例子 catford shifts
翻译转换理论指导下的英译汉
翻译转换理论指导下的英译汉作者：李筱筱来源：《科学与财富》2017年第30期摘要：英译汉的最大障碍在于中英文的句法表层结构的差异，针对这个问题，可以采用卡特福德的翻译转换理论来指导英语结构向汉语结构的转换。
即从词汇、短语和句子等微观层面着手，完成形合向意合转换，被动向主动转换，静态向动态转换和主语突出向主题转换。
关键词：翻译转换；差异；英译汉一、翻译转换理论介绍翻译的过程就是指把源语转换成目的语的过程，也就是说在翻译过程中，要了解原文和译文这两种语言的基本句式结构，理解两者之间的差异，清楚它们之间的句式转换的规则。
而在翻译转换过程中，最大障碍在于中英文的句法表层结构的差异，即翻译时，原文的意思翻译正确，却不符合汉语的表达习惯，阅读时不通顺自然。
针对这个问题，可以采用卡特福德的翻译转换理论来指导英语向汉语的转换。
1965年，卡特福德在其专著《翻译的语言学理论》（A Linguistic Theory Of Translation）中首次提出“翻译转换”这一概念。
他借用了韩礼德的系统语法及其对语言“层次"的分类来说明翻译转换现象，将语言分为语法和词汇两个层次，对单位、结构、类别和系统四个语法范畴进行了阐述（穆雷，1991，PEl52—153）。
卡特福德认为，语言交际性功能的发挥是通过不同的层次和级阶实现的，有必要在进行翻译实践时进行翻译转换。
翻译转换可分为层次转换（1evel shifts）和范畴转换（category shifts）两种（Catford，1965，PP.141.147）。
层次转换发生在语法和词汇两个层次上，两种语言在时态、语态、语义等方面进行翻译转换。
范畴是指语法中的词性以及性、数、格、体、人称、时态、语态、情态等的各种变化。
据此，范畴转换又被分为结构转换（structure-shifts），类别转换（class.shifts），单位转换（unit.shifts），内部体系转换（intra-system shifts）。
翻译理论
Category shifts
4 subcategories: p.61 structural shifts: the most common form of shift involving mostly a shift in grammatical structure class shifts: shifts from one part of speech to another class: “that grouping of members of a given unit which is defined by operation in the structure of the unit next or above” Unit shifts(rank shifts): different rank(sentence, clause, group word and morpheme) Intra-system shifts：approximately corresponding systems; non-corresponding term
6. equivalence: useful for idioms; the sense instead of the image 7. adaptation Changing cultural reference; game of cricket Eskimo: Lamb of God- Seal of God
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Sample for level shifts
(SL): He is writing some poetry. (TL): La sedang menulis beberapa puisi.
2014-2015(1)翻译理论入门
2014-2015(1) 翻译理论入门复习题Part I True or False Questions.（20%，2 point each）Part II Short Statements.（20%，5 point each）Directions: Please make short statements to the following items.1. Nida’s science of translating.In Nida’s opinion, translating is neither a science nor an art and it is not proper to view translating as either of them. Nida’s “science of translating’’ is to describe the process of translation in a scientific manner just as linguistics can do. Nida defines his “science of translation”as “the scientific description of the processes involved in translating”. The actual translating of a text reflects a highly developed skill, but the study of translating as a type of human activity can, of course, be done in a scientific manner. Nida objects to taking translation as a science or an art in a simple way.2. Catford: Translation shiftCatford is the first one to introduce the term “shift” into translation. He followed the linguistic model and analyzed language as communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of levels and ranks. Shift is defined as deviation which corresponds with form occurs in the process of conversion of source language into target language. And then he divided shifts into two kinds: level shifts and category shifts. By a shift of level, we mean that a SL item at one linguistic level (phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis) has a TL translation equivalent ata different level. Category shifts are departures from formal correspondence. Shift of category can be subdivided in4 kinds: structure shift, class shift, unit/rank shift and intra-system shift. Catford said that structural shifts are the most common form of shifts and involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure.3. Three variable elements of register theory and their metafunction meanings.Register includes: 1.field: what is being written about; 2.Tenor: who is communicating and to whom ; 3.Mode: the form of communication.The field of a text is associated with ideational meaning, which is realized through transitivity patterns (verb types, active/passive structures, participants in the process, etc.) The tenor of a text is associated with interpersonal meaning, which is realized through the patterns of modality (modal verbs and adverbs such as hopefully, should, possibly, and evaluative lexis such as beautiful, dreadful). The mode of a text is associated with textual meaning, which is realized through thematic and information structures (mainly the order and structuring of elements in a clause) and cohesion.4. Newmark: communicative translation and semantic translationCommunicative translation, on the other hand, "attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership" Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.5.Reiss’s text type approach and specific translation methods suggested by her.Plain communication of facts — InformativeCreative composition — ExpressiveInducing behavioral responses — OperativeAudiomedial textsThe TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential of conceptual content of the ST.The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST.The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver.Audio-medial texts require the “supplementary” method.6. Three major cases when translated literature occupies the primary position:1) when a “young” literature is being established and looks initially to “older” literatures for ready-made models.2) when a literature is “peripheral” or “weak” and imports t hose literary types which it is lacking.3) when there is a critical turning point in literary history at which established models are no longer considered sufficient, or when there is a vacuum in the literature of the country. Where no type holds sway, it is easier for foreign models to assume primacy.7. Tytler翻译三原则（译作完全复写原作思想/风格手法与原作同质/具备原作通顺）：(一) 译作应完全复写出原作的思想;(二) 译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质;(三) 译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。
Catford
英语中的形容词medical 在译成目的语时 变为法语的名词medecine。
(2) 范畴转移
（3）单元转移（unit-shifts） 就是指等级转移。一个单元作为一个整体在不同 级别之间转换。如原语言中的词在目的语言中变 成了句子。它常常嵌在其它转移之中。
（一）生平简介
卡特福德的学术著作主要是语音学方面。 他的几十篇学术论文已涉及普通语言学、 应用语言学、语法和方言等问题。卡氏 论翻译的代表作是1965年由牛津大学出 版社出版的《翻译的语言学理论》(A Linguistic Theory of Translation)，这卡 氏唯一的一本翻译理论专著，被列入了 牛津大学语言与语言学习丛书。
1. “翻译的转移” 理论
卡特福德在他自己的《翻译的语言学理论》 （1965）中给翻译作了如下的定义：翻译是一种 语言等值的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材 料。
他在概念里提到了等值。他指出翻译等值关系并 不取决于原语和译语单位具有相同的语言意义， 而是取决于它们与该语境具有相同特征的关系。 据此，卡特福德提出翻译等值关系的定义如下： 当原语文本或文本中的单位与译语文本或文本中 的单位对该语境相同（或至少部分相同）的特征 相关时，就发生翻译等值关系。
(2) 范畴转移
范畴转移包括等级限制翻译和无限制翻译。
等级限制翻译是指原语言的内容一定要用目的语中相同 等级的内容来替代，如原语中一个名词只能被从目的语 中选出的一个名词来替代。总的来说，等级翻译常会造 成翻译不当。 无限制翻译则不受这种限制，它可以从任何等级中选 择合适的内容进行翻译。通常情况下，都是句子与句子 之间的等级翻译。
以《简爱》为例研究卡特福德翻译转换理论在英文小说翻译中的应用--以《简爱》的汉译本研究为例
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翻译转换理论指导下的石油英语翻译
135第6卷 第1期Vol.6 No.1四川工商学院学术新视野Academic New Vision of Sichuan Technology and Business University·语言与文学·1 石油钻井英语特点石油化工英语属于科技英语范畴，行文严谨，专业性较强，在翻译时有一定的难度。
其词汇特点是具有大量的复合词、缩略词及派生词。
石油钻井类英语文本具有较强的专业性和客观性，同时很多词汇在石油领域具有有特殊释义，因此要求译者具有较强的平行文本阅读能力或者专业知识背景。
1.1 缩略词在钻井现场，有很多石油人之间的行话，因此在翻译此类文本时需要更加注意。
现场很多的专业有很多首字母缩略词，如POOH（Pull out of hole 起钻）、BHA（Bottom hole assembly 井下钻具组合）、TDS（Top Drive System 顶驱钻井系统）、LNG（Liquefied Natural Gas 液化天然气），在钻井一线的每日报表（IADC Report）和各专业化公司交流中，能简化交流，不同母语国工作者也能轻松沟通。
同时钻井英语术语中还有一些缩略词是取原词的部分字母，例如PROB（Probable 概算储量） CSG （Casing 套管）等。
1.2 复合词在钻井英语中，复合词的使用较为频繁。
复合词是指有两个或者多个词基结合形成的新词，主要的分类有复合副词、复合动词、复合名词、复合形收稿日期：2021-3-15作者简介：熊力可（1995- ），男，四川成都人，西南石油大学外国语学院在读硕士，主要研究方向：英语笔译。
翻译转换理论指导下的石油英语翻译熊力可（西南石油大学,四川成都610051）摘要：随着世界经济一体化的迅猛发展和人类工业对化石燃料的不断需求，各国石油企业之间的交流与合作愈发频繁。
石油行业工作者人员在开展跨国合作、交流时，面临着不少的挑战，石油英语翻译的重要性日益凸显。
Catford
1. “翻译的转移” 理论
我们可以在两种语言的语法等级体系中 处于不同地位的范畴或单位之间观察到 等值关系。这就是翻译转移。转移就是 在原语言向目的语言翻译过程中形式对 应上的偏离。它主要有两种类型：层音位，字形，语 法及词汇等。当我们把“ Ouelle heures est-il？” 译成“What’s the time？”时，译语文本在语法 上和词汇上与原语等值，但二者在字形和音位 上却没有等值关系。卡特福德在翻译的定义中 用到文本材料这个词旨在强调，翻译决不是， 或者说不可能是原语文本全部被译语文本中的 等值成分所替换。仅仅限于一个层次如音位层 次上的翻译是可能的，例如，一名演员或模仿 者成功而准确地运用一种“ 外国口音”时，他 就是在进行一种音位翻译。音位翻译是用等值 的译语音位单位去替换原语的音位单位，但原 语的词汇和语法保持不变。
约翰 ·坎尼森 ·卡特福德 John C. Catford
（一）生平简介
约翰 ·坎尼森 ·卡特福德是著名的英国语言学家和翻译 理论家，伦敦学派的代表人物之一。卡特福德于1917 年3 月 26日出生于苏格兰的爱丁堡 ,先后就学于爱丁 堡皇家高中和爱丁堡大学（1935一1939） ,专攻法国 语言文学。战后他在英国的伦敦大学研修俄语和其他 斯拉夫语以及东方语言和非州语言（1948-1952） ,于 1952年获文学硕士学位。卡特福德除在英国和美国任 职外 ,还受聘于中东、东南亚等地的有关大学。他多 年来一直从事语言的教学和研究 ,能流利地使用法语 , 比较熟练地掌握除俄语和现代希腊语 ,还略懂德语、 梵语、拉丁语、阿拉伯语、希伯莱语、土耳其语和印 度尼西亚语等多种语言 ,是一位颇有影响的语言学家。
Eng. a medical student = un etudiant en medecine Fr.
翻译转换理论指导下的英译汉-文档
翻译转换理论指导下的英译汉-文档翻译转换理论指导下的英译汉一、翻译转换理论介绍翻译的过程就是指把源语转换成目的语的过程，也就是说在翻译过程中，要了解原文和译文这两种语言的基本句式结构，理解两者之间的差异，清楚它们之间的句式转换的规则。
而在翻译转换过程中，最大障碍在于中英文的句法表层结构的差异，即翻译时，原文的意思翻译正确，却不符合汉语的表达习惯，阅读时不通顺自然。
针对这个问题，可以采用卡特福德的翻译转换理论来指导英语向汉语的转换。
1965年，卡特福德在其专著《翻译的语言学理论》（A Linguistic Theory Of Translation）中首次提出“翻译转换”这一概念。
他借用了韩礼德的系统语法及其对语言“层次"的分类来说明翻译转换现象，将语言分为语法和词汇两个层次，对单位、结构、类别和系统四个语法范畴进行了阐述（穆雷，1991，PEl52―153）。
卡特福德认为，语言交际性功能的发挥是通过不同的层次和级阶实现的，有必要在进行翻译实践时进行翻译转换。
翻译转换可分为层次转换（1evel shifts）和范畴转换（category shifts）两种（Catford，1965，PP.141.147）。
层次转换发生在语法和词汇两个层次上，两种语言在时态、语态、语义等方面进行翻译转换。
范畴是指语法中的词性以及性、数、格、体、人称、时态、语态、情态等的各种变化。
据此，范畴转换又被分为结构转换（structure-shifts），类别转换（class.shifts），单位转换（unit.shifts），内部体系转换（intra-system shifts）。
翻译转换理论正是从词汇、短语和句子等微观层面着手，解决了英语与汉语翻译转换出现的问题，完成形合向意合转换，被动向主动转换，静态向动态转换和主语突出向主题转换。
二、翻译转换（一）形合向意合转换汉语是以意合（hypo taxis）为主的语言，不借助形态和形式词，只借助词语与句子包含的意义与逻辑顺序而实现连贯；英语是以形合（parataxis）为主的语言。
The Translation Shift Approach
Transposition
• A change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense. • n. →v./ adj./ adv. • v. →n. adj . →v. • e.g. It‘s my conviction that… 我坚信 the correctness of this policy 这个政策是正确的
Borrowing
• The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. • Used to fill a semantic gap in the TL • e.g. sofa 沙发 coffee 咖啡
Examples: From Latin:
January 一月 Iānus 象征结束和开始的神 February 二月 febris 发烧（二月是容易感冒的季节） March 三月 Mars 玛尔斯（罗马神话中的战神） May 五月 Maia 春天之神 June 六月 Iunō 神后；生育和妇女之神 July 七月 Iulius 恺撒的名字（G. Iulius Caesar） August 八月 Augustus 奥古斯都，古罗马王
An important parameter
• Servitude: obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language system. • Option: non-obligatory changes that are due to the translator‘s own style and preference. • The role of the translator is to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message.
卡特福德翻译转换理论指导下的儿童文学翻译--以伊妮德·布莱顿《童话书》节选为例
卡特福德翻译转换理论指导下的儿童文学翻译--以伊妮德·布莱顿《童话书》节选为例摘要：本文以伊妮德·玛丽·布莱顿的《童话书》节选—《皮吉迪与卖丝带老巫婆露丝》为翻译对象，进行翻译实践。
卡特福德的翻译转换理论可以使翻译更加生动。
本报告共分为五个部分:第一部分为文本分析，首先对儿童文学文本进行总体分析，然后对原语言文本进行分析;第二部分介绍了本文运用的翻译理论。
第三部分简要概述了翻译过程，包括翻译前的准备、翻译后的校对、难点和解决方法。
第四部分是在卡特福德翻译转换理论指导下的个案研究。
关键字：卡特福德翻译转换理论；儿童文学；《皮吉迪与卖丝带老巫婆露丝》第一章任务介绍儿童文学比其他书籍更容易进入儿童的心灵，触动他们的心灵，引起情感上的共鸣，具有强烈的情感影响。
不同文本的翻译有不同的特点，儿童文学的翻译也不例外。
在翻译前通读了一遍文本后，笔者发现源文本简单，所用的词汇都是符合原语儿童阅读年龄认知储备的词汇。
但是，正如徐德荣（2004）认为，儿童文学主题略显隐晦。
词汇的选择使用了大量的语气词来设定情绪，让儿童读者能够与故事产生共鸣，与主角一起欢笑，有时也会感到悲伤。
全文的句子结构不是冗长复杂的句子，而是简单平行的句子，让幼儿读者一读就能很好地掌握文本类型，理解文本，而不分散自己分析句子结构和组织获取文本信息内容的注意力。
邓红顺（2010）指出，儿童文学翻译策略德采取应从目标语受众角度出发。
卡特福德翻译转换理论就能很好引起读者共鸣。
基于卡特福德的翻译转换理论，笔者对文本进行了翻译，然后根据翻译历史撰写了翻译实践报告。
该报告遵循了这一过程的顺序，包括对儿童文学和文本原语言特征的简要分析。
接下来是对卡特福德翻译过渡理论的详细介绍，接着是对翻译过程、遇到的挑战和解决方案的描述。
最后，结合卡特福德的翻译转换理论给出了具体的案例。
第二章文本分析2.1儿童文学文本分析儿童文学的定义:专门为儿童创作的、适合儿童年龄的、适合儿童阅读和欣赏的、有利于儿童健康成长的、具有独特艺术性和价值的各种文学形式的总称。
Translation Shifts
卡特福德认为翻译应分层面研究是从纯语言 学角度讲的， 与文化派将翻译放到一个宏大的语 境中去审视的理论观点相比，有很大的局限性。 翻译是语言之间的转换，更是所承载的文化 等外部因素的转换。文化是动态的，语言也是动 态的，绝对理想的、在真空中实现语言的转换是 不可能的。卡特福德静态的、机械的译论可能会 造成死译。 ——白兰
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examples
（6）His speech impressed the audience deeply. 译文：他的讲演给听众的印象很深。 （7）…and that government of the people, by the people, for the people. 译文：民有、民治、民享的政府。 SL:动词 TL: 名词 SL:介词 TL: 动词 class shift（词类转换）= transposition（词性转换）? P89 例子理解
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Class shift then occurs when the translation equivalence of SL item is a member of a different class from the original item. 当源语成分的翻译对等物与原文成分不 是同一类别的时候，就出现了类别转换。 包括从一类词类转换成另一类词类。
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1. structure-shifts（结构转换）
These are amongst the most frequent category shifts at all ranks in translation. 卡特福德认为这是一种最常见的转换形式， 主要涉及语法结构的转换。
15
example
2
Shifts （转换）
西方主要翻译理论学派总结
most basic structures of Chomsky’s model,for Nida,kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate(详尽复杂的) surface structures[用来构成语言复杂表层结构的基本结构成分].Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor(受体)language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:Literal transfer字面转移--minimal最低度~--literary书面~2）Analysis:generative-transformational grammar（转换生成语法by Chomsky）’s four types of functional classEvent(verb)事件：行动、过程等发生的事Object(noun)实体：具体的人和物Abstract(quantities and qualities,adjective)抽象概念Relational(gender,qualities,prepositions and conjunctions)关系2,Basic factors in translation1)The nature of message:content V.S.form2)The purpose(s)of the author/translatorTypes of purposes identified by Nida:①for information②suggest a behavior③imperative(祈使，命令)purpose3)The audiences(4types):children;new literates;average literate adult;specialists3,Relatedness(相关)of language&culture4,Two basic orientations(方向)in translating1)Formal Equivalence(F-E):focuses on the message itself,in both form and content.•Principles governing F-E:①grammatical units语法单元②consistency in word usage词语用法前后一致，连贯性③meanings in terms of the source context源语语境意义2)D-E(dynamic equivalence):①based on the principle of equivalent effect(•Principles governing it)②aiming at complete naturalness of expression;③unnecessary to understand the source culture.•Economic~can be transferable with cultural~.实际上三种形式均可互相转化。
完整word版,Translation Shifts翻译转换
Translation shiftsTranslation shift, as an inevitable phenomenon in translation activities, has been paid much attention to and studied by translation scholars for a quite long time since the 1950s.1.Definition of translation shiftCatford’s definition: Deviation which corresponds with form occurs in the process of conversion of source language into target language.Popovic’s definition: All that appears as new with respect to the original, or fails to appear where it might have been expected.2.Theoretical GroundSince the 1950s, western translation theorists and practitioners began to undergo researches from the perspective of linguistics which kept developing quickly. It put emphasis on scientific, precise and careful description of the source text and target text.3. Research Representatives(1)Vinay & DarbelnetVinay and Darbelnet working in the field of comparative stylistics, developed a system of translation strategies (direct/oblique translation) and procedures: borrowing, calque, literal, transposition (change in word class), modulation (change in semantics), equivalence (completely different translation), adaption (change of situation due to cultural differences) were put forward. There is a slight prescriptive undertone in the work of them, because they state that oblique procedures should only be used if a more direct one would lead to a wrong or awkward translation. Though he discussed and described translation shift but he didn’t give them a definition. No matter what approaches they adopted, their thoughts were influential and provided a solid foundation for the further study.(2)CatfordTranslation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). J.C. Catford considers the translation process as transference which means transplant some of the original meaning to the target language.Catford is the first one to introduce the term “shift” into translation. He followed the Firthian and Hallidayian linguistic model and analyzed language as communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of levels and ranks. Shift is defined as deviation which corresponds with form occurs in the process of conversion of source language into target language. And then he divided shifts into two kinds: level shifts and category shifts. By a shift of level, we mean that a SL item at one linguistic level (phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis) has a TL translation equivalent at a different level. Category shifts are departures from formal correspondence intranslation. We referred to unbounded and rank-bound translation. Unbounded translation refers to approximately “normal” or “free” translation in which SL-TL equivalences are set up at whatever rank is appropriate. Rank-bound translation refers to those special cases where equivalence is deliberately limited to ranks below the sentence, thus leading to “bad translation”. And he gave a brief introduction of the category shifts in the order of structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-shift and intra-system-shifts. Structure shifts are amongst the most frequent category shifts at all ranks in translation. They occur in phonological and graphological translation as well as in total translation. Class shift occurs when the translation equivalence of SL item is a member of a different class from the original item. By unit- shift we mean that change of rank - that is, departure from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL. Intra- system- shift means a departure from formal correspondence in which one system in the SL has as its translation equivalent in a different –non- corresponding- system in the TL.(3) Czech TheoristsJiri LevyHe pays attention to how shifts are used in literary translation and its influences on aesthetics and style of translated text.Frantisek MikoHe concentrates on shifts of expression style in translation and maintains that retaining the expressive character or style of the ST is the main and perhaps only goal of the translator. The style under categories such as operativity, iconicity, subjectivity, affectation, prominence was analyzed.Anto PopovicIn Popovic, the main concern is with literary translation, and shifts are therefore defined as a stylistic category and termed ‘shifts of expression’. He divided shifts into five kinds: constitutive, generic, individual, negative and topical shift.(4) Van Leuven-ZwartWithin the methodology of Van Leuven-Zwart, a distinction is made between shifts at the level of a text’s microstructure (comparative model) and the effects of these shifts at the macrostructure (descriptive model).Comparative model has been devised as a practical method for studying syntactic, semantic, stylistic, and pragmatic shifts within sentences, clauses and phrases of literary texts and their translation. It consisted of four steps. Firstly, the units to be compared must be established, which are called transemes consisting of predicates and their arguments or of predicates adverbials. Secondly, the common denomination of the source and the target text transeme- VanLeuven-Zwart calls this the architranseme-must be determined. In a third step, the relationship between each transeme and the architranseme-either synonymic or hyponymic- is established. Finally, he two transemes are compared with each other. If both are synonymic with the architranseme, no shift has occurred. Otherwise, there are three major categories of shifts: modulation, modification and mutation. Descriptive model designed for the analysis of translated literature. Interweave the concepts of discourse level and story level with three linguistic metafunctions: interpersonal, ideational and textual.(5)Gideon TouryIn his Descriptive Translation S tudies and beyond, Toury mentions that “Many real-life translation situations indeed involve no complete acquaintance with the original prior to the commencement of its translation” (Toury 2001:87)Even the most adequacy-oriented translation involves shifts from the source text. Deviation from source-text patterns can always be realized in more than one way. The actual realization of obligatory shift is nonrandom and norm-governed. Non-obligatory shift occur everywhere. Tend to constitute the majority of shifts in any single act of human translation.Bibliography[1] Mona Baker. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004[2] Van Leuven-Zwart. The Field of Translation Studies: An Introduction [M], 1991[3]刘军平覃江华西方翻译理论名著选读[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2012[4]牛宁范·路文兹瓦特的比较模式以及描写模式[J]. 东华大学学报（社会科学版）2009,9（2）。
Movie Subtitle Translation Based on Catford
Movie Subtitle Translation Based on Catford’s Translation Shifts Theory作者：李进荣来源：《校园英语·中旬》2017年第03期【摘要】本文以电影《聚焦》为例，对约翰·卡特福德的翻译转换理论在电影字幕翻译中的应用进行分析。
旨在证明该理论电影字幕翻译实践中的重要性和可行性，并为以后的字幕翻译实践提供一些理论基础和应用实例。
【关键词】翻译转换理论字幕翻译卡特福德1. IntroductionSubtitle translation of foreign movies has been a hot field for scholars. Nevertheless， a few people study the application of Catford’s Translation Shifts theory in movies’ subtitles. This paper analyzes the importance and practicability of Ca tford’s Translation Shifts theory in the movie SPOTLIGHT subtitle translation.2. Theoretical FrameworkInfluenced by Halliday and J·R· Firth，Catford explains “Translation Shifts” as a phenomenon of linguistic form changing in translation process（Lei Mu， 1989： 42）. As to the term “Shift”，Catford （1965： 73） means the departures form correspondence in the process of going from SL to TL. Also，he categorizes the “Shifts” as two types- Level Shifts and Category Shifts.2.1 Level ShiftsCatford （1965： 73）thinks that “Level Shifts” refers to the equivalent units of target language on different language levels. He mentions that the source text cannot be replaced by complete equivalent of the target language， and in translation.2.2 Category ShiftsCategory Shifts include “rank-bound translation” and “unbounded translation”. The “rank-bound translation” refers to the equivalences in some special cases which are deliberately limited to ranks below the sentences. While the “unbounded translation” means that the translation equivalences can occur in any ranks of language. （Catford， J. C， 1965： 76）. There are four types in Category Shifts： Structure shifts， Class shifts， Units shifts， and Intra-system shifts.3. A pplication of Translation Shift Theory in “SPOTLIGHT”This chapter tries to analyze the application of Catford’s Shift Theory by giving some examples in the translation of movie “SPOTLIGHT”.3.1 Introduction of “SPOTLIGHT”Produced by the American company Anonymous Content，the movie “SPOTLIGHT” adapted from a report in the Boston Globe that a clergyman in the United States took advantage of his status to sexually molested children. SPOTLIGHT has been nominated six times at the 88th Oscar awards and wins two of them for the Best Picture and the Best Original Screenplay in 2016.3.2 Use of Level ShiftsIn English， the tense，aspect of verbs and nouns’ singular or plural forms will change with marked signs in different situations. However， it is impossible to translate them completely because there is no such equivalent grammar signs in Chinese. Thus， in order to translate these changes clearly and exactly， Level shifts occur.3.3 Use of Category ShiftsAccording to Catford （1965： 76）， Category shifts are departures from formal correspondence in translation， which contains four kinds： Structure shifts， Class shifts， Unit shifts （rank changes）， and Intra-system shifts.3.3.1 Structure ShiftsStructure shifts can happen in all ranks of language. As for English to Chinese translation， there are three main typical shifts that are between active voice and passive voice， between positive and negative， between personal subject and impersonal subject.3.3.2 Class ShiftsClass shifts are actually entailed in the Structure shifts which means shifting the words’ part of speech to another.3.3.3 Unit ShiftsUnit shifts， or rank shifts，refer to “departure from formal corres pondence at one rank in the SL but it is a unit at a different rank in the TL” （Catford， J. C， 1965： 79）.3.3.4 Intra-system ShiftsIntra-system means there is no equivalent term of the target language that can correspond to the article of the source language but they do have the approximate constitution in their language systems （Catford， J. C， 1965： 79）.4. ConclusionFrom the above，it is not difficult to see that Catford’s “Translation Shift Theory” is widely used in the subtitle translation of the movie. It is really helpful and meaningful to use his theory to the movie subtitles translation practice.References：[1]Catford J.C.A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].Oxford： Oxford University Press， 1965.[2]陈宏薇.汉英翻译基础[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2011.。
卡特福德structure shift theory
卡特福德structure shift theory
卡特福德（Catford）的“翻译转换”理论（Theory of Translation Shifts）是在其著作《翻译的语言学理论》中提出的。
他沿袭了弗斯和韩礼德的语言学模式，阐释翻译过程中会发生大量词汇、句法上的相互转换。
该理论将翻译转换分为层次转换（Level Shift）和范畴转换（Category Shift）两大类。
其中，范畴转换又分为结构转换（Structure Shift）、类别转换（Class Shift）、单位转换（Unit Shift）和内部系统转换（Intra-System Shift）。
以汉语和英语的翻译为例，常见的结构转换有：汉语句子的主题突出与英语句子的主语突出之间的转换，因为两种语言中前者意合的特点和后者形合的特点；肯定结构与否定结构之间的转换等。
例如：“I can’t agree with you anymore”翻译成汉语中的“我非常同意你说的话”或者“我非常同意”，这样两种语言的肯定结构与否定结构就发生了转换。
议翻译中的功能对等
议翻译中的功能对等摘要:本文引用了Jakobson、Catford、Nida、Vinay和Darbelnet的翻译观点,从词汇层面、句法结构层面和信息层面这三个层面解释了他们的翻译观点,并从语言学角度分析了这些翻译方法的优缺点。
关键词:翻译;语言学;文化;功能对等翻译被认为是翻译活动的再现,所以可以从多种观点和方法研究翻译。
Jakobson(1959)[1] 认为,从语言学的角度来看,翻译应该是代码转化的过程。
他认为,“任何语言学符号的意义是它更进一步的翻译”,“两种语言的任何比较都必然包括他们共有可译性的检验,语言交流的普遍实践,尤其翻译活动必须被语言学学科持续严格得检验保持其科学性”。
一、词汇层面根据尤金奈达的说法,“translation oriented toward formal equivalence”[2],这是奈达的功能对等(动态对等)的概念。
奈达的“功能对等”一经提出,立即在翻译界引起了巨大的关注,对整个翻译理论史的发展起了重要的作用。
功能对等是指译作读者对译作的理解应当等同于原作读者对原作的理解。
这是最佳或最理想的定义,要求认知和经验要素基础上的高度正确性和最大有效性。
然而,这种“理想”或“最大限度”的对等往往很难取得。
因此,奈达又提出了“最低限度”或“实际意义”上的功能对等概念,即译作读者对译作的理解应当接近于他们所认为的原作读者所理解的程度。
所以译者应该更注重源文本和目标文本在形式上的功能对等,另外,译者应该确切翻译出源语言不同单位甚至一个词。
在这种情况下,Vinay的三步骤和Darbelnet的文章都被认为是词和短语翻译中功能对等的策略,这些策略是词意转借和字面翻译。
在这个层面,这个步骤几乎都是从源语言(source language)中提取可替代性的词语符号。
词语转借和字面翻译的步骤指的是逐字翻译,这就意味着直接从源语言到目标语言(target language)不同内容的转变。
卡特福德与转换理论
范畴转换（category shifts)
LOGO
翻译转换概念这一术语源于卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理 论》该书中指出“转换”是指原语进入译语过程中离开形 式的对应。“转换”有两种主要类型：层次转换（level shifts）和范畴转换（category shifts）
层次转换（level shifts）
Level shifts: by a shift of level we mean that a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL translation equivalent at a different level. 所谓层次转换是指，处于一种语言层次(linguistic level)上的原语单位， 具有处于不同语言层次上的译语翻译等值成分。主要是指语法 到词汇或者词汇到语法的转换。 eg: (1) he was a teacher 译文：他过去是个老师 英语谓语动词“was”表示过去的时间范畴，汉语借助“过去” 一词表达这一语法概念，实现了从语法到词汇的层次转 换。
转换理论在双语词典中的运用
以《COBU ILD英汉双解词典》为例 ( 1) He found the re some rock that does not occur naturally with in 30 kilometers, 他在那里发现了一些在远近30公里内不会天然形成的特殊岩石…… 结构转换。原句中的 that引导的定语从句位于它修饰的rock后面, 而 在译句中处在 “岩石”前面。 ( 2) They were holding George captive.他们将乔治囚禁起来。 层次转换。原句中were holding是过去进行时态, 属语法层次, 而译句 中使用的是属于词汇层次的“将”“起来”等词语. ( 3) He went on a caravan holiday .他挂了辆拖车去旅行度假。 类别转换。原句中caravan 是名词, 而译句中的“挂了辆拖车”是动 词词组。 ( 4) She had gone back to staring out o f the window.她又凝望起窗外 来了。 单位转换。原句中的go back to是个词组,而译句中的“又”是一个 词。)
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Level Shifts
An SL item at a linguistic level has a TL translation equivalent at a
different level.
In theory there are 4 possible levels:
●grammar
●lexis
●phonology
●graphology
BUT
In practice the only possible shifts in translation are from grammar to
lexis, or vice versa.
Level Shifts
English Turkish
Present perfect tense no equivalence (normally)
I have finished my homework.
Ödevimi bitirdim (Nokta zaman verilmese de eylemin yapıp
Bitirildiği sonucunu çıkarırız ki "past tense" kullanımına daha
yakındır)
Ödevimi henüz bitirdim. (Görüldüğüüzere zaman zarfıolan
henüz kullanımıanlamı"present perfect" anlamına
yaklaştırmıştır)
In this way, the translation of a grammatical structure has been
accomplished by the use of a word. There is a level shift from grammar to lexis here.
Unbounded translation:
A type of translation in which the translator is free to translate an SL grammatical unit of a certain size by a TL equivalent of a different size.
(phrase by a word)
example:
SL: on the table >>> masada
●Rank-bound translation
Special cases where equivalence is deliberately limited to ranks, thus leading to
bad translation. In rank-bound translation; an equivalent is sought in the TL:
●for each word, or
●for each morpheme encountered in the ST
example:
That girl went home >>> O kız eve gitti.
Category Shifts are divided into four types:
●Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT.
example:
SL Text: TL Text:
I love you (SVO) >> Seni Seviyorum (SOV)
●Class-shifts, when an SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e.
a ver
b may be translated with a noun;
example:
güzel bir kız >>> una chica linda
(adj. + noun = pre-positional adj.) (noun + adj =post-positional adj.)
●Unit-shifts, which involve departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a
unit at one rank in SL at a different rank in TL.
example:
SL lexical item >>> no TL equivalence, then translated by a phrase
uyanmak >>> wake up
nachaltig >>> for a long time
Intra-system shifts, which occur when SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system.
example:
Singular-plural system is common in Turkish and English
BUT
English Turkish
advice >>> tavsiyeler
sheep >>> koyunlar。