Introduction of Bloomfield
四种二语习得理论
四种二语习得理论1、中介语理论（Interlanguage）by SelinkerML TLchiglishmother language target language中介语是介于母语与目标语之间的一种语言Positive transfer（正迁移）母语的干扰：Transfer（迁移）Negative transfer（负迁移）正迁移（positive）:母语帮助目标语2、文化移入说（Acculturation . Model）--by Schunman（舒曼）3、渐进体系说（Approximative System）循序渐进（Graduality）Palmer ( 帕默) "Snowball"四先原则：先易后难，先简后繁，先死后活，先集体后个人。
4、输入说（Input Theory）S.D.Krashen（克拉申）对于二语的习得，要进行大量的，可理解性的输入"i+1"即"input+1","1"相当于不定量"n"“中国外语立体教学理论”by “张正东”所用甚少四、环境对外语教学的影响Critical period 关键期假说“13”is the critical age1、印度狼孩2、非洲黑猩猩孩3、辽宁猪孩思考题：语言学对我国外语教学有什么样的启示第二部分：外语教学流派(Schools of FILM )教学目的：1、了解英语教学法主要流派。
2、借签第四讲：一、FLIM: Foreign Language Teaching Methods（一）.GTM（语法翻译法）----Grammar Translation Methods始于18世纪末19世纪中，源于欧洲（西欧），（18世纪前的拉丁语）中国从1872年开始，同文馆标志着中国班级教学的开始。
GTM持续到20世纪70年代。
主要特点如下（弊端）1、重视书面语，轻视口语。
《普通语言学教程》-语言学流派
The London School 伦敦派 关键词：系 统；功能； 上下文 Lay
stress on the function of language and attaching great importance to the contexts of the system aspect of language
Hockett 霍凯特 Tagmatics 法位学 认知层次理论： 层次语法--把语言看做系 Cognitive 统关系--简化与概括 通过 stratificational
龙菲尔德时期的 Pike 派克 语言学
Sydney M Lamb 兰姆 节点和线把层次上的所有 theory 关系联系在一起，把语言 神经认知语言学 分析带入一个节点和线交 （Neurocogniti 织在一起的关系网络 ve linguistics) 美国结构主义的特征：1.共时 2.美国不 同于欧洲的许多的语言都有其历史文化 1.Descrptive instead of perscriptive 2. 背景，美国只有英语 3.任务：记录在迅 没有一套完整的语法规则 3.重视独特性， 速消亡的土著美国印第安人的语言（无 却不重视意义 书面记录，奇特，多样性大 为什么Bloomfield 对语意关注较少：整个印第安语与欧洲语言差异很大， 无必然联 系，而且，印第安语快灭绝了， 因此， 重描写。贡献：最大程度将印第安语记录下 来。反复的使用即刺激--反应--行为主义
布龙菲尔德
布龙菲尔德刺激-反应理论
一个人受到某种刺激时，他可以用他的语言
去让另一个人作出相应的反应。
劳动分工以及基于劳动分工基础之上的一切
人类活动，都依赖于语言。
说话人和听话人身体之间原有一段距离--两个
互不相连的神经系统--由声波作了桥梁。
布龙菲尔德公式
S → r .......... s → R
理论依据
语言是言语，不是文字；
一种语言就是一种习惯；
教语言，而不是教什么是语言； 一种语言就是操本族语的人所说的话，
而不是某个人认为他应该说的话； 语言是各不相同的来源.
语法层面
语言的语法形式有三大类：句子、替代和结
构 一系列的术语来描写语言的形式，比如词素、 词根、自由形式、黏着形式、符合、屈折、 派生、成分、一致
假设一个男孩和他的女朋友正在散步。
女孩饿了，她看到树上有苹果，于是 发出一些声音。结果那个男孩就跳过 篱笆，爬上树，摘下果子，递给女孩。 女孩便把苹果吃了
S—外部刺激 r—语言的代替反映 s—语言的代替性刺激 R—外部的实际反应。
语言可以在一个人受到刺激（S）时让另一个人去 作出反应（R）
女孩看到苹果受到实际的刺激S， 如果她受到刺激之后自己去摘R,即为S-R。 但是她在受到苹果的刺激之后没有自己去采
取实际行动，而是跟男朋友说话r，希望其去 摘。 男孩所受到的刺激就是s， 男孩摘了就是R。 S－r-s-R。
生理音位学
● 随后对音延、音长、重音、
语音学
物理音位学
实用语音学
音高等概念作了分析，并且 根据发音方式研究各种变异， 把余音的结构分为主音位和 次音位两类
音位
参考文献——精选推荐
参考文献1.交际法英语教学和考试评估，徐强，上海外语教育出版社2002. 12.英语教学策略论，王笃勤外语教学与研究出版社2003. 93.语言问题求教集，王宗炎，外语教学与研究出版社2003.34.现代语言学的特点和发展趋势，戚雨村，上海外语教育出版社2001. 25.A New Introduction to Pragmatics新编语用学概要, 何兆熊, 上海外语教育出版社2001.86.中国大学生英语作文评改毛荣贵Dorine S.Houston 上海交通大学出版社1998. 47.英语教师行动研究，王蔷外语教学与研究出版社2002，118.Concise History of the English Language 英语简史, 费尔南德。
莫塞，水天同等译，外语教学与研究出版社，2000。
89.英语课堂教学形成性评价研究, 罗少茜，外语教学与研究出版社2003. 4nguage, Culture and Translating, Eugene A. Nida 上海外语教育出版社, 1999,911.The Learner-centered Curriculum A Study in Second Language Teaching, David Nunan 学习者为中心的课程研究, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 312.Linguistics, H.G. Widdowson语言学, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 313.Sociolinguistics, Bernard Spolsky社会语言学, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 314.Psycholinguistics, Thomas Scovel心理语言学上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 315.Second Language Acquisition, Rod Ellis第二语言习得, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 316.Pragmatics, George Y ule语用学上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 3nguage and Culture, Clair Kramsch语言与文化, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 318.英语词汇学教程, A Survey of English Lexicology, 汪榕培，卢晓娟，上海外语教育出版社, 1998, 419.The English Language，R. W.Burchfield，话说英语，牛津大学出版社，外研社1992, 120.A Survey of Modern Second Language Learning & Teaching, 王立菲，现代外语教学论，上海教育出版社, 2000,1121.A History of English Language Teaching, A. P.R. Howatt语言教学史, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 622.具有中国特色的英语教学法, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 823.Context and Culture in Language Teaching, Claire Kramsch语言教学的环境与文化, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 1224.Teaching Language as Communication, H. G. Widdowson语言教学交际法, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 1225.Aspects of Language Teaching, H. G. Widdowson语言教学面面观, 上海外语教育出版社,1999, 1226.Discourse and Literature, Guy Cook话语与文学, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 1227.外语教学心理学, 朱纯, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 328.V ocabulary, Semantics and Language Education词汇、语义学和语言教育, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press29.Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching, Hatch and Brown语言教学课程设计原理, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press30.Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Y alden语言学习与语言教学的原则, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press31.Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching,Johnson and Johnson应用语言学百科词典：语言教学手册, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press 32.A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, Ur 语言教学教程：实践与理论, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press剑桥应用语言学丛书（外研社）General Linguistics普通语言学Aronoff, M．et aI．(eds) The Handbook of Linguistics语言学综览Beaugrande，R．D．Linguistic Theory：The Discourse of Fundamental Works语言学理论：对基要原著的语篇研究Bloomfield．L．Language语言论Poole，S．An Introduction to the study of Speech语言学入门Radford，A．et a1．Linguistics：An Introduction语言学教程Robins．R．H General Linguistics普通语言学概论Spair，E Language: An Introduction to the Studyof Speech 语言论：言语研究导论Saussure．F．D Course in General Linguistics普通语言学教程Yule．G The Study of Language Second edition语言研究Phonetics and Phonology 语音学与音系学Chen．M．Y Tome Sandhi：Patterns across Chinese Dialects汉语方言的连读变调模式Clark，J．et al An htroduction to Phonetics and PhonologySecond edition语音学与音系学入门Cruttenden，A．(ed) Gimson’s Pronunciation of English Sixth Edition吉姆森英语语音教程Gussenhoven．C．et al Understanding Phonology音系学通解Kager．R Optimality Theory 优选论Roach．P English Phonetics and Phonology：A Practical Course Secondedition 英语语音学与音系学实用教程Syntax句法学Baltin，M．et a1．(eds) The Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic Theory当代句法理论通览Chomsky，N Knowledge of Language：Its Nature，Origin，and Use语言知识：其性质、来源及使用Cook．V Chomsky's Universal Grammar：An Introduction Second edition乔姆斯基的普遍语法教程Ouhalla，J Introducing Transformational Grammar：From Principles and Parameters to Minimalism Second edition转换生成语法导论：从原则参数到最简方案Radford．A Syntax：A Minimalist Introduction句法学：最简方案导论Radford．A Transformational Grammar：A First Course转换生成语法教程Smith．N Chomsky：Ideas and Ideals乔姆斯基：思想与理想Semantics语义学Lappin，S．(ed) The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory当代语义理论指南Lyons,J Linguistic Semantics An Introduction语义学引论Saeed，J．I Semantics语义学Morphology 形态学Matthews．P．H．Morphology Second edition形态学Packard，J．L The Morphology of Chinese：A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach 汉语形态学：语言认知研究法Pragmatics 语用学Mey，J．L． Pragmatic：An Introduction Second edition语用学引论Levinson．S．C Pragmatics语用学Peccei，J．S Pragmatics语用学Sperber，D．et al Relevance：Communication and Cognition Second edition关联性：交际与认知Verschueren，J Understanding Pragmatics语用学新解Discourse Analysis话语分析Brown．G．et al Discourse Analysis话语分析Gee，J．P An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory & Method话语分析入门：理论与方法Philosophy 0f Language语言哲学Austin，J．L How to Do Things with Words Second edition如何以言行事Grice．H．P Studies in the Way of Words言辞用法研究Searle，J．R Speech Acts：An Essay in the Philosophy of Language言语行为：语言哲学论Searle，J．R Expression and Meaning：Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts 表述和意义：言语行为研究Language 0rigin语言起源Aitchison，J． The Seeds of Speech：Language Origin and Evolution言语的萌发：语言起源与进化History of Linguistics语言学史Robins，R．H． A Short History of Linguistics Fourth edition语言学简史Lexicography词典学Bej 0int，H Modern Lexicography：An Introduction现代词典学入门Cowie．A．P English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners：A History英语学习词典史Hartmann．R．R．K．et al Dictionary of Lexicography词典学词典Stylistics文体学Leech．G．N A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry英诗学习指南：语言学的分析方法Leech．G．N．et al Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to EnglishFictional Prose小说文体论：英语小说的语言学入门Thomborrow，J．et al Patterns in Language：Stylistics for Students of Languageand Literature语言模式：文体学入门Wright，L．et al Stylistics：A Practical Coursebook 实用文体学教程Typology语言类型学Croft．W． Typology and Universals语言类型学与普遍语法特征Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Foley，W． An Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction人类语言学入门Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Coulmas，F．(ed) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics社会语言学通览Crystal．D English as a Global Language英语：全球通用语Fasold．R The Sociolinguistics of Language社会语言学Hudson．R．A Sociolinguistics Second edition社会语言学教程Wardhaugh，R Introduction to Sociolinguistics Third edition社会语言学引论Psycholinguistics心理语言学Aitchison，J The Articulate Mammal：An Introduction to PsycholinguisticsFourth edition 会说话的哺乳动物：心理语言学入门Carroll．D．W Psychology of Language Third edition语言心理学Intercultural Communication文化交际Samovar．L．A．et al Communication Between Cultures Second edition跨文化交际Scollon．R．et aI． Intercultural Communication：A Discourse Analysis跨文化交际：语篇分析法Translatology 翻译学Taylor Baker．M． In Other Words：A Coursebook on Translation换言之：翻译教程Bell．R．T Translation and Translating：Theory and Practice翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学Taylor，J．R Linguistic Categorization：Prototypes in Linguistic TheorySecond edition 语言的范畴化：语言学理论中的类典型Ungerer，F．et al An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学入门Functional Linguistics功能语言学Bloor．T．et al The Functional Analysis of English：A Hallidayan Approach英语的功能分析：韩礼德模式Halliday，M．A．K An Introduction to functional Grammar Second edition功能语法导论Leech．G．N Halliday，M．A．K Language as Social Semiotic：The Social Interpretationof Language and Meaning作为社会符号的语言：从社会角度诠释语言与意义Halliday，M．A．K．et al Cohesive English英语的衔接Thompson．G Introducing Functional Grammar功能语法入门Historical Linguistics历史语言学Lehmann，W．P． Historical Linguistics：An Introduction Third edition历史语言学导论Trask．R．L Historical Linguistics历史语言学Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学Biber．D．et a1． Corpus Linguistics 语料库语言学Kennedv，G． An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学入门Statistics in Linguistics语言统计学Woods．A．et al． Statistics in Language Studies 语言研究中的统计学History of the English Language 英语史Baugh．A．C．et al A History of the English Language Fourth Edition英语史Freeborn．D From old EnglishtoStandard Englishecond edition英语史：从古代英语到标准英语First Language Acquisition 第一语言习得Foster-Cohen，S．H． An Introduction to Child Language Development儿童语言发展引论Goodluck．H． Language Acquisition：A Linguistic Introduction从语言学的角度看语言习得Peccel，J．S． Child Language New edition 儿童语言Second Language Acquisition第二语言习得Cohen．A．D Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language学习和运用第二语言的策略Cook．V Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition语言学和第二语言习得Cook．V Second Language Learning and Language Teaching Second edition 第二语言学习与教学James，C Errors in Language Learning and Use：Exploring Error Analysis 语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨Larsen-Freeman．D．et a1 An Introduction Second Language Acquisition Research第二语言习得研究概况Nunan．D Second Language Teaching and Learning第二语言教与学Reid，J．M Learning Styles in the ESL／EFL Classroom ESL／EFL英语课堂上的学习风格Richards，J．C．et al Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms第二语言课堂教学反思Language Education语言教育Brown．H．D Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Third edition语言学习和语言教学的原则Brown．H．D Teaching by Principles： An Interactive Approach to LanguagePedagogy 根据原理教学：交互式语言教学Brown，J．D The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development语言教学大纲要素：课程设计系统法Harmer，J How to Teach English怎样教英语Hatch，E．et a1 Vocabulary, Semantics and Language Education词汇、语义学和语言教育Johnson，K An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching外语学习与教学导论Richards，J．et a1 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching语言教学的流派Trudgill，P．et al International English Third edition英语：国际通用语Ur．P A Course in Language Teaching：Practice and Theory语言教学教程：实践与理论Research Method研究方法McDonotlgh，J．et al Research Methods for English Language Teachers英语教学科研方法Slade．C Form and Style：Research Papers，Reports，Theses Tenth edition如何写研究论文与学术报告Thomas，J．et al. (eds) Using Corpora，for Language Research用语料库研究语言Wray，A．et al Projects in Linguistics：A Practical Guide to Researching Language 语言学课题：语言研究实用指南Testing测试学Alderson，J．C．et al Language Test Construction and Evolution语言测试的设计与评估Bachman，L．F．et al Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and LanguageTesting Research 第二语言习得与语言测试研究的接口Davies。
美国结构主义语言
应，r代表言语的代替反应，s代表言语的代替性刺激）
如：一个男孩和他的女朋友正在散步。女孩饿了，看到树 上有苹果，于是发出一些声音。结果那个男孩就跳过篱笆， 爬上树，摘下果子，递给女孩，女孩便把苹果吃了。
三. 后布龙菲尔德时期语言学（20世纪50年代）
哈里斯(Harris)的《结构语言学的方法》(Methods in Structural Linguistics)标志着美国结构主义达到成熟。他认 为语言结构分析的任务就是把话语里的一个个单位给找出 来, 然后对这些单位之间的关系做出说明。他把语言结构 里的各种单位看成是逻辑符号, 然后用数理逻辑的方法进 行操作。
霍凯特之后，结构主义最为杰出的人物应该是派克(Pike)， 因为他提出了著名的语言学分析手法：法位学(Tagmemics)。 他认为一种语言有它独立的不依赖于意义的等级系统，即语言 有三种相互关联的等级系统：音位、语法和指称，而这三种 等级系统中的每一个层面都有四个语言单位：轨位、类别、角 色和接应。这样的基本单位就叫做语法单位，简称法位。法位 的公式是：
四. 总结
总之，结构主义的出发点是语法范畴不应该通过意义而应 该依据分布来定义，任何语言的结构描写都不该考虑时态 语气等范畴，因为这些范畴并不一定有普遍性。 1. 结构主义语法描写语言中的所有现象，而不是制定规则， 其目标也因此被限定于描写语言，缺乏对语言现象和人的 语言能力进行解释的能力。 2. 结构主义语法是经验的，追求客观科学性，但却没有写出 与任何传统语法相提并论的完整语法。 3. 结构主义语法考察所有的语言，却不能正确地处理意义。 4. 结构主义语法描写语言结构和语言使用后面的最小的对立。
美国结构主义语言学
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参考文献一：[1]Baker,C.,C.FillmoreJ.Lowe.1998.TheBerkeleyFrameNetProject[A].InC.Boitet P.Whitelock(eds.).Proceedingsofthe36thAnnualMeetingoft heAssociationforComputationalLinguisticsand17thInterna tionalConferenceonComputationalLinguistics[C].SanFranc isco:MorganKaufmann.86-90.[2]Berlin,Brent,PaulKay.BasicColorTerm.TheirUniversity andEvolution[M].Berkeley,LosAngeles:UniversityofCalifo rniaPress,1969:169-83.[3]Boas,H.C.FrameSemanticsasaframeworkfordescribingpol ysemyandsyntacticstructuresofEnglishandGermanmotionver bsinContrastiveComputationalLexicography[A].InRaysonPa ul,AndrewWilson,TonyMcenery,AndrewHardie,andShereenKho ja(eds.)ProceedingsoftheCorpusLinguistics2001Conferenc e[C]:LancasterUniversityCenterforComputerCor pusResearchonLanguage,2001.[4]Breal,M.EssaideSemantique,SciencedesSignifications( 5th.ed)[M].Paris,1921.[5]Brown,C.Payne,M.E.Fiveessentialstepsofprocessinvocabularylearn ing[A].PaperpresentedattheTESOLConvention,Baltimore,Md ,1994.[6]Cienki,A.2007.Frames,IdealizedCognitiveModels,andDo mains[C]//D.GeeraertsH.Cuyckens.TheOxfordHandbookofCognitiveLinguistics.Oxf ord:OUP:171-187.[7]Coulson,S.2006.SemanticLeaps:Frame-shiftingandConceptualBlendinginMeaningConstruction[M]. 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Introduction-of-Bloom's-Taxonomy布鲁姆的教育目标分类
Benjamin Bloom (1956) headed a group of educational psychologists develop a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning (i.e. Bloom’s taxonomy). This taxonomy was further developed by Lorin Anderson and his colleagues to a new version in 2001 (Bloom’s revised taxonomy). Till now Bloom’s taxonomy has been widely used in education. Specifically, educational objectives of Taxonomy have been adapted by educational administrators, teachers, teacher educators, curriculum coordinators, and assessment specialists across the board. Because of Bloom’s taxonomy, human’s learning behaviour is not abstract but concrete and can be precisely delineated according to different affective, psychomotor, or cognitive levels. However, the objectives on cognitive domain are most commonly applied in education, and will be the focus of this assignment.With two aims of researching, i.e. what Bloom’s t axonomy contributes to understanding of students’ learning behaviour and what implications Bl oom’s t axonomy casts on teaching and learning, this assignment is divided into three sections. In the first section, old and new versions of Bloom’s Taxonomy will be introduced accompanied by a comparison between the two. We then turn to describe how Taxonomy facilitates teaching and learning in curriculum design, classroom instructions, and assessments, drawing upon latest resources and examples from schools or educational institutes. In the third section, it will be pointed out that like every theory of learning and development Bloom’ taxonomy has weaknesses and limitations. It is just one method of describing and evaluating human’s learning activities, thereby it is suggested to be used along with other educational approaches and with awareness to avoid the side effect of its weaknesses and limitations.Bloom’s Original TaxonomyBloom’s Original Taxonomy comes from the efforts of a group of educational psychologists gathered by Benjamin S. Bloom, then Associate Director of the Board of Examinations of the University of Chicago, to reduce the labor of annually examination preparation by creating a framework to guide test items’ design that can be shared across American universities. This framework is a classification of educational objectives, i.e. what students are expected to behave as a result of learning. The practice of this framework then in 1956 came upon with the published Bloom’s Taxonomy.Bloom and his colleagues divided learning objectives into three psychological domains or areas: Cognitive domain, Affective domain, and Psychomotor domain, which sometimes are loosely described(or head), feeling (or heart) and doing (or hands) respectively. Specifically, skills in Cognitive domain involve knowledge, comprehension, and critical thinking; skills in Affective domain deal with attitudes, emotion, and feelings; and skills in the psychomotor domain focus on manipulative, manual or physical behaviour. Each domain is divided into several categories from lower-order skills to higher-order skills (see below figure 1).Figure 1: Bloom's three psychological domainsCognitive skills Affective skills Psychomotor skillsHowever, Bloom is best known for the research in cognitive domain. In this domain, cognitive processes were classified into six categories, i.e. Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. They are arranged in a cumulative hierarchy, which means the mastery of simple thinking skills is required prior to the mastery of complex ones. Furthermore, each main category was broken into subcategories except Application.With its precise classification of educational objectives, Bloom’s taxonomy makes it possible for teaching content and process to be formulated. It also provides a convenient and objective measurement for learning behaviours, which is helpful in enhancing educational quality.After having been put into practice for 45 years, Bloom’s taxonomy, however, has re vealed weaknesses and limitations, thus in 2001, a new group of cognitive psychologists, educational researchers and testing specialists led by Bloom’s former student Lorin Anderson updated the taxonomy to a revised version. Bloom’s revised taxonomy drew on recent educational and psychological development in the 21st century and made it a more complete and practical educational method. Details will be given in the next section.Bloom’s r evised taxonomyThe revised taxonomy was developed in much the same manner as the original one. It retained the same number (i.e. six) of cognitive processes and kept some of the original knowledge subjects. However, 12 changes have been made in emphasis, structure and terminology, and some changes are significant and will be discussed below.Firstly, with respect to emphasis, the revised taxonomy aims to serve a wide range of teachers, not only higher education teachers, who are focus of the original taxonomy, but also those from elementary and secondary education, thus it added examples from fundamental education. Another important shift of emphasis was from serving examinations to the taxonomy in use, i.e. the original taxonomy focused on assessments by providing abundant examples of test items whereas the revised taxonomy gives many examples of how the taxonomy is used in curriculum design, instruction, assessment and the alignment of the three. In addition, comparing with the original taxonomy in which the six major categories were given far more attention than the subcategories, the revised version described the latter in detail. This indeed could help teachers understand the nature of the six major categories more clearly (Krathwohl, 2002).Second, in terms of terminology, at first, the six major categories were changed from nouns to verbs (see figure 2). Specifically, Knowledge and Comprehension were renamed to Remember and Understand, Synthesis was retitled to Create, whilst Application, Analysis and Evaluation were changed to their verb forms Apply, Analyse, and Evaluate. Then the subtypes of each category were all replaced by their gerunds, called as ‘cognitive processes’ (Anderson ed al., 2001, p64), to suit the way instructions are used by teachers, take Analyze for example, in the original version, it is Analysis consisting of Analysis of elements, Analysis of relationships and Analysis of organizational principles, while in the revised version it turned to be Analyze with subcategories Differentiating, Organizing and Attributing.Figure 2: A comparison between the Original Taxonomy and the Revised TaxonomyOriginal Taxonomy Revised TaxonomyThe third type and also the most significant changes are in structure.1) From one dimension to two dimensionsAs has been mentioned above, Bloom’s revised taxo nomy has integrated the latest research on education and psychology (e.g. Constructivism, Self-regulated learning, and Metacognition) in 21st Century, most of which emphasize learners’ role in development and assumed that learners themselves are actively involved in the processes of learning. As Anderson ed al. (2001, p 38) put it ‘‘passive views of taking learners as ‘passive recipients’ and ‘information recorders’had been shifted towards more cognitive and constructivist perspectives emphasizes what learners know (knowledge) and how they think (cognitive process)’’; therefore, in Bloom’s revised taxonomy, the categorization of objectives has been changed from one dimension to two-dimensions: Knowledge Dimension and Cognitive Dimension (see table 1).Table 1: The Two Dimensional Taxonomy TableThe Cognitive Process Dimension1.Remember2.Understand3.Apply4. Analyze5. Evaluate6. Create The KnowledgeDimensionA. FactualKnowledgeB. ConceptualKnowledgeC. Procedural2) Knowledge dimensionIn the original taxonomy, Knowledge actually possesses both noun and verb aspects, the noun aspect was shown in its 9 subcategories and the verb aspect was explained in its definition (i.e. recall or recognize), but in the structure of the original taxonomy, the Knowledge category displays only noun aspect, say, subcategories like Knowledge of specific facts, Knowledge of classifications and categories. However, the other five major categories all show verb-noun relationship, say, subcategories like Analysis of organizational principles, Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations. Moreover, in teaching reality, instructional objectives are usually formulated by two parts: some subject matter content and a description of the deed to that content (Amer, 2006). So the revised taxonomy rectified this situation by separating the noun role of Knowledge to a new dimension Knowledge Dimension. From table 1, it could also been seen that a ne w Knowledge category ‘Metacognitive knowledge’ has been added into the Knowledge dimension. As it has been mentioned above, the revised taxonomy had been influenced by recent educational development, this Metacognitive knowledge comes from Metacognition which is assumed to be ‘cognition about cognition’ (Flavell, 1985, p.104). One important assumption on Metacognition is that it consists of two components, the firs component is knowledge about what skills, strategies and resources are required to complete a task (Schunk, 2008), whereas the second involves processes on how and when to apply the former ‘cognitive knowledge’ to successfully complete a task (Pintrich, 2002), thus it could be inferred that Metacognitive knowledge correspond to the Knowledge Dimension and Cognitive Dimension of the taxonomy Table respectively.3) Cognitive DimensionWith respect to the structure of the Cognitive Dimension, the top two higher-order processes were interchanged, placing Create a higher level than Evaluate (see figure 2), supported by the statement of Anderson ed al., (2001, p.310) ‘induction (involved in creating)’ is a more complex process than the deduction. Deduction involves breaking a whole into subparts, evaluating them, and determining whether criteria are met. Induction, on the other hand, involves finding things that could fit together, judging theirappropriateness, and assembly them to best meet criteria.’Notably, because Bloom’s revised taxonomy emphasizes its use among educational practitioners, it accordingly attaches more importance on teacher usage than developing a strictly cumulative hierarchy, thus Bloom’s revised taxonomy permits overlap of these categories.Bloom’s Taxonomy in UseAs has been mentioned above, Taxonomy precisely and systematically classified educational objectives by knowledge and cognitive dimensions, thereby allowing any knowledge, skills or strategies able to fit into at least one cell, i.e. an intersection of the knowledge and cognitive process categories, in the Taxonomy Table. This then made it a meaningful reference for educational practitioners to understand and reflect on their own teaching objectives, and also a useful measurement for them to determine how well educational objectives, assessment and instructional activities fit together. In other words, Bloom’s taxonomy is a ‘common language about learning goals to facilitate communication across persons, subject matter, and grade levels’, claimed by Bloom (cited in Krathwohl, 2002).Specifically, teachers can use Bloom’s taxonomy to:1) Analyze curriculum, standards or syllabusEvery school has curriculum, standards or syllabus they chose or provided by others, usually education administration departments. Most of the educational goals specified in these documents are broad and general and the interpretation is not easy. In this sense, the Bloom’s taxonomy could be taken as a basis for teachers to make sense of educational goals.Take English Curriculum Standards for Chinese Primary Schools and Junior/Senior Middle Schools (abbreviated to ECS ) (EMC, 2011) for example, there are five types of objectives in ECS: Language Skills, Language Knowledge, Attitudes to Learning, Cultural Awareness, and Learning Strategies. It can be seen that each of these goals could be classified into one of Taxonomy’s three domains, i.e. Cultural Awareness and Attitudes to Learning could be placed in Affective domain while Language Skills, Language Knowledge, and Learning Strategies belong to Cognitive domain. With reference to the taxonomy’s descriptions on each psychological domain, teachers can understand these knowledge, skills or strategies in ECS better.Then we can use Bloom’s taxonomy to analyze the general learning goals in ESC. These goalscorrespond tothe definition of Global objectives given by Anderson ed. al. (2001, p15) as ‘complex, multifaceted outcomes that require substantial time and instruction to accomplish’. Take two general objectives for English students of grade five for example, students should be able to:●Use simple English greetings and exchange personal information and information about familyand friends●Write simple sentences with the aid of pictures or promptsIn the first objective, t he primary clues come from the verbs ‘use’ and ‘exchange’. ‘use’ c ould be easily fit into the cognitive processing Apply which has a subcategory Use, and ‘exchange’, it can be inferred to mean ‘apply English knowledge to communicate information in English’. T hen the nouns ‘greetings’, ‘personal information’, and ‘information about family’ fall in to Factual knowledge in the Knowledge dimension, as they belong to ‘knowledge of specific details and elements’which is the second subcategory of Factual Knowledge. So this objective could be placed in cell 3A (see table 2).In the second objective, the primary clue is the relationship between ‘sentences’ and ‘the aid of pictures or prompts’, they are two different forms providing the same information, so the noun aspect of this objective could be put in the category of Conceptual knowledge which involves ‘the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together’. Then the verb ‘write’here is not to create a new product but means ‘apply ing the language knowledge learned from the class an d the information provided by the pictures or prompts to form simple sentences’, falls in to Apply in the Cognitive dimension. So this objective could be placed in cell 3B (see table 2).Table 2: The placement in the Taxonomy Table of the English Curriculum Standards for Chinese Primary Schools and Junior/Senior Middle Schools for Grade fiveThe Cognitive Process DimensionIn addition, it is noteworthy that, with using the taxonomy as a measurement, teachers are able to break Global objectives and Educational objectives into Instructional objectives, that is, the most specific objectives which ‘focus on teaching and testing on narrow, day-to-day slices of learning in fairly specific content area s’ (Anderson ed. al., 2001), for example:●The student is able to differentiate among four common punctuation marks.●The student learns to add two one-digit numbers.●The student is able to cite three causes of the Civil War.In terms of motivational perspectives, specification of learning objectives to a great degree motivate the students, because it provides a clear and reachable day-to-day direction to move upwards, which meets the esteem needs and self-actualization according to Maslow’s theory of human motivation. In addition, if there is no plan week by week, day by day, the teacher may risk being distracted away from teaching the right content of the subject and abilities (Slavin,2006).2) Design instructional activities or assessmentOn the basis of understanding the standards or syllabus, teachers then can use Bloom’s taxonomy to plan instructional activities or design assessments. Stated somewhat differently, Bloom’s Taxonomy processing categories could not only form ‘a framework for the formulation of the objectives themselves’, but also serve as means through which activities and assessment tasks could be formulated (Anderson ed al., 2001).Waters (2006) provided an interesting sequent of sample activities which well illustrated how instructional activities are planed with reference to different processing categories of Bloom’s taxonomy. These activities were intended for a class of 10–11 year-old low-intermediate learners studying English as a foreign Language, and the learning objective is to help students be able to make simple instructions of constructing simple paper (‘origami’) mod els with the use of the imperative, prepositions, and so on. See as the follows (note that this assignment has revised several of the original activities to fit them to the new taxonomy):In addition, according to different levels of cognitive processing, teachers can use different questions to adjust the cognitive level of activities in classroom assessments, see the following:1.Rememeber: ●Who?●What?●When?●Where? 4.Analyze: ●Why (what if)?●What was the purpose…?●Is it a fact that …?●Can we assume that…?2.Understand: ●What is meant by…?●Can you rephrase…?●Can you describe…?●What is the difference?●What is the main idea? 5.Create: ●How could we (you)…?●How can…?●I wonder how…?●Do you suppose that…?3. Apply: ●What would happeni f…?●Whom would youchoose?●If…, how can…?6.Evaluate: ●Which is better?●Would you agree that…?●Would it be better if…?●What is your opinion…?●Were we (you, they) rightto …?●What examples…?●How would you…?After instructional and learning activities, assessment is required to check how well the objectives have been achieved by students, as then alignment of teaching methods or instructions will be adjusted and learning strategies or efforts of students will also be rectified. Take one objective of writing skill for students of grade five in ECS for example, say ‘write simple greetings’, it could be inferred that this objective is expecting students to apply English greetings that have been taught to writing, so this objective in the Knowledge dimension falls to Factual knowledge while in the Cognitive dimension falls to Apply. Then the assessments tasks could be designed within the intersection of the two dimensions to test whether instructional and learning activities have achieved this objective. An example of sample assessment task is the following:●Look at these pictures of people meeting on different occasions. Then write a one-runconversation for each picture.3) Align objectives, activities, and assessmentsAs Bloom (1956) stated Bloom’s taxonom y can serve as a ‘means for determining the congruence of educational objectives, activities, and assessments in a unit, course, or curriculum’ (cited in Krathwohl, 2002). This is further supported by Anderson (2002, p.211) saying the revised Taxonomy forms a useful framework for estimating curriculum alignment, and unlike other current methods, it enables educational practitioners to ‘probe beneath the surface to determine how objectives, activities, and assessments are similar in terms of the demands they place on student learning.’Indeed, proper alignment could improve instructions (Raths, 2002), and when objectives and instructions are closely aligned with each other, students will need to spend less time learning these objectives (Carroll, 1963). Thus alignment has a positive impact on achievement (English and Steffy, 2001).Because in the revised taxonomy, the Knowledge dimension provides subcategories of knowledge which could be replaced by any subject matter whereas the Cognitive dimension is divided to six processing levels providing a number of verbs, educational objectives, instructions and assessments could all find a descriptor from the taxonomy table. Specifically, as to objectives which usually are prescribed in curriculum, syllabus, standards and daily teaching plans, the noun aspect and verb aspectin their statementscan be placed in a Knowledge category and a Cognitive category respectively. The same is true with instructions and activities, the descriptions of which also possess subject matter and what to be done to or with to follow the instructions or complete the activities. Similarly, every assessment task involves the testing of knowledge as well as the processes of handling the knowledge. Therefore, objectives, instructions and assessments all could be placed into an intersection in the taxonomy table, and then they can be compared to see how they are aligned. If they fall into one same cell, it indicates a high degree of alignment. On the contrary, if they fall into three separate cells, it means the objective, instructions and assessment don’instructions and assessment don’t fit together (Anderson, ed al., 2001). However, there are partial alignments when they belong to the same column but different rows, and vise versa. Take the Volcanoes Vignette of Anderson ed al.(2001) for example, after classifying the objectives, activities and assessments into the taxonomy table, several alignment problems are evident. The first problem is all the objectives fall into cell B2, this then remind the authors to there might be some misunderstanding regarding the second and the third objectives, and after they reclassifying these objectives, it produces a better alignment. Secondly, it is obvious that there are not many activities, which indicates the input from the teacher maybe not enough. Therefore,by working with the framework of the revised Taxonomy, teachers can take correct actions to increase the alignment of objectives, instruction, and assessment, and in turn enhance teaching quality.Table 3: Analysis of the objectives, activities, and assessments in Volcanoes VignetteCritiques on TaxonomyEven though Bloom’s taxonomy has been widely used and welcome across the world, it also has provoked strong philosophical and educational criticism. Though most of its weakness and limitations have been got rid of in its revised version, there are still two obvious shortfalls deserve mention.At first, via separating cognitive skills and knowledge into isolated objectives, Bloom’s taxonomy failed in demonstrating the holistic form of education, the central objectives of which are interrelated ‘elements within integrated developing structures of understanding’ (Hirst, 1974, p.26), that is, items of knowledge or processes of cognitive thinking are not detached from each other but function together in most cases to complete a learning task, and also they required the aid of ‘the mastery of operations with these, and of particular criteria of truth or validity associated with these concepts, as well as more general criteria of reasoning.’(Furst, 1981, p.444). On the hand, breaking knowledge into different fragments of objectives would prohibit students from perceiving it as a whole and hinder creativity, for example, teaching a poem by breaking it into different knowledge fragments would probably ruin its charm. This example herein also proves the incompleteness of the taxonomy, as has been claimed by some psychologists that the affective and psychomotor domains, which actually are overlooked in Bloom’s taxonomy, are indispensible parts of the cognitive framework (Furst, 1981).Second, the cumulative hierarchy of Bloom’s taxonomy has always been questioned. Specifically, Worsnop (2003) argued that Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification system instead of a sequence. He supported his point by a study on how people use software and observed that competent users learn directly from their mistakes (i.e. problem-solving learning) instead of by reading the manual. Raths, though he considered the taxonomy a laudable attempt, felt that mental processes are too complex and overlapping to lend themselves to neat categorization (Raths et al., 1967). Furthermore, Hirst (1974) took deduction of a mathematical theorem for example, stating that people don’t follow a particularsequence of processes to deduce, deduction is an endinstead of a process. Anyhow, in the revised taxonomy this anomaly was eliminated by allowing overlap and admitted that the last two processes could be shifted or equal in some cases.Generally speaking, Bloom’s taxonomy has systematized a field and has provided ‘a common language’ to facilitate communication, ‘a basis’ for making decisions, ‘a means’ for judgment, and ‘a panorama’ for educational possibilities (stated by Bloom, cited in Krathwohl, 2002). Its weakness and limitations then would be tolerable.ConclusionThe Original Bloom’s taxonomy and the Revised Bloom’s taxonomy were introduced accompanied by a comparison on emphasis, terminology and structure. However, the differences in structure and the reasons for important changes (i.e. moving from one dimension to two dimensions, including Metacognitive knowledge) were analyzed with more attention to show how the revised taxonomy overcame the weaknesses and limitations of the original taxonomy. Afterwards, how to apply Bloom’s taxonomy in teaching ( i.e. analyzing curriculum, standards or syllabus, designing instructional activities or assessments, and aligning objectives, activities, and assessments) is illustrated with examples. Two important shortfalls of Bloom’s taxonomy were pointed out in the end with the purpose to alert teachers avoid them in their work.ReferenceAmer, A. (2006). Reflections on Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 4(1), 213-230Anderson. L. (2002). Revising Bloom's Taxonomy. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 211-217 Anderson, L. (Ed.), Krathwohl, D.R. (Ed.), Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Complete edition). New York: Longman.Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., & Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.Carroll, J.B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-733.English, F., & Steffy, B. (2001). Deep Curriculum alignment. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Education Ministry of China. (2011). English Curriculum Standards for Chinese Primary Schools and Junior/Senior Middle Schools. Beijing: Beijing Normal University PressFlavell, J. H. (1985). Cognitive development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson-Merrill Prentice HallFurst, E. (1981), Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain: Philosophical and Educational Issues. Review of Educational Research, 51(4), 441-453Krathwohl, D. (2002): A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 212-218Raths, J. (2002). This Issue. Theory Into Practice, 41 (4), 233-237Raths, I. (2002). Improving Instruction. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 233-237.Slavin, R. (2006). Educational Psychology. Theory and Practice (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Schunk, D.H. (2008). Learning Theories. An Educational Perspective (5th ed.). Columbus, NJ: Pearson-Merrill Prentice Hall.Pintrich, P. (2002). The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 119-225.Waters A. (2006). Thinking and language learning. ELT Journal 60(4) . 319-327.Worsnop, R. (2003). A Taxonomy Is Not a Sequence. Education Week, 23(7), 36-47 （注：可编辑下载，若有不当之处，请指正，谢谢!）。
pioneers and contribution
索绪尔（Ferdinand de Saussure, 1857--1913），瑞士语言学家。
1857年出生于瑞士日内瓦。
1875-1876年在日内瓦大学学习物理学和化学。
1876年加入巴黎语言学会。
1876-1878年转入莱比锡大学学习历史语言学，在那里结识了青年语法学派的重要人物布鲁格曼、奥斯脱霍夫等人，和他们共同从事印欧系语言的历史比较研究工作。
1878年发表了他的成名作《论印欧系语言元音的原始系统》。
1880年以论文《论梵语绝对属格的用法》获莱比锡大学最优生博士学位。
1881-1891年他在法国巴黎高等研究学院任教，讲授历史比较语法，培养了众多的比较语言学专家。
1891年回国担任日内瓦大学教授，讲授梵文和比较语法。
从1907年起，他曾三次讲授普通语言学，但没有写成讲义，1913年他因病去世后，他的学生巴利和薛施蔼根据同学们的笔记整理成《普通语言学教程》一书。
这是一部具有划时代意义的著作，提出了全新的语言理论、原则和概念，为语言的研究和语言学的发展奠定了科学的基础。
1916年在日内瓦出第一版，后来被翻译成多种语言，对语言学的发展产生了深远的影响，被人们称之为"现代语言学之父"。
索绪尔语言理论以语言和言语的区分为基础，认为语言学只能"就语言而研究语言"，排除任何非语言因素（如社会的、物理的、言语的……）的干扰；而就语言来说，必须区分共时和历时，语言学只研究共时的语言系统，排除任何历时因素的干扰；而就共时的语言系统的研究来说，只研究形式，不研究实质，"语言是形式，不是实质"的论断就是这一思想的集中体现。
什么是语言形式？概言之，就是组合关系和聚合关系。
所以，组合关系和聚合关系是索绪尔语言理论的核心，后来有广泛影响的结构语言学、转换-生成语言学、系统-功能语言学等学派的理论和方法都是以索绪尔的这种语言理论为基础发展起来的。
索绪尔的语言学思想今天被称为"索绪尔语言学"，也称"索绪尔主义"。
四种二语习得理论
第四讲：四种二语习得理论1、中介语理论(Interlanguage)MLchiglishm other language中介语是介于母语与目标语之间的一种语言Positive transfer (正迁移)母语的干扰： Transfer (迁移)Negative transfer (负迁移)正迁移(positive) :母语帮助目标语2、文化移入说(Acculturation . Model) --by Schunman (舒曼)3、渐进体系说(Approximative System)循序渐进(Graduality)Palmer ( 帕默) "Snowball"四先原则：先易后难，先简后繁，先死后活，先集体后个人。
4、输入说(Input Theory) S .D.Krashen (克拉申)对于二语的习得，要进行大量的，可理解性的输入"i+1"即"input+1","1"相当于不定量"n"“中国外语立体教学理论”by “张正东” 所用甚少 四、环境对外语教学的影响Critical period 关键期假说“13”is the critical age1、印度狼孩2、非洲黑猩猩孩3、辽宁猪孩思考题：语言学对我国外语教学有什么样的启示第二部分：外语教学流派(Schools of FILM )教学目的： 1、了解英语教学法主要流派。
2、借签by Selinker TL target language一、 FLIM: Foreign Language Teaching Methods(一) .GTM (语法翻译法) ----Grammar Translation Methods始于 18 世纪末 19 世纪中，源于欧洲 (西欧)， (18 世纪前的拉丁语)中国从 1872 年开始，同文馆标志着中国班级教学的开始。
关于物理的书
关于物理的书以下是一些关于物理的经典书籍：1. 《物理学原理》(Principles of Physics) - 作者：Halliday, Resnick, Walker2. 《物理学导论》(Introduction to Physics) - 作者：John D. Cutnell, Kenneth W. Johnson3. 《物理学之美》(The Beauty of Physics) - 作者：WalterLewin4. 《黑洞简史》(A Brief History of Time) - 作者：Stephen Hawking5. 《物理学家研究入门》(Introduction to the Study of Physics) - 作者：Louis Bloomfield6. 《量子力学与路径积分》(Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals) - 作者：Richard P. Feynman, Albert R. Hibbs7. 《宇宙简史》(The Universe in a Nutshell) - 作者：Stephen Hawking8. 《相对论原理》(The Principles of Relativity) - 作者：Albert Einstein9. 《物理的最后一页》(The Last Word: Beyond the Bible Warsto a New Understanding of the Authority of Scripture) - 作者：Jim Baggott10. 《物理学的故事》(The Story of Physics) - 作者：Anne Rooney这些书籍涵盖了物理学的各个领域，包括经典力学、量子力学、相对论等。
无论您是初学者还是进阶学习者，这些书籍都能帮助您深入理解物理学的基本概念和原理。
转换生成语法
11
A generative grammar is not limited to particular languages, but to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars. It does not describe one language as an end, but as a means to explore the universal rules in the hope of revealing human cognitive systems and the essential nature of human beings.
6
Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately.
乔姆斯基的天赋假设是建立在他对一些重要现象的 观察的基础之上的，这些现象无法用其他的理论解 释清楚。
12.4 Transformational Generative Grammar 转换生成语法
1.Introduction 介绍 2. Stage of development of TG grammar 转换生成语法的发展阶段 3. The Innateness Hypothesis 天赋假设
4. Generative Grammar 生成语法
An introduction to sociolinguistics 笔记
《社会语言学引论》Wardhaugh, R. （沃德霍），北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2000.81. the scientific investigation of language(p.5)1.1 Bloomfield(1933): contrastive distribution (/p/ and /b/)1.2 Saussure(1959): Langue(group knowledge of language)Parole(individual use of language)1.3 Sapir(1921) &Chomsky(1965): “surface”characteristics ofutterances vs. “deep”realities oflinguistic form1.4 Pike(1967): emic(phonemic) 音位 VS. etic(phonetic)语音1.5 Comrie(1989): language universalLabov(1994): linguistic change2. Relationships between language and society (p. 10-11)2.1 social structure may either influence or determine linguistic structure and/or behavior2.2 linguistic structure may either influence or determine social structure and/or behavior: sexist2.3 bi-directional: language and society may influence each other 2.4 there is no relationship3. Scholars’ views on sociolinguistics vs. the sociology of language (p.12-13)4. basic methodological concerns (p.16)4.1 be oriented toward: Data +theory---we must collect data for a purpose instead of ‘butterfly collecting’, and that the purpose should be to find an answer, or answers, to an interesting question. Questions phrased in ways that do not allow for some kind of empirical testing have no more than a speculative interest.4.2 good question + the right kinds of dataStudies of the possible relationships between language and society: Correlational ; implicational; microlinguistic(specific items); macrolinguistic(group relationship)4.3 ①the sources of data base: censuses, documents, survey, interviews, obvervation,②Devices: graphing, scaling, categorizing③Data collecting and analysis: sampling techniques, error estimation, confidential level④principles(Bell,1976, pp.187-91): cumulative, uniformation, convergence融合, subordinate shift, style-shifting, attention，vernacular(本国语)，formality(形式性)。
布龙菲尔德 《语言论》
布隆菲尔德理论对外语教学的影响
十八、十九世纪的语法学家大都是在为英语制 定"英语应该如何"的规则。也就是说通过一本 语法书、一本教科书、一本词典，就可以学外 语了。 在语言教学中，我们应该首先教发音，而不是 过多地去注意文字形式。在美国的外语教学中， 他认为学习一门语言需要不间断地练习和在真 实情境中不断反复，而不是去教授学习者学习 语法理论。
（4）形式选择 胡名扬先生把它称为“语类选择”：“通过选 择句法结构中可以组合的词类或词组的类来表示一 定语法意义的形式。” 我们认为“形式选择”实际上就是“组合／聚 合”这两类关系相结合的产物：因为不同的语言单 位“聚合”往往会相应地具有不同的“组合”性质， 反过来说，不同的“组合”关系也往往需要不同的 “聚合”类来实现。也就是一组合结构对聚合关系 的选择。
影响。
其次描写派的研究方法，如替换分析法、 分布法、直接成分 分析法也值得关注。尤其 是直接成分分析法在汉语句法研究中的成功 运用就说明了这一点。 再次对于濒于灭亡的美洲印地安语言的调 查和描写更有不可 抹杀的功劳。 最后美国描写语言学作为形式语言学对计 算机信息处理的发展做出了贡献，其诸多分 析语言的方法如分布法等都对计算机信息处 理有着一定的启发作用。
《语言论》全书共二十八章：可以分为上
下两部分。 1-16 章属于共时语言学，后半 部分 17—28 章属于历时语言学。第一章到 第四章论述语言学的一般问题；第五章到 第八章论述音位学；第九章至第十六章论 述语法和词汇；第十七章至第二十八章论 述比较法、方言地理学、语言演变、语义 变化、借用等。我们的评价重点放在前十 六章。
Language (《语言论》）是他的最有影响的著作， 于1933年出版，这本书从构造心理学转到了行为主 义心理学。
韩礼德语言功能总结
Chapter 12Theorise and Schools of Modern Linguistics.The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure is "father of modern linguist".His two students, C. Bally and A. Sechehaye, collected lecture notes and put them together to produce the great work.Saussure insists on the concept of Arbitrariness of language. And he saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon. He believes that language is a system of signs, which mean something and conventional. Moreover, his linguistic theorise on the nature of the linguistic sign were also influenced by western economic theorise of the time.The Prague School sees language in terms of function. And it would be meaningless if it's viewed in isolation. It is best known for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Trubetzkoy 's principles of phonology argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. A phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.Function Sentence Perspective is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterance in terms of the information they contain. Those Czech linguistics believe that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer ——it is the ground on which they meet and is called the THEME, the goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer, and is called the RHEME. J. Firbas developed the notion of COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM, based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one.The London School is also known as systematic and functional linguistics. Malinowski said that language is to be regarded as a mode of action rather than as a counterpart of thought which means the meaning of a utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs. He distinguished three types of context of situation: ①situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity ；②narrative situations ；and ③situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum -PHATIC COMMUNION.Halliday and Systemic -Function Grammar.SF Grammar has two components: systemic grammar and function grammar. Systemic grammar aimes to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meanimg potential. Functional grammar aimes to reveal that language is a means of social interaction. All systems have3essential characteristics: ①the terms in a system are mutually exclusive. ②a system is finite. ③the meaning of each term in a system depends on the meaning of the other terms in the system. Halliday 's systemic grammar contains a functional component.The Ideational FunctionIt is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer.The Interpersonal Function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relation. It is realized by MOOD and MODALITY. The Textual Function refers to the fact that language has mechanism to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.American Structuralism 美国结构主义It is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century.Boas: Handbook of American Indian Language -a good summary of the descriptive approach to language.Sapir: An Introduction to the Study of Speech, which aimed at giving a certain perspective on the subject of language rather than to assemble facts about it.Bloomfield 's TheoryFor Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology. It is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human begins cannot know anything they have not experienced. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of STIMULUS -RESPONSE reinforcement and the adult 's use of language is also a process of stimulus -response. First principle is: when one individual is stimulated his speech can make another individual react according. ②the division of labour and all human activities based on the speaker and hearer two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves.Post -Bloomfieldian Linguistics.Harris methods in Structural Linguistics gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the DISCOVERY PROCEPURE approach to linguistics, characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization.Transformational -Generative Grammar.TG grammar has seen 5stages of development.①Classic Theory aimes to make linguistics a science; ②The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory; ③the Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universal and universal grammar; ④The Revised Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on government and binding;⑤M ininalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.The Innateness Hypothesis 天赋假设Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE, which is a unique kind of knowledge that first them for language.GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, Chomsky simply means "a system of rules that in some explicit and well -defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences ".He believes that every speaker of a language has mastered and internalised a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.Case GrammarCASE GRAMMAR is an approach that stresses the semantic relationships of elements in a sentence.Generative SemanticsGENERATIVE SEMANTICS hold that there is no principled distinction between synactic processes and semantic processes.。
语言学复习要点
语⾔学复习要点Chapter 11.要点a.the definition of languageb.the design features and the functions of languagec.the distinction between human language and animal communication or other artificial sign systemd.major distinctions in linguistics2.实践1）Unlike animal communication systems, human language is __________.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest2) Which of the following is the most important function of language?A. interpersonal functionB. performative functionC. informative functionD. recreational function3) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree centigrade” is _______.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4) __________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics?A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John LyonsChapter 21.要点a.the definition of phonetics and its three major research fieldsb.the location, characteristics and function of the speech organse.cardinal vowelsf.IPAg.Broad and narrow transcription and the lip position in the pronunciation of the cardinalvowelsh.The definition of phonologyi.The comparison and contrast between phonetics and phonologyj.The definition of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variationk.Theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distributionl.Features on phonetic similarity and distinctionm.Suprasegmental features (syllables, stress, tone, etc.)2.实践1）Of the three cavities, ___ is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speechsounds.A. nasal cavityB. pharynxC. oral cavity2) All syllables contain a ________.A. nucleusB. codaC. onset3）Ａsound which capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language is a ________.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phoneme4) __________ is one of the suprasegmental features.A. stopB. VoicingC. DeletionD. tone5) Narrow transcription is the phonetic transcription with ___________.A. diacriticsB. distinctive featuresC. voicingA. larynxB. soft palateC. voicingD. articulation7) Which of the following consonants does not exist in English?A. dental stopB. bilabial stopC. alveolar stopD. velar stop8. _________ is not a distinctive feature in English phonology.A. NasalityB. VoicingC. AspirationD. Rounding9.________ is not an English consonant.A. labio-dental plosive b. alveolar nasal C. velar stop D. dental fricative10. The choice of an allophone in a given phonetic context is _________.A. randomB. predictableC. variableD. independent11. Voicing of explosives is a distinctive feature in __________.A. ChineseB. EnglishC. both Chinese and EnglishD. neither Chinese and EnglishChapter 31．要点a. the definitions of the basic concepts in this chapter：word, morpheme, morphology, free morpheme, bound morpheme, inflectional affix and derivational affix,b. inflection and word formation,3.实践1）Compound words consist of _______ morphemes.A. bound2) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are __________.A. grammatical wordsB. Lexical wordsC. neither grammatical nor lexical words3) “Radar” is a/an ________.A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping4) The words “take ” and “table ” are called _______ because they can occur unattached.A. form wordsB. bound morphemesC. free morphemesD. inflectional morphemes5) A __________ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.A. BlendingB. AcronymC. AbbreviationD. invention6) A ___ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A. stemB. rootC. allomorphD. Lexeme7) _______ is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.A. loanshiftB. Loan translationC. loanwordD. loanblend8）________is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts asmasculine/feminine/neuter, animate/inanimate, etc.9) the relation between words “rose” and “flower ” is that of _________.A. synonymyB. antonymyChapter 41. 要点a. the important concepts in this chapter: syntax, endocentric and exocentric construction, the deep structure and surface structure, immediate constituent analysis, concord, government, category,Chapter 51. 要点a. the definition of semantics,b. theory of semantic triangle,c. different kinds of meaning,d. sense relationse. componential analysisf. sentence meaning2. 实践1) The sense relationship between “John plays violin” and “John plays a musical instrument” is _______.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. entailment2) “Semantics is the scientific study of meaning” is a ____.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. antonymyD. tautology.3) Conceptual meaning is ________.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. associativeD. affective4) When the word “root” means “part of plat that keeps it firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is ________ meaning.A. connotativeB. conceptualC. reflected5) “Wide/narrow ” is an example of ____________.A. gradable oppositeB. relational oppositesD. complementarityChapter 61. 要点a. speech act theoryb. principle of conversationc. Cooperative Principled. characteristics of implicaturee. context2. 实践1）An illocutionary act is identical with ________A. sentence meaningB. the speaker?s meaningC. language understandingD. the speaker?s competence2) The Indirect Speech Act was developed by _______.A．John Austin B. Levinson C. John Lyons D. John Searle3) ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context use.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Semantics4. Tautologies like boys are boys are extreme examples in which maxim of _____ is violated.A. qualityB. quantityC. relevanceD. mannerChapter 71. 要点a. morphological change and syntactic changeb. vocabulary changec. addition of new wordsd. changes in the meaning of words2. 实践1)a. speech community and speech varietyb. varieties of language：regional dialect, sociolect, idiolect ethnic dialect, register, standard dialect, pidgin and creole,c. bilingualism and diglossia2. 实践1) In the present day, the stability of _ seems to be decreasing.A. social-class dialectB. idiolectC. tabooD. regional dialectChapter 91. 要点a. the relationship between language and cultureb. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis1.Which of the following statements about language is Not true?/doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html nguage is a system./doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html nguage is symbolic.C.Animals also have language./doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html nguage is arbitrary.2.What is the most important function of language?A.Interpersonal.B. Phatic/doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html rmative D. Meatlingual.3.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed byA. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. The Prague School4. Which of the following phonetic description matches the English consonant {p}A. a voiceless bilabial stopB. a voiced bilabial stopC. a voiceless dental stopD. a voiceless dental fricative5. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?C. approximationD. aspiration6. If two similar sound segments never occur in the same phonetic environment, then they areA. two separate phonemesB. two allophones of phonemesC. two free variation of a phonemeD. a minimal pair7. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. phoB. no.C. loD. gy8. If there is an English adjective “pornitial”, _______ is the most possible for negative form.A. ip-B. im--C. ilD.in-9. An ____ language is a language in which concepts that we express using proposition, possessive adjectives, and so on are expressed as morphs concatenanted in the same words as the relevant base.A. inflectingB. agglutinationC. isolatingD. analytical10. Which of the following words is created through the process of acronym?A. adB. editC. AIDSD. Bobo11. The word “lab” is formed throughA. back formationB. blendingC. clippingD. derivationA. between stone and yesterdayB. between she and brokeC. between broke and the windowD. between window and with13. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?A. gender.B. numberC. caseD. voice14. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is toA. study real “facts” in daily settingsB. tell people how to speak appropriatelyC. look for …the universal grammar?D. tell people what is right in language use15. A word with several meanings is called ___ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a mutilple16. Among Leech?s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers toA. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic17. ____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of the meaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym18. There are _____ deixis in the sentence She has sold it here yesterday.A. 3B. 4D. 619. ____ may be used as an example of indirect speech act.A. “Could you open the window?”B. “I hereby declare Mr. William elected.”C. “Good morning!”D. “I command you to report at 6 in the morning tomorrow.”20. The maxim of ____ requires that a participant?s contribution be relevant to the conversation.A. QuantityB. qualityC. manners D relation21. A scientific study of language studies is conducted with references to some ____ of language structure.A. dataB. general theoryC. factsD. hypotheses22. studies the historical development of language over a period of time, it is a historical study.A. synchronicB. descriptiveC. prescriptiveD. diachronic23. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction betweenA. prescriptive and descriptiveB. synchronic and diachronicC. speech and writingD. langue and parole24. Children can speak before they can read or write shows thatA. language is basically vocalB. language is arbitraryC. language is used for communicationD. language is productive25. A minimal pair can be illustrated byA. sip/sheepB. bread/breastD. breath/breathe26 Diphthongs are characterized by ____.A. glidingB. voicingC. aspirationD. stress27. The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” isA.[v]B. [d]C.[f]D.[m]28. …Look? is a monomorphemic word which conveys ____ meaning.A. morphologicalB. morphemicC. lexicalD. grammatical29. ____ morphemes are those than cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free of bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix30. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to that type of ___ to form a new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word31. ____ are closed categories because no new words are allowed for.A. syntactic categoriesB.Major lexical categoriesC. minor lexical categoriesD. phrasal categories32. “She gave the book to John..”can be changed to “to whom did she give the book?”This involves ___.A. NP—movement.B. WH-movementC. AUX-movementD. Post-verb adjective movement33. The meaning of a language form is as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer” is proposed byA. PlatoB. FirthC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield34. Sound（adj.）and sound (n.) are identical in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. They are____.A. homophonesB. homographsC. hyponymsD. complete homonyms35. A word with several meaning is a _____.A. synonymyB. polysemic wordC. co-hyponym.D. complete homonym36. ____ of a sentence depends on the context in which the sentence is uttered.A. sentence-meaningB. utterance-meaningC. the referenceD. the meaning37. “What a marvelous dinner you cooked!”What politeness maxim does the speaker of the utterance observe?A. Modesty maximB. sympathy maximC. approbation maximD. tact maxim38. Morphological changes involves?A. The lossB. additionC. alteration of morphological rulesD. all of above39. Proximately the number of pidgin speakers in the world isA. about 6 millionB. about 12 millionC. somewhere between 6 and 12 millionD. unknown40. In Early modern English ___ was the second person pronoun used by social superiors to inferiors.1-5 cccad 6-10 bbbbc 11-15 cbdca 16-20 abbad 21-25 bddac 26-30 aacbc 31bcddb 36-40 bcdbb. politeness principlesThe CP itself cannot explain why people are often to indirect in conveying what they really mean and why the conversational maxims are frequently infringed in social contexts. If these questions are considered in a broader, socially and psychologically oriented approach of pragmatics, they may be answered by the Politeness Principle (PP). Politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person?s public self-image.1. Tact maxim 策略原则(尽量减少他⼈损失、尽量使别⼈获益)2．Generosity maxim 慷慨原则3．Approbation maxim 赞颂原则4．Modesty maxim 谦虚原则5．Agreement maxim 附和原则6．Sympathy maxim 同情原则1）A. May I invite you to dinner this evening?B. Sorry. I have an appointment.2) A. How?s bill?s term paper?B. The handwriting is beautiful.3) A. Bill has taken your parking place again.B. Well, I like that.3. deitic words: are related to the orientation or position of events of entities in the real world. They may be personal, such as you, me, or spatial such as this, that, here, there, or temporal such as mow, then, etc.example:speaker: The professor has got a car.英语语⾔学常识练习1.What is true of linguist?A.He needs to be able to speak a large number of languages.B.He must have a wide experience of different types of languages.C.He takes great interest in analyzing and attempting to explain various linguisticphenomenon.D.His task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon all languages arebuilt.2.Which of the following is Not true of linguistics?A.It does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.B.It is descriptive, not prescriptive.C.It regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.D.It stresses the importance of strict grammatical rules.3.Study of grammar and its development over different historical periods is ________.A. applied linguisticsB. synchronic linguisticsC. diachronic linguisticsD. sociolinguistics4. Human language is distinguished from animal communication due to the following defining features except_________.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. cultural transmissionD. fluency5. The _________ of a language is the system and pattern of the speech sounds used in that particular language.A. phonologyB. phoneticsC. morphologyD. semantics6. Which of the following is not a dental?7. Which of the following is not a plosive?8. ________ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.A. phonologyB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics9. The word reliability consists of ________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 510. Which of the following words is not a compound?A. managementB. loudspeakerC. baby-sitD. warm-hearted11. ___ is the study of how sentences are structured of in others words, it tries to state what words can be combined with others to form sentences and in what order.A. syntaxB. phonologyC. semanticsD. grammar12. Simply stated, ________ is the study of meaning in language.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphologyD. phonology13. According to the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards, the referent refers to ____.A. the linguistic element, that is the word, sentence, etc.B. the object, etc. in the world of experienceC. conceptD. name of the object.14. Which of the following pairs are collocationally-restricted synonyms?A. brotherly fraternalB. man chapC. addled eggs rancid baconD. statesman politician15. The word site is the ________ of sight.A. homophoneB. homographC. hyponymD. antonym16. Which of following is the hyponym of the word flower?A. plantB. treeC. roseD. petal17. The words male and female are _________.A. homographsB. hyponymsC. synonymsD. antonyms18. ________ is the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communications.A. pragmaticsB. syntaxC. semanticsD. morphology19. According to John Austin ?s speech act theory, a speaker, while making an utterance, is in most cases performing simultaneously the following acts except___________.A. A locutionary actB. an illocutionary actC. a per locutionary actD. a pre locutionary act20. Based on Grice?s Cooperative Principle in making conversation, “Do not say what you believeto be false.” Is a requirement of the maxim of __________.A. quantityB. qualityC. relationD. manner21. Which of the following words is a blend?A. gymB. smogC. radarD. edit22. The word cattle in Middle English means property, livestock; but now the word generally refers to any of such mammals as cows, steers, bulls, and oxen. This is an example of ________.A. meaning shift.B. widening of meaningC. narrowing of meaningD. loss of meaning23. Which of the following statements is correct?A. langue refers to the language system itself.B. Parole is the realization of the language system in speechC. sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves，while reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.D. All of above.答案1-5adcda 6-10 dcbba 11-15 abbca 16-20 cdadb 21-23bcdBlank Filling1 Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.2 To many people, a linguist is the same as a ___ , one who can speak several Languages fluently.3 In professional usage, the ___ is a scholar who studies Language objectively, observing it scientifically, recording the facts of Language, and generalizing from them.4 ___ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech; ___ phonetics studies the way the sounds of speech are perceived by the human ear.5 ___ deals with how Language is acquired, understood and produced.6 ___ studies the neurological basis of Language development and use in human beings.7 ___ is concerned with the diversity of Language as it relates to various sociological factors.8 ___ is concerned with variation and use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.9 The ancient theories of the origin of Language were of ____origin.10 The Egyptians considered themselves to have the oldest civilization and asserted that the original human Language was ___.1 The theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ___ theory.2 The theory that primitive man instinctively gave vocal expression to every external impression has been called the ___ theory.3 A commonly held view among the classic Greeks was that at some ancient time there was a “___ “ who gave the correct, natural name to everything.4 The theory that Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy has been called the ___ theory.5 The theory that primitive Language was an imitation of natural sound, such as animal cries, has been called the theory.6 The theory that Language arose from human beings? instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the ___ theory.7 Writing is a secondary Language form based upon ___, and Morse code is tertiary, based upon ___.8 The reason why Languages other than our own sound like gibberish is because we have not mastered the complexity of their ___.9 The symbols are said to be arbitrary because they do not ___ what they represent.10 Language is called upon not only for communication, but also for ___ and cultural ____.1 Language is an ___ system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society.2 Language is a purely human and ___ method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a ___ of voluntarily produced symbols.3 Language is a system of arbitrary ___ symbols which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who havelearned the ___ of that culture, to communicate or interact.4 The earliest grammar of any Language was ___ grammar by the Hindu scholar Panini.5 Plato proceeded first to divide the sentence into two parts: ___ and ___.6 The Greek approach to Language was taken over by the ___ and applied with little change to their Language ___.7 The first major new development in linguistics until the 13th century was ___ grammar.8 The 15th and 16th centuries were marked by the ___ of views of Language and an increased awareness of the ___ among Languages.9 In the 17th century the Port royal Grammarians stressed the ___ of thought.10 The beginning of modern linguistics was from the late 18th and early 19th century when the ___ method was developed and established.1 Chomsky?s theory of generative grammar revolutionized work in linguistics in 1957, with the publication of his book ___.2 Saussure?s exposition of ___ analysis led to t he school of ___ linguistics which developed around the work of Leonard Bloomfield in America.3 A Language is responsive to the ___ forces that shape history.4 The Language of Britain was ___ when the Romans invaded the land in 55 and 54 BC.5 The Celtic Language was influenced by ___ during the roman occupation after AD 44.6 The three Teutonic groups established in England by the successive invasions after AD 450 were: ___, ___ and __.7 As a result of the Norman Conquest of 1066, vast quantities of ___ words were added to the English vocabulary.8 The most memorable writing in the Middle English period was ___ by Geoffrey Chaucer.9.As Samuel Johnson?s A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for ___ and word use, so Bish op Lowth?s and other grammarians? works standardized English ___.10 Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce a pattern of ___. These movements have an effect on the ___ coming from the lungs.11 When sounds are produced, the air-stream sent out from the lungs passes through the ___ contained in the larynx.12 If the glottis is wide open, the air passes freely through the cords, but if it is narrowed, the presence of the air causes the cords to vibrate, producing ___ sounds.13 A sound which is made with the glottis wide open is called a ___ sound.14 Consonant sounds can be either ___ or ___, while all vowel sounds are ___.The shape of the ___ and ___ cavities can be changed, and each change produces a different sound.1 The differences between the vowel in the word tea and the vowel in the word two is that the first is made with the lips ___ and the front of the tongue humped, and the second is made with the lips ___ and the back of the tongue humped.2 In the case of vowel sounds, the pharynx and the mouth cavities are changed by the shape and position of the ___ and the ___.3 The sounds t, d, p, and b are made when the ___ in the mouth is suddenly opened and the air allowed to escape in a little puff or explosion.4 Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing___.5 The sounds f and v are the result of air escaping under friction between the lower ___ and upper ___.6 All English sounds except me, n, and ny are made with the soft palate ___.7 When the ___ is raised, the air cannot escape through the nose and the sounds ma, n, and ng cannot be made.8 ___ sounds are produced by a radical constriction at some point in the vocal tract.9 ___ sounds are produced by lowering the velum.10 ___ sounds are produced by vibrating the vocal cords.11 ___ sounds are produced by increasing the muscular effort in the lower jaw.12 ___ sounds are produced b y maintaining the airflow in the vocal cavity (but not in the nasal cavity).1 The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the ___ and the lips.2 ___ sounds are produced by retracting the body of the tongue from the neutral position.3 Vowels can be described by referring to the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. If the front of the tongue is at the highest point near the hard palate, a ___ vowel is produced. If the back of the tongue is at the highest point near the soft palate, a ___ vowel is produced.4 V owels produced between the positions for a front vowel and a back vowel are called ___ vowel.5 One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the ___ to which that part of the tongue is raised.6 If the tongue is raised as high as possible in the mouth, without causing friction, the vowel which results is a ___ vowel.7 If the tongue is placed as low as possible in the mouth, the vowel which results is an ___ vowel.8 The position of the lips also has an effect on vowel quality. If the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is round, we have a ___ vowel. If the lips are not drawn together, the vowel is ___.9 If, in making a vowel sound, the organs of speech remain in one position without moving to another, the result is a ___ vowel. If the organs of speech start in the position for one vowel and then immed8iately glide to the position of another, the result is a ___.10 A single impulse of breath from the lungs accompanied by voicing is known as a ___.11 Diphthongs are represented by two symbols in phonetic transcription, the first shows the position of the organs of speech at the ___ of the glide, and the second shows their approximate position at the ___ of the glide.1 If the tongue produces a diphthong by moving from a more open position to a more closed position in the mouth, the diphthong is known as ___ diphthong.2 If the movement of the tongue in making a closing diphthong is small, the diphthong which results is called a ___ diphthong.3 In the case of closing diphthongs the ___ letter indicates the point towards which the glide is made. The point towards which the glide is made is ___ necessarily reached. Such diphthongs sound quite ___ if the organs of speech perform only part of the maximum permissible movement.4 The diphthongs made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as ___ diphthongs.5 Consonants are characterized in pronunciation by ___ of the air-stream in the vocal tract.6 Labial refers to the use of the ___ in the process of articulating a sound.7 Alveolar refers to the ___ behind the top teeth.8 Palatals are sounds articulated by the ___ of the tongue against the ___ palate.9 Velars are sounds articulated by the ___ of the tongue against the ___ palate.10 A nasal is produced by the release of air through the ___.11 A stop with a fricative release is called ___.12 A ___ is formed by an obstacle placed in the middle of the mouth, the air being free to escape。
关于布龙菲尔德的《语言论》
语言论简介：《语言论》为布龙菲尔德所著，1933年出版。
这部著作是布龙菲尔德1914年写的《语言研究导论》（An Introduction to the Study of Language）的修订本，是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作，对美国结构主义语言学的形成、发展有重要的作用和深远的影响。
《语言论》章目：全书共二十八章：第一章至第四章论述语言学的一般问题；第五章至第八章论述音位学；第九章至第十六章论述语法和词汇；第十七章至第二十八章论述比较法、发言地理学、语言演变、语义变化、借用等。
《语言论》的总意义在于提出了美国结构主义语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。
作者：布龙菲尔德（Leonard Bloomfield，1887-1949），美国语言学家。
1887年4月1日出生于美国芝加哥。
北美结构主义语言学的先导人物之一。
19岁毕业于哈佛大学。
嗣后转入威斯康星大学师从E·普罗科什攻读语言学，1909年在芝加哥大学获博士学位。
布龙菲尔德从研究日耳曼语系和印欧语系入手，继而研究了普通语言学和阿尔表琴语等语言。
他曾在很多大学任教，最后执教于耶鲁大学，并任该校高级语言学教授。
《语言论》的主要观点：1、从行为主义和机械论的观点观察语言现象，把语言看成一系列刺激和反应，并据此提出了著名的传递公式：S → r .......... s → R，这里S指外部刺激，r指语言的代替反映，s指语言的代替性刺激，R指外部的实际反应。
2、制定描写语言结构的总框架。
布龙菲尔德认为语言是一个共时系统，他首先使用“替换法”研究音位学。
布龙菲尔德认为语素是由音位或音位的组合构成的，而全部语素就构成了一种语言的词汇。
从词汇转向语法，就需要“配列”（arrangement）的概念，语言形式的配列方式有四种：词序、变调、变音、形式的选择。
语法分为句法和词法。
句法如短语和句子；词法是粘附形式出现于组成成分中的结构，包括词和词的一部分的结构。
(完整word版)外国语言学家
鲍厄斯鲍厄斯（Franz Boas 1858--1942)，美国人类学家、语言学家。
生于德国，1886年移居美国。
在德国海德堡、波恩和基尔等地完成学业，大学的专业是物理学，对地理也感兴趣，后来迈进了人类学的领域。
曾任柏林皇家人种学博物馆副馆长、哥伦比亚大学人类学教授、美国自然历史博物馆人种学馆馆长、美国人类学协会会长、纽约科学院院长等职。
1842年去世，享年84岁。
鲍厄斯研究南北美印第安人的体型，认为环境条件的影响对人类的发展和人类体型的形成有重要作用.组织并参加”杰塞普考察队”，研究亚洲北部文化和美洲西北部文化之间的关系，并主持考察报告的撰写。
鲍厄斯从人类学的角度，调查和描写了上千种没有文字材料的印第安语言。
通过实地调查，鲍厄斯确立了描写语言结构的原则：描写一种语言只能根据他自己的结构，不能也不该用其他的语言结构或者传统语法的框框去套这种语言，为了描写不同结构的语言而应当创立新的概念和方法。
对语言学家来说，研究每种语言的特殊结构是分析者最重要的任务。
描写的本身就是目的。
鲍厄斯指明了描写语言学的目的和道路。
鲍厄斯在调查的基础上主持编写了《美洲印第安语言手册》,并为这本手册写了序言。
这篇序言是美国从事人类学的语言学家对印第安语调查和研究的初步理论总结，成了美国描写语言学早期的经典文献。
全文共分五个部分：种族和语言、语言的特性、语言的分类、语言学和人种学.鲍厄斯还著有《儿童的成长》、《原始人的心智》、《种族、语言和文化》等。
鲍厄斯从人类学出发来研究语言，他把语言学只看成是人类学的一部分，并没有建立一套完整的描写方法,但他推动了语言共时描写的研究。
可以说鲍厄斯是美国描写语言学的早期奠基人，为美国描写语言学揭开了序幕。
布龙菲尔德布龙菲尔德(Leonard Bloomfield,1887--1949）,美国语言学家。
1887年4月1日出生于美国芝加哥。
1903年进入哈佛学院,1906年在该校获得学士学位.毕业后，他在威斯康星大学一面进修一面担任德语助教，在那里,他结识了普鲁可希(Edward Prokosch），受其影响决心研究语言学。
胡壮麟语言学chapter12(名牌大学教授整理)PPT课件
called the signifier (能指) and the
signified (所指).
Chapter 12
7
Birth of Modern Linguistics (3) Saussure’s ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of LANGUE and PAROLE and of SYNCHRONIC and DIACHRONIC linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.
When is the beginning of modern linguistics?
We date modern linguistics from the
early twentieth century when scholars
worked out detailed scientific
methods for establishing relationships
meaning.
Chapter 12
15
The Prague School
1. Phonology and phonological oppositions
In classifying distinctive features, he proposed three criteria:
(1) their relation to the whole contrastive system;
This book became the most important source of Saussure's ideas and of his influence upon succeeding generations of linguists. Saussure's ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology.
Bloomfield的语言学理论
IC Analysis
Endocentric Construction 向心结构
Exocentric Construction 离心结构
Achievemeຫໍສະໝຸດ t and influence Leading the development of structuralist linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s. In the history of American linguistics, these years between 1933 - 1950 is called “Bloomfieldian Age”. Making significant contributions to Indo-European historical linguistics, Sanskrit study and the description of Austronesia language, and the Algonquian linguistics One of the founding members of the Linguistic Society of America The representative of American structuralist linguistics
Bloomfield’s Principle
When one individual is stimulated, his speech can make other individual react accordingly. 一个人受到某种刺激时，他可以用他的言语让另一个人做出相 应的反应。 The division of labor and all human activities based on the division of labor are dependent on language. 劳动分工以及基于劳动分工之上的一切人类活动都依赖于语言。 The distance between the speaker and hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves. 说话人和听话人——两个不同的神经系统——之间的距离由声 波连接在一起。
Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics
轨位 Slot | 类别 Class(es) 法位 Tagmeme = ----------|--------------作用 Ro(lear) | VRt (verb root)
Mar(gin) | TsSuf(Time Suffix)
V = + ----------|--------------- 士 ---------------|--------------Pred(icate) | Tm(time) | Tm ＞
• Sydney MacDonald Lamb (born May 4, 1929, Denver, Colorado) is an American linguist[1] and professor at Rice University, whose stratificational grammar is a significant alternative theory to Chomsky's transformational grammar. He has specialized in Neurocognitive Linguistics and a stratificational approach to language understanding.
Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics
Background
• Influenced by Bloomfieldian’s Language, some American linguists further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism. • Post-Bloomfieldian linguists focused on direct observation : a grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data, i.e. through discovery procedures. • They also took an interest in the discourse level in order to develop discovery procedures for structure above the sentence level.
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1.Under the influence of logical positivism and behaviorism, both directly in the main current of 20th century materialism. (Stimulus --- Response --- Reinforcement) 2.Incorporate behaviorist ideas centrally into his book. 3.In 1933, Language as the simplified title, became a classic and was used for a generation as a textbook in Linguistics.
说话人和听话人——两个不同的神经系统——之间的距离由声波 连接在一起。
5.Taught German at the University of Cincinnati and then the University of Illinois(伊利诺斯) 6. An Introduction to the Study of Language （1914） 语言研究导论
7.Tagalog Texts with Grammatical Analysis (1917) 他加禄语篇语法分析
When one individual is stimulated, his speech can make other individual react accordingly. The division of labor and all human activities based on the division of labor are dependent on language.
is such a landmark figure that American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its primary development.
He
1.Immigrant to the United States from AustriaHungary； 2. Finished Harvard degree in1906；
3.At 19,worked at the University of Wisconsin in Madison， Influenced by linguist Eduard Prokosch
4. University of Chicago(1908) 1)Study comparative-historical linguistics（历 史比较语言学）and Germanics（日耳曼语）； Sanskrit梵文 2) Indo-Europeanis Maurice Bloomfield; 3)Ph.D. in 1909 at the age of 22 4)Doctoral dissertation in Germanic historical linguistics 《日耳曼语次元音交替的语义差异》
劳动分工以及基于劳动分工之上的一切人类活动都依赖于语言。
一个人受到某种刺激时，他可以用他的言语让另一个人做出相应的 反应。
The distance between the speaker and hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves.
布龙菲尔德 （Leonard Bloomfield） (1887-1949)，
.
Born in Chicago
A representative of American structural linguistics （American descriptive linguistics） 1933 --1950 is known as Bloomfield Era
eld
An introduction to the Tagalog texts with Language study of language Grammatical Analysis
Tagalog texts with Grammatical Analysis
Showed
how much he was extending his interests beyond the traditional IndoEuropean orbit.
linguistics: aims to make rules
规定性语言学主要是侧重于制定正确使用语言的规则。 .
Bloomfield Era
Bloomfield's
view of language dominated in 1930s-1950.Linguistics became a school of thought under his influence.
Descriptive
linguistics: aims to describe and
analyze the language people actually use.
描述性语言学主要侧重于描述和分析人们对语言的实际应用。 Prescriptive
for “correct and standard” behavior in using language.
An introduction to the study of language
A
focus on spoken language;
Observation
of language as a present-day reality to speakers;
An
interest in the variety of linguistic systems in the word and in drawing generalizations about human language
8. Professorship at Ohio State(1921) An Assistant Ethnologist, studied native American languages （1925） 9.Professor of Germanic Philology at the University of Chicago.（1927） nguage（1933） 11.In1940, at Yale University