的产，尤其是力和动力。
数控车床外文翻译3
本科生毕业设计 (论文)
外文翻译
原文标题数控车床
译文标题Numerical Control Lathes
作者所在系机械工程系
作者所在专机械设计制造及其自动化作者所在班
作者姓名
作者学号
指导教师姓
指导教师职
完成时间2012 年 2 月28
注：1. 指导教师对译文进行评阅时应注意以下几个方面：①翻译的外文文献与毕业设计（论文）的主题是否高度相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业设计（论文）的参考文献；②翻译的外文文献字数是否达到规定数量（3 000字以上）；③译文语言是否准确、通顺、具有参考价值。
2. 外文原文应以附件的方式置于译文之后。
机械类数控车床外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控
数控加工中心技术开展趋势与对策原文来源：Zhao Chang-ming Liu Wang-ju(C Machining Processand equipment,2002,China)一、摘要Equip the engineering level, level of determining the whole national economy of the modernized degree and modernized degree of industry, numerical control technology is it develop new developing new high-tech industry and most advanced industry to equip (such as information technology and his industry, biotechnology and his industry, aviation, spaceflight, etc. national defense industry) last technology and getting more basic most equipment.Numerical control technology is the technology controlled to mechanical movement and working course with digital information, integrated products of electromechanics that the numerical control equipment is the new technology represented by numerical control technology forms to the manufacture industry of the tradition and infiltration of the new developing manufacturing industry,Keywords:Numerical ControlTechnology, E quipment,industry二、译文数控技术和装备开展趋势与对策装备工业的技术水平和现代化程度决定着整个国民经济的水平和现代化程度，数控技术与装备是开展新兴高新技术产业和尖端工业〔如信息技术与其产业、生物技术与其产业、航空、航天等国防工业产业〕的使能技术和最根本的装备。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译255计算机与制造业
附录2英语原文The Computer and ManufacturingComputer Aided DesignThe computer is bringing manufacturing into the Information Age. This new tool, a long familiar one in business and management operations, is moving into the factory, and its advent is changing manufacturing as certainly as the steam engine changed it 100 years ago.The basic metal working processes are not likely to change fundamentally, but their organization and control definitely will.IN one respect, manufacturing could be said to be coming full circle. The first manufacturing could was a cottage industry: the designer was also the manufacturer, conceiving and fabricating products one at a time. Eventually, the concept of the interchangeability of parts was developed, production was separated into specialized functions, and identical parts were produced thousands at a time.Today, although the designer and manufacturer may not become one again, the functions are being drawn close in the movement toward an integrated manufacturing system,It is perhaps ironic that, at a time when the market demand a high degreed of product diversification, the necessity for increasing productivity and reducing costs is driving manufacturing toward integration into a coherent system, a continuous process in which parts do not spend as much as 95% of production time being moved around or waiting to be worked on.The computer is the key to each of these twin requirements. It is the only tool that can provide the quick reflexes, the flexibility and speed, to meet a diversified market. And it is the only tool that enables the detailed analysis and the accessibility of accurate data necessary for the integration of the manufacturing system.It may well be that, in the future, the computer may be essential to a company’s survival. Many of today’s businesses will fade away to be replaced by more-productive combinations. Such more-productive combinations aresuper-quality, super-productivity plants. The goal is to design and operate a plant that would produce 100% satisfactory parts with good productivity.A sophisticated, competitive world is requiring that manufacturing begin to settle for more, to become itself sophisticated, To meet competition, for example, a company will have to meet the somewhat conflicting demands for greater product diversification, higher quality, improved productivity, and low prices.The company that seeks to meet these demands will need a sophisticated tool, one that will allow it to respond quickly to customer needs while getting the most out of its manufacturing resources.The computer is that tool.Becoming a “super-quality, super-productivity” plant requires the integration of an extremely complex system. This can be accomplished only when all elements of manufacturing—design, fabrication and assembly, quality assurance, management, materials handling—are computer integrated.In product design, for example, interactive computer-aided-design (CAD) systems allow the drawing and analysis tasks to be performed in a fraction of the time previously required and with greater accuracy. And programs for prototype testing and evaluation further speed the design process.In manufacturing planning, computer-aided process planning permits the selection, from thousands of possible sequences schedules, of the optimum process.On the shop floor, distributed intelligence in the form of microprocessors controls machines, runs automated loading and unloading equipment, and collects data on current shop conditions.But such isolated revolutions are not enough. What is needed is a totally automated system, linked by common software from front door to back.The benefits range throughout the system. Essentially, computer integration provides widely and instantaneously available, accurate information, improving communication between departments, permitting tighter control, and generally enhancing the overall quality and efficiency of the entire system.Improved communication can mean, for example, designs that are more producible. The NC programmer and the tool designer have a chance to influence the product designer, and vice versa.Engineering changes, thus, can be reduced, and those that are required can be handled more efficiently. Not only does the computer permit them to be specifiedmore quickly, but it also alerts subsequent users of the data to the fact that a change has been made.The instantaneous updating of production-control data permits better planning and more0effective scheduling. Expensive equipment, therefore, is used more productively, and parts move more efficiently through production, reducing work-in-process costs.Product quality, too, can be improved. Not only are more-accurate designs produced, for example, but the use of design data by the quality-assurance department helps eliminate errors due to misunderstandings.People are enabled to do their jobs better. By eliminating tedious calculations and paperwork—not to mention time wasted searching for information—the computer not only allows workers to be more productive but also frees them to do what only human beings can do: think creatively.Computer integration may also lure new people into manufacturing. People are attracted because they want to work in a modern, technologically sophisticated environment.In manufacturing engineering, CAD/CAM decreases tool-design. NC-programming, and planning times while speeding the response rate, which will eventually permit in-house staff to perform work that is currently being contracted out.According to the Tool & Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, process planning is the systematic determination of the methods by which a product is to be manufactured economically and competitively. It essentially involves selection, calculation, and documentation. Processes, machines, tools, and sequences must be selected. Such factors as feeds, speeds, tolerances, dimensions, and costs must be calculated. Finally, documents in the form of setup instructions, work instructions, illustrated process sheets, and routings must be prepared. Process planning is an intermediate stage between designing and manufacturing the product. But how well does it bridge design and manufacturing?Most manufacturing engineers would agree that, if ten different planners were asked to develop a process plan for the same part, they would probably come up with ten different plans. Obviously, all these plans cannot reflect the most efficient manufacturing methods, and, in fact, there is no guarantee that any one of them will constitute the optimum methods for manufacturing the part.What may be even more disturbing is that a process plan developed for a part during a current manufacturing program may be quite different manufacturing program and it may never be used again for the same or similar part during a previous similar part. That represents a lot of wasted effort and produces a great many inconsistencies in routing, tooling, labor requirements, costing, and possibly even purchase requirements.Of course, process plans should not necessarily remain static. As lot sizes change and new technology, equipment, and processes become available, the most effective way to manufacture a particular part also changes, and those changes should be reflected in current process plans released to the shop.A planner must manage and retrieve a great deal of data and many documents, including established standards, machine ability data, machine specifications, tooling inventories, stock availability, and existing process plans. This is primarily an information-handling job, and the computer is an ideal companion.There is another advantage to using computers to help with process planning. Because the task involves many interrelated activities, determining the optimum plan requires many iterations. Since computers can readily perform vast numbers of comparisons, many more alternative plans can be explored than would be possible manually.A third advantage in the use of computer-aided process planning is uniformity.Several specific benefits can be expected from the adoption of computer-aided process-planning techniques:● Reduced clerical effort in preparation of instructions.● Fewer calculation errors due to human error.● Fewer oversights in logic or instructions because of the prompting capability available with interactive computer programs.● Immediate access to up-to-date information from a central database.● Consistent information, because every planner accesses the same database.● Faster response to changes requested by engineering of other operating departments.● Automatic use of the latest revision of a part drawing.● More-detailed, more-uniform process-plan statements produced by word processing techniques.● More-effective use of inventories of tools, gages, and fixtures and aconcomitant reduction in the variety of those items.● Better communication with shop personnel because plans can be more specifically tailored to a particular task and presented in unambiguous, proven language.● Better information for production planning, including cutter-life, forecasting, materials-requirements planning, scheduling, and inventory control.Most important for CIM, computer-aided process planning produces machine-readable data instead of hand written plans. Such data can readily be transferred to other systems within the CIM hierarchy for use in planning.There are basically two approaches to computer-aided process planning: variant and generative.In the variant approach, a set of standard process plans is established for all the parts families that have been identified through group technology. The standard plans are stored in computer memory and retrieved for new parts according to their family identification. Again, GT helps to place the new part in an appropriate family. The standard plan is then edited to suit the specific requirements of a particular job.In the generative approach, an attempt is made to synthesize each individual plan using appropriate algorithms that define the various technological decisions that must be made in the course of manufacturing. In a truly generative process-planning system, the sequence of operations, as well as all the manufacturing-process parameters, would be automatically established without reference to prior plans. In its ultimate realization, such an approach would be universally applicable: present any plan to the system, and the computer produces the optimum process plan.No such system exists, however. So called generative process-planning system—and probably for the foreseeable future—are still specialized systems developed for a specific operation or a particular type of manufacturing process. The logic is based on a combination of past practice and basic technology.Computer Aided ManufacturingNumerical ControlNumerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which the process is controlled by numbers,letters,and symbols.In NC, thenumbersform a program of instructions designed for a particular workpart or job. When the job changes, the program of instructions is changed .This capability to change the program for each new job is what gives NC its flexibility, It is much easier to write new programs than to make major change in the production equipment.NC equipment is used in all areas of metal parts fabrication and comprises roughly 15% of the modern machine tools in industry today. Since numerically controlled machines are considerably more expensive than their conventional counterparts, the asset value of industrial NC machine tools is proportionally much larger than their numbers. Equipment utilizing numerical control has been designed to perform such diverse operations as drilling, milllng~; ~r~j, gtindlng, :sheetmetal pres~orkingi spot welding, arc welding, riveting, assembly, drafting, inspection, and parts handling. And this is by no means a complete list. Numerical control should be considered as a possible mode of controlling the operation for any production situation possessing the following characteristics:I, .Similar workparts in terms of raw material(e. g., metal stock for machining)2. The workparts are produced in various sizes and geometries.3. The workparts are produced in batches of small to medium-sized quantities.4. A sequence of similar processing steps is required to complete the operation oneach workpiece.Many machining jobs meet these conditions. The machined workparts are metal,they are specified in many differentsizes and shapes, and most machined parts produced in industry today are made in small to medium-size lot sizes.To produce each part,a sequence of drilling operations may be required, or a series of turning or milling operations. The suitability of NC for these kinds of jobs is the reason for the tremendous growth of numerical control in the metalworking industry over the last 25 years.Basic Components of an NC systemAn operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic components:1.Program of instructions.2.Controller unit, also called machine control unit (MCU)3.Machine tool or other controlled processThe program of instructions serves as the input to the controller unit , which inturn commands the machine tool or other process to be controlled.Program of instructionsThe program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step set of directions which tell the machine tool what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some type of input medium that can be interpreted by the controller unit. The most common input medium is 1-inch-wide punched cards, magnetic tape,and even 35-mm motion picture film.There are two other methods of input to the NC system which should be mentioned. The first is by manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit .This is time-consuming and is rarely used except as an auxiliary means of control or when only one or a very limited number of parts are to be made. The second method of input is by means of a direct link with a computer .This is called direct numerical control, or DNC.The program of instructions is prepared by someone called a part programmer. Theprogramm er’s job is to provide a set of detailed instructions by which the sequence of processing steps is to be performed. For a machining operation, the processing steps involve the relative movement of the machine tool table and the cutting tool.Controller unitThe second basic component of the NC system is the controller unit . This consists of the electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of instructions and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool . The typical elements of the controller unit include the tape reader , a data buffer, signal output channels to the machine tool, feedback channels from the machine tool, and the sequence controls to coordinate the overall operation of the foregoing elements.The type reader is an electrical-mechanical device for winding and reading the punched tape containing the program of instructions . The data contained on the tape are read into the data buffer , The purpose of this device is to store the input instructions in logical blocks of information. A block of information usually represents one complete step in the sequence of processing elements. For example, one block may be the data required to move the machine table to a certain position and drill a hole at that location .The signal output channels are connected to the servomotors and other controls in the machine tool. Through these channels, the instructions are sent to themachine tool from the controller unit. To make certain that the instruction have been properly executed by the machine, feedback data are sent back to the controller via the feedback channels. The most important function of this return loop is to assure that table and workpart have been properly located with respect to the tool. Most NC machine tools in use today are provided with position feedback controls for this purpose and are referred to ae closed-loop systems. However, in recent years there has been a growth in the use of open-loop systems, which do not make use of feedback signals to the controller unit. The advocates of the open-loop concept claim that the reliability of the system is great enough that feedback controls are not needed and are an unnecessary extra cost.Sequence controls coordinate the activities of the other elements of the controller unit. The tape reader is actuated to read data into the buffer from the tape, signals are sent to，and so on. These types of operations must be synchronized and this is the function of the sequence controls.Another element of the NC system, which may be physically part of the controller unit or part of the machine tool, is the control panel. The control panel or control consolecontains the dials and switches by which the machine operator runs the NC system. It may also contain data displays to provide information to the operator. Although the NC system is an automatic system, the human operator is still needed to turn the machine on and off, to change tools (some NC systems have automatic tool changers), to load and unload the machine, and to perform various other duties. To be able to discharge these duties, the operator must be able to control the system, and this is done through the control panel.The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other controlled process. It is the part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the most common example of an NC system, one designed to perform machining operations, the machine tool consists of the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls necessary to drive them. It also includes the cutting tools, work fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed in the machining operation. Programmable Logic ControllersA programmable logic controller (PLC) is a solid-state device used to control machine motion or process operation by means of a stored program. The PLC sends output control signals and receives input signals through input/output (I/O) devices.A PLC controls outputs in response to stimuli at the inputs according to the logic prescribed by the stored program The inputs are made up of limit switches, ,pushbuttons, thumbwheels, switches, pulses, analog signals, ASCII serial data, and binary or BCD data from absolute position encoders. The outputs are voltage or current levels to drive end devices such as solenoids, motor starters, relays, lights, and so on. Other output devices include analog devices, digital BCD displays, ASCII compatible devices servo variable-speed drives, and even computers.Programmable controllers were developed (circa in 1968) when General Motors Corp, and other automobile manufacturers were experimenting to see if there might be an alternative to scrapping all their hardwired control panels of machine tools and other production equipment during a model changeover. This annual tradition was necessary because rewiring of the panels was more expensive than buying new ones. The automotive companies approached a number of control equipment manufacturers and asked them to develop a control system that would have a longer productive life without major rewiring, but would still be understandable to and repairable by plant personnel. The new product was named a "programmable controller".The processor part of the PLC contains a central processing unit and memory. The central processing unit (CPU) is the "traffic director" of the processor, the memory stores information. Coming into the processor are the electrical signals from the input devices, as conditioned by the input module to voltage levels acceptable to processor logic. The processor scans the state of I / O and updates outputs based on instructions stored in the memory of the PLC. For example, the processor may be programmed so that if an input connected to a limit switch is true (limit switch closed), then a corresponding output wired to an output module is to be energized. This output might be a solenoid, for example. The processor remembers this command through its memory and compares on each scan to see if that limit switch is, in fact, closed. If it is closed, the processor energizes the solenoid by turning on the output module.The output device, such as a solenoid or motor starter, is wired to an output module's terminal, and it receives its shift signal from the processor, in effect, the processor is performing a long and complicated series of logic decisions. The PLC performs such decisions sequentially and in accordance with the stored program. Similarly, analog I / O allows the processor to make decisions based on themagnitude of a signal, rather than just if it is on or off. For example, the processor may be programmed to increase or decrease the steam flow to a boiler (analog output) based on a comparison of the actual temperature in the boiler {analog input) to the desired temperature. This is often performed by utilizing the built-in PID (proportional, integral, derivative) capabilities of the processor.Because a PLC is "software based", its control logic functions can be changed by reprogramming its memory. Keyboard programming devices facilitate entry of the revised program, which can be designed to cause an existing machine or process to operate in a different sequence or to respond to different levels of, or combinations of stimuli. Hardware modifications are needed only if additional, changed, or relocated input/output devices are involved.Transfer MachinesThe highest degree of automation obtainable with special-purpose, multifunction machines is achieved by using transfer machines. Transfer machines are essentially acombination of individual workstations arranged in the required sequence, connected by work transfer devices, and integrated with interlocked controls. Workpieces are automatically transferred between the. stations, which are equipped with horizontal vertical, or angular units to perform machining, gaging, workpiece repositioning, assembling, washing, or other operations. The two major classes of transfer machines are rotary and in-line types.An important advantage of transfer machines is that they permit the maximum number of operations to be performed simultaneously There is relatively no limitation on the number of workpiece surfaces or planes that can be machined, since devices can be interposed in transfer machines at practically any point for inverting, rotating, or orienting the workpiece, so as to complete the machining operations. Work repositioning also minimizes the need for angular machining heads and allows operations to be performed in optimum time. Complete processing, from rough, casting or forgings to finished parts is often possible.One or more finished parts are produced on a transfer machine with each index of thetransfer system that moves the parts from station to station. Production efficiencies of such machines generally range from 50% for a machine producing a variety of different parts to 85% for a machine producing one part, in. highproduction, depending upon the workpiece and how the machine is operated (materials handling method, maintenance procedures, etc. )All types of machining operations, such as drilling, tapping, reaming, boring, and milling, are economically combined on transfer machines. Lathe-type operations such as turning and facing are also being performed on in-line transfer machine, with the workpieces being rotated in selected machining stations. Turning operations are performed in lathe-type segments in which multiple toolholders are fed on slides mounted on tunnel-type bridge units. Workpieces are located on centers and rotated by chucks at each turning station. Turning stations with CNC are available for use on in-line transfer machines. The CNC units allow the machine cycles to be easily altered to accommodate changes in workpiece design and can also be used for automatic tool adjustments.Maximum production economy on transfer lines is often achieved by assembling partsto the workpieces during their movement through the machine. Such items as bushings, seals, welch plugs, and heat tubes can be assembled and then machined or tested during the transfer machining sequence. Automatic nut torquing following the application of part subassemblies can also be carried out.Gundrillinq or reaming on transfer machines is an ideal applicat!on provided that proper machining units are employed and good bushing practices are followed. Contour boring and turning of spherical seats and other surfaces can be done with tracer-controlled single-point inserts, thus eliminating the need for costly special form tools. In-process gaging of reamed or bored holes and automatic tool setting are done on transfer machines to maintain close tolerances.Less conventional operations sometimes performed on transfer machines include grinding, induction heating of ring gears for shrink-fit pressing on flywheels, induction hardening of valve seats, deep rolling to apply compressive preloads, and burnishinq.Transfer machines have long been used in the automotive industry for producing identical components at high production rates with a minimum of manual part handling. In addition to decreasing labor requirements, such machines ensure consistently uniform, high-quality parts at lower cost. They are no longer confined just to rough machining and now often eliminate the need for subsequent operations such as grinding and honing.More recently, there has been an increasing demand for transfer machines to handle lower volumes of similar or even different parts in smaller sizes, with means for quick changeover between production runs. Built-in flexibility, the ability to rearrange andinterchange machining units, and the provision of idle stations increases the cost of any transfer machine, but such features are economically feasible when product redesigns are common. Many such machines are now being used in nonautomotive applications for lower production requirements.Special features now available to reduce the time required for part changeover include standardized dimensions, modular construction, interchangeable fixtures mounted on master pallets that remain on the machine, interchangeable fixture components, the ability to lock out certain stations for different parts by means of selector switches, and programmable controllers. Product design is also important, and common transfer and clamping surfaces should be provided on different parts whenever possible.中文翻译计算机与制造业计算机辅助设计计算机正在将制造业带入信息时代。
(数控加工)机械类数控外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控精编
（数控加工）机械类数控外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控NumericalControlOneofthemostfundamentalconceptsintheareaofadvancedmanufactur ingtechnologiesisnumericalcontrol(NC).PriortotheadventofNC,allmachine toolsweremanualoperatedandcontrolled.Amongthemanylimitationsassoc iatedwithmanualcontrolmachinetools,perhapsnoneismoreprominentthan thelimitationofoperatorskills.Withmanualcontrol,thequalityoftheproducti sdirectlyrelatedtoandlimitedtotheskillsoftheoperator.Numericalcontrolrep resentsthefirstmajorstepawayfromhumancontrolofmachinetools.Numericalcontrolmeansthecontrolofmachinetoolsandothermanufact uringsystemsthoughtheuseofprerecorded,writtensymbolicinstructions.Ra therthanoperatingamachinetool,anNCtechnicianwritesaprogramthatissue soperationalinstructionstothemachinetool,Foramachinetooltobenumeric allycontrolled,itmustbeinterfacedwithadeviceforacceptinganddecodingth ep2ogrammedinstructions,knownasareader.Numericalcontrolwasdevelopedtoovercomethelimitationofhumanop erator,andithasdoneso.Numericalcontrolmachinesaremoreaccuratethanm anuallyoperatedmachines,theycanproducepartsmoreuniformly,theyarefas ter,andthelong-runtoolingcostsarelower.ThedevelopmentofNCledtothede velopmentofseveralotherinnovationsinmanufacturingtechnology:1.Electricaldischargemachining.sercutting.3.Electronbeamwelding.Numericalcontrolhasalsomademachinetoolsmoreversatilethantheirmanuallyoperatedpredecessors.AnNCmachinetoolcanautomaticallyproduc eawidevarietyofpar4s,eachinvolvinganassortmentofundertaketheproducti onofproductsthatwouldnothavebeenfeasiblefromaneconomicperspective usingmanuallycontrolledmachinetoolsandprocesses.Likesomanyadvancedtechnologies,NCwasborninthelaboratoriesofthe MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.TheconceptofNCwasdevelopedinthe early1950swithfundingprovidedbytheU.SAirForce.Initsearlieststages,NCm achineswereabletomakestraightcutsefficientlyandeffectively.However,curvedpathswereaproblembecausethemachinetoolhadtobe programmedtoundertakeaseriesofhorizontalandverticalstepstoproducea curve.Theshorteristhestraightlinesmakingupthestep,thesmootheris4hecu rve.Eachlinesegmentinthestepshadtobecalculated.Thisproblemledtothedevelopmentin1959oftheAutomaticallyProgram medTools(APT)languageforNCthatusesstatementssimilartoEnglishlangua getodefinethepartgeometry,describethecuttingtoolconfiguration,andspe cifythenecessarymotions.ThedevelopmentoftheAPTlanguagewasamajors tepforwardinthefurtherdevelopmentofNCtechnology.TheoriginalNCsyste mwerevastlydifferentfromthoseusedpunchedpaper,whichwaslatertorepla cedbymagneticplastictape.Atapereaderwasusedtointerprettheinstruction swrittenonthetapeforthemachine.Together,all/fthisrepresentedgiantstepf orwardinthecontrolofmachinetools.However,therewereanumberofproble mswithNCatthispointinitsdevelopment.Amajorproblemwasthefragilityofthepunchedpapertapemedium.Itwas commonforthepapercontainingtheprogrammedinstructionstobreakortea rduringamachiningprocess,Thisproblemwasexacerbatedbythefactthateac hsuccessivetimeapartwasproducedonamachinetool,thepapertapecarryin gtheprogrammedinstructionshadtorerunthoughtthereader.Ifitwasnecessa rytoproduce100copiesofagivenpart,itwasalsonecessarytorunthepapertap ethoughtthereader100separatetimes.Fragilepapertapessimplycouldnotwi thstandtherigorsofshopfloorenvironmentandthiskindofrepeateduse.Thisledtothedevelopmentofaspecialmagnetictape.Whereasthepapert apecarriedtheprogrammedinstructionsasaseriesofholespunchedinthetap e,theThismostimportantofthesewasthatitwasdifficultorimpossibletochang etheinstructionsenteredonthetape.Tomakeeventhemostminoradjustment sinaprogramofinstructions,itwasnecessarytointerruptmachiningoperation sandmakeanewtape.Itwasalsostillnecessarytorunthetapethoughtthereade rasmanytimesastherewerepartstobeproduced.Fortunately,computertechn ologybecomearealityandsoonsolvedtheproblemsofNC,associatedwithpun chedpaperandplastictape.Thedevelopmentofaconceptknownasnumericalcontrol(DNC)solvethe paperandplastictapeproblemsassociatedwithnumericalcontrolbysimplyeli minatingtapeasthemediumforcarryingtheprogrammedinstructions.Indire ctnumericalcontrol,machinetoolsaretied,viaadatatransmissionlink,toahost computerandfedtothemachinetoolasneededviathedatatransmissionlinkage.Directnumericalcontrolrepresentedamajorstepforwardoverpunchedta peandplastictape.However,itissubjecttothesamelimitationasalltechnologi esthatdependonahostcomputer.Whenthehostcomputergoesdown,thema chinetoolsalsoexperiencedowntime.Thisproblemledtothedevelopmentofc omputernumericalcontrol.Thedevelopmentofthemicroprocessorallowedforthedevelopmentofpr ogrammablelogiccontrollers(PLC)andmicrocomputers.Thesetwotechnolo giesallowedforthedevelopmentofcomputernumericalcontrol(CNC).WithC NC,eachmachinetoolhasaPLCoramicrocomputerthatservesthesamepurpo se.Thisallowsprogramstobeinputandstoredateachindividualmachinetool. CNCsolvedtheproblemsassociateddowntimeofthehostcomputer,butitintr oducedanotherproblemknownasdatamanagement.Thesameprogrammig htbeloadedontendifferentmicrocomputerswithnocommunicationamongt hem.Thisproblemisintheprocessofbeingsolvedbylocalareanetworksthatco nnectDigitalSignalProcessorsTherearenumeroussituationswhereanalogsignalstobeprocessedinma nyways,likefilteringandspectralanalysis,Designinganaloghardwaretoperfo rmthesefunctionsispossiblebuthasbecomelessandpractical,duetoincrease dperformancerequirements,flexibilityneeds,andtheneedtocutdownondev elopment/testingtime.Itisinotherwordsdifficultpmdesignanaloghardware analysisofsignals.Theactofsamplingansignalintothehatarespecialisedforembeddedsignalprocessingoperations,andsuchaprocessoriscalledaDSP,whichstandsforDi gitalSignalProcessor.TodaytherearehundredsofDSPfamiliesfromasmanym anufacturers,eachonedesignedforaparticularprice/performance/usagegro up.Manyofthelargestmanufacturers,likeTexasInstrumentsandMotorola,off erbothspecialisedDSP’sforcertainfieldslikemotor-controlormodems,and generalhigh-performanceDSP’sthatcanperformbroadrangesofprocessin gtasks.Developmentkitsan`softwarearealsoavailable,andtherearecompani esmakingsoftwaredevelopmenttoolsforDSP’sthatallowstheprogrammer toimplementcomplexprocessingalgorithmsusingsimple“drag‘n’drop ”methodologies.DSP’smoreorlessfallintotwocategoriesdependingontheunderlyingar chitecture-fixed-pointandfloating-point.Thefixed-pointdevicesgenerallyo perateon16-bitwords,whilethefloating-pointdevicesoperateon32-40bitsfl oating-pointwords.Needlesstosay,thefixed-pointdevicesaregenerallychea per.Anotherimportantarchitecturaldifferenceisthatfixed-pointprocessorst endtohaveanaccumulatorarchitec ture,withonlyone“generalpurpose”re gister,makingthemquitetrickytoprogramandmoreimportantly,makingC-c ompilersinherentlyinefficient.Floating-pointDSP’sbehavemorelikecomm ongeneral-purposeCPU’s,withregister-files.TherearethousandsofdifferentDSP’sonthemarket,an ditisdifficulttask findingthemostsuitableDSPforaproject.Thebestwayisprobablytosetupaco nstraintandwishlist,andtrytocomparetheprocessorsfromthebiggestmanufacturersagainstit.The“bigfour”manufacturersofDSPs:TexasInstruments,Motorola,AT &TandAnalogDevices.Digital-to-analogconversionInthecaseofMPEG-Audiodecoding,digitalcompresseddataisfedintoth eDSPwhichperformsthedecoding,thenthedecodedsampleshavetobeconv ertedbackintotheanalogdomain,andtheresultingsignalfedanamplifierorsi milaraudioequipment.Thisdigitaltoanalogconversion(DCA)isperformedby acircuitwiththesamename&DifferentDCA’sprovidedifferentperformance andquality,asmeasuredbyTHD(Totalharmonicdistortion),numberofbits,lin earity,speed,filtercharacteristicsandotherthings.TheTMS320familyDQPofTexasInstrumentsTheTLS320familyconsistsoffixed-point,floating-point,multiprocessor digitalsignalprocessors(D[Ps),andfoxed-pointDSPcontrollers.TMS320DSP haveanarchitecturedesignedspecificallyforreal-timesignalprocessing.The ’F/C240isanumberofthe’C2000DSPplatform,andisoptimizedforcontro la pplications.The’C24xseriesofDSPcontrollerscombinesthisreal-timeproce ssingcapabilitywithcontrollerperipheralstocreateanidealsolutionforcontro lsystemapplications.ThefollowingcharacteristicsmaketheTMS320familyth erightchoiceforawiderangeofprocessingapplications:---Veryflexibleinstructionset---Inherentoperationalflexibility---High-speedperformance---Innovativeparallelarchitecture---CosteffectivenessDeviceswithinagenerationoftheTMS320familyhavethesameCPUstruc turebutdifferenton-chipmemoryandperipheralconfigurations.Spin-offdev icesusenewcombinationsofOn-chipmemoryandperipheralstosatisfyawide rangeofneedsintheworldwideelectronicsmarket.Byintegratingmemoryand peripheralsontoasinglechip,TMS320devicesreducesystemcostsandsavecir cuitboardspace.The16-bit,fixed-point DSPcoreofthe‘C24xdevicesprovidesanalogde signersadigitalsolutionthatdoesnotsacrificetheprecisionandperformance oftheirsystemperformancecanbeenhancedthroughtheuseofadvancedcont rolalgorithmsfortechniquessuchasadaptivecontrol,Kalmanfiltering,andsta tecontrol.The‘C24xDSPcontrollerofferreliabilityandprogrammability.Anal ogcontrolsystems,ontheotherhand,arehardwiredsolutionsandcanexperien ceperformancedegradationduetoaging,componenttolerance,anddrift.Thehigh-speedcentralprocessingunit(CPU)allowsthedigitaldesignert oprocessalgorithmsinrealtimeratherthanapproximateresultswithlook-upt ables.TheinstructionsetoftheseDSPcontrollers,whichincorporatesbothsign alprocessinginstructionsandgeneral-purposecontrolfunctions,coupledwit htheextensivedevelopmenttimeandprovidesthesameeaseofuseastradition al8-and16-bitmicrocontrollers.Theinstructionsetalsoallowsyoutoretainyoursoftwareinvestmentwhenmovingfromothergeneral-purpose‘C2xxgen eration,sourcecodecompatiblewiththe’C2xgeneration,andupwardlysour cecodecompatiblewiththe‘C5xgenerationofDSPsfro mTexasInstruments.The‘C24xarchitectureisalsowell-suitedforprocessingcontrolsignals.I tusesa16-bitwordlengthalongwith32-bitregistersforstoringintermediatere sults,andhastwohardwareshiftersavailabletoscalenumbersindependentlyo ftheCPU.Thiscombinationminimizesquantizationandtruncationerrors,andi ncreasesp2ocessingpowerforadditionalfunctions.Suchfunctionsmightincl udeanotchfilterthatcouldcancelmechanicalresonancesinasystemoranesti mationtechniquethatcouldeliminatestatesensorsinasystem.The‘C24xDSPcontrollerstakeadva ntageofansetofperipheralfunction sthatallowTexasInstrumentstoquicklyconfigurevariousseriesmembersfordi fferentprice/performancepointsorforapplicationoptimization.Thislibraryofbothdigitalandmixed-signalperipheralsincludes:---Timers---Serialcommunicationsports(SCI,SPI)---Analog-to-digitalconverters(ADC)---Eventmanager---Systemprotection,suchaslow-voltageandwatchdogtimerTheDSPcontrollerperipherallibraryiscontinuallygrowingandchanging tosuittheoftomorrow’sembeddedcontrolmarketplace.TheTMS320F/C240isthefirs tstandarddeviceintroducedinthe‘24xseriesofDSPcontrollers.Itsetsthestandardforasingle-chipdigitalmotorcontrolle r.The‘240canexecute20MIPS.Almostallinstructionsareexecutedinasimple cycleof50ns.Thishighperformanceallowsreal-timeexecutionofverycomple 8controlalgorithms,suchasadaptivecontrolandKalmanfilters.Veryhighsam plingratescanalsobeusedtominimizeloopdelays.The‘240hasthearchitecturalfeaturesnecessaryforhigh-speedsignalp rocessinganddigitalcontrolfunctions,andithastheperipheralsneededtopro videasingle-chipsolutio nformotorcontrolapplications.The‘240ismanufac turedusingsubmicronCMOStechnology,achievingalogpowerdissipationrat ing.Alsoincludedareseveralpower-downmodesforfurtherpowersavings.So meapplicationsthatbenefitfromtheadvancedprocessingpowerofthe‘240i nclude:---Industrialmotordrives---Powerinvertersandcontrollers---Automotivesystems,suchaselectronicpowersteering,antilockbrake s,andclimatecontrol---ApplianceandHVACblower/compressormotorcontrols---Printers,copiers,andotherofficeproducts---Tapedrives,magneticopticaldrives,andothermassstorageproducts ---RoboticandCNCmillingmachinesTofunctionasasystemmanager,aDSPmusthaverobuston-chipI/Oando therperipherals.Theeventmanagerofthe‘240isunlikeanyotheravailableonaDSP.Thisapplication-optimizedperipheralunit,coupledwiththehighperfor manceDSPcore,enablestheuseofadvancedcontroltechniquesforhigh-preci sionandhigh-efficiencyfullvariable-speedcontrolofallmotortypes.Includei ntheeventmanagerarespecialpulse-widthmodulation(PWM)generationfu nctions,suchasaprogrammabledead-bandfunctionandaspacevectorPWMs tatemachinefor3-phasemotorsthatprovidesstate-of-the-artmaximumeffic iencyintheswitchingofpowertransistors.Thereindependentupdowntimers,eachwithit’sowncompareregister, supportthegenerationofasymmetric(noncentered)aswellassymmetric(cen tered)PWMwaveforms.Open-LoopandClosed-LoopControlOpen-loopControlSystemsThewordautomaticimpliesthatthereisacertainamountofsophisticatio ninthecontrolsystem.Byautomatic,itgenerallymeansThatthesystemisusuall ycapableofadaptingtoavarietyofoperatingconditionsandisabletorespondt oaclassofinputssatisfactorily.However,notanytypeofcontrolsystemhasthea ually,theautomaticfeatureisachievedbyfeed.gthefeedbackstructure,itiscalledanopen-loopsystem,whichisthesimp lestandmosteconomicaltypeofcontrolsystem.inaccuracyliesinthefactthato nemaynotknowtheexactcharacteristicsofthefurther,whichhasadefinitebea ringontheindoortemperature.Thisalcopointstoanimportantdisadvantageo ftheperformanceofanopen-loopcontrolsystem,inthatthesystemisnotcapableofadaptingtovariationsinenvironmentalconitionsortoexternaldisturban ces.Inthecaseofthefurnacecontrol,perhapsanexperiencedpersoncanprovi decontrolforacertaindesiredtemperatureinthehouse;butidthedoorsorwin dowsareopenedorclosedintermittentlyduringtheoperatingperiod,thefinal temperatureinsidethehousewillnotbeaccuratelyregulatedbytheopen-loop control.Anelectricwashingmachineisanothertypicalexampleofanopen-loops ystem,becausetheamountofwashtimeisentirelydeterminedbythejudgmen tandestimationofthehumanoperator.Atrueautomaticelectricwashingmach ineshouldhavethemeansofcheckingthecleanlinessoftheclothescontinuous lyandturnitsedtoffwhenthedesireddegisedofcleanlinessisreached.Closed-LoopControlSystemsWhatismissingintheopen-loopcontrolsystemformoreaccurateandmo readaptablecontrolisalinkorfeedbackfromtheoutputtotheinputofthesyste m.Inordertoobtainmoreaccuratebontrol,thecontrolledsignalc(t)mustbefe dbackandcomparedwiththereferenceinput,andanactuatingsignalproporti onaltothedifferenceoftheoutputandtheinputmustbesentthroughthesyste mtocorrecttheerror.Asystemwithoneormorefeedbackpat(slikethatjustdesc ribediscalledaclosed-loopsystem.humanbeingareprobablythemostcompl exandsophisticatedfeedbackcontrolsysteminexistence.Ahumanbeingmay beconsideredtobeacontrolsystemwithmanyinputsandoutputs,capableofc arryingouthighlycomplexoperations.Toillustratethehumanbeingasafeedbackcontrolsystem,letusconsidert hattheobjectiveistoreachforanobjectonaperformthetask.Theeyesserveasa sensingdevicewhichfeedsbackcontinuouslythepositionofthehand.Thedist ancebetweenthehandandtheobjectistheerror,whichiseventuallybroughtto zeroasthehandreachertheobject.Thisisatypicalexampleofclosed-loopcontr ol.However,ifoneistoldtoreachfortheobjectandthenisblindolded,onecano nlyreachtowardtheobjectbyestimatingitsexactposition.ItisAsantherillustra tiveexampleofaclosed-loopcontrolsystem,showstheblockdiagramoftheru ddercontrolsystemofThebasicalementsandtheblocadiagramofaclosed-loo pcontrolsystemareshowninfig.Ingeneral,theconfigurationofafeedbackcon trolsystemmaynotbeconstrainedtothatoffig&.Incomplexsystemstheremay bemultitudeoffeedbackloopsandelementblocks.数控在先进制造技术领域最根本的观念之壹是数控（NC）。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译493五轴数控铣床翻译
机械毕业设计英⽂外⽂翻译493五轴数控铣床翻译【附】英⽂原⽂翻译⽂献：Five-axis milling machine tool kinematic chain design and analysis作者：E.L.J. Bohez⽂献出处：International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 42 (2002) 505–520 翻译页数：Five-axis milling machine tool kinematic chain design and analysis 1. IntroductionThe main design specifications of a machine tool can be deduced from the following principles:● The kinematics should provide sufficient flexibility inorientation and position of tool and part.● Orientation and positioning with the highest poss iblespeed.● Orientation and positioning with the highest possibleaccuracy.● Fast change of tool and workpiece.● Save for the environment.● Highest possible material removal rate.The number of axes of a machine tool normally refers to the number of degrees of freedom or the number of independent controllable motions on the machine slides.The ISO axes nomenclature recommends the use of a right-handed coordinate system, with the tool axis corresponding to the Z-axis.A three-axis milling machine has three linear slides X, Y and Z which can be positioned everywhere within the travel limit of each slide. The tool axis direction stays fixed during machining. This limits the flexibility of the tool orientation relative to the workpiece and results in a number of different set ups. To increase the flexibility in possible tool workpiece orientations, without need of re-setup, more degrees of freedom must be added. For a conventional three linear axes machine this can be achieved by providing rotational slides. Fig. 1 gives an example of a five-axis milling machine.2. Kinematic chain diagramTo analyze the machine it is very useful to make a kinematic diagram of the machine. From this kinematic (chain) diagram two groups of axes can immediately be distinguished: the workpiece carrying axes and the tool carrying axes. Fig. 2 gives the kinematic diagram of the five-axis machine in Fig. 1. As can be seen the workpiece is carried by four axes and the toolonly by one axis.The five-axis machine is similar to two cooperating robots, one robot carrying the workpiece and one robot carrying the tool.Five degrees of freedom are the minimum required to obtain maximum flexibility in tool workpiece orientation,this means that the tool and workpiece can be oriented relative to each other under any angle. The minimum required number of axes can also be understood from a rigid body kinematics point of view. To orient two rigid bodies in space relative to each other 6 degrees of freedom are needed for each body (tool and workpiece) or 12 degrees. However any common translation and rotation which does not change the relative orientation is permitted reducing the number of degrees by 6. The distance between the bodies is prescribed by the toolpath and allows elimination of an additional degree of freedom, resulting in a minimum requirement of 5 degrees.3.Literature reviewOne of the earliest (1970) and still very useful introductions to five-axis milling was given by Baughman [1]clearly stating the applications. The APT language was then the only tool to program five-axis contouring applications.The problems in postprocessing were also clearly stated by Sim [2] in those earlier days of numerical control and most issues are still valid. Boyd in Ref.[3] was also one of the early introductions. Bez iers’ book[4] is also still a very useful introduction. Held [5] gives a very brief but enlightening definition of multi-axis machining in his book on pocket milling. A recent paper applicable to the problem of five-axis machine workspace computation is the multiple sweeping using the Denawit-Hartenberg representation method developed by Abdel-Malek and Othman [6].Many types and design concepts of machine tools which can be applied to five-axis machines are discussed in Ref. [7] but not specifically for the five-axis machine.he number of setups and the optimal orientation of the part on the machine table is discussed in Ref.[8]. A review about the state of the art and new requirements for tool path generation is given by B.K. Choi et al. [9].Graphic simulation of the interaction of the tool and workpiece is also a very active area of research and a good introduction can be found in Ref. [10].4. Classification of five-axis machines’ kinematic structureStarting from Rotary (R) and Translatory (T) axes four main groups can be distinguished: (i) three T axes and two R axes; (ii) two T axes and three R axes; (iii) one T axis and four R axes and (iv) five R axes. Nearly all existing five-axis machine tools are in group (i). Also a number of welding robots, filament winding machines and laser machining centers fall in this group. Only limited instances of five-axis machine tools in group (ii)exist for the machining of ship propellers. Groups (iii)and (iv) are used in the design of robots usually with more degrees of freedom added.The five axes can be distributed between the workpiece or tool in several combinations. A first classification can be made based on the number of workpiece and tool carrying axes and the sequence of each axis in the kinematic chain.Another classification can be based on where the rotary axes are located, on the workpiece side or tool side. The five degrees of freedom in a Cartesian coordinates based machine are: three translatory movements X,Y,Z (in general represented as TTT) and two rotational movements AB, AC or BC (in general represented as RR).Combinations of three rotary axes (RRR)and two linear axes (TT) are rare. If an axis is bearing the workpiece it is the habit of noting it with an additional accent. The five-axis machine in Fig. 1 can be characterized by XYABZ. The XYAB axes carry the workpiece and the Z-axis carries the tool. Fig. 3 shows a machine of the type XYZAB , the three linear axes carry the tool and the two rotary axes carry the workpiece.5. Workspace of a five-axis machineBefore defining the workspace of the five-axis machine tool, it is appropriate to define the workspace of the tool and the workspace of the workpiece. The workspace of the tool is the space obtained by sweeping the tool reference point (e.g. tool tip) along the path of the tool carrying axes. The workspace of the workpiece carrying axes is defined in the same way (the center of the machine table can be chosen as reference point).These workspaces can be determined by computing the swept volume [6].Based on the above-definitions some quantitative parameters can be defined which are useful for comparison, selection and design of different types of machines.6.Selection criteria of a five-axis machineIt is not the objective to make a complete study on how to select or design a five-axis machine for a certain application. Only the main criteria which can be used to justify the selection of a five-axis machine are discussed.6.1. Applications of five-axis machine toolsThe applications can be classified in positioning and contouring. Figs. 12 and 13 explain the difference between five-axispositioning and five-axis contouring.6.1.1. Five-axis positioningFig. 12 shows a part with a lot of holes and flat planes under different angles, to make this part with a three axis milling machine it is not possible to process the part in one set up. If a five-axis machine is used the tool can process. More details on countouring can be found in Ref. [13]. Applications of five-axis contouring are: (i) production of blades, such as compressor and turbine blades; (ii) injectors of fuel pumps; (iii) profiles of tires; (iv) medical prosthesis such as artificial heart valves; (v) molds made of complex surfaces.6.1.2. Five-axis contouringFig. 13 shows an example of five-axis contouring, tomachine the complex shape of the surface we need to control the orientation of the tool relative to the part during cutting. The tool workpiece orientation changes in each step. The CNC controller needs to control all the five-axes simultaneously during the material removal process. More details on countouring can be found in Ref. [13]. Applications of five-axis contouring are: (i) production of blades, such as compressor and turbine blades; (ii) injectors of fuel pumps; (iii) profiles of tires; (iv) medical prosthesis such as artificial heart valves; (v)molds made of complex surfaces.6.2. Axes configuration selectionThe size and weight of the part is very important as a first criterion to design or select a configuration. Very heavy workpieces require short workpiece kinematic chains. Also there is a preference for horizontal machine tables which makes it more convenient to fix and handle the workpiece. Putting a heavy workpiece on a single rotary axis kinematic chain will increase the orientation flexibility very much. It can be observed from Fig. 4that providing a single horizontal rotary axis to carry the workpiece will make the machine more flexible. In most cases the tool carrying kinematic chains will be kept as short as possible because the toolspindle drive must also be carried.6.3.five-axes machining of jewelryA typical workpiece could be a flower shaped part as in Fig. 14. This application is clearly contouring. The part will be relatively small compared to the tool assembly. Also small diameter tools will require a high speed spindle. A horizontalrotary table would be a very good option as the operator will have a good view of the part (with range 360°). All axes as workpiece carrying axes would be a good choice because the toolspindlecould be fixed and made very rigid. There are 20 ways in which the axes can be combined in the workpiece kinematic chain (Section 4.2.1). Here only two kinematic chains will be considered. Case one will be a T T T R R kinematic chain shown in Fig. 15. Case two will be a R R T T T kinematic chain shown in Fig.16.For model I a machine with a range of X=300mmY=250 mm, Z=200 mm, C=n 360° and A=360°, and a machine tool table of 100 mm diameter will be considered. For this kinematic chain the tool workspace is a single point. The set of tool reference points which can be selected is also small. With the above machine travel ranges the workpiece workspace will be the space swept by the center of the machine table. If the centerline of the two rotary axes intersect in the reference point, a prismatic workpiece workspace will be obtained with as size XYZ or 300×250×200 mm3. If the centerlines of the two rotary axes do not intersect in the workpiece reference point then the workpiece workspace will be larger.It will be a prismatic shape with rounded edges. The radius of this rounded edge is the excentricity of the bworkpiece reference point relative to each centerline. Model II in Fig. 15 has the rotary axes at the beginning of the kinematic chain (R R T T T ). Here also two different values of the rotary axes excentricity will be considered. The same range of the axes as in model I is considered. The parameters defined in Section 5 are computed for each model and excentricity and summarized in Table 1. It can be seen that with the rotary axes at the end of the kinematic chain (model I), a much smaller machine tool workspace is obtained. There are two main reasons for this. The swept volume of the tool and workpiece WSTOOL WSWORK is much smaller for model I. The second reason is due to the fact that a large part of the machine tool workspace cannot be used in the case of model I, because of interference with the linear axes. The workspace utilization factor however is larger for the model I with no excentricity because the union of the tool workspace and workpiece workspace is relatively smaller compared with model I with excentricity e=50 mm. The orientation space index is the same for both cases if the table diameter is kept the same. Model II can handle much larger workpieces for the same range of linear axes as in model I. The rotary axes are here in the beginning of the kinematic chain, resulting in a much larger machine tool workspace then for model I. Also there is much less interference of the machine tool workspace with the slides. The other 18 possible kinematicchain selections will give index values somewhat in between the above cases.6.4. rotary table selectionTwo machines with the same kinematic diagram (T T R R T) and the same range of travel in the linear axes will be compared (Fig. 17). There are two options for the rotary axes: two-axis table with vertical table (model I), two-axis table with horizontal table (model II). Tables 2 and 3 give the comparison of the important features. It can be observed that reducing the range of the rotary axes increases the machine tool workspace. So model I will be more suited for smaller workpieces with operations which require a large orientation range, typically contouring applications. Model II will be suited for larger workpieces with less variation in tool orientation or will require two setups. This extra setup requirement could be of less importance then the larger size. The horizontal table can use pallets which transform the internal setup to external setup. The larger angle range in the B-axes 105 to +105, Fig. 17. Model I and model II T T R R T machines. compared to 45 to +20, makes model I more suited for complex sculptured surfaces, also because the much higher angular speed range of the vertical angular table. The option with the highest spindle speed should be selected and it will permit the use of smaller cutter diameters resulting in less undercut and smaller cutting forces. The high spindle speed will make the cutting of copper electrodes for die sinking EDM machines easier. The vertical table is also better for the chip removal. The large range of angular orientation, however, reduces the maximum size of the workpiece to about 300 mm and 100 kg. Model II with the same linear axes range as model I, but much smaller range in the rotation, can easily handle a workpiece of double size and weight. Model II will be good for positioning applications. Model I cannot be provided with automaticworkpiece exchange, making it less suitable for mass production. Model II has automatic workpiece exchange and is suitable for mass production of position applications. Model I could, however, be selected for positioning applications for parts such as hydraulic valve housings which are small and would require a large angular range.7.New machine concepts based on the Stewart platformConventional machine tool structures are based on Carthesian coordinates. Many surface contouring applications can be machined in optimal conditions only with five-axis machines. This five-axis machine structure requires two additional rotary axes. To make accurate machines, with the required stiffness, able to carry large workpieces, very heavy and large machines are required. As can be seen from the kinematic chain diagram of the classical five-axis machine design the first axis in the chain carries all the subsequent axes. So the dynamic responce will be limited by the combined inertia. A mechanism which can move the workpiece without having to carry the other axes would be the ideal. A new design concept is the use of a‘HEXAPOD’. Stewart [16] described the hexapod principle in 1965. It was first constructed by Gough and Whitehall [20] in 1954 and served as tire tester. Many possible uses were proposed but it was only applied to flight simulator platforms. Thereason was the complexity of the control of the six actuators. Recently with the amazing increase of speed and reduction in cost of computing, the Stewart platform is used by two American Companies in the design of new machine tools. The first machine is the VARIAX machine from the company Giddings and Lewis, USA. The second machine is the HEXAPOD from the Ingersoll company, USA. The systematic design of Hexapods and other similar systems is discussed in Ref. [17]. The problem of defining and determining the workspace of virtual axis machine tools is discussed in Ref. [18]. It can be observed from the design of the machine that once the position of the tool carrying plane is determined uniquely by the CL date (point + vector), it is still possible to rotate the tool carrying platform around the tool axis. This results in a large number of possible length combinations of the telescopic actuators for the same CL data.8.ConclusionTheoretically there are large number of ways in which a five-axis machine can be built. Nearly all classical Cartesian five-axis machines belong to the group with three linear and two rotational axes or three rotational axes and two linear axes. This group can be subdivided in six subgroups each with 720 instances.If only the instances with three linear axes are considered there are still 360instances in each group. The instances are differentiated based on the order of the axes in both tool and workpiece carrying kinematic chain.If only the location of the rotary axes in the tool and workpiece kinematic chain is considered for grouping five-axis machines withthree linear axes and two rotational axes, three groups can be distinguished. In the first group the two rotary axes are implemented in the workpiece kinematic chain. In the second group the two rotary axes are implemented in the tool kinematic chain.In the third group there is one rotary axis in each kinematic chain. Each group still has twenty possible instances.To determine the best instance for a specific application area is a complex issue. To facilitate this some indexes for comparison have been defined such as the machine tool workspace, workspace utilization factor, orientation space index, orientation angle index and machine tool space efficiency. An algorithm to compute the machine tool workspace and the diameter of the largest spherical dome which can be machined on the machine was outlined.The use of these indexes for two examples was discussed in detail. The first example considers the design of a five-axis machine for jewelry machining. The second example illustrates the selection of the rotary axes options in the case of a machine with the same range in linear axes.翻译题名：Five-axis milling machine tool kinematic chain design and analysis期刊与作者：E.L.J. Bohez出版社：International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 42 (2002) 505–520●英⽂译⽂摘要：现如今五轴数控加⼯中⼼已经⾮常普及。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译446数控机床 (2)
附录CNC machineWhile the specific intention and application for CNC machines vary from one machine type to another, all forms of CNC have common benefits. Here are but a few of the more important benefits offered by CNC equipment.The first benefit offered by all forms of CNC machine tools is improved automation. The operator intervention related to producing workpieces can be reduced or eliminated. Many CNC machines can run unattended during their entire machining cycle, freeing the operator to do other tasks. This gives the CNC user several side benefits including reduced operator fatigue, fewer mistakes caused by human error, and consistent and predictable machining time for each workpiece. Since the machine will be running under program control, the skill level required of the CNC operator (related to basic machining practice) is also reduced as compared to a machinist producing workpieces with conventional machine tools.The second major benefit of CNC technology is consistent and accurate workpieces. Today's CNC machines boast almost unbelievable accuracy and repeatability specifications. Thismeans that once a program is verified, two, ten, or one thousand identical workpieces can be easily produced with precision and consistency.A third benefit offered by most forms of CNC machine tools is flexibility. Since these machines are run from programs, running a different workpiece is almost as easy as loading a different program. Once a program has been verified and executed for one production run, it can be easily recalled the next time the workpiece is to be run. This leads to yet another benefit, fast change over. Since these machines are very easy to set up and run, and since programs can be easily loaded, they allow very short setup time. This is imperative with today's just-in-time (JIT) product requirements.Motion control - the heart of CNCThe most basic function of any CNC machine is automatic, precise, and consistent motion control. Rather than applying completely mechanical devices to cause motion as is required on most conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion control in a revolutionary manner2. All forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion, called axes. These axes can be precisely and automatically positioned along their lengths of travel. The two most common axis types arelinear (driven along a straight path)and rotary (driven along a circular path).Instead of causing motion by turning cranks and handwheels as is required on conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motions to be commanded through programmed commands. Generally speaking, the motion type (rapid, linear, and circular), the axes to move, the amount of motion and the motion rate (feedrate) are programmable with almost all CNC machine tools.A CNC command executed within the control tells the drive motor to rotate a precise number of times. The rotation of the drive motor in turn rotates the ball screw. And the ball screw drives the linear axis (slide). A feedback device (linear scale) on the slide allows the control to confirm that the commanded number of rotations has taken place3. Refer to fig.1.Fig.1Though a rather crude analogy, the same basic linear motion can be found on a common table vise. As you rotate thevise crank, you rotate a lead screw that, in turn, drives the movable jaw on the vise. By comparison, a linear axis on a CNC machine tool is extremely precise. The number of revolutions of the axis drive motor precisely controls the amount of linear motion along the axis.How axis motion is commanded - understanding coordinate systemsIt would be infeasible for the CNC user to cause axis motion by trying to tell each axis drive motor how many times to rotate in order to command a given linear motion amount4. (This would be like having to figure out how many turns of the handle on a table vise will cause the movable jaw to move exactly one inch!) Instead, all CNC controls allow axis motion to be commanded in a much simpler and more logical way by utilizing some form of coordinate system. The two most popular coordinate systems used with CNC machines are the rectangular coordinate system and the polar coordinate system. By far, the more popular of these two is the rectangular coordinate system.The program zero point establishes the point of reference for motion commands in a CNC program. This allows the programmer to specify movements from a common location. Ifprogram zero is chosen wisely, usually coordinates needed for the program can be taken directly from the print.With this technique, if the programmer wishes the tool to be sent to a position one inch to the right of the program zero point, X1.0 is commanded. If the programmer wishes the tool to move to a position one inch above the program zero point, Y1.0 is commanded. The control will automatically determine how many times to rotate each axis drive motor and ball screw to make the axis reach the commanded destination point . This lets the programmer command axis motion in a very logical manner. Refer to fig.2, 3.Fig.2Fig.3All discussions to this point assume that the absolute mode of programming is used6. The most common CNC word used to designate the absolute mode is G90. In the absolute mode, the end points for all motions will be specified from the program zero point. For beginners, this is usually the best and easiest method of specifying end points for motion commands. However, there is another way of specifying end points for axis motion.In the incremental mode (commonly specified by G91), end points for motions are specified from the tool's current position, not from program zero. With this method of commanding motion, the programmer must always be asking "How far should I move the tool?" While there are times when the incremental mode can be very helpful, generally speaking, this is the more cumbersome and difficult method of specifyingmotion and beginners should concentrate on using the absolute mode.Be careful when making motion commands. Beginners have the tendency to think incrementally. If working in the absolute mode (as beginners should), the programmer should always be asking "To what position should the tool be moved?" This position is relative to program zero, NOT from the tools current position.Aside from making it very easy to determine the current position for any command, another benefit of working in the absolute mode has to do with mistakes made during motion commands. In the absolute mode, if a motion mistake is made in one command of the program, only one movement will be incorrect. On the other hand, if a mistake is made during incremental movements, all motions from the point of the mistake will also be incorrect.Assigning program zeroKeep in mind that the CNC control must be told the location of the program zero point by one means or another. How this is done varies dramatically from one CNC machine and control to another8. One (older) method is to assign program zero in the program. With this method, the programmer tellsthe control how far it is from the program zero point to the starting position of the machine. This is commonly done with a G92 (or G50) command at least at the beginning of the program and possibly at the beginning of each tool.Another, newer and better way to assign program zero is through some form of offset. Refer to fig.4. Commonly machining center control manufacturers call offsets used to assign program zero fixture offsets. Turning center manufacturers commonly call offsets used to assign program zero for each tool geometry offsets.Fig. 4Flexible manufacturing cellsA flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) can be considered as a flexible manufacturing subsystem. The following differences exist between the FMC and the FMS:1.A n FMC is not under the direct control of thecentral computer. Instead, instructions from the central computer are passed to the cell controller.2.The cell is limited in the number of part families itcan manufacture.The following elements are normally found in an FMC:•Cell controller•Programmable logic controller (PLC)•More than one machine tool•A materials handling device (robot or pallet)The FMC executes fixed machining operations with parts flowing sequentially between operations.High speed machiningThe term High Speed Machining (HSM) commonly refers to end milling at high rotational speeds and high surface feeds. For instance, the routing of pockets in aluminum airframe sections with a very high material removal rate1. Over the past 60 years, HSM has been applied to a wide range of metallic and non-metallic workpiece materials, including the production of components with specific surface topography requirements and machining of materials with hardness of 50 HRC and above. With most steel components hardened to approximately 32-42HRC, machining options currently include: Rough machining and semi-finishing of the material in its soft (annealed) condition heat treatment to achieve the final required hardness = 63 HRC machining of electrodes and Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) of specific parts of dies and moulds (specifically small radii and deep cavities with limited accessibility for metal cutting tools) finishing and super-finishing of cylindrical/flat/cavity surfaces with appropriate cemented carbide, cermet, solid carbide, mixed ceramic or polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN)For many components, the production process involves a combination of these options and in the case of dies and moulds it also includes time consuming hand finishing. Consequently, production costs can be high and lead times excessive.It is typical in the die and mould industry to produce one or just a few tools of the same design. The process involves constant changes to the design, and because of these changes there is also a corresponding need for measuring and reverse engineering .The main criteria is the quality level of the die or mould regarding dimensional, geometric and surface accuracy. If thequality level after machining is poor and if it cannot meet the requirements, there will be a varying need of manual finishing work. This work produces satisfactory surface accuracy, but it always has a negative impact on the dimensional and geometric accuracy.One of the main aims for the die and mould industry has been, and still is, to reduce or eliminate the need for manual polishing and thus improve the quality and shorten the production costs and lead times.Main economical and technical factors for the development of HSMSurvivalThe ever increasing competition in the marketplace is continually setting new standards. The demands on time and cost efficiency is getting higher and higher. This has forced the development of new processes and production techniques to take place. HSM provides hope and solutions...MaterialsThe development of new, more difficult to machine materials has underlined the necessity to find new machining solutions. The aerospace industry has its heat resistant and stainless steel alloys. The automotive industry has differentbimetal compositions, Compact Graphite Iron and an ever increasing volume of aluminum3. The die and mould industry mainly has to face the problem of machining high hardened tool steels, from roughing to finishing.QualityThe demand for higher component or product quality is the result of ever increasing competition. HSM, if applied correctly, offers a number of solutions in this area. Substitution of manual finishing is one example, which is especially important on dies and moulds or components with a complex 3D geometry.ProcessesThe demands on shorter throughput times via fewer setups and simplified flows (logistics) can in most cases, be solved by HSM. A typical target within the die and mould industry is to completely machine fully hardened small sized tools in one setup. Costly and time consuming EDM processes can also be reduced or eliminated with HSM.Design & developmentOne of the main tools in today's competition is to sell products on the value of novelty. The average product life cycle on cars today is 4 years, computers and accessories 1.5 years, handphones 3 months... One of the prerequisites of this development of fast design changes and rapid product development time is the HSM technique.Complex productsThere is an increase of multi-functional surfaces on components, such as new design of turbine blades giving new and optimized functions and features. Earlier designs allowed polishing by hand or with robots (manipulators). Turbine blades with new, more sophisticated designs have to be finished via machining and preferably by HSM . There are also more and more examples of thin walled workpieces that have to be machined (medical equipment, electronics, products for defence, computer parts)Production equipmentThe strong development of cutting materials, holding tools, machine tools, controls and especially CAD/CAM features and equipment, has opened possibilities that must be met with new production methods and techniques5.Definition of HSMSalomon's theory, "Machining with high cutting speeds..." on which, in 1931, took out a German patent, assumes that "at a certain cutting speed (5-10 times higher than in conventionalmachining), the chip removal temperature at the cutting edge will start to decrease..."Given the conclusion:" ... seems to give a chance to improve productivity in machining with conventional tools at high cutting speeds..."Modern research, unfortunately, has not been able to verify this theory totally. There is a relative decrease of the temperature at the cutting edge that starts at certain cutting speeds for different materials.The decrease is small for steel and cast iron. But larger for aluminum and other non-ferrous metals. The definition of HSM must be based on other factors.Given today's technology, "high speed" is generally accepted to mean surface speeds between 1 and 10 kilometers per minute or roughly 3 300 to 33 000 feet per minute. Speeds above 10 km/min are in the ultra-high speed category, and are largely the realm of experimental metal cutting. Obviously, the spindle rotations required to achieve these surface cutting speeds are directly related to the diameter of the tools being used. One trend which is very evident today is the use of very large cutter diameters for these applications - and this has important implications for tool design.There are many opinions, many myths and many different ways to define HSM.数控机床虽然各种数控机床的功能和应用各不相同，但它们有着共同的优点。
机床——机械类外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系部：专业：姓名：学号：外文出处：English For Electromechanical(用外文写)Engineering附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文机床机床是用于切削金属的机器。
工业上使用的机床要数车床、钻床和铣床最为重要。
其它类型的金属切削机床在金属切削加工方面不及这三种机床应用广泛。
车床通常被称为所有类型机床的始祖。
为了进行车削，当工件旋转经过刀具时，车床用一把单刃刀具切除金属。
用车削可以加工各种圆柱型的工件，如：轴、齿轮坯、皮带轮和丝杠轴。
镗削加工可以用来扩大和精加工定位精度很高的孔。
钻削是由旋转的钻头完成的。
大多数金属的钻削由麻花钻来完成。
用来进行钻削加工的机床称为钻床。
铰孔和攻螺纹也归类为钻削过程。
铰孔是从已经钻好的孔上再切除少量的金属。
攻螺纹是在内孔上加工出螺纹，以使螺钉或螺栓旋进孔内。
铣削由旋转的、多切削刃的铣刀来完成。
铣刀有多种类型和尺寸。
有些铣刀只有两个切削刃，而有些则有多达三十或更多的切削刃。
铣刀根据使用的刀具不同能加工平面、斜面、沟槽、齿轮轮齿和其它外形轮廓。
牛头刨床和龙门刨床用单刃刀具来加工平面。
用牛头刨床进行加工时，刀具在机床上往复运动，而工件朝向刀具自动进给。
在用龙门刨床进行加工时，工件安装在工作台上，工作台往复经过刀具而切除金属。
工作台每完成一个行程刀具自动向工件进给一个小的进给量。
磨削利用磨粒来完成切削工作。
根据加工要求，磨削可分为精密磨削和非精密磨削。
精密磨削用于公差小和非常光洁的表面，非精密磨削用于在精度要求不高的地方切除多余的金属。
车床车床是用来从圆形工件表面切除金属的机床，工件安装在车床的两个顶尖之间，并绕顶尖轴线旋转。
车削工件时，车刀沿着工件的旋转轴线平行移动或与工件的旋转轴线成一斜角移动，将工件表面的金属切除。
车刀的这种位移称为进给。
车刀装夹在刀架上，刀架则固定在溜板上。
溜板是使刀具沿所需方向进行进给的机构。
机械毕业设计外文翻译---数控机床
What Is CNCCNC stands for Computer Numerical Control and has been around since the early 1970''s. Prior to this, it was called NC, for Numerical Control. (In the early 1970''s, computers were introduced in these controls, hence the name changed)While people in most walks of life have never heard of this term, CNC has touched almost every form of manufacturing process in one way or another. If you''ll be working in manufacturing, it''s likely that you''ll be dealing with CNC on a regular basis.Before CNCWhile there are exceptions to this statement, CNC machines typically replace (or work in conjunction with) some existing manufacturing process/es. Take one of the simplest manufacturing processes, drilling holes, for example.A drill press can of course be used to machine holes. (It''s likely that almost everyone has seen some form of drill press, even if you don''t work in manufacturing.) A person can place a drill in the drill chuck that is secured in the spindle of the drill press. They can then (manually) select the desired speed for rotation (commonly by switching belt pulleys), and activate the spindle. Then they manually pull on the quill lever to drive the drill into the workpiece being machined.As you can easily see, there is a lot of manual intervention required to use a drill press to drill holes. A person is required to do something almost every step along the way! While this manual intervention may be acceptable for manufacturing companies if but a small number of holes or workpieces must be machined, as quantities grow, so does the likelihood for fatigue due to the tediousness of the operation. And do note that we''ve used one of the simplest machining operations (drilling) for our example. There are more complicated machining operations that would require a much higher skill level (and increase the potential for mistakes resulting in scrap workpieces) of the person running the conventional machine tool. (We commonly refer to the style of machine that CNC is replacing as the conventional machine.)By comparison, the CNC equivalent for a drill press (possibly a CNC machining center or CNC drilling & tapping center) can be programmed to perform this operation in a much more automatic fashion. Everything that the drill press operator was doing manually will now be done by the CNC machine, including: placing the drill in the spindle, activating the spindle, positioning the workpiece under the drill, machining the hole, and turning off the spindle.How CNC worksThere is another article included in this web site called The Basics of CNC that explains how to program, setup, and operate CNC machines in greater detail. Additionally, we offer a series of products aimed at helping you learn how to use CNC machines. Here we''re relating how CNC works in very general terms.As you might already have guessed, everything that an operator would be required to do with conventional machine tools is programmable with CNC machines. Once the machine is setup and running, a CNC machine is quite simple to keep running. In fact CNC operators tend to get quite bored during lengthy production runs because there is so little to do. With some CNC machines, even the workpiece loading process has been automated. (We don''t mean toover-simplify here. CNC operators are commonly required to do other things related to the CNC operation like measuring workpieces and making adjustments to keep the CNC machine running good workpieces.)Let''s look at some of the specific programmable functions.Motion controlAll CNC machine types share this commonality: They all have two or more programmable directions of motion called axes. An axis of motion can be linear (along a straight line) or rotary (along a circular path). One of the first specifications that implies a CNC machine''s complexity is how many axes it has. Generally speaking, the more axes, the more complex the machine.The axes of any CNC machine are required for the purpose of causing the motions needed for the manufacturing process. In the drilling example, these (3) axis would position the tool over the hole to be machined (in two axes) and machine the hole (with the third axis). Axes are named with letters. Common linear axis names are X, Y, and Z. Common rotary axis names are A, B, and C.Programmable accessoriesA CNC machine wouldn''t be very helpful if all it could only move the workpiece in two or more axes. Almost all CNC machines are programmable in several other ways. The specific CNC machine type has a lot to do with its appropriate programmable accessories. Again, any required function will be programmable on full-blown CNC machine tools. Here are some examples for one machine type.Machining centersAutomatic tool changerMost machining centers can hold many tools in a tool magazine. When required, the required tool can be automatically placed in the spindle for machining.Spindle speed and activationThe spindle speed (in revolutions per minute) can be easily specified and the spindle can be turned on in a forward or reverse direction. It can also, of course, be turned off.CoolantMany machining operations require coolant for lubrication and cooling purposes. Coolant can be turned on and off from within the machine cycle.The CNC programThink of giving any series of step-by-step instructions. A CNC program is nothing more than another kind of instruction set. It''s written in sentence-like format and the control will execute it in sequential order, step by step.A special series of CNC words are used to communicate what the machine is intended to do. CNC words begin with letter addresses (like F for feedrate（馈送率）, S for spindle speed, and X, Y & Z for axis motion). When placed together in a logical method, a group of CNC words make up a command that resemble a sentence.For any given CNC machine type, there will only be about 40-50 words used on a regular basis. So if you compare learning to write CNC programs to learning a foreign language having only50 words, it shouldn''t seem overly difficult to learn CNC programming.The CNC controlThe CNC control will interpret a CNC program and activate the series of commands in sequential order. As it reads the program, the CNC control will activate the appropriate machine functions, cause axis motion, and in general, follow the instructions given in the program.Along with interpreting the CNC program, the CNC control has several other purposes. All current model CNC controls allow programs to be modified (edited) if mistakes are found. The CNC control allows special verification functions (like dry run) to confirm the correctness of the CNC program. The CNC control allows certain important operator inputs to be specified separate from the program, like tool length values. In general, the CNC control allows all functions of the machine to be manipulated.What is a CAM system?For simple application (like drilling holes), the CNC program can be developed manually. That is, a programmer will sit down to write the program armed only with pencil, paper, and calculator. Again, for simple applications, this may be the very best way to develop CNC programs.As applications get more complicated, and especially when new programs are required on a regular basis, writing programs manually becomes much more difficult. To simplify the programming process, a computer aided manufacturing (CAM) system can be used. A CAM system is a software program that runs on a computer (commonly a PC) that helps the CNC programmer with the programming process. Generally speaking, a CAM system will take the tediousness and drudgery out of programming.What is a DNC system?Once the program is developed(either manually or with a CAM system), it must be loaded into the CNC control. Though the setup person could type the program right into the control, this would be like using the CNC machine as a very expensive typewriter. If the CNC program is developed with the help of a CAM system, then it is already in the form of a text file . If the program is written manually, it can be typed into any computer using a common word processor (though most companies use a special CNC text editor for this purpose). Either way, the program is in the form of a text file that can be transferred right into the CNC machine. A distributive numerical control (DNC) system is used for this purpose.A DNC system is nothing more than a computer that is networked with one or more CNC machines. Until only recently, rather crude serial communications protocol (RS-232c) had to be used for transferring programs. Newer controls have more current communications capabilities and can be networked in more conventional ways (Ethernet, etc.). Regardless of methods, the CNC program must of course be loaded into the CNC machine before it can be run.中文翻译：什么数控机床数控机床代表计算机数字控制机床，并且从20世纪70年代以来一直受到人们的关注。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译253计算机辅助数控编程应用于非典型零件的加工
COMPUTER-AIDED CNC PROGRAMMINGFOR THE MACHINING OF NON-TYPICAL PARTSGrzegorz NikielGrzegorz NIKIEL, Ph.D., Eng., University of Bielsko-Biała, Department ofManufacturing Technology and Automation, 43-309 Bielsko-Biała, ul. Willowa 2,gnikiel@ath.bielsko.pl1. IntroductionMany manufacturing firms, especially medium and small, has to solve problem of production development and search of new customers. In many cases this leads to the assortment enlarging of already manufactured products. Often this is joined with implementation of the new manufacturing processes. In conditions of market competition it demands high flexibility which is often got in way replacing of conventional manufacturing resources by the modern CNC tool machines [1]. This is essentials condition for more efficient development, higher quality and faster adoption to new requirements [2]. For maintenance of the low costs of manufacturing for production of small and medium batches very often the Group Technology is applied [3]. With help of grouping of the manufactured components into families more efficient the machines, devices, workers are used. In the processes planning one from most important tasks is the CNC machine tool programming [4, 5]. Very often the CAD/CAM systems are used from reason their possibility of flexible programming. In the case of typical components such approach the positive results gives, though it demands an efficient co-operations between constructors and technologist.Sometimes from different reasons it is impossible, especially when the Group Technology is applied. Usually the part programs for machining of single components are created, but the modern CNC controllers offer some methods of programming, which to machining of some similar components can be used. Such methods are:1.Cycles [6]. The cycles are design for machining of typical surfaces (the holes, threads, slots etc.). Usually a parametric description of machined surfaces is applied which enable the easy and fast changes of their geometry. Unfortunately they becharacterized by small flexibility and small influence onto strategy of machining, dependent only from the parameters of cycle. In the modern controllers it permit onto a Workshop Oriented Programming (WOP), i.e. programming directly by the operators, often aided by a dialog programming (sometimes a conversational programming called). Therefore this is relative simple programming method, very often used in industrial practice.2.Parametric programming [5, 6]. A typical part program is executed from beginning to end in one run. In parametric programming the execution of part program can run into different way (e.g. by conditional instruction IF.. THEN.. use). In addition, a multiple repetition of the part program fragment is accessible (REPEAT loop, WHILE loop etc.). Furthermore, the arithmetical functions and other advanced functions are possible. The axis positions, feed and speed functions, etc. can be specified by a parametric expressions (by R-parameters use). Into this way it was been possible to create own machining cycles also. This approach demands high skills of programming and is very labour-consuming also. Exact verification of the program is necessary, in this its immunity in the dangerous situations (e.g. joined with application of incorrect value of the input parameters). Therefore in view of above mentioned defects it is infrequently used in industrial practice.3. Programming based on the freely defined contours.The task depends on defining of machined contour and its automatic conversion to the CNC codes. If the automatic cutter radius compensation (the G41 and G42 functions) is not used then additionally a equidistant has to be generated. This sub-task is easy to realization if mentioned contour is represented in a CAD system – with help of the Offset function. Second sub-task often is realized in way of export of graphic form of the tool path to the typical formats of data exchange (DXF, HPGL etc.). In next step by the suitable postprocessors use (for example the solution given in [7]) conversion of tool path onto the CNC codes is performed. From practical regards this approach in generality for the simple operations is applied, e.g. a laser cutting, a water jet cutting etc. A solution integrating both sub-tasks in oneapplication program are applied also – the AutoCUT is the best example [8]. In practice this solution is not applied too often although it possesses many advantages.In the conditions of small batch production a process planning to the CNC programming is often restricted [9]. In this situation large meaning has integration of the CAD/CAM systems with omission of CAPP stage. The Features idea is then a effective method of data exchange [10, 11, 12]. When the Group Technology is used, after supplement by appropriate data bases and knowledge bases, it can be best solution for production of typical elements [13, 14]. In case of non-typical parts such approach generally is ineffective. Mainly in view of the widely applied methods of Features recognizing which limit number of the Feature types [10, 12]. Maybe in future a solution will bring integration of CAD/CAM/CNC systems based on the STEP-NC standards (ISO 14649, ISO 10303:238) [15, 16] which will replace traditionally applied CNC programming with G-codes onto thing of the neutral format of data exchange.2. Analysis of the examplesPresented below examples of the group CNC machining are a fragment of production program from the small firm. Generally this components have non-typical shapes, they are manufactured from hard materials (e.g. austenitic stainless steel), usually needed the special jigs and fixtures, in the conditions of small batch production. The planning processes in this case demand a participation of technologists with large experience. A specific character of accessible tool machines for defining of the method of CNC programming should to consider also. After execution of detailed analysis onto subject of the discussed methods the following conclusions were formulated:•The machined shapes exclude applying of the standard cycles. Most of the programs is design for the complicated profiles machining. From here description of these profiles is largest problem. Moreover, machining of the components isperformed on the different tool machines, equipped in different controller.•For most of machined components the exact drawing documentation is not made. In a production order the general drawings are included, often described by parametric dimensions. Then current values of this parameters are given also.•Short series and large variety of the components demands fast modifying of current production program. Fast CNC programming and the programs implementation is necessary, best directly at tool machine (WOP).•Often the operators of tool machines possess large knowledge and experience in the area of manufacturing technology, sufficient for preparation of simple program (in range of the technology). Fast preparation of the tool path is limitation only.General conclusion is such, that in presented case use of the universal CAD/CAM systems for CNC programming is very difficult. Moreover, it joins with high costs of shopping and trainings for the workers. Low flexibility of this method is expected also, especially time of programming can be a great problem. In this situation a parametric programming as the best solution wasconsidered. But, as it was shew on the examples, the parametric programming can be realized in different way.2.1. Example I – the grooved rollers finish machiningFinish machining of the grooved rollers family was subject of research (Fig. 1). Basic changing dimensions for rollers were external diameter d, working profile length L and profile angle α. The profile of co-operate roller is moved by half pitch. Finish machining is performed by turning with use of tool with the V type rhombic insert (nose angle equal 35°), where the nose radius rε is equal 0,4 mm (Fig. 1). The tool reference point is located in the insert nose center. For each pair of rollers their profile is designed in a CAD environment according to the dimensions of rolling elements. A fast method of tool path generation was the main subject of performed research. First of all generating of the tool path (only finishing, without rough machining which is programmed in a manual mode) and forming it in accordance with requirements of appropriate language. As has been mentioned above the use of parametric program was considered. With help of the advanced programmingmethods (e.g. transformations of co-ordinate system, sub-programs etc.) it was been possible to achievement the aim of this study. However, number of the machined rollers is very small (some per year). Therefore another approach was accepted. Because for each roller a exact CAD model is prepared (2D model), it was used to CNC programming. For achievement of this aim the following activities was considered:•For each used CNC controller the framework of part program is created, including program header, technological functions, tool functions and program end (without tool path).•In a CAD environment the model co-ordinate system is assigned to the workpiece co-ordinate system.•In the semi-automatic mode from the model of working surface a tool path is extracted with use the Offset function.•Manually the run-in path and the run-out path is added. For different elements of tool path (with working interpolation or with rapid interpolation) differentattributes of line were applied.•The designed tool path is converted to a numerical form in semi-automatic mode by special program (written in LISP language) and inserted to the part program (created previously). User has to show only first element of the tool path, further analysis is worked out on basis of the drawing data base (Fig. 2).•Finally the part program is verified, the cutting parameters values are corrected and a graphical simulation of machining is executed (Fig. 3). Total time of program planning (without preparing of CAD model) then about some minutes. An universal postprocessor was not applied (e.g. [7]) because format of the CNC program can be easily adapt to requirements of controller. Furthermore time of designing became significantly shortened.2.2. Example II – the multi-edge rings profile machiningThe multi-edge rings profile machining was subject of the research (Fig. 4). On the face three zones of grooves are machined. Number of grooves (n1, n2, n3) results from companies' recommendations. In every zone the constant value of pitch S is kept. The grooves dimensions (S, F, G) and the chamfer dimension w are changing and they have to be contain in the recommended limits. Their values are calculated for the constant diameters D1 and D2 (given in a production order). Just after complete determining of grooves geometrical form the machining operation can be designed. The rings are machined by tool with square insert (S type) – Fig. 4. The tool reference point is located in the insert nose center. In order to clearly determine of the remaining ring dimensions the following dependences were accepted (according to the recommendations):and the geometrical dependences are described as follows (Fig. 4):what causes that the S, w and F dimensions in given ranges have to be changed until total number of grooves will not be a natural number. The above task as a optimization problem has treated where three decision values are given (S, w and F) and the constrains is given according to equation (1). The criterion function is calculated according to equation (2). The problem of optimization has solved by the Hooke-Jeves method use [17].When ring geometry is finally determined then calculations of tool path elements is very simple – tool is moved along equidistant. Therefore was assumed that this two tasks will be solved by means of one program (Fig. 5), a similar approach was showed in [18]. After introduction of value of well-known dimensions (e.g. from production order) the value of remaining dimensions are automatically calculated. If user accepts this values then the part program is generated automatically (in non-parametric form). In opposite case user can improve values of dimensions and their correctness is checked by program. After execution of simulation (Fig. 6) the part program can be transmitted to CNC controller.2.3. Example III – the eccentric seal rings machiningThe eccentric seal rings machining was subject of the research. The external surface of ring which have shape of cone, is machined in analyzed operation. (Fig.7). A machining datum is located on the internal cylindrical surface (with diameter D) and on the face surface. The groove with diameter dr is made as option. Steel cylindrical ring is a semi-product (from acid-resistant steel or from stainless steel). Described operation comprise two stages: the roughing machining (removal of considerable allowance on part of ring) and finish machining (for obtainment of the exact shape). The shape accuracy has larger importance than the surface roughness (the exploational requirements) [19]. The operation is executed by use of typical tool with rhombic insert (C type). In the part program a linear position of tool (linear co-ordinates Z and X) and an angular position of spindle (angular co-ordinate C) have to be joint. Initially a 3D parametric model making was analyzed (e.g. in AutoDeskInventor environment) and use it for generating of the part program (e.g. in EdgeCAM environment [20, 21]). Finally another approach was accepted – a parametric program was used for rings machining. This decision is justified by following premises:•larger influence onto machining strategy, especially due to the machined materials;•possibility of program set-up directly at the machine tool, even by machine operators;•easy and fast changes of part program execution;•considerably smaller size of program;•high cost of the CAM systems.Nevertheless this solution own one important disadvantage – the group program has to work in accordance to very complicated algorithm. Especially, where calculations of co-ordinate points on the cone have to be carried out. Moreover, cutter radius compensation is performed (automatic cutter radius compensation is impossible). In this situation efficiency of a CNC controller can to make significant limitation. It was checked that time of calculation at full implementation of mentioned algorithm on the CNC controller is too long in relation to required speed of machining. Simplifying of the program was indispensable for correct realization of this operation.The final form of proposed CNC program is showed in Fig. 8. The main program (PIERSCIEN.MPF) is fixed for the rings family, where the machining in a parametric form is described. A subprogram (DANE.SPF) is a data set (in the R-parameters form) which dimensions of the concrete ring define (from a design documentation). Moreover, mentioned subprogram contains the technological parameters (a speed, a feed, etc.) and co-ordinates of the selected points on the machined surface. These points are required to calculation other remaining coordinates in the part program. Mentioned coordinates are determined by use of an additional program, working in the external computer [19]. To tasks of this program should help user at data introducing (Fig. 9), the necessary calculations and the subprogram saving in accordance with requirements of given CNC controller. In next step the part program simulation can be performed (Fig. 10). In last step the part program is sent to a CNC controller.In proposed form the main program contains about 190 blocks, the subprogram –about 150 blocks. If it was accepted first from considered solutions then part program is considerably longer. Presented part program generates about 80÷100 thousands of the tool movements.3. A CNC programming in off-line modeA CNC programming directly on the machine tools (in on-line mode) is very difficult, even sometime impossible. Advanced methods of parametric programming (calculation on the parameters, the structural functions, the jumps etc.) demand exact verification of the algorithm. Exclude this functions usually such part programs use simple methods for the co-ordinates giving. A graphical simulation of parametric programs was not been possible to execute in wide applied popular CAM systems (from reason of the rules of their work). Moreover, often in industrial practice fast conversion a NC program to other language is required. From this in practice sometimes one should to create specialized software [22].Therefore the original system for NC programs analysis and simulation was realized [23] – Fig. 3, Fig. 6, Fig. 10. Acceleration and facilitation of programming in off-line mode,especially for parametric programs is main purpose. Discussed system contains typical modules – specialized editor, graphical simulation module, offset registers, parameters table, programs database, serial transmission module, etc. As base language was accepted Sinumerik 840D/810D (Siemens) because largest set of functions it contains. Onto its basis was created original, internal programming language (where work philosophy is based on the APT system idea). Therefore the work of this system runes in accordance with presented architecture – Fig. 11.A preprocessor translates the part program written in language of concrete controller (Siemens, Fanuc, Heidenhain) onto its internal language. Simultaneously syntactic correctness of the part program is checked. In this form the CNC program is analyzed and executed through processor and in analogical form is remembered. In next step this program can be simulated or translated by postprocessor onto CNC program for other controllers. If necessary is including a new language then should to make only new postprocessor or preprocessor, without necessity of changes in the processor. Common procedures for analyses and simulation, included in the processor, simplify adaptation of the system to new tasks.4. ConclusionIn all presented above examples the typical CNC programming methods use was analyzed. Both cycles as programming with help of the Computer Aided Manufacturing systems (CAM) based on parametric solid models were ineffective. For all analyzed surfaces their geometry is significantly different from geometry of the standard cycles. If CAM software is used then has to be prepared exact model of the machined part (by CAD software). In conditions of small batch production no always this is possible. Use of described methods of programming can be often onereal solution.Presented approach possesses many advantages. Firstly, significantly reduce the part programming time (to some minutes). The CNC programs can be generated by operators directly at tool machine. Possession of the exact drawings of machined parts is not required (with except of first presented example). Correctness of the generated programs is very high, applying of additional verification (e.g. graphical simulation) usually does not join from modification (except changes of machining parameter values). Significantly is decreased time and cost of the programs start. More expensive CAM software are not necessary. This approach could reduce the number of program changeovers and decrease programs length. The disadvantages of presented approach are naturally also. Firstly, is necessary additional time onto analysis of problem, solution proposing and often additional software preparing. Formulating of the complex geometricdependences for a tool path calculation demands large knowledge from area of mathematics and geometry. Moreover, a user should to know to write this formulas in the form of computer programs. Such approach does not have to generate additional costs onto shopping of the commercial programming systems because are accessible their free non-commercial versions (e.g. used by author Borland Turbo Delphi, AutoLISP or Visual Basic for Application available as the programming interfaces for AutoCAD, Inventor, etc.).In opinion of author in situation of process planning for the parts about non-typical shapes, especially when Group Technology is used, applying of non-typical methods of CNC programming is required also. Then use of unconventional tools of computer aid is necessary. Described in this paper solutions are the best example of this approach.References[1] B.Z. GONG: The processing of parts with group technology in an individual CNC machining center. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 129(2002)1, 645-648.[2] J. BALIC: Model of automated computer aided NC machine tools programming. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering.17(2006), 1-2, 309-312.[3] I. KURIC, J. KUBA: Development of CAPP systems based on group technology. Proc. ofInt. Conf. Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Zakopane 2001, 285-292.[4] M. DJASSEMI: An Efficient CNC Programming Approach Based on Group Technology. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 19(2000), 213-217.[5] M. DJASSEMI: A Parametric Programming Technique For Efficient CNC Machining Operations. Computers and Industrial Engineering, 35(1998)1, 33-36.[6] M. L YNCH: Parametric Programming for CNC Machines Tools and Touch Probes. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1996.[7] Translator on-line DXF-CNC. /index.html.[8] AutoCUT. Instytut Zaawansowanych Technologii Wytwarzania, Kraków.http://www.ios.krakow.pl/cadcam/autocut.php.[9] S.R.K. JASTHI, P.N. RAO, N.K. TEW ARI: Studies on process plan representation in CAPP systems. Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 8(1995)3, 173-184.[10] G. VOSNIAKOS: An Intelligent Software System for the automatic generation of NC programs from wireframe models of 2-1/2D mechanical puter Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 11(1998)1-2, 53-65.[11] P.G. MAROPOULULOS: Review of research in tooling technology, process modelling and process planning. Part II: Process planning. Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 8(1995)1, 13-20.[12] J. GAO, D.T. ZHENG, N. GINDY: Extraction of machining features for CAD/CAM integration. Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 24(2004), 573-581.[13] P. SHILPAN: Design features + process knowledge = automated CNC programming. Modern Machine Shop, 67(1994)6, 78-85.[14] M. SIEMIĄTKOWSKI, W. PRZYBYLSKI: Modelli ng and simulation analysis of process alternatives in the cellular manufacturing of axially symmetric parts. Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 32(2007), 516-530.[15] A. NASSEHI, S.T. NEWMAN, R.D. ALLEN: The Application of Multi-Agent Systems for STEP-NC Computer Aided Planning of Prismatic Components. Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 46(2006), 559-574.计算机辅助数控编程应用于非典型零件的加工（Grzegorz Nikiel博士，波兰别尔斯克-比亚瓦，制造技术与自动化学院）1.简介许多制造公司，尤其是中，小型要解决生产发展和新客户的搜索问题。
机械制造工艺外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：侯亮学号：052115072015年 4 月 3 日外文资料翻译原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the work piece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute toshow. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to.Depth of penetration of a cutting tool -- to inches dollars -- is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Rough machining and finishing machiningThere are two kinds of cuts in machine- shop work called, respectively, the "roughing cut" and the "finishing cut". When a piece is "roughed out", it is quite near the shape and size required, but enough metal has been left on the surface to finish smooth and to exact size." Generally speaking, bars of steel, forging, castings, etc. are machined to the required shape and size with only one roughing and one finishing cut. Sometimes, however, certain portions of a piece may require more than one roughing cut. Also, in some jobs, for example, when great accuracy is not needed, or when a comparatively small amount of metal must be removed, a finishing cut may be all that is required. The roughing cut, to remove the greater part of the excess material, should be reasonably heavy, that is, all the machine, or cutting tool, or work, or all three, will stand. So the machinist’s purpose is to remove the excess stock as fast as he can without leaving, at the same time, a surface too torn and rough, without bending the piece if it is slender, and without spoiling the centers. The finishing cut, to make the work smooth and accurate, is a finer cut. The emphasis here is refinement - very sharp tool, comparatively little metal removed, and a higher degree of accuracy in measurement. Whether roughing or finishing, the machinist must set the machine for the given job. He must consider the size and shape of the work and the kind of material, also the kind of tool used and the nature of the cut to be made, then he proceeds to set the machine for the correct speed and feed and to set the tool to take the depth of cut desired.Automatic Fixture Design外文资料翻译译文机械制造工艺机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译213机械设计基础
附录(外文翻译——原文)Fundamentals of Mechanical DesignMechanical design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature—machines, products, structures, devices, and instruments. For the most part mechanical design utilizes mathematics, the materials sciences, and the engineering-mechanics sciences.The total design process is of interest to us. How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at his desk with a blank sheet of paper? And, as he jots down some ideas, what happens next? What factors influence or control the decisions which have to be made? Finally, then, how does this design process end?Sometimes, but not always, design begins when an engineer recognizes a need and decides to do something about it. Recognition of the need and phrasing it in so many words often constitute a highly creative act because the need may be only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, of a sensing that something is not right.The need is usually not evident at all. For example, the need to do something about a food-packaging machine may be indicated by the noise level, by the variations in package weight, and by slight but perceptible variations in the quality of the packaging or wrap.There is a distinct difference between the statement of the need and the identification of the problem. which follows this statement. The problem is more specific. If the need is for cleaner air, the problem might be that of reducing the dust discharge from power-plant stacks, or reducing the quantity of irritants from automotive exhausts.Definition of the problem must include all the specifications for the thing that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics of the space the thing must occupy and all the limitations on these quantities. We can regard the thing to be designed as something in a black box. In this case we must specify the inputs and outputs of the box together with their characteristics and limitations. The specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the operating temperature, and the reliability.There are many implied specifications which result either from the designer's particular environment or from the nature of the problem itself. The manufacturing processes which are available, together with the facilities of a certain plant, constitute restrictions on a designer's freedom, and hence are a part of the implied specifications. A small plant, for instance, may not own cold-working machinery. Knowing this, the designer selects other metal-processing methods which can be performed in the plant. The labor skills available and the competitive situation also constitute implied specifications.After the problem has been defined and a set of written and implied specifications has been obtained, the next step in design is the synthesis of an optimum solution. Now synthesis cannot take place without both analysis and optimization because the system under design must be analyzed to determine whether the performance complies with the specifications.The design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps, evaluate theresults, and then return to an earlier phase of the procedure. Thus we may synthesize several components of a system, analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the remaining parts of the system. Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract models of the system which will admit some form of mathematical analysis. We call these models mathematical models. In creating them it is our hope that we can find one which will simulate the real physical system very well.Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design, which usually involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory. Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the need or needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or use?Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available to us. There are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the find analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all.Introduction to Machine DesignMachine design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of machine design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Machine design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of machine design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Machine design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions to produce a good design. On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that is the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have “bugs” or unforeseen problems which mu st be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowed to flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Initially the designer must communicate a preliminary design to get management approval. This is usually done by verbal discussions in conjunction with drawing layouts and written material. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1)Does the design really serve a human need?(2)Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3)Is it economical to produce?(4)Can it be readily maintained?(5)Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detailand assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem well occur during the manufacturing cycle. It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This falls in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.MachiningTurning The engine lathe, one of the oldest metal removal machines, has a number of useful and highly desirable attributes. Today these lathes are used primarily in small shops where smaller quantities rather than large production runs are encountered.The engine lathe has been replaced in today's production shops by a wide variety of automatic lathes such as automatic of single-point tooling for maximum metal removal, and the use of form tools for finish and accuracy, are now at the designer's fingertips with production speeds on a par with the fastest processing equipment on the scene today.Tolerances for the engine lathe depend primarily on the skill of the operator. The design engineer must be careful in using tolerances of an experimental part that has been produced on the engine lathe by a skilled operator. In redesigning an experimental part for production, economical tolerances should be used.Turret Lathes Production machining equipment must be evaluated now, more than ever before, in terms of ability to repeat accurately and rapidly. Applying this criterion for establishing the production qualification of a specific method, the turret lathe merits a high rating.In designing for low quantities such as 100 or 200 parts, it is most economical to use the turret lathe. In achieving the optimum tolerances possible on the turret lathe, the designer should strive for a minimum of operations.Automatic Screw Machines Generally, automatic screw machines fall into several categories; single-spindle automatics, multiple-spindle automatics and automatic chucking machines. Originally designed for rapid, automatic production of screws and similar threaded parts, the automatic screw machine has long since exceeded the confines of this narrow field, and today plays a vital role in the mass production of a variety of precision parts. Quantities play an important part in the economy of the parts machined on the automatic to set up on the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine. Quantities less than 1000 parts may be more economical to set up on the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine. The cost of the parts machined can be reduced if the minimum economical lot size is calculated and the proper machine is selected for these quantities.Automatic Tracer Lathes Since surface roughness depends greatly upon material turned, tooling ,and fees and speeds employed, minimum tolerances that can be held on automatic tracer lathes are not necessarily the most economical tolerances.Is some case, tolerances of ±0.05mm are held in continuous production using but one cut. Groove width can be held to ±0.125mm on some parts. Bores and single-point finishes can be held to ±0.0125mm. On high-production runs where maximum output is desirable, a minimum tolerance of ±0.125mm is economical on both diameter and length of turn.Milling With the exceptions of turning and drilling, milling is undoubtedly the most widely used method of removing metal. Well suited and readily adapted to the economical production of any quantity of parts, the almost unlimited versatility of the milling process merits the attention and consideration of designers seriously concerned with the manufacture of their product.As in any other process, parts that have to be milled should be designed with economical tolerances that can be achieved in production milling. If the part is designed with tolerances finer than necessary, additional operations will have to be added to achieve these tolerances——and this will increase the cost of the part.Grinding Grinding is one of the most widely used methods of finishing parts to extremely close tolerances and low surface roughness. Currently, there are grinders for almost for almost every type of grinding operation. Particular design features of a part dictate to a large degree the type of grinding machine required. Where processing costs are excessive, parts redesigned to utilize a less expensive, higher output grinding method may be well worthwhile. For example, wherever possible the production economy of centerless grinding should be taken advantage of by proper design consideration.Although grinding is usually considered a finishing operation, it is often employed as a complete machining process on work which can be ground down from rough condition without being turned or otherwise machined. Thus many types of forgings and other parts are finished completely with the grinding wheel at appreciable savings of time and expense.Classes of grinding machines include the following: cylindrical grinders, centerless grinders, internal grinders, surface grinders, and tool and cutter grinders.The cylindrical and centerless grinders are for straight cylindrical or taper work; thus splines, shafts, and similar parts are ground on cylindrical machines either of the common-center type or the centerless machine.Thread grinders are used for grinding precision threads for thread gages, and threads on precision parts where the concentricity between the diameter of the shaft and the pitch diameter of the thread must be held to close tolerances.The internal grinders are used for grinding of precision holes, cylinder bores, and similar operations where bores of all kinds are to be finished.The surface grinders are for finishing all kinds of flat work, or work with plain surfaces which may be operated upon either by the edge of a wheel or by the face of a grinding wheel. These machines may have reciprocating or rotating tables.(外文翻译——汉文)机械设计基础机械设计基础是指机械装置和机械系统——机器、产品、结构、设备和仪器的设计。
机械工程及自动化专业外文翻译--数控编程(中文译文)
外文出处：96-800 rev F, VF SERIES Operator’s MManual[S]. Haas Automation In, 2005:92～101.中文译文数控编程Oxxx 程序号M50 （按下Part Ready按钮后执行托盘交换或者PST更新）M46 Q1 Paxx1 这一行程序检查托盘#1是否在机床上。
如果它在，将要跳转行xx1。
如果托盘不在机床上，它将继续执行下一行（参见M46d的描述）。
M46 Q2 Pxx2 （如果已经装载#2，程序将跳转行xx2,否则将执行下一行程序）M99 Pxxxx （跳转行Nxxxx：参见“M代码”获得有关M99更详细的信息）Nxx1 （行数）Part program （托盘#1用户工件程序）for Pallet #1M99 Pxxxx （跳到行Nxxxx：参见“M代码“获得有关M99更详细的信息）Nxx2 （行数）Part program （托盘#2用户工件程序）for Pallet #2M99 Pxxxx （跳到行Nxxxx）Nxxx （行数）M99 （重复程序：参见“M代码”获得有关M99更详细的信息）例#3对于例#2调用子程序有交错的方法，但是托盘没有被排序将不会跳转。
M36P1 注意：正确的操作是带有P代码的M50必须放在M36的后面。
（在屏幕上闪现“No Pallet Scheduled（无托盘排序）”，绿色信号灯闪烁。
按托盘#1schedule pallet按钮或PST下排序托盘）M50P1 （装载托盘#1）M98 Pxxxx1 （控制跳转到程序Oxxx1并运行，参见“M代码”获得有关M99更相信的信息）M36 P2 （等待托盘被排序）M50 P2 （装载托盘#2）M98 Pxxx2 （控制跳转到程序Oxxxx1并运行）M99 （重复程序：参见“M代码”获得有关M99更详细的信息）注意：程序末尾的M99将会引起继续执行操作，程序末尾的M30将会使控制器等待操作者按下Cycle Start。
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【英文】High-speed machining the development ofHigh-speed machining is oriented to the 21st century a new high-tech, high-efficiency, High-precision and high surface quality as a basic feature, in the automobile industry, aerospace, Die Manufacturing and instrumentation industries gained increasingly widespread application, and has made significant technical and economic benefits. contemporary advanced manufacturing technology an important component part。
High-speed machining is to achieve high efficiency of the core technology manufacturers, intensive processes and equipment packaged so that it has a high production efficiency. It can be said that the high-speed machining is an increase in the quantity of equipment significantly improve processing efficiency essential to the technology. High-speed machining is the major advantages : improve production efficiency, improve accuracy and reduce the processing of cutting resistance。
High-speed machining of machine tools, knives and cutting process, and other aspects specific requirements. Several were from the following aspects : high-speed machining technology development status and trends。
At this stage, in order to achieve high-speed machining, general wiring with high flexibility of high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, By using a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. These equipment in common is : We must also have high-speed and high-speed spindle system feeding system, Cutting can be achieved in high-speed process. High-speed cutting with the traditional cutting the biggest difference is that "Machine-tool-workpiece" the dynamic characteristics of cutting performance is stronger influence. In the system, the machine spindle stiffness, grip or form, a long knife set, spindle Broach, torque tool set, Performance high-speed impact are important factors。
In the high-speed cutting, material removal rate (Metal Removal Rate, MRR), unit time that the material was removed volume, usually based on the "machine-tool-workpiece" whether Processing System "chatter." Therefore, in order to satisfy the high-speed machining needs, we must first improve the static and dynamic stiffness of machine spindle is particularly the stiffness characteristics. HSC reason at this stage to be successful, a very crucial factor is the dynamiccharacteristics of the master and processing capability。
In order to better describe the machine spindle stiffness characteristics of the project presented new dimensionless parameter - DN value, used for the evaluation of the machine tool spindle structure on the high-speed machining of adaptability. DN value of the so-called "axis diameter per minute speed with the product." The newly developed spindle machining center DN values have been great over one million. To reduce the weight bearing, but also with an array of steel products than to the much more light ceramic ball bearings; Bearing Lubrication most impressive manner mixed with oil lubrication methods.In the field of high-speed machining. have air bearings and the development of magnetic bearings and magnetic bearings and air bearings combined constitute the magnetic gas / air mixing spindle。
Feed the machine sector, high-speed machining used in the feed drive is usually larger lead, multiple high-speed ball screw and ball array of small-diameter silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramic ball, to reduce its centrifugal and gyroscopic torque; By using hollow-cooling technology to reduce operating at high speed ball screw as temperature generated by the friction between the lead screw and thermal deformation。
In recent years, the use of linear motor-driven high-speed system of up to'''' Such feed system has removed the motor from workstations to Slide in the middle of all mechanical transmission links, Implementation of Machine Tool Feed System of zero transmission. Because no linear motor rotating components, from the role of centrifugal force, can greatly increase the feed rate. Linear Motor Another major advantage of the trip is unrestricted. The linear motor is a very time for a continuous machine shop in possession of the bed. Resurfacing of the very meeting where a very early stage movement can go, but the whole system of up to the stiffness without any influence. By usinghigh-speed screw, or linear motor can greatly enhance machine system of up to the rapid response. The maximum acceleration linear motors up to 2-10G (G for the acceleration of gravity), the largest feed rate of up to 60 -200m/min or higher。