国际工程贸易英语U10
U10-01-中级口译教程之经贸往来-经济发展
我们希望继续加强外贸体制的改革，使之逐渐走向竞争， 我们希望继续加强外贸体制的改革，使之逐渐走向竞争，并 受到诸如关税、汇率和利率等法律和经济手段的制约。 受到诸如关税、汇率和利率等法律和经济手段的制约。 We hope to continue to enhance reform in our foreign trade system in order to gradually open foreign trade to competition and to get it under control by both legal means and economic measures, such as tariffs, foreign exchange rates and interest rates.
2.这些企业和人才，正以其产业关联性和协作关系，最 这些企业和人才，正以其产业关联性和协作关系， 这些企业和人才 终带动长江流域乃至全国数千家企业，面向国内、 终带动长江流域乃至全国数千家企业，面向国内、国 际两个市场，进行一体化生产和销售， 际两个市场，进行一体化生产和销售，使浦东成为溶 中国现代产业世界经济主流的龙头和纽带。 中国现代产业世界经济主流的龙头和纽带。 These enterprises and talents, through production-related association and cooperation, are expected to boost thousands of enterprises in the Yangtze River Valley, as well as in other parts of the country, engaging in integrated production and sales for both domestic and international markets. By doing so, Pudong will functions as a leader and bridge to integrate China’s modern industry with the mainstream of the world’s economy.
经贸英语(第二版)电子教案Unit 10
5 Types of Packing
6 Time of Shipment
Unit 10 Packing and Shipment
Words & Expressions
packing n. 包装 reference n. 参考 transshipment n. 转运 undergo v. 经受 compact adj. 结实的 strength n. 强度 concerning prep. 关于 break the contract 违反合同 cardboard n. 纸板 reinforce v. 加固 seaworthy adj.适航的 soak v. 浸泡 water-proof adj. 防水的 selling season 销售季节
andimentary Knowledge
the goods to be shipped abroad. The packing used in (2) _t_r_a_n_s_p_o_r_ti_n_g_
goods for home trade is not usually suitable to (3) foreign shipping. Most
B
1. What shall be noted in the packing of goods in foreign trade? Why?
2. What shall be noted in the shipment of goods in foreign trade? Why?
C
3. Why is shipment a very complicated business?
need it badly.
不知你方能否将装运期提前一个月，我方急需货物。
国际贸易双语教程(英文版)
Unit 1 A brief introduction to international trade KeyI. Answer my questions1. International trade is business whose activities involve the crossing of national borders. It includes not only international trade and foreign manufacturing but also encompasses the growing services industry in areas such as transportation, tourism, banking, advertising, construction, retailing, wholesaling, and mass communications. It includes all business transactions that involve two or more countries. Such business relationship may be private or governmental.2. Sales expansion, resource acquisition anddiversification of sales and supplies.3. To gain profit.4. To seek out foreign markets and procurement.5. There are four major forms as follows: Merchandise exports and Imports, Service Exports andImports, Investment, and Multinational Enterprise.6. It is the account which is a summary statement of the flow of all international economic and financial transactions between one nation (eg.the United States ) and the rest of the world over some period of time, usually one year.7. Merchandise Exporting and Importing.8. Yes. There are great differences between them.1) direct investment takes place when control follows the investment. It usually means high commitment of capital, personnel, and technology abroad. It aims at gaining of foreign resources and foreign markets. Direct investment may often get higher foreign sales than exporting. And sometimes it involves two or more parties.2) While portfolio investments are not under control. And they are used primarily for financial purposes. Treasures of companies, for example, routinely more funds from one country to another to get a higher yield on short term investments.9. MNE is the abbreviation of the multinational enterprise. Its synonyms are NNC (the multinational corporation) and TNC (transnational corporation).10. Examples are travel, transport, fee, royalties, dividends and interest.11. The choice of forms is influenced by the objective being pursued and the environments in which the company must operate.12. It is limited by the number of people interested ina firm’s products and services and by customers’ capacity to make purchase.13. This is because at an early stage of international involvement these operations usually take the least commitment and least risk of a firm’s resources.14. Royalties means the payment for use of assets from abroad, such as for trademarks patens, copyrights, or other expertise under contract known as licencing agreements.Royalties are also paid franchising.15. It is a way of doing business in which one party (the franchiser) the use of a trademark that is an essential asset for the franchisers’ business.II Match each one on the left with its correct meaning on the right1. J2.A3.E4.B5.C6.D7.I8.G9.F 10.HIII Translate the following terms and phrases into Chinese1 购买力11经济复苏；恢复2潜在销售量12 经济衰退3加价，涨价13间接投资4国内市场14有形货物5制成品15有形进出口6边际利润16收入及支出；岁入及岁出7市场占有率17超额能力8贸易歧视18贸易中间人（商）；经纪人9时机选择19全部包建的工程承包方式10经销周期20许可证协定IV Case Study1 [Answer]：Batteries called "white elephant" exported from China were very popular in Southeast Asia, because "white elephant" was a lucky thing in Southeast Asia, but no one was interested in it in the market of Europe and the United States. The boss of the company was very strange that the quality of the battery or the price of。
国际贸易英语_Communication-in-International-Business
➢Special attention should be paid to names of articles, specifications, quantity, figures, units, etc
Read carefully: Our competitors were more successful
carefully before it is sent out
7 steps for business writing planning
I. Write down your AIM II. ASSEMBLE all the relevant information and
documents III. ARRAGNE the points in order of importance IV. Write an OUTLINE in note form.
（1）凭样交易 （2）溢短装条款 （3）集装箱 （4）Certificate of origin （5）Forwarding agency （6）Liner transport （7）Freight prepaid
（1）随函附上我方最新的目录册和价格表供你 方参考
（2）关于我方的资信状况，请向中国银行查询
Studying method
Deeply understand the basic theory of writing Study the specimen letters Master customary words, phrases, sentence patterns and expressing method in each phase of foreign trade business Exercise
国际贸易双语教程英文版
国际贸易双语教程英文版IntroductionInternational trade is an essential part of the global economy. It involves the exchange of goods and services between countries. In this bilingual tutorial, we will provide an overview of international trade and explore its various aspects. This tutorial aims to help readers gain a thorough understanding of international trade concepts and terminology in English.1. Understanding International TradeInternational trade refers to the exchange of goods and services across international borders. It allows countries to specialize in producing goods and services that they can produce efficiently, ensuring maximum productivity and resource utilization. This leads to increased economic growth and welfare for participating nations.2. Benefits of International TradeInternational trade offers several advantages to participating countries. These benefits include:•Improved Efficiency: Countries can focus on producing goods and services that they can produce efficiently, increasing overall productivity.•Access to a Wider Range of Goods: Countries can import goods not produced domestically, allowing consumers access to a broader selection of products.•Expanding Markets: With international trade, businesses can reach new markets abroad, enabling them to grow and expand.•Economic Growth: International trade stimulates economic growth by promoting investment, job creation, and innovation.•Lower Costs: Countries can import goods at a lower cost than producing them domestically, leading to cost savings for consumers andbusinesses.3. Trade BarriersDespite the benefits of international trade, various barriers can hinder smooth trade operations. These barriers include:•Tariffs: Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods, increasing their prices and reducing demand.•Quotas: Quotas limit the quantity of goods that can be imported, restricting access to foreign markets.•Regulatory Barriers: These include regulations, standards, and certifications that goods must meet to enter a country, creating additional costs and hurdles for exporters.•Currency Barriers: Fluctuations in exchange rates can affect the competitiveness of goods in international markets.•Trade Restrictions: Embargoes, trade sanctions, and trade wars can further hinder international trade.4. International Trade AgreementsTo promote and regulate international trade, countries often engage in the negotiation and formation of trade agreements. These agreements aim to reduce trade barriers and create a more favorable trade environment. Some prominent international trade agreements include:•World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO is a global organization that promotes free trade and resolves trade disputes amongmember countries.•Free Trade Agreements (FTAs): FTAs are agreements between countries that eliminate or reduce trade barriers among participating nations.•Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs): RTAs are trade agreements between countries within a specific geographic region.•Bilateral Agreements: Bilateral agreements are trade agreements between two countries, focusing on addressing trade barriers and promoting trade.•Multilateral Agreements: Multilateral agreements involve multiple countries negotiating and establishing trade rules and regulations.5. Trade DocumentationInternational trade involves significant documentation to ensure smooth and legal transactions between parties. Some essential trade documents include: •Commercial Invoice: An invoice that provides detailed information about the goods being sold, including quantity, price, and delivery terms.•Bill of Lading: It is a document issued by a carrier that acknowledges the receipt of goods for shipment.•Packing List: A detailed list of the contents and quantities of a shipment.•Certificate of Origin: It certifies the origin of the goods and is needed to claim preferential treatment under trade agreements.•Insurance Certificate: A document that confirms that goods are insured against loss or damage during transportation.•Customs Declaration: A document that provides information about the goods being imported or exported and helps calculate applicable customs duties and taxes.ConclusionInternational trade plays a crucial role in the global economy, enabling countries to benefit from specialization, economic growth, and improved welfare. This bilingual tutorial aimed to provide an overview of international trade in English, covering its various aspects from understanding the basics to trade barriers, agreements, and documentation. By understanding these concepts, readers can engage in international trade activities more effectively and confidently.。
国际贸易实务英文版参考答案
Chapter 1I .YES，Please refer to the 1st paragraph of the text.II. 流动性过剩自给自足经济资源直接投资国际收支易货交易出口退税倾销出口型经济增长东道国贸易差额贸易顺差／贸易逆差欧盟国际收支顺差／国际收支逆差有形贸易无形贸易货物贸易服务贸易excess liquidity self-sufficienteconomic resources direct investment balance of payments barterexport tax rebate dumpingexport-driven economic growth host country balance of tradefavorable/unfavorable balance of trade European Unionfavorable/unfavorable balance of payments visible trade invisible trade trade in goods trade in serv icesIIIThe chart above shows the U.S. imports from China, U.S. exports to China and the trade balance . The U.S. has a negative trade balance with China, and it has been growing. During the period fro m 1997 to 2003, imports from China have grown 244% while exports to China have grown 221%, indicating that the trade deficit is increasing. There had already been a sizeable trade balance defi cit with China in 1996, totaling $ 39.5 billion at the end of the year. IV1. Export goods are tangible goods sent out of countries.2. Trade in services are international earnings other than those derived from the exporting and i mporting of tangible goods.3. Import goods are tangible goods brought in.4. International trade is all business transactions that involve two or more countries.5. FDI is one t hat gives the investor a controlling interest in a foreign company.6. Investment is used primarily as financial means for a company to earn more money on its mo ney with relative safety. V1. International trade is the fair and deliberate exchange of goods and/or services across national boundaries. It concerns trade operations of both import and export and includes the purchase and s ale of both visible and invisible goods.2. In today's complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nation s participate in the international trade for many reasons. As to the economic reasons, no nation has all of the economic resources (land, labor and capital) that it needs to develop its economy and cu lture, and no country enjoys a particular item sufficient enough to meet its needs. As for the prefer ence reasons, international trade takes place because of innovation of style. Besides, every nation can specialize in a certain field and enjoy a comparative advantage in some particular area in term s of trade so that they need to do business with each other to make use of resources more efficientl y and effectively.3. In measuring the effectiveness of global trade, nations carefully follow two key indicators, na mely, balance of trade and balance of payments.4. FDI, the abbreviation form Foreign Direct Investment, means buying of permanent property a nd business in foreign nations. It occurs when acquisition of equity interest in a foreign company is trade. The great significance of FDI for China might be that: FDI solve the problem of capital s hortage for China so that China may spend the money on importing advanced equipment and technologies for its infrastructure, national supporting industry, key projects, etc.Chapter 2 I关税壁垒非关税壁垒从量税配额保护性关税市场失灵幼稚产业许可证制度财政关税政府采购贸易保护主义从价税最低限价本地采购规则增加内需Domestic content Red-tape barriers Export subsidies Binding quota Absolute quotas VERTariff-rate quotas Zero quota"Buy local" rules Tariff barriers non-tariff barriers specific duties quotaprotective tariff market failure infant industry licensing system Revenue tariffgovernment procurement trade protectionism Ad Valorem Duties floor price"buy local" rulesraise domestic demand 国内含量进口环节壁垒出口补贴绑定配额绝对配额自愿出口限制关税配额零配额本地采购原则II1. Protectionism means the deliberate use or encouragement of restrictions on imports to enable re latively inefficient domestic producers to compete successfully with foreign producers. 保护主义是指蓄意使用或鼓励进口限制，以此使本国相对效率低的产品能成功地和外国产品竞争。
国际商务英语Unit 10 shipping
Clauses of Shipment
The buyer and the seller should reach an agreement on time of shipment, port of shipment and port of destination, shipping advice, partial shipment and transshipment, dispatch and demurrage（速遣费和 滞期费）, etc. and specify them in the sales contract. Clear stipulation of the shipment clause is an important condition for the smooth execution of the contract.
A Bill of Lading 货物提单
A bill of lading is a receipt for goods shipped on board a vessel, signed by a person who contracts to carry them, and stating the conditions in which the goods were delivered to the ship. It is a document of title to the goods, enabling the shipper or owner of the goods to endorse title to other parties, sell goods in transit, and present to banks with other documents in seeking payment under documentary credits.
翻译教程U10
综翻Unit 1010.1 Text A 中美经贸发展与中美关系1）中美经贸发展与中美关系译文：The Development of China-US Economic and Trade Ties Relations and the Overall China-US Relations.‘中美关系’：China-US relations 或Sino-US relations.‘中日关系’：Sino-Japanese relations.‘中英合资企业’：Sino-British joint venture.2) 经贸关系历来是中美关系的重要组成部分，也是两国交往中最为活跃的一个方面。
译文：Economic and trade ties have been an important component of China-U．S．relations and the most active element in the contacts between the two countries．1)本句译文中，“历来是”通过现在完成时加以表示。
为加强语气，可在现在完成时中加上long: Economic and trade tieshave long been an important component of China-US relations…2）“交往”在英语中视情况不同，采用不同的词。
通常使用的词有：communication，exchange，association，contact等。
Communication主要表示信息的交换和交流，如：a.We are quite regular in communication with each other by telephone and letter．我们经常通过电话和信函进行交流。
b. With the improved atmosphere around talks between Chinaand the United States，Beijing has a direct communication with Washington．随着中美对话气氛的改善，北京和华盛顿可以直接交换意见。
Internationaltrade英语专业专业必修课国际贸易实务英文版课堂笔记整理
Chapter 1 Introduction to International tradeQuestions & Answers (terms)•International trade(the fair and deliberate exchange of goods and/or services across national boundaries）•Trade in goods (the purchase and sale of visible goods:coffee, chemicals, airplanes, textiles, tobacco)&Trade in services(the purchase and sale of invisible goods: transportation, insurance, tourism, hotel accommodations, commerce)•Self-sufficient (someone who does his own hunting, finds his own shelter, and provides for his own needs)•Barter (the trade of goods without any exchange of money)•Balance of trade (a nation’s rel ationship of exports to imports). A favorable balance of trade, or trade surplus, occurs when the value of the country’s expor ts exceeds that of its imports;An unfavorable balance of trade, or trade deficit, occurs when the value of the country’s imports exceeds that of its exports.•Balance of payments [the difference between money coning into a country (from exports) and money going out of the country (for import) plus money flows coming into or leavinga country from other factors such as tourism, foreign aid.BOP=EM-IM+MF]. Afavorable balance of payments means more money is flowing into a country than flowing out;An unfavorable balance of payments is when more money is flowing out ofa country than coming in.•Dumping(the practic of selling products in foreign country at lower prices than those charged in the producing country). Companies use this tactic to reduce surplus products in foreign markets or to gain a foothold in a new market by offering products for lower prices than domestic competitors do.The foundation of international trade and economic activities：In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills.Questions & Answers (text)•What are major reasons of the exchange of goods between nations?✧First, no nation has all of the commodities that it needs.✧Second, a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs.✧Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries.✧Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style (fashion).•Why is FDI now more important than trade?✧First, FDI enables host country to build a new manufacturing plant and to payworkers to build it.✧Second, once the plant is operative, it provides both jobs and taxes for host country.✧Third, FDI acts as a catalyst (催化剂) in economic growth for host country.•Why inflows into Sub-Saharan Africa have increased?Tourism is the world's largest industry and every year it pumps billions of dollars into some of the poorest countries in the world. It creates jobs, reduces poverty, builds new roads, airports, hotels and hospitals.•What are major obstacles to Chinese foreign trade?✧Firstly, China should deal with pressure from international markets that aregradually becoming saturated（饱和）.✧Secondly, the cost of Chinese exports is increasing, partly because of the highercost of labor and environmental protection.✧Thirdly, increasing international trade protection has caused China to stumble into（陷入）difficult territory.✧Finally, the trade imbalance between China and other countries is getting worse.Chapter 2 Basic Theory of International TradeQuestions & Answers (terms)•Opportunity Cost机会成本：有一得必有一失(the amount of another goods or service that might otherwise have been produced)•Absolute Advantage两者相权取成本低、效率高者[A commodity will be produced in the country where it costs least in terms of resources (capital, land, and labor).] Comparative Advantage两利相权取其重，两劣相权取其轻only one of the goods would work "most best" and "least worse"•What the Theory of C-A Shows if we want to maximize total output in the world then:✧first, fully employ all resources worldwide;✧second, allocate those resources within countries to each country's comparativeadvantage industries;✧third, allow the countries to trade freely .•Specialization (there were some things he was more capable of doing and it would benefit him to concentrate his efforts on the production of those goods in which he was particularly proficient)What are the major benefits of exporting?Why export? Y our general objectives will probably be:➢To increase profitability➢To utilise production capacity to the full➢The small domestic market may not big enough for growth➢You may be manufacturing a specialised product and find there are not enough customers in Sweden➢You may be looking for the increased security your company can achieve by spreading its risks over a variety of markets➢You may want to ensure that your product is kept up to date by exposure to competition in international markets➢It provides scope to develop a company's strengths and abilities. Selling in aninternational environment will sharpen your innovative edge and open up opportunities that might never come your way if you limit yourself to the home market.Michael Porter’s Diamond ModelMichael Porter of the Harvard Business School introduced a new competitiveness theory, the so-called diamond model. He argues that national prosperity is not inherited, but created by choices; in other words, national wealth is not set by factor endowments, but created by strategic choices. He intro duced a concept of “clusters”, or groups of interconnected firms, suppliers,related industries, and institutions that arise in particular locations.1. Firm strategy, Structure and RivalryThe world is dominated by dynamic conditions, and it is direct competition that impels firmsto work for increases in productivity and innovation.2. Demand ConditionsThe more demanding the customers in an economy, the greater the pressure facing firms to constantly to improve their competitiveness via innovative products, through high quality, etc.3. Related Supporting IndustriesUpstream or downstream industries facilitates the exchange of information and promotes a continuous exchange of ideas and innovations.4. Factor ConditionsContrary to conventional wisdoms, Po rter argues that the “key” factors of production (or specialized factors) are created, not inherited. Specialized factors are skilled labor, capital and infrastructure. “Non-key” factors or general use factors, such as unskilled labor and raw materials, can be obtained by any company and, hence, do not generate sustained competitive advantage. However, specialized factors involve heavy, sustained investment. They are more difficult to duplicate. This leads to a competitive advantage, because if other firms cannot easily duplicate these factors, they are valuable.The role of government in Porter’ Diamond Model is “acting as a catalyst and challenger; it is to encourage—or even push—companies to raise their aspirations and move to higher levels of competitive performance…”.They must encourage companies to raise their performance, stimulate early demand for advanced products, focus on specialized factors creation and to stimulate local rivalry by limiting direct cooperation and enforce anti-trust（反托拉斯，反垄断）regulations.Chapter 5 International Trade TermsRole of International Trade Terms➢Standing for specific obligations of the buyer and the seller.➢Name the exact point at which the ownership of the merchandise is transferred from the seller to the buyer.➢Define the responsibilities and expenses of both the seller and the buyer.➢Define the nature of the contract, such as FOB contract or CIF contract, to determine expenses and risks as well as their rights and obligations accordingly.➢The use of the trade terms greatly simplifies the contract negotiations, and thus saves time and cost.The price of commodity（refers to the unit price, which is made up of a name of currency, a unit price, a measuring unit, a trade term, and a name of destination or shipping place .For example,US$ 800 per M/T CIF London）国际贸易合同的主要条款有: 合同对象(标的)：commodities or services 合同总值: total value or quantities 交货条件: trade terms 包装: packaging 装运期: shipment装运口岸和目的地: departure port or destination 保险: insurance 支付条款: payment Procedures of Marine Insurance•To apply for marine insurance;•To determine the insurance value of the goods to be insured;•To determine the insurance average and coverage;•To determine insurance premium;•To sign an insurance policy•To lodge an insurance claim.Proper pricing, complete and accurate quotations, and choice of terms of sale and payment are four critical elements in selling a product or service internationally. Of the four, pricing is the most problematic, even for the experienced exporter.Export product cost structure, involving cost of production, selling and delivery costs, and customs duties.Pricing Considerations•At what price should the firm sell its product in the foreign market?•What type of market positioning does the company want to convey from its pricing structure?•Does the export price reflect the product's quality?•Is the price competitive?•Should the firm pursue market penetration or market-skimming pricing objectives abroad?•What type of discount (trade, cash, quantity) and allowances (advertising, trade-off) should the firm offer its foreign customers?•Laws pose a problem?•Should prices differ by market segment?•What should the firm do about product line pricing?•What pricing options are available if the firm's costs increase or decrease?•Is the demand in the foreign market elastic or inelastic?•Are the prices going to be viewed by the foreign government as reasonable or unfair?•Do the foreign country's antidumping?Pricing Summary Here are the key points to remember when determining your product's price: •Determine the objective in the foreign market.•Compute the actual cost of the export product.•Compute the final consumer price.•Evaluate market demand and competition.•Consider modifying the product to reduce the export price.•Include “non-market" costs, such as tariffs and customs fees.•Exclude cost elements that provide no benefit to the export function, such as domestic advertising.In the cost-plus method of calculation, the exporter starts with the domestic manufacturing cost and adds administration, research and development, overhead, freight forwarding, distributor margins, customs charges, and profit. The effect of this pricing approach may be that the export price escalates into an uncompetitive range.The actual payment= the full invoice of the goods +the additional charges of expenses the seller has paid.Stages in Handling a Bill of Exchange•To draw•Presentation and acceptance•Endorsement•Without recourse•Payment•Dishonor and recourse。
国际贸易专业英语 全套课件共283页文档
countries? Do you know what new issues does the Dora Round
3. the method or methods of transport to be used, for example, by road and sea or by any other recognised means of transport
4. product price and the currency used in the quotation
Another important difference in relation to traditional trade theories is that modern trade theories abandon the assumption of constant returns to scale and replace it with the concept of economies of scale in production. For example, this may mean that as a company produces on a larger scale, average costs fall (internal economies of scale), but also that costs will decline if numerous other businesses are established in the vicinity (external economies of scale), or both.
International trade英语专业专业必修课 国际贸易实务 英文版 课堂笔记整理
Chapter 1 Introduction to International tradeQuestions & Answers (terms)•International trade(the fair and deliberate exchange of goods and/or services across national boundaries）•Trade in goods (the purchase and sale of visible goods:coffee, chemicals, airplanes, textiles, tobacco)&Trade in services(the purchase and sale of invisible goods: transportation, insurance, tourism, hotel accommodations, commerce)•Self-sufficient (someone who does his own hunting, finds his own shelter, and provides for his own needs)•Barter (the trade of goods without any exchange of money)•Balance of trade (a nation’s rel ationship of exports to imports). A favorable balance of trade, or trade surplus, occurs when the value of the country’s expor ts exceeds that of its imports;An unfavorable balance of trade, or trade deficit, occurs when the value of the country’s imports exceeds that of its exports.•Balance of payments [the difference between money coning into a country (from exports) and money going out of the country (for import) plus money flows coming into or leavinga country from other factors such as tourism, foreign aid.BOP=EM-IM+MF]. Afavorable balance of payments means more money is flowing into a country than flowing out;An unfavorable balance of payments is when more money is flowing out ofa country than coming in.•Dumping(the practic of selling products in foreign country at lower prices than those charged in the producing country). Companies use this tactic to reduce surplus products in foreign markets or to gain a foothold in a new market by offering products for lower prices than domestic competitors do.The foundation of international trade and economic activities：In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills.Questions & Answers (text)•What are major reasons of the exchange of goods between nations?✧First, no nation has all of the commodities that it needs.✧Second, a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs.✧Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries.✧Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style (fashion).•Why is FDI now more important than trade?✧First, FDI enables host country to build a new manufacturing plant and to payworkers to build it.✧Second, once the plant is operative, it provides both jobs and taxes for host country.✧Third, FDI acts as a catalyst (催化剂) in economic growth for host country.•Why inflows into Sub-Saharan Africa have increased?Tourism is the world's largest industry and every year it pumps billions of dollars into some of the poorest countries in the world. It creates jobs, reduces poverty, builds new roads, airports, hotels and hospitals.•What are major obstacles to Chinese foreign trade?✧Firstly, China should deal with pressure from international markets that aregradually becoming saturated（饱和）.✧Secondly, the cost of Chinese exports is increasing, partly because of the highercost of labor and environmental protection.✧Thirdly, increasing international trade protection has caused China to stumble into（陷入）difficult territory.✧Finally, the trade imbalance between China and other countries is getting worse.Chapter 2 Basic Theory of International TradeQuestions & Answers (terms)•Opportunity Cost机会成本：有一得必有一失(the amount of another goods or service that might otherwise have been produced)•Absolute Advantage两者相权取成本低、效率高者[A commodity will be produced in the country where it costs least in terms of resources (capital, land, and labor).] Comparative Advantage两利相权取其重，两劣相权取其轻only one of the goods would work "most best" and "least worse"•What the Theory of C-A Shows if we want to maximize total output in the world then:✧first, fully employ all resources worldwide;✧second, allocate those resources within countries to each country's comparativeadvantage industries;✧third, allow the countries to trade freely .•Specialization (there were some things he was more capable of doing and it would benefit him to concentrate his efforts on the production of those goods in which he was particularly proficient)What are the major benefits of exporting?Why export? Y our general objectives will probably be:To increase profitabilityTo utilise production capacity to the fullThe small domestic market may not big enough for growthYou may be manufacturing a specialised product and find there are not enough customers in SwedenYou may be looking for the increased security your company can achieve by spreading its risks over a variety of marketsYou may want to ensure that your product is kept up to date by exposure to competition in international marketsIt provides scope to develop a company's strengths and abilities. Selling in aninternational environment will sharpen your innovative edge and open up opportunities that might never come your way if you limit yourself to the home market.Michael Porter’s Dia mond ModelMichael Porter of the Harvard Business School introduced a new competitiveness theory, the so-called diamond model. He argues that national prosperity is not inherited, but created by choices; in other words, national wealth is not set by factor endowments, but created by strategic choices. He introduced a concept of “clusters”, or groups of interconnected firms, suppliers,related industries, and institutions that arise in particular locations.1. Firm strategy, Structure and RivalryThe world is dominated by dynamic conditions, and it is direct competition that impels firmsto work for increases in productivity and innovation.2. Demand ConditionsThe more demanding the customers in an economy, the greater the pressure facing firms to constantly to improve their competitiveness via innovative products, through high quality, etc.3. Related Supporting IndustriesUpstream or downstream industries facilitates the exchange of information and promotes a continuous exchange of ideas and innovations.4. Factor ConditionsContrary to conventional wisdoms, Porter argues that the “key” factors of production (or specialized factors) are created, not inherited. Specialized factors are skilled labor, capital and infrastructure. “Non-key” factors or general use factors, such as unskilled labor and raw materials, can be obtained by any company and, hence, do not generate sustained competitive advantage. However, specialized factors involve heavy, sustained investment. They are more difficult to duplicate. This leads to a competitive advantage, because if other firms cannot easily duplicate these factors, they are valuable.The role of government in Porter’ Diamond Model is “acting as a catalyst and challenger; it is to encourage—or even push—companies to raise their aspirations and move to higher levels of competitive performance…”.They must encourage companies to raise their performance, stimulate early demand for advanced products, focus on specialized factors creation and to stimulate local rivalry by limiting direct cooperation and enforce anti-trust（反托拉斯，反垄断）regulations.Chapter 5 International Trade TermsRole of International Trade TermsStanding for specific obligations of the buyer and the seller.Name the exact point at which the ownership of the merchandise is transferred from the seller to the buyer.Define the responsibilities and expenses of both the seller and the buyer.Define the nature of the contract, such as FOB contract or CIF contract, to determine expenses and risks as well as their rights and obligations accordingly.The use of the trade terms greatly simplifies the contract negotiations, and thus saves time and cost.The price of commodity（refers to the unit price, which is made up of a name of currency, a unit price, a measuring unit, a trade term, and a name of destination or shipping place .For example,US$ 800 per M/T CIF London）国际贸易合同的主要条款有: 合同对象(标的)：commodities or services 合同总值: total value or quantities 交货条件: trade terms 包装: packaging 装运期: shipment装运口岸和目的地: departure port or destination 保险: insurance 支付条款: payment Procedures of Marine Insurance•To apply for marine insurance;•To determine the insurance value of the goods to be insured;•To determine the insurance average and coverage;•To determine insurance premium;•To sign an insurance policy•To lodge an insurance claim.Proper pricing, complete and accurate quotations, and choice of terms of sale and payment are four critical elements in selling a product or service internationally. Of the four, pricing is the most problematic, even for the experienced exporter.Export product cost structure, involving cost of production, selling and delivery costs, and customs duties.Pricing Considerations•At what price should the firm sell its product in the foreign market?•What type of market positioning does the company want to convey from its pricing structure?•Does the export price reflect the product's quality?•Is the price competitive?•Should the firm pursue market penetration or market-skimming pricing objectives abroad?•What type of discount (trade, cash, quantity) and allowances (advertising, trade-off) should the firm offer its foreign customers?•Laws pose a problem?•Should prices differ by market segment?•What should the firm do about product line pricing?•What pricing options are available if the firm's costs increase or decrease?•Is the demand in the foreign market elastic or inelastic?•Are the prices going to be viewed by the foreign government as reasonable or unfair?•Do the foreign country's antidumping?Pricing Summary Here are the key points to remember when determining your product's price: •Determine the objective in the foreign market.•Compute the actual cost of the export product.•Compute the final consumer price.•Evaluate market demand and competition.•Consider modifying the product to reduce the export price.•Include “non-market" costs, such as tariffs and customs fees.•Exclude cost elements that provide no benefit to the export function, such as domestic advertising.In the cost-plus method of calculation, the exporter starts with the domestic manufacturing cost and adds administration, research and development, overhead, freight forwarding, distributor margins, customs charges, and profit. The effect of this pricing approach may be that the export price escalates into an uncompetitive range.The actual payment= the full invoice of the goods +the additional charges of expenses the seller has paid.Stages in Handling a Bill of Exchange•To draw•Presentation and acceptance•Endorsement•Without recourse•Payment•Dishonor and recourse。
国际贸易实务英语帅建林InternationalTradeTerms
国际贸易实务英语帅建林 InternationalTradeTerms
Meaning of international trade terms
Definition: trade terms (price terms/delivery terms) are an important component of a unit price in international trade, standing for specific obligations of the buyer and the seller.
Defining the responsibilities and expenses of both the seller and the buyer. Simplifying negotiations Saving time and cost
Responsibilities and expenses
The seller’s obligations Provision of goods in conformity with the
contract
Licenses, official documents and customs formalities
Contract of carriage and insurance
国际贸易实务英文版课程设计
International Trade Practical English Course Design Background IntroductionWith the rapid development of globalization, international trade has become one of the most important areas of economic cooperation among various countries. As more and more enterprises go global and participate in international trade, the demand for English skills and practical abilities in international trade has increased dramatically. Therefore, it is essential for students majoring in international trade to improve their English proficiency and practical skills to meet the challenges and opportunities in the international trade arena.Course ObjectivesThe International Trade Practical English Course ms to develop students’ English language skills and practical abilities i n international trade activities. The specific objectives of the course are:•To improve students’ English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, especially in the context ofinternational trade.•To enhance students’ practical abilities i n international trade activities, such as negotiation, communication, anddocumentation.•To help students understand the rules and regulations of international trade and the characteristics of different markets.Course ScheduleWeek 1: Introduction to International Trade•Understanding the basic concepts and principles of international trade.•Analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of international trade.•Exploring the development trend of international trade. Week 2: International Trade Documents•Understanding the types and functions of international trade documents.•Learning the format and content of common international trade documents, such as contracts, invoices, and bills of lading.•Practicing the skills of filling in international trade documents.Week 3: International Trade Regulations•Understanding the rules and regulations of international trade, such as INCOTERMS, UCP600 and URC522.•Analyzing the significance and application of international trade regulations in international trade activities.•Practicing the application of international trade regulations in specific cases.Week 4: International Market Analysis•Understanding the characteristics and trends of different international markets.•Learning the methods and skills of international market analysis.•Practicing the analysis of specific international markets. Week 5: International Trade Negotiation•Understanding the basic principles and skills of international trade negotiation.•Analyzing the different stages and types of international trade negotiation.•Practicing the skills of international trade negotiation. Week 6: International Trade Communication•Understanding the principles and skills of international trade communication.•Learning the methods and tools of international trade communication, such as eml, telephone, and video conference.•Practicing the skills of international trade communication. Week 7: International Trade Finance•Understanding the types and functions of international trade finance, such as letter of credit and bill discounting.•Learning the procedures and regulations of international trade finance.•Practicing the skills of international trade finance.Week 8: International Trade Case Analysis•Analyzing and discussing specific cases of international trade.•Practicing the skills of case analysis and problem-solving in international trade activities.•Summarizing the course content and reviewing the learning outcomes.Course Assessment•Class Participation: 20%•Regular Homework and Assignments: 40%•Midterm Exam: 20%•Final Exam: 20%ConclusionThe International Trade Practical English Course is designed to meet the practical needs of students majoring in international trade. By improving their English proficiency and practical abilities in international trade activities, students can enhance their competitiveness in the global job market and achieve greater success in their future career development.。
国际商务英语课文电子版lesson 10-Lesson 14
Lesson10 International Payment Generally speaking, it is not very difficult for buyers and sellers in domestic trade to get to know each other’s financial status and other information, and payment is likely to be made in a straightforward manner, say （for example）by remittance or by debiting the debtor’s account. In international trade, however, things are far more complicated. Purchase and sale of goods and services are carried out beyond national boundaries, which make it ratherdifficult for the parties concerned in the transaction to get adequate information about each other’s financial standing and creditworthiness (资信；信誉). Therefore, mutual trust is hard to build. Both the exporter and importer face risks as there is always the possibility that the other party may not fulfill the contract.For the exporter there is the risk of buyer default（不按期付款）. The importer might fail to pay in full for the goods. He might go bankrupt.His government might, for various reasons, ban（禁止）trade with the exporting country or ban imports of certain commodities. The buyer might run into difficulties getting the foreign exchange to pay for the goods. It is even possible that the buyer is not reliable and simply refuses to pay the agreed amount on various excuses.On the part of the importer, there is the risk that the shipment will be delayed, and he might only receive them long after payment.The delay may be caused by problems in production or transportation, and such delays may lead to loss of business. There is also a risk that wrong goods might be sent as a result of negligence（疏忽大意）of the exporter or simply because of his lack of integrity （honesty）.Political risks such as war, quotas, foreign exchange control; commercial risks like market change and exchange rate fluctuations(波动); and even language barriers all add upto （increase）the problems in international trade. Because of these problems and risks, exporters are hesitant to release their goods before receiving payment, while importers prefer to have control over the goods before parting with their money.Various methods of payment have been developed to cope with different situations in international trade. When the political and economic situation in the importing country makes payment uncertain or when the buyer’s credit standing isdubious (doubtful), the exporter may prefer cash in advance or partial cash in advance. In this case, the importer has no guarantee that the exporter will fulfill his obligations once he has made payment by cash. If the buyer and the seller know each other well, they may decide to trade on open account. This means that no documents are involved and that legally (in terms of law) the buyer can pay anytime. The seller loses all control over the goods once they have been shipped. Sales on thisbasis are usually paid for by periodic payment, and obviously the exporter must have sufficient financial strength经济实力to carry the cost of the goods until receiving payment. If the exporter wishes to retain（保留）title or ownership（所有权）to the goods, he can enter into consignment transactions. This means the exporter has to send his goods abroad and will not get payment until the goods are sold. If not sold, the goods can be shipped back. Therefore, this arrangementshould only be made with full understanding of the risks involved and is preferably to be limited to stable countries where the exporter has a trusted agent to look after his interest.A lot of international transactions are paid for by means of the draft（汇票）, which, also referred to as the bill of exchange, is an unconditional（无条件的）order to a bank or a customer to pay a sum of money to someone on demand（立即）or at a fixed time in the future.The person who draws（开立）the draft, usually the exporter, is called the drawer（出票人）, and the person to whom the draft is drawn is called the drawee（受票人）. There is yet another party payee（收款人）, i.e. the person receiving the payment, who and the drawer are generally but not necessarily the same person, as the drawer can instruct the drawee either to pay “to the order of ourselves” or to the order of someone else, for instance, the bank.A draft is either a sight draft ora usance draft (also called tenor draft or term draft). The former calls for （needs）immediate payment on presentation (提示) to the drawee while the latter is payable at a later date, e.g. 30, 45, 60, or 90 days after sight or date. A draft is either clean (clean draft 光票) (without documents) or documentary (documentary draft跟单汇票). In the latter case, the draft is accompanied （attached）by the relevant documents such as the bill of lading, the invoice, the insurance policy etc.In documentary collection ( 跟单托收), the exporter sends the draft and the shipping documents运输单据representing title to the goods to his bank, which forwards (sends) them to anot her bank in the importer’s country, which in turn contacts the customer (importer). In the case of documents against payment (D/P)付款交单, documents will not be released to the importer until payment is effected执行. There are D/P at sight and D/P after sight. The former requires immediate paymentby the importer to get hold of the documents. The latter gives the importer a certain period after presentation of the documents, but documents are not released to him until he actually pays for the merchandise货物. In the case of documents against acceptance (D/A)承兑交单, documents are handed over to the importer upon his acceptance（承兑）of the bill of exchange drawn by the exporter. Payment will not be made until a later date. D/A is always after sight.So far as the exporte r’s interest is concerned, D/P at sight is more favorable than D/P after sight, and D/P is more favorable than D/A. In actual trade, payment by collection should be accepted with discretion （小心）. It is usually used when the financial standing of the importer is sound（良好的）, or when the exporter wishes to push the sale of his goods, or when the transaction involves only a small quantity. Otherwise, the letter of credit is generally preferred.Lesson 11In international trade it is almost impossible to mach payment with physical delivery (实际交货) of the goods, which constitutes conflicting problems for trade, since the exporter prefers to get paid before releasing the goods and the importer prefers to gain control over the goods before paying the money. The letter of credit is an effective means to solve these problems. Its objectiveis to facilitate international payment by means of the credit-worthiness of the bank. This method of payment offers security to both the seller and the buyer. The former has the security to get paid provided (假如) he presents impeccable（没有缺陷的）documents while the latter has the security to get the goods required through the documents he stipulates in the credit. This bilateral security is the unique and characteristic feature of the letter of credit.“Letter of credit” is often shortenedas L/C or L.C. and is sometimes referred to as “banker’s commercial letter of credit”, “banker’s credit”, “commercial credit” or simply “credit”. Modern credits were introduced 开始采用in the second half of the 19th century and had substantial development after the First World War. The credit is a letter issued by a bank at the request of the importer in which the bank promises to pay upon presentation of the relevant documents. It is actually a conditional bank undertaking（承诺）of payment.The operation of the letter of credit starts with the importer. He instructs his bank to issue an L/C in favor of the seller （以…为收益人）for the amount of the purchase. Here the importer is called the applicant （开证申请人）, or opener, principal etc., the bank that issues the credit is called the opening bank, the issuing bank or the establishing bank, (开证行) and the exporter in whose favor the credit is opened is called the beneficiary（受益人）. The openingbank sends the credit to its correspondent bank（往来行）in the exporter’s country, who will, after examining（检查）the credit, advise （通知）the exporter of its receipt. Here the correspondent bank is called the advising bank（通知行）. The exporter or beneficiary will make a careful examination（仔细检查）of all the contents of the credit and will request the opener to make amendments修改to any discrepancies （不一致）in the credit so as to ensure safe and timelypayment. Sometimes the exporter may require a confirmed letter of credit (保兑信用证) either because the credit amount is too large, or because he does not fully trust the opening bank. The bank that adds its confirmation（保兑）to the credit is called the confirming bank which is undertaken（承担）either by the advising bank or another prime （big）bank. When everything with the credit is in order, the exporter will prepare the relevant documents based on the credit and dispatch thegoods to the importer. Then he will present the draft and the accompanying documents to the advising bank that pays or accepts (承兑) or negotiates（议付）the bill of exchange. The advising bank then also becomes the paying bank which acts as the agent of the opening bank and gets reimbursed（pay back）by the opening bank after paying the beneficiary. If a bank, either nominated （指定）by the opening bank or at its own choice, buys the exporter’s draft submitted to it undera credit, it is called a negotiating bank (议付行). The draft and the documents will then be sent to the opening bank for reimbursement（偿付）.Letters of credit are varied in form, length, language, and stipulations. Generally speaking, however, they include the following contents:1. The number of the credit and the place and time of its establishment.2. The type of the credit.3. The contract on which it is based.4. The major parties relevant to thecredit, such as the applicant, opening bank, beneficiary, advising bank. etc.5. The amount or value of the credit.6. The place and date on which the credit expires（失效）.7. The description of the goods including name of commodity, quantity, specifications, packing, unit price, price terms, etc.8. Transportation clause（条款）including the port of shipment, the port of destination, the time of shipment, whether allowing partial shipments or transshipment（转船）.9. Stipulations relating to the draft.10. Stipulations concerning the shipping documents required.11. Certain special clauses if any.e.g. restrictions on the carrying vessel（承运船只）and the route.12. Instructions to the negotiating bank.13. The seal or signature of the opening bank.14. Whether the credit follows “the uniform customs and practice for documentary credits”.The letter of credit providessecurity to both the exporter and the importer. However, it only assures payment to the beneficiary provided the terms and conditions of the credit are fulfilled. It does not guarantee that the goods purchased will be those invoiced or shipped. It is stipulated in Article 4 of the uniform customs and practice for documentary credit that “in credit operations all parties concerned deal in documents, and not in goods, services and/or other performance to which the documents may relate”.That is to say the banks are only concerned with the documents representing the goods instead of the underlying contracts. They have no legal obligation whether the goods comply with the contract. They will be considered as having fulfilled their responsibility so long as all the documents comply with the stipulations of the credit. The quality and quantity of merchandise shipped, although specified in the documents, ultimately depend on the seller who has manufactured, packaged, andarranged shipment for the goods.If the importer finds any problems with the goods, e.g. inferior quality or insufficient quantity, he has to contact or even take legal action against the exporter instead of the bank so long as the documents are “proper” on their face.Lesson 12Letters of credit fall under several categories depending on their function, form and mechanism. Here are the major types of credit:1. Clean credit and documentary credit: Credits that only require clean draft, i.e. draft not accompanied with shipping documents, for payment are clean credit. They are generally used in non-trade settlement（非贸易结算）or in payment in advance by means of the L/C. Most of the credits used in international trade are documentary credits, i.e. credits that require shipping documents to be presented together with the draft.2.Revocable credit andirrevocable credit: This classification is based on the certainty确信of the commitment 承诺to pay on the part of the applicant and the issuing bank. The credit is a revocable one if such commitments can be altered （改变）or even canceled（取消）without consulting with the beneficiary. It is quite obvious that the exporter has little assurance 保证to get payment, and therefore this type of credits are rarely used. Irrevocable credits are those that cannot be amended （revised修改）or revoked（取消）without the consent（同意）of all the parties concerned. Safe and reliable, this type is extensively（widely）used in world trade. It must be noted that if there is no specific indication whether a credit is revocable or irrevocable, it should be regarded as irrevocable.3. Confirmed credit and unconfirmed credit: If a credit is confirmed by a bank other than （除…之外）the issuing bank, it becomes a confirmed credit. The confirmation is undertaken 承担either by theadvising bank or by another leading bank. Under a confirmed credit, the beneficiary is given double assurance of payment 双重付款担保since the confirming bank has added its own undertaking 承诺to that 承担of the opening bank. If the credit is not confirmed by another bank, it is an unconfirmed letter of credit. Though a confirmed credit is considered to be able to provide the greatest degree of security to the beneficiary, it involves additional cost as a result of the confirmation.Therefore if the establishing bank is a reliable prime bank, confirmation may not be necessary.4. Sight credit and usance credit: A sight credit is one by which payment can be made upon presentation of the draft and impeccable documents by the beneficiary to the bank. It gives the beneficiary better security and helps him speed up his capital turnover. 资金周转Most of China’s export contracts stipulate for sight credit in payment terms. Obviously, a sight credit calls for a sight draft.It is also clear that this type of credit requires a usance draft. If the beneficiary wishes to get payment before the maturity到期of the draft, he can ask the bank to discount贴现the acceptance, and immediately pay him the net proceeds净收益（net position 实际头寸）, i. e. the face value 面值of the draft minus减去the discount charges收费.5. Transferable credit andnon-transferable credit: If a credit can be transferred by the original beneficiary to one or more parties, it is a transferable credit. The original beneficiary is called the first beneficiary and the party (or parties) the credit is transferred to is called the second beneficiary. It is usually used when the first beneficiary is a middleman and does not supply the goods himself. A credit can be transferred only once. But transferring a credit to more than one party at the same time is allowedprovided partial shipments are permitted. If a credit does not specify whether it is transferable, it should be regarded as a non-transferable document according to the credit stipulation.6. Non-draft credit: There is a modern tendency for payment to be made by presentation of the documents without the formality of drawing and presenting a draft. Such credits are non-draft credit. They mainly include payment credit and deferred payment credit which arerespectively similar to sight credit and usance credit with the difference that no draft is drawn and presented in the case of non-draft credit.7. Revolving credit: If a credit stipulated that its amount can be renewed更新or reinstated恢复without specific amendment to the credit being made, it is then a revolving credit. It is particularly useful when the buyer and seller have regular trading relationship and deal in a specific quantity of goods each month or any particular periodof time.It has already been mentioned that the letter of credit has greatly facilitated便利and promoted international trade. However, like any other methods (mode) of payment, it is not perfect. It cannot provide absolute security for the contracting parties. The seller may sustain losses 蒙受because of the buyer’s delay even failure in the establishment of credit开立信用证. The buyer may suffer losses as a result of the documents presented bythe seller which do not truly represent the goods shipped. And it is not absolutely avoidable that the bank may become insolvent破产的or bankrupt. Besides, it is more expensive to use the letter of credit than remittance or collection as the bank will charge 收费its client for all the services it provides. So the letter of credit may not be the most ideal（best）method of payment for a particular transaction, and the contracting parties should make their best choice according to the specificconditions.Lesson 13One of the major differences between domestic trade and foreign trade is documentation (单据的使用). Every shipment must be accompanied by a number of correct documents. If they are not the correct ones, the importer will have difficulties in taking delivery of 提货the goods, and delays caused byincorrect documentation may affect future business relations between the trading partners. In the case of documentary letter of credit, any discrepancy不同, even in minor details, between the documents presented and those specified in the credit may lead to refusal by the bank to make payment. Different documents are required for different transactions, depending on the nature of the deal, the term of delivery, the type of commodity, stipulations of credit, regulations and practices indifferent countries, etc. However, most transactions require the following major documents.The commercial invoice：Generally called “the invoice” for short, this document is the general description of the quality and quantity of the goods and the unit and total price. It constitutes the basis on which other documents are to be prepared制作, and the banks check the conformity between credit terms and documents 单证一致and the conformity between thedocuments单单一致. A commercial invoice normally include the following contents: Invoice number and the date; name and address of the buyer and the seller; contract number and credit number; description of the goods including name of the commodity, quantity, specifications, etc.; unit price, total price, price terms, and commission and discount if any; terms of delivery and terms of payment; packing, shipping marks唛头, etc.; and seal or signature of the exporter.It should be noted that the description of the goods in the invoice must comply with the credit while in other documents the goods can be described in general terms, and that the total invoice value should not exceed the total amount of the covering（适用的）L/C.The packing list （is a document that）gives information such as the number, date, name and description of the goods, shipping marks, packing, number of packages, specific contents of each packageand its net weight and gross weight etc. Sometimes the credit stipulates for specification list规格清单which is similar to the packing list but emphasizes the description of the specifications of the goods. The weight list, weight note, or weight memo are also similar to the packing list in content and function but emphasis on the weight of the goods and are generally used for goods which are based on the weight for price calculation.The Bill of lading is one of themost important documents and has three major functions: 1. It serves as a cargo receipt signed by the carrier and issued to the shipper or consignor; 2. It constitutes a contract of carriage（transport）between the carrier and the consignor; 3. It is a document of title 所有权to the goods,and the legal holder 合法持有人of the bill of lading is the owner of the goods it covers.The major contents of the bill of lading include: 1. the carrier, i. e.the shipping company; 2. the shipper or consignor, it is normally the exporter; 3. the consignee收货人. It is generally either the importer or made out “to order”; 4. the notify party, i. e. the party to be advised通知after arrival of the goods at the port of destination. It is often the agent of the consignee or the consignee himself. 5. a general description of the goods including the name, number of packages, weight, measurement 尺寸etc. 6. shipping marks; 7. the port ofshipment and the port of destination;8. the freight运费, for CIF and CFRi t should be “freight prepaid”, or “freight paid”, for FOB it should be “freight to collect”, or “freight to be paid”, or “freight payable at destination”. 9. the place where the bill of lading is issued; 10. the date when the bill of lading is issued which is regarded as the time of shipment交货时间(time of delivery) and can by no means (never) be later than that stipulated in the credit.There are quite a few types of bills of lading classified in several ways. However, most letters of credit stipulate for “clean, on board bill oflading”. is one which states (indicate) that the goods have been shipped in apparent (表面上) good order and condition. It is meant that the document is devoid of 没有any qualifying remarks 批注性话语concerning the packing and the outer appearance of the goods. And the carrier admits full liability 承担全部责任for thegoods described in the bill of lading and is bound to 有责任carry the goods and deliver them in like (similar) condition in which he hasreceived them.indicates that the shipment has been actually loaded on the carrying vessel 承运船只bound for 开往the port of destination. Traditionally, this has been the only acceptable type to be presented by the seller under the term CFR and CIF.The document similar to theocean bill of lading 海运提单is called airway bill for air transportation and railway bill, cargo receipt etc. for railway transportation.The insurance policy and the insurance certificate are similar in function, the only difference being that the latter is a bit simpler than the former. The main contents of such insurance documents include: 1. the insured. Under CIF terms, the insured is generally the beneficiary of the credit unless otherwisespecified, while under CFR and FOB terms，the insured is usually the importer. 2. cargo description including name, quantity, weight, shipping marks etc . 3. the amount insured and the risks covered 险别. It should be noted that the currency of the amount insured should be the same as that of the credit. 4. contents concerning transportation including the carrying vessel, the port of shipment and the port of destination, the sailing date起航日期etc. 5. the place where claims are to be settled。