2010-Impact ofenvironmentfactorsonsolarcellparametersofa-SiJmc-Si
高考英语作文2010天津版
高考英语作文2010天津版The Importance of Environmental ProtectionEnvironmental protection is a topic that has gained increasing attention in recent years, and for good reason. With the rapid industrialization and urbanization taking place around the world, the environment is facing unprecedented challenges. It is crucial that we recognize the importance of environmental protection and take action to preserve our planet for future generations.One of the most pressing issues in environmental protection is the threat of climate change. The scientific evidence is clear: human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, are leading to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, which is causing the Earth's average temperature to rise. This has far-reaching consequences, including more frequent and severe natural disasters, rising sea levels, and disruptions to ecosystems. It is imperative that we take steps to reduce our carbon footprint and transition to renewable energy sources in order to mitigate the impacts of climate change.In addition to climate change, environmental protection also encompasses the conservation of biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity is a significant concern,as it can lead to a decline in ecosystem resilience and the loss of valuable genetic resources. Deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of natural resources are all contributing to the decline of biodiversity. It is essentialthat we work to protect and restore natural habitats, and implement sustainable management practices to safeguard the rich diversity of life on Earth.Furthermore, environmental protection is closely linked to human health. Pollution from industrial activities, agriculture, and transportation can have detrimental effects on air and water quality, leading to respiratory diseases, waterborne illnesses, and other health issues. By reducing pollution and promoting clean and sustainable practices, we can improve public health and well-being.From an economic perspective, environmental protection is also crucial. The degradation of natural resources and ecosystems can have negative impacts on industries such as agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. By investing in environmental protection and sustainable resource management, we can ensure the long-term viability of these industries and create new opportunities for economic growth.In conclusion, environmental protection is a multifaceted issue that affects us all. It is not only a matter of preserving the beauty of nature, but also a question of human survival and well-being. By taking proactive measures to address climate change, conserve biodiversity, protect human health, and promote sustainable economic development, we can work towards a more sustainable and resilient future for our planet. It is imperative that we all play our part in environmental protection, as the stakes are high and the consequences of inaction are severe. Let us strive to be responsible stewards of the environment and leave a positive legacy for future generations.。
2010年英语四级作文
2010年英语四级作文参考范文：The Importance of Environmental Protection。
In recent years, the issue of environmental protection has become a hot topic in our society. It is widely recognized that the environment is deteriorating at an alarming rate and it is crucial for us to take action to protect it.There are several reasons why environmental protection is so important. Firstly, the environment provides us with the resources we need to survive, such as clean air, water, and food. If we continue to pollute and destroy the environment, we will ultimately be harming ourselves. Secondly, the environment is home to countless species of plants and animals, and by destroying their habitats, we are causing irreversible damage to the ecosystem. Finally, the environment also has a significant impact on our healthand well-being. Air and water pollution can lead to a variety of health problems, and the destruction of natural habitats can lead to the loss of potential sources of medicine and other valuable resources.In order to address these issues, it is essential for individuals, communities, and governments to take action to protect the environment. Individuals can make a difference by reducing their own carbon footprint, recycling, and using environmentally-friendly products. Communities can work together to implement recycling programs, clean up local parks and waterways, and promote sustainable living. Governments can enact and enforce environmental protection laws, invest in renewable energy sources, and work with other countries to address global environmental issues.In conclusion, environmental protection is of utmost importance and it is essential for all of us to take action to protect the environment. By working together, we can make a positive impact and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.仿写：The Importance of Environmental Protection。
2010年6月英语四级作文
2010年6月英语四级作文In the modern era, environmental protection has become an increasingly important issue that cannot be overlooked. With the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization, our planet is facing numerous environmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, and loss of biodiversity. This essay aims to discuss the significance of environmental protection and the steps that can be taken to preserve our natural resources for future generations.Firstly, environmental protection is crucial for maintaining the balance of ecosystems. The natural world is interconnected, and any disruption to one part can have far-reaching consequences. For instance, deforestation not only leads to the loss of habitats for countless species but also contributes to soil erosion and climate change. By protecting the environment, we can ensure that these delicate ecosystems remain intact and continue to support life on Earth.Secondly, safeguarding the environment is essential for human health. Pollution from factories, vehicles, and other sources can have severe impacts on our well-being. Air pollution, for example, has been linked to respiratory problems, heart disease, and even cancer. By taking measures to reduce pollution and promote cleaner technologies, we can improve the quality of life for millions of people around the world.Thirdly, environmental protection is vital for economicsustainability. Many industries rely on natural resources,and their depletion can lead to economic instability. Sustainable practices, such as recycling and renewable energy, not only help to conserve resources but also create new job opportunities and foster innovation. Investing in environmental protection can lead to long-term economic benefits.To conclude, environmental protection is a critical issuethat affects every aspect of life on Earth. It is ourcollective responsibility to take action and implementpolicies that will safeguard the environment. By doing so, we can ensure a healthier, more sustainable future for ourselves and generations to come.。
破坏生态环境考研英语作文
The Cost of Environmental Destruction: ACall for ActionIn the fast-paced modern world, the quest for economic growth and technological advancement has often come at a devastating cost to our planet's ecological balance. The consequences of this environmental degradation are not only visible in the depleting natural resources but also manifest in the form of climate change, biodiversity loss, and a range of other ecological crises. The need for urgent action is more pronounced now than ever before.The impact of environmental degradation is felt across the globe, with developing countries often bearing the heaviest burden. The relentless pursuit ofindustrialization and urbanization has led to the rampant deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution. The resulting loss of habitats and ecosystems has pushed many species to the brink of extinction. Furthermore, the excessive use of fossil fuels has contributed to the rise in greenhouse gas emissions, leading to global warming and climate change.The costs of this environmental degradation are immense and far-reaching. Climate change, for instance, has led to extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and hurricanes, causing widespread damage and displacement. The loss of biodiversity not only affects ecological balance but also has economic implications, as nature provides invaluable resources and services that support human well-being.The solution to this pressing issue lies in acollective effort to adopt sustainable practices and policies. Governments need to prioritize environmental protection and invest in renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Corporations must adopt green practices and be held accountable for their environmental impact. Individuals can also make a difference by adopting eco-friendly lifestyles, reducing waste, and conserving resources.In conclusion, the cost of environmental degradation is too high to ignore. We must act now to protect our planet and ensure a sustainable future for all. By workingtogether and adopting sustainable practices, we can build a world that is healthier, safer, and more equitable for all. **环境破坏的代价：行动的呼唤**在快速发展的现代世界中，追求经济增长和技术进步往往以破坏我们星球的生态平衡为代价。
中国船舶和港口空气污染防治白皮书
3|中国船舶和港口空气污染防治白皮书
图 4：2008 年至 2025 年，IMO 船用燃料油含硫量标准及欧盟和美国加州海域燃油含硫量限值 13
5.0%
4.5%
4.0% 3.5%
全球水平
3.0%
2.5%
-67%
-78%
-97%
-86%
-71%
2.0%
加州海岸线外 24海里内
-97%
1.5%
ECA 1.0%
因地制宜的政策和排放控制区战略至关重要
为了应对上述挑战和研究的不足，港口或港口区 域需进行更多的研究，以建立港口大气污染物排放清 单，评估一个港口或一个地区采取不同的污染控制措 施所需的成本和可能的效益。例如，岸电或 LNG 船 舶等措施的成本和效益可能会因港口的具体情况而 具有很大差异，这种分析将有助于港口制定最优的减 排方案以达到最佳控制效果。随后，可以在防治措施 成本效益分析的基础上制定“港口清洁空气行动计 划”，以指导如何削减船舶和港口的废气排放。政府 也应评估相关的减排政策对港口竞争力的影响，并制 定应对方案，这将能够为船舶和港口空气污染防治政 策争取更多的支持。最终，实施区域性的、甚至全国 性的废气减排方案，例如设立排放控制区（ECA）， 将能够有效地防止船舶转移到环保要求较宽松的港 口，并确保拟定的减排方案能够实现最佳减排效果和 健康效益。
自然资源保护协会 简报
10/2014
中国船舶和港口空气污染防治白皮书
全球十大集装箱港口有七个在中国，中国港口每年共处理全球三成的集装箱吞吐量（见表 1）。然而，每
一艘进出港口的船舶和货车虽然带来了货物，促进了经济发展，但也加剧了港口和周边地区的空气污染。船用
燃料油的含硫量远高于是车用柴油，假设一艘中型到大型集装箱船使用含硫量为 35,000 ppm（3.5%）的船用
Deforestation Causes and Effects
Deforestation Causes and Effects Deforestation is a critical issue that has far-reaching causes and effects on the environment, wildlife, and human populations. It is the process of clearing forests for agricultural, commercial, or residential purposes, and it has become a significant concern due to its adverse impact on the planet. The causes of deforestation are multifaceted, including agricultural expansion, logging, infrastructure development, and urbanization. These activities not only lead tothe loss of valuable forest ecosystems but also contribute to climate change, soil erosion, and the extinction of plant and animal species. Furthermore,deforestation has detrimental effects on indigenous communities and local economies, making it a complex and pressing problem that requires immediate attention. One of the primary causes of deforestation is agricultural expansion. As the global population continues to grow, the demand for food and agricultural products has increased exponentially. This has led to the clearing of vast tracts of forested land to make way for large-scale farming operations. In many cases, forests are cleared through slash-and-burn techniques, where trees and vegetation are cut down and set on fire to create fertile land for crops. While this practice may provide short-term benefits for farmers, it has devastating long-term consequences for the environment, including soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. Another significant cause ofdeforestation is logging, which involves the extraction of timber for commercial purposes. The logging industry is driven by the demand for wood products,including furniture, paper, and building materials. As a result, forests are systematically harvested, leading to the destruction of valuable ecosystems andthe displacement of wildlife. Moreover, illegal logging practices further exacerbate the problem, as they often involve the destruction of protected areas and the exploitation of vulnerable communities. This not only contributes to deforestation but also fuels corruption and organized crime in many regions around the world. In addition to agricultural expansion and logging, infrastructure development and urbanization are also major contributors to deforestation. Ascities expand and populations grow, there is an increasing need for land to build roads, highways, and residential areas. This has led to the clearing of forests ona massive scale, resulting in the fragmentation and destruction of natural habitats. Furthermore, the construction of dams, mines, and other industrial facilities often requires the clearance of large areas of forested land, leadingto irreversible environmental damage and the displacement of indigenous communities. The effects of deforestation are wide-ranging and have significant implications for the planet and its inhabitants. One of the most immediate consequences of deforestation is the loss of biodiversity. Forests are home to a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are unique and irreplaceable. When forests are cleared, these species lose their habitats and are often drivento extinction. This loss of biodiversity has profound ecological implications, asit disrupts the delicate balance of ecosystems and can lead to the collapse of entire food chains. Moreover, deforestation has a direct impact on climate change, as forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in their biomass, helping to mitigate the effects of greenhouse gas emissions. When forests are cleared, this carbon is released back into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate instability. Furthermore, deforestation reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide, exacerbating the effects of climate change and leading to more frequent and severe natural disasters. In addition to its environmental consequences, deforestation also has profound effects on indigenous communitiesand local economies. Many indigenous peoples rely on forests for their livelihoods, as they provide food, medicine, and resources for traditional crafts. When forests are cleared, these communities lose their way of life and are often forced to relocate to unfamiliar and inhospitable environments. Furthermore, deforestation can lead to the degradation of soil and water resources, making it difficult for local farmers to sustain their agricultural practices. This, in turn, can lead to food insecurity and economic hardship for communities that are already vulnerable. In conclusion, deforestation is a complex and multifaceted problem that has far-reaching causes and effects. It is driven by a combination of factors, including agricultural expansion, logging, infrastructure development, and urbanization. The consequences of deforestation are dire, including the loss of biodiversity,climate change, and the displacement of indigenous communities. Addressing thisissue requires a concerted effort from governments, businesses, and individuals to promote sustainable land use practices and protect the world's remaining forests. By raising awareness about the causes and effects of deforestation and advocating for conservation and reforestation efforts, we can work towards preserving our planet's invaluable natural resources for future generations.。
环境效应英语作文
环境效应英语作文Title: The Impact of Environmental Factors。
Introduction:Environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping various aspects of our lives, from our health and well-being to the economy and the ecosystem. In this essay, we will explore the diverse effects of environmental factors and their significance in our daily lives.Health Implications:One of the most significant impacts of environmental factors is on human health. Pollution, both air, and water, poses a grave threat to public health. Air pollution, caused by industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and burning of fossil fuels, contributes to respiratory diseases such as asthma and lung cancer. Similarly, contaminated water sources lead to waterborne diseases likecholera and dysentery. Additionally, exposure to environmental toxins like lead and mercury can have long-term adverse effects on neurological development,especially in children.Economic Consequences:Environmental factors also have far-reaching economic implications. Natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires can cause extensive damage to infrastructure, homes, and agricultural lands, leading to significant economic losses. Moreover, industries that rely on natural resources, such as agriculture, forestry, and fishing, are vulnerable to fluctuations in environmental conditions. Climate change, driven by human activities, poses a serious threat to global economies through its impact on agriculture, water resources, and infrastructure.Ecosystem Stability:The health of the environment directly affects the stability of ecosystems. Deforestation, habitat destruction,and pollution disrupt delicate ecological balances, leading to loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. For instance, the decline of pollinator populations due to habitat loss and pesticide use threatens global food security by impacting crop pollination. Furthermore, disruptions in marine ecosystems, such as coral reef degradation and overfishing, jeopardize the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on marine resources for food and income.Social Equity:Environmental factors often exacerbate existing social inequalities. Vulnerable populations, such as low-income communities and indigenous peoples, are disproportionately affected by environmental degradation and pollution. They are more likely to live in areas with poor air quality, contaminated water sources, and inadequate access to healthcare services. Environmental justice movements advocate for equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, aiming to address these disparities and ensure that all communities have a clean and healthyenvironment.Mitigation and Adaptation:Addressing environmental challenges requires both mitigation and adaptation strategies. Mitigation efforts focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving natural resources, and transitioning to renewable energy sources to mitigate the impacts of climate change. Adaptation measures involve building resilience to environmental hazards through infrastructure improvements, disaster preparedness, and ecosystem restoration. Additionally, promoting sustainable practices such as recycling, conservation, and responsible consumption can help alleviate pressure on the environment and minimize negative impacts.Conclusion:In conclusion, environmental factors exert a profound influence on human health, economic prosperity, ecosystem stability, and social equity. Recognizing theinterconnectedness of environmental issues is essential for devising effective solutions to address these challenges. By taking collective action to protect and preserve our environment, we can create a healthier, more sustainable future for generations to come.。
The Importance of Environmental Protection
The Importance of EnvironmentalProtectionEnvironmental protection is a topic of great importance in today's world. With the increasing threat of climate change, pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity, it has become imperative for individuals, communities, and governments to take action to preserve and protect the environment. The consequences of not taking action are dire, and it is crucial for us to understand the significance of environmental protection and the impact it has on our livesand the lives of future generations. One of the most compelling reasons for environmental protection is the preservation of biodiversity. Biodiversity is essential for the functioning of ecosystems and provides us with a wide range of benefits, such as clean air and water, pollination of crops, and natural resources. When we fail to protect the environment, we risk losing species at an alarming rate, which can disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems and lead to negative consequences for all living beings on Earth. Furthermore, environmentalprotection is crucial for mitigating the effects of climate change. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial activities have led to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, which has resulted in global warming and extreme weather events. By taking steps to reduce our carbon footprint, conserve natural habitats, and promote sustainable practices, we can work towards minimizing the impact of climate change and safeguarding the planet for future generations. In addition to the ecological reasons for environmental protection, there are also social and economic benefits to consider. A healthy environment is essential for human well-being, as it provides us with clean air, water, and food. By protecting the environment, we can prevent pollution-related illnesses, ensure food security, and create a more sustainable future for ourselves and our children. Moreover, environmental protection can also lead to economic opportunities, such as the creation of green jobs, investment in renewable energy, and the development ofeco-friendly technologies. Despite the numerous benefits of environmental protection, there are still challenges and obstacles that hinder our efforts to preserve the environment. One of the biggest challenges is the lack of awarenessand understanding of the importance of environmental protection. Many people are unaware of the impact of their actions on the environment and fail to recognizethe urgency of the situation. In order to address this issue, education and awareness campaigns are essential to inform and engage the public in environmental conservation efforts. Another challenge is the reluctance of governments and businesses to prioritize environmental protection over economic interests. In many cases, short-term economic gains are prioritized over long-term environmental sustainability, leading to the exploitation of natural resources and the degradation of the environment. It is crucial for policymakers and industryleaders to recognize the value of environmental protection and implement policies and practices that prioritize sustainability and conservation. Furthermore, there is also a lack of international cooperation and coordination in addressing environmental issues. The environment knows no borders, and the impact of environmental degradation transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it isessential for countries to work together to address global environmental challenges, such as climate change, deforestation, and pollution. International agreements and partnerships are crucial for creating a unified approach to environmental protection and ensuring the well-being of the planet. In conclusion, environmental protection is of utmost importance for the preservation of biodiversity, mitigation of climate change, and the well-being of current andfuture generations. By recognizing the ecological, social, and economic benefitsof environmental protection, we can work towards overcoming the challenges and obstacles that hinder our efforts to preserve the environment. It is essential for individuals, communities, and governments to take action and prioritize sustainability and conservation in order to create a more sustainable andresilient planet for all.。
如何提高身体健康英语作文
To enhance physical health,one can adopt a variety of lifestyle changes and habits that contribute to a healthier body and mind.Here are some key points to consider when writing an essay on improving health:1.Balanced Diet:Emphasize the importance of a wellrounded diet that includes a variety of fruits,vegetables,whole grains,lean proteins,and healthy fats.Explain how different nutrients contribute to overall health.2.Regular Exercise:Discuss the benefits of engaging in regular physical activity.Include the types of exercises that are beneficial,such as aerobic exercises,strength training,and flexibility exercises.3.Adequate Sleep:Explain the role of sleep in maintaining physical health.Discuss the recommended amount of sleep for adults and the impact of sleep deprivation on the body.4.Hydration:Highlight the significance of drinking enough water daily.Explain how proper hydration affects bodily functions and overall health.5.Stress Management:Discuss the negative effects of stress on health and suggest methods for managing stress,such as meditation,yoga,or engaging in hobbies.6.Avoiding Harmful Habits:Address the importance of avoiding harmful habits like smoking,excessive alcohol consumption,and drug use.Explain the detrimental effects these habits can have on health.7.Regular Checkups:Stress the importance of regular medical checkups for early detection and prevention of diseases.8.Mental Health:Include the significance of mental health in overall wellbeing.Discuss the connection between mental health and physical health and suggest ways to maintain a positive mental state.9.Social Connections:Explain how maintaining social relationships can contribute to a sense of belonging and happiness,which are important for health.10.Personal Hygiene:Discuss the basics of personal hygiene,such as regular bathing, dental care,and handwashing,and their role in preventing diseases.11.Environmental Factors:Address the impact of environmental factors on health,such as air quality,exposure to pollutants,and the importance of a clean living space.cation and Awareness:Conclude by emphasizing the importance of being educated about health issues and making informed decisions about ones health.When writing your essay,ensure that you provide clear explanations,use relevant examples,and maintain a logical flow of ideas.Additionally,consider using persuasive language to encourage readers to adopt these healthy practices in their own lives.。
Impact of Environmen l Con mination by Listeria spp in a Food lant on roduct
Impact of Environmental Contamination by Listeria spp. in a Food Plant on Final ProductSome factors influencing product contamination1. Extent of contaminationFrankfurter surveys2,800 1225,20010, 110.0424,8001-9200224 208931-19199331 421491-31989% Lm positive No. tested Mfr Year2. Source of contamination3. Where contamination occurs in the flow of productOven Brine Chill PeelerSurgeconveyor CollatorPackagingMachineIncline conveyorFrankfurter plant Conveyor4. When contamination occurs5. Type of food6. Degree of protection7. Effectiveness of corrective actions8. Ratio of Lm to other L spp.% Lm % other L spp.Meat plants 513Poultry plants 2245Seafood plants 1314Germany Foods of animal origin13Switzerland Dry RTE meats 738France Cheese plant 135Netherlands Dairy plants 421UK Various foods 610IrelandVarious foods 1831New Zealand Meat, poultry, fish 1132Japan Retail foods 823Canada Smoked fish 512USADairy products613Nordic Countries% of Listeria confirmed as Lm in 6 plants100806040201989199019911992199319941995UVM Modified Listeria BrothFraser Modified BrothBlackModified Oxford Agar Plates Typical colonies with Black Agar(“Suspect ”)Not Black (Negative)No Growth or Typical Colonies (Negative)Atypical Colonies Standard Plate Count AgarMicroscope (small rods) Catalase test (+) Oxidase (-)Typical Colonies(Assume to be Listeria) Lm Other L spp.CAMP Test (S.aureus)+-+-Rhamnose++--Packaging lines and floors: 1990 - 199547% 53% CAMP Test/Rhamnose19% SPC Agar20% MOX Agar 39% Black broth FM Broth 31,207 Analyses UVM BrothProduct tests: 1990 through 1994Number % Suspect Company A 10,017Number% Lm USDA-FSIS 10,681Since about 47% of all suspects confirmed as Lm, the estimate for product with Lm =Product tests: 1999 through 200230521,497USDA-FSIS11,571Company A %Lm No.Lm No.SamplesWhat level of control is tolerable?Plant A-----+-3+-+--+-27654321-------4---++--1WeekPkg lineThe relationship between Listeria in the environment and in a food can be influenced by the microbiological procedures employed.Some factors influencing the detection of Lm in food •Number of samples•Method of collecting samples •Shipping and storage conditions•Quantity of food tested •Analytical methodFor example: method of sample preparation (data from 1990 – 1994)26548425 g586007Rinse %Suspect Number Suspect Number SamplesNote: the data in the previous slides have been based on 25 g.Summary37,7261999 - 200229,3041990 – 1994% positive for Lm% positive for ListeriaNo. of samplings*Product Packaging Lines * Each sampling a line involved 1 – 10 subsamples. A line was positive if any tested positive for Listeria .。
The impact of the environmental factors on the pho
ORIGINAL PAPERThe impact of the environmental factors on the photosynthetic activity of common pine (Pinus sylvestris )in spring and in autumn in the region of Eastern SiberiaN.E.Korotaeva 1•M.V.Ivanova 1•G.G.Suvorova 1•G.B.Borovskii 1Received:4May 2017/Accepted:28September 2017/Published online:28December 2017ÓNortheast Forestry University and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany,part of Springer Nature 2017Abstract The taiga coniferous forests of the Siberian region are the main carbon sinks in the forest ecosystems.Quantitatively,the size of the carbon accumulation is determined by the photosynthetic productivity,which is strongly influenced by environmental factors.As a result,an assessment of the relationship between environmental factors and photosynthetic productivity makes it possible to calculate and even predict carbon sinks in coniferous for-ests at the regional level.However,at various stages of the vegetative period,the force of the connection between environmental conditions and the productivity of photo-synthesis may change.In this research,correlations between the photosynthetic activity of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)with the environmental conditions were compared in spring and in autumn.In spring,close positive correlation of the maximum daily net photosynthesis was identified with only one environmental factor.For different years,correlations were for soil temperature (r s =0.655,p =0.00315)or available soil water supply (r s =0.892,p =0.0068).In autumn within different years,significant correlation was shown with two (temperature of air and soil;r s =0.789and 0.896,p =0.00045and 0.000006,respectively)and four factors:temperature of air (r s =0.749,p =0.00129)and soil (r s =0.84,p =0.00000),available soil water supply (r s =0.846,p =0.00013)and irradiance (r s =0.826,p =0.000001).Photosynthetic activity has a weaker connection with changes in envi-ronmental factors in the spring,as compared to autumn.This is explained by the multidirectional influence of environmental conditions on photosynthesis in this period and by the necessity of earlier photosynthesis onset,despite the unfavorable conditions.This data may be useful for predicting the flow of carbon in dependence on environ-mental factors in this region in spring and in autumn.Keywords Pinus sylvestris L.ÁEastern Siberia ÁCorrelations ÁPhotosynthetic productivity ÁSeasonal changes in environmentIntroductionChange in the intensity of photosynthetic reactions is one of the main plant responses to environmental changes.Interest in the environmental aspects of photosynthesis of coniferous trees grew increasingly in the last few years (Zarter et al.2006;Gea-Izquierdo et al.2010;Galvagno et al.2013;Verhoeven 2013;Kolari et al.2014;Moyes et al.2015).The influence of environmental conditions on the intensity of photosynthesis has been driven by itsconnection with global climate change (Fre´chette et al.2011;Pagter and Arora 2013;Rapacz et al.2014).Project Funding:The Project was funded by The Program of Basic Research of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences No.23‘‘Biodiversity’’(Project 23.31:Relationship between the use of environmental resources and photosynthesis of conifers as a factor in the sustainability and biological diversity of forest ecosystems in Northern Eurasia).The online version is available at Corresponding editor:Tao Xu.&M.V.Ivanovamariaivanova7684@mail.ru1Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry,Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences,132,Lermontov Str,PO Box 317,Irkutsk,Russia 664033J.For.Res.(2018)29(6):1465–1473https:///10.1007/s11676-017-0582-5The impact of environmental factors on photosynthetic activity of evergreen conifers was previously studied either in areas with low temperatures and weak solar radiation (Ensminger et al.2004;Suni et al.2003),or in highlands with higher air temperature and strong insolation(Zarter et al.2006;Monson et al.2002,2005).Air temperature appears to be a good predictor for the timing of the com-mencement of photosynthesis at high latitudes(Suni et al. 2003).In subalpine forests,air and soil temperature and water availability determine the time when spring reacti-vation of intrinsic photosynthetic capacity as well as car-bon uptake occurs,although there may be considerable variation from year to year as to when this important event takes place.Hence,this impact cannot be unified for the entire boreal zone(Monson et al.2005).The impact force of the external factors affecting pho-tosynthesis of Pinus sylvestris L.(Scots pine)in spring and autumn in Eastern Siberia differs from the force of the external factors in other regions.For example,the climate of Eastern Siberia is characterized by lower annual tem-perature(-1°C for the period1980–2008);higher intensity of insolation,due to the geographic latitude and sea level(height above sea level is428m);lower annual precipitation(350–380mm)(database of the All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information, http://meteo.ru/),and prevalence of evaporation over pre-cipitation(Shwer and Formantchuk1981).Clearly,the environment of Eastern Siberia poses extreme conditions for the inhabiting plants.In Eastern Siberia,low air and soil temperature become major limiting factors for Scots pine classed as xerophyte(Suvorova2009).Despite this,Scots pine is a dominant species in this region because;the soil moisture level is the key factor for maximal values of photosynthetic activity in pine,even in the seasons with various conditions(Rysin and Savelyeva2008;Suvorova et al.2007b).Nevertheless,when in spring the photosynthesis resumes abnormally early for Eastern Siberia(in thefirst decade of April),its intensity is limited by low soil tem-perature(Suvorova et al.2004).Thus,optimal ranges of environmental factors—within which the highest values of photosynthetic activity are achieved—alter both during the years differing in heat—and moisture availability and throughout the vegetation period(Suvorova et al.2005). The period of influence of the environmental factor that limits photosynthesis remains the same in different years. In spring this period(from April1to June15)begins with thefirst signs of visible photosynthesis and is characterized by instability of the process;the air and soil temperature is the dominant factor limiting photosynthesis in this period. Available soil water supply(ASWS)is the main factor limiting photosynthesis during the summer(from June16 to August31).Irradiation is the main factor limiting photosynthesis in the autumn(around September1—the first decade of November)(Suvorova2009).Our understanding of the reproductive process of Scots pine under Eastern Siberia climate conditions is limited. Study of photosynthetic carbon transformation by forest ecosystems on a regional scale is important for under-standing the mechanisms of self-regulation of carbon-sink function.Also,the formation of biomass and prediction of carbon sink formation will be made easier with the help of long-term databases of climatic conditions.According to our data,the maximum of photosynthesis have a direct relationship with carbon accumulation.We have shown previously that photosynthesis maximum in pine has a positive line dependence from photosynthetic productivity(r2=0.8–0.9),regardless of the conditions of a given year of observations(Suvorova2006,2009).This property can be used as a basis for calculating the daytime and seasonal productivity of coniferous forests by the indices of their maximum daily intensity of photosynthesis. Further,using mathematical models,it was shown that maximal rate of photosynthesis have a direct linear corre-lation with the maximum activity of Ribulose-1,5-bispho-sphate carboxylase/oxygenase,or RuBisCO,the initial enzyme link in the chemical binding of carbon(model efficiency ME=0.73)(Suvorova et al.2017).In this research,part of our long-term investigations of the influence of the environment on photosynthesis is described.It sums up,the results of our comparison study of the relations between external factors and the maximum of daily net photosynthesis in Scots pine in spring and autumn in Eastern Siberia.We also utilized parametric(r2, coefficient of determination)and non-parametric(r s, Spearman’s correlation coefficient)criteria of analysis of correlation dependence.Materials and methodsPlant material and study siteThe experimental planting is located on the outskirts of Irkutsk(52°1402100N,104°160700E).Geographically,this territory is a part of the Middle-Siberian plateau;an ele-vated plain dominated by gently sloping hills.The climate of the region is largely formed by the Siberian anticyclone. According to the Ko¨ppen climate classification,the climate of the southern part of Eastern Siberia is classified as Dwc: cool continental climate/subarctic climate(Peel et al. 2007).Through most of the year,the weather in this region is dominated by continental air masses.Normally,in summer season when the air becomes warmer,the condi-tions favoring rainfall are formed and humid precipitation-1466N.E.Korotaeva et al.bearing winds from the Atlantic penetrate the area(Kar-tushin1969).In general,the quantity of summer rainfall dominates the annual precipitation.In Irkutsk,the average air tem-perature amounts to-1°C;the average annual precipi-tation—359mm;and the length of the growing season—130days(Vaschuk and Shvidenko2006).The territory is mainly characterized by widespread Scots pine forests, with inclusions of Siberian larch,spruce,fir,Siberian pine, birch,and aspen.The area studied is80%forested,with coniferous species accounting for more than half of the forested area(Vaschuk and Shvidenko2006).The experi-mental plantation was established in1985on the research field of the Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS with two-year-old seedlings,grown from local coniferous seeds supplied by a state-owned arboretum located in the settlement of Meget,Irkutsk District,150km away from the study plot.We used three Scots pine trees(Pinus sylvestris L.) (25years old)grown at the experimental site of the insti-tute.The stand is located on a gradual slope(2–3°)of eastern exposure.The plantation is characterized as fol-lows:the species composition was40%pine,30%spruce, and30%larch;the crown density was0.5–0.6,the average height of pine was4.45m;and the average stem diameter at the height of1.5m,was68.8mm.For the measurement of photosynthesis,three trees with characteristics of pho-tosynthesis close to each other were selected.The soil is gray forest non-podzolized loamy,on Jurassic carbona-ceous loams underlain by sand.Ground waters are located at a considerable depth(11–50m)and do not produce a significant impact on the soil moisture mode.The investi-gation was conducted in2007and2008.Registration of the environmental factorsWe monitored air and soil temperature,solar radiation (irradiance),soil moisture and precipitation abundance during the vegetation period every day at1-hour intervals, as described previously(Suvorova et al.2007a;Korotaeva et al.2012).The ambient air temperature,the temperature in one of the assimilation chambers,and also the soil temperature at depths down to120cm were detected continuously on the measurement days with copper ther-mocouples,and the parameters were simultaneously recorded by a multi-point register KSM-4(GK Prompribor, Russia).The relative air humidity in the middle part of the crown was measured with a hygrograph M-21AN(Pilot factory of hydrometeorological devices,Russia),and the parame-ters were verified using Assman’s aspiration psychrometer (GK Prompribor,Russia).Soil moisture contents were determined for each10cm soil layer to a100cm depth every10days during the growth period using the ther-mostat-gravimetric method.ASWS was calculated by a commonly used technique(Fedorovsky1975)as the dif-ference between the soil moisture content and the moisture inaccessible for plants.The air humidity was determined on a weekly basis by a hygrograph and its readings were verified on a daily basis using an aspiration psychrometer. Solar radiation incident upon the tree canopy was measured with a pyranometer M-80(Hydrometpribor,Russia),con-nected with a potentiometer KSP-4(GK Prompribor, Russia)for automatic records.When converted pyra-nometer readings in energy units(W m-2)by the number of photons(l mol(photon)m-2s-1)the coefficient of4.5 was used(Long and Hallgren1989).Registration of the net photosynthesis activity Measurements of net photosynthesis activity were started when thefirst signs of positive gas-exchange were detected in early spring(in the middle of April)andfinished when the process ended in the last ten days of October.The share of PAR(photosynthetically active radiation),which was determined according to Tooming(1977),during the growing season in clear weather was48–52%.Net photo-synthesis activity was monitored around the clock for three days of each week.Nine assimilation chambers,each reinforced with a wire frame and covered with poly-ethylene,were installed on the southern side of the middle part of the crowns of the trees studied,on the brachyblasts of the second year.The volumes of the assimilation chambers were adapted to shoot sizes and were equal to0.5dm3.Free polyethylene ends of the assimilation chambers werefixed on branches with scotch tape.In addition,three CO2concentration measurements were taken in the ambient air near the chambers,for control.The CO2gas exchange of shoots was measured by an infrared gas analyzer Infralyt4(Veb Combinat Mess-und Regelungstechnik,Germany)—based multi-channel device of open type.The values of the CO2 content werefixed by the EPP-09recorder(GK Prompri-bor,Russia).Registration of the content of CO2in gas analyzer was carried out with the help of a magnetoelectric galvanometer.Airflow was pumped by the compressors positioned between channel switches and the air dryer.The air entered the assimilation chamber via an air inlet;from there,itflowed around the needles,going to the CO2 measuring device for analysis;and then coming out with the exhaust.The effectiveness of the device was checked by special methodical examination(Sherbatyuik et al. 1991).The rate of CO2absorption(mkmol m-2s-1)(net photosynthesis)was taken as the intensity of photosyn-thesis.To calculate it,the difference in the concentration ofThe impact of the environmental factors on the photosynthetic activity of common pine (1467)carbon dioxide in the control chamber and in the assimi-lation chamber was determined.To calculate the photo-synthesis rate per unit of surface area of the needles, Tselniker’s tables were used(Tselniker1982).The average values for the photosynthesis rate for each hour of the day for three trees were used to calculate the daytime(daily) average photosynthetic productivity(PSP).Measurements of the CO2content were carried out only in the daytime. The monthly value of PSP was estimated as a product of the average daily photosynthetic productivity by the num-ber of days in the month.The daily photosynthetic activity maxima were selected according to the hourly parameters of the processes during each day.All values of the daytime assimilation maximum,which reached more than80%of the maximum seasonal values(absolute seasonal maxi-mum),were included in the range of the maximum values of photosynthesis.Statistical analysisThe Shapiro–Wilk test was used to confirm the normality of variations.Standard linear regressions,coefficient of determination(r2),and Spearman’s correlation(r s)were used to assess the direction and level of the relation between the level of maximum daily net photosynthesis and environmental factors(Glantz1999).During the cor-relation evaluation—between several pairs of characteris-tics—some lacked normal distribution;in response,the intensity of the correlation connection was assessed with Spearman’s non-parametric criterion(r s).The statistical significance of the correlation was eval-uated,using the table of critical values of Spirman’s range correlation ratio(p\0.05)(Glantz1999).Statistical analysis including determination of statistical significance of differences in Spearman’s correlation(p\0.05)and analysis of the regressions were both performed by Sta-tistica soft.The regression analysis included detection of the adequacy of the model to describe dependence (p\0.05)and analysis of the prognostic significance of independent factor of environment(p\0.05).Since the normality condition for the distribution of the quantitative variation series in some of the compared groups is not met, the multifactor ANOVA was not applicable.ResultsPeculiarities of vegetation periods2007–2008The vegetation periods in2007and2008did not signifi-cantly differ in air temperature(except April),and were warmer than the average values over many years(Fig.1). The monthly soil temperature mean was higherthan Fig.1Hydrothermal conditions and solar radiation during the vegetation periods2007and2008.1882–2008years data(database of the All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Infor-mation)were taken for the long-term average(Lta)of precipitation and monthly air-temperature means.Monthly soil temperature mean was determined at the depth of5cm.Data from the years 1998–2008years(own research)were taken for Lta of monthly soil temperature mean.The data from1880to1980(Shwer and For-mantchuk1981)were taken for the Lta of monthly total solar radiation mean.We used our own data for the years2002–2012to determine the Lta of monthly available soil water supply mean. Abbreviations denote:Apr—April;Aug—August;Sept—September; Oct—October1468N.E.Korotaeva et al.average values of many years in thefirst part of the veg-etation season in2007.This year was characterized by a high intensity solar radiation,which exceeded the average multi-annual monthly values from June to September.In contrast,the solar radiation level in the2008vegetation period in spring and in autumn was below the average multi-annual values and values in2007.In early spring 2008,the ASWS was considerably lower than the previous years’indices and was attaining a peak low value over the previous year.Photosynthetic productivity(PSP)According to our data,over the observation period,the photosynthetic productivity in each of the months was higher in2007(Fig.2).During the2007growing season, PSP had reached its maximum value in May.In2008,PSP had the highest values in the period from May to September.The impact of the external factors on maximal daily photosynthesis rateIn the periods between July–August2007and2008,no significant impact of the environmental factors on photo-synthetic activity was revealed.The maximal daily pho-tosynthesis rate significantly depended on the environmental factors in autumn and spring.Analysis of the regressions demonstrated that derived regression models adequately described the dependence of the maxi-mum daily photosynthesis rate on the environmental fac-tors;all the environmental factors were significant at p\0.05,except ASWS at2008autumn to a small degree (Table1).In almost all of the cases,the relation of the maximal daily photosynthesis rate on environmental factors proved positive,except the dependence on ASWS in spring2007(Fig.3c)and autumn2008(Fig.3h).Dif-ferences in the Spearman correlation coefficients between any of the environmental factors were significant if one of the r s had a negative value(for example,ASWS in spring 2007,r s=-0.806).In the fall of2007and2008,the dependence of the photosynthetic activity on the environmental factors was statistically significant in all the cases except dependence on solar radiation in2008.In spring2007(Fig.3a–c)and in spring2008(Fig.3h)dependence on environmental factors proved statistically significant in all cases:ASWS (r s=-0.806,p=0.004),the air(r s=0.72,p=0.0185) and the soil temperature(r s=0.655,p=0.003)in2007 and on ASWS(r s=0.892,p=0.006)in2008.In spring2007,as compared to spring2008,photosyn-thetic activity was closely connected with a larger number of external factors(Fig.3).There was one exception:the intensity of solar radiation.In spring2008,the dependence was statistically significant only with ASWS(r s=0.892, p=0.006)(Fig.3h).In spring2007connection of photosynthetic activity with temperature of a soil(r2=0.683,p=0.003)and ASWS(r2=0.64,p=0.004)was a little closer than connection with the air temperature(r2=0.512, p=0.018)(Fig.3a–c,Table2)However the difference turned up statistically inessential judging by Spearman’s correlation coefficients(Table2).DiscussionConditions during the vegetation periods of2007and2008 were characterized by some differences that apparently had an impact and changed photosynthetic activity of needles. The2007vegetation period may be characterized as more favorable than2008,abnormally warm and productive.The 2008vegetation period is characterized as warm,favorable from the viewpoint of humidity except during the spring.Although a higher humidity was detected in the second part of2008(Fig.1),PSP was higher in2007both in the first,and in the second part of vegetation season(Fig.2). Evidently,the primary distinguishing factor of2007—a high level of solar radiation—allowed the trees to use environmental resources for photosynthesis to the maxi-mum.In spring2007the high PSP level was correlated with higher temperature values and optimal ASWS,which in this period is the most important factor for photosyn-thesis onset(Monson et al.2005).The negative correlation between photosynthetic activ-ity and ASWS in this period is obviously accounted for by the fact that,due to an air temperature increase exceeding average multi-annual values,and low precipitation level inThe impact of the environmental factors on the photosynthetic activity of common pine (1469)Fig.3Correlations between the maximum of daily net photosynthe-sis and environmental factors during spring and autumn of two years. Only those correlations that have statistical significance are given (p\0.05)(Glantz(1999).Thefigure demonstrates graphs of scattering analyzed feature pairs with regression lines.Dotted lines correspond to the limits of confidence intervals of regression lines. Regression equations and determination coefficients(r2)are pre-sented.Variants of the environmental factors,correlating with maximal daily photosynthetic activity in spring of2007,are:a—temperature of air,b—temperature of soil,c—ASWS;variants of the environmental factors,correlating with maximal daily photosynthetic activity in autumn of2007,are:d—temperature of air,e—temper-ature of soil,f—ASWS,g—irradiance;variants of the environmental factors,correlating with maximal daily photosynthetic activity in autumn of2008,are:i—ASWS,j—temperature of air,k—temper-ature of soil.In spring of2008maximal daily photosynthetic activity correlated with ASWS(h)Table1Meanings of p for equations of the dependences of maximum of daily net photosynthesis from environmental factors in2007 and2008Air temperature Soil temperature Available soil water supply Irradiation2007p0.019800/0.0000000.00024/0.0000040.0054/0.004–/0.000002 2008p–/0.002–/0.0000030.007/0.053–/–Thefirst value in pairs emphasized in bold is the result of measurements taken in spring(from17April to 29May);the second value means the result of measurements taken in autumn(from4September to1 November);no correlations were detected.Equations adequately described dependences of maximum of daily net photosynthesis from environmental factors and were significant at p\0.05.The underlined font shows that regression inadequately describes dependence and that independent factor of environment was insignificant for forecasting1470N.E.Korotaeva et al.this period(Fig.1),photosynthetic activity growth occurs simultaneously with intensive moisture evaporation from the soil surface and reduction of its humidity.In June2007, the solar radiation level was high and evidently favored PSP along with optimal soil moisture level(Figs.1,2).In September2007,the rise of soil moisture level produced a belated effect,as a large amount of precipitation fell in July,with optimal soil and air temperatures persisting in September.As a result,the physiologically important upper 50-cm soil level could cool more slowly,which also favorably affected PSP.In2008,fluctuations in PSP were smoother and corre-sponded to seasonal changes in environmental conditions.A reduction in ASWS in autumn2007and in temperatures of soil(or air)in April2008,compared with2007,affected PSP in2008:it turned out to be low as in2007(Figs.1,2). Lack of correlation between photosynthetic activity and environmental conditions in summer apparently is related to the fact that,in the warm period of the year,the pho-tosynthetic activity of mesophyll tends to fully realize the photosynthetic potential,provided it is not limited by environmental factors including water availability and the absence of summer droughts(Suvorova2009).In spring2008,unlike the spring of2007,no correlation of the maximum of daily net photosynthesis rate with environmental conditions was observed,apart from a sig-nificant correlation with ASWS changes(r s=0.892, p=0.0068)(Fig.3h).Apparently,during this time PSP was considerably suppressed due to the preceding drought (Fig.1).The absence of statistically significant correlation connections with other environmental factors in spring 2008presumably is accounted for by the fact,that given the extreme value of one of environmental factors,the impact of other factors becomes less significant.The neg-ative connection between photosynthetic activity and ASWS in autumn2008(Fig.3i)may be explained by the high precipitation level and relevant ASWS growth(Fig.1) The second explanation is an autumn decrease in photo-synthetic activity with the reduction of solar radiation level,as a direct limiting effect of excessive moisture on photosynthesis.In spring,photosynthesis depends on the air temperature. The influence of the temperature may be conditioned by a simultaneous reduction in mesophyll conductivity and in enzyme activity(Bauer et al.1994;Dahal et al.2012),or by partial destruction of green pigments(Suvorova et al.2011) or by photoinhibition(Hansen et al.1996;Vogg et al.1998). The presented data demonstrate that photosynthesis in spring is closely connected with soil status that confirms thefind-ings of previous studies(Suvorova et al.2004,2005,2007a, b;Ensminger et al.2008).Even with the increase of air temperature up to the optimal values,the cooling of pine roots takes place,which results in low hormonal and trophic status of roots,limiting the achievement of high PSP values (Ensminger et al.2008;Suvorova2009).The equations given in the article do not fully reflect the dependence of the maximum of daily net photosynthesis on ASWS in autumn2008(Table1).A sharp decline in maximal daily photosynthetic activity during this period (Fig.3i),which is explained by an hasty transition to negative air temperatures in the middle of the measurement period,apparently,was the reason of this discrepancy.Table2Significance of the correlations between maximum of daily net photosynthesis and environmental factors in the spring and autumn of2007and 2008Air temperature Soil temperature Available soil water supply Irradiation2007n10/1518/2310/14–/23r s0.72/0.7490.655/0.840-0.806*/0.846n.s./0.826 p0.0185/0.001290.00315/0.000000.00486/0.00013-/0.000001 2008n–/15–/157/15–/–r s n.s./0.789n.s./0.8960.892/-0.732*n.s./n.s.p–/0.00045–/0.0000060.0068/0.00191–/–Thefirst value in pairs emphasized in bold is the results of measurements taken in spring(from17April to 29May).The second value means the result of measurements taken in autumn(from4September to1 November).Spearman’s correlation coefficient(r s)was used to assess correlations between photosynthetic productivity and environmental factors(Glantz1999).The significance of the relation was assessed according to the table of critical values for Spearman’s Rank Correlation(p\0.05)(Glantz1999).The correlation was not significant;n—the number of analyzed pairs of signs;r s—Spearman’s correlation coefficient;the hyphen means that the relation was absent.The significance of the differences in Spear-man’s correlation coefficients was assessed using Statistica soft(p\0.05).*—the differences in the Spearman’s correlation coefficients between the various environmental factors in a single season and between the same factors in different seasons and years were statistically significant only if one of them has negative value(ASWS in spring2007and autumn2008)The impact of the environmental factors on the photosynthetic activity of common pine (1471)。
英语环保作文小学
Environmental protection is a crucial issue that affects every individual on our planet.Here are some ideas for writing an elementarylevel English essay on environmental conservation:1.Introduction to Environmental Issues:Begin your essay by introducing the concept of environmental protection.Explain why it is important and how it affects our daily lives.2.Causes of Environmental Problems:Discuss the main causes of environmental degradation such as deforestation,pollution,and climate change.You can provide examples of how these issues are caused by human activities.3.Effects on Wildlife and Ecosystems:Explain how environmental problems impact wildlife and ecosystems.For instance,pollution can harm marine life,and deforestation can lead to the loss of habitats for many species.4.The Role of Individuals:Emphasize the role that each person can play in protecting the environment.This can include simple actions like recycling,conserving water,and reducing waste.5.Solutions and Initiatives:Suggest practical solutions to environmental problems.You can talk about the importance of renewable energy,planting trees,and supporting policies that protect the environment.6.The Importance of Education:Highlight the role of education in raising awareness about environmental issues.Explain how learning about the environment can inspire people to take action.7.Personal Stories or Experiences:If you have a personal story or experience related to environmental conservation,share it.This can make your essay more engaging and relatable.8.Conclusion:End your essay by summarizing the main points and reiterating the importance of environmental protection.You can also include a call to action, encouraging readers to contribute to the cause.9.Vocabulary:Use appropriate vocabulary related to the environment,such as sustainability,biodiversity,conservation,and ecological footprint.nguage and Tone:Keep the language simple and clear,as you are writing for an elementary e a persuasive tone to encourage readers to care about theenvironment.Remember to proofread your essay for grammar and spelling errors.Writing about environmental issues is not only an academic exercise but also a way to contribute to a better future for our planet.。
2010年英语专八范文
2010年英语专八范文In recent years, the issue of environmental protection has become a top priority for governments, businesses, and individuals. There is a growing awareness of the impact that human activities have on the environment, and the need for sustainable development practices. One of the key areas of concern is the problem of plastic pollution.Plastic pollution is a global problem that poses a serious threat to the environment and human health. Every year, millions of tons of plastic waste end up in the world's oceans, rivers, and landfills. This has a devastating impact on marine life, as animals become entangled in plastic debris or ingest it, leading to sickness and death. Additionally, plastic pollution contributes to climate change by releasing harmful greenhouse gases when it breaks down.To address the problem of plastic pollution, governments and businesses must take action to reduce the production and consumption of single-use plastics. This can be achieved through the implementation of policies and regulations that encourage the use of alternative materials and promote recycling. Businesses can also play a key role by developing innovative solutions to reduce plastic waste, such as biodegradable packaging and reusable products.Individuals can also make a difference by adopting environmentally friendly habits, such as using reusable bags and water bottles, and choosing products with minimal packaging. By making small changes to our daily routines, we can reduce our plastic footprint and help protect the environment for future generations.In conclusion, plastic pollution is a pressing issue that requires immediate action from all sectors of society. By working together to reduce our reliance on single-useplastics and promote sustainable alternatives, we can create a cleaner, healthier planet for ourselves and for future generations. Let us all do our part to combat plastic pollution and preserve the beauty of our natural world.。
环境因素对森林病虫害发生的影响及应对策略研究
Journal of Agricultural Catastrophology 2023, Vol.13 No.9环境因素对森林病虫害发生的影响及应对策略研究蔺忙碌甘肃省小陇山林业保护中心李子林场，甘肃天水 741022摘要 森林病虫害是森林生态系统面临的主要威胁之一。
随着生态环境的恶化和人类活动的影响，森林病虫害的发生频率和强度越来越高，给森林健康和生产带来了严重的威胁。
而研究环境因素对森林病虫害的发生和传播的影响，可以探索有效的防治策略，保护森林生态系统的健康。
深入分析了环境因素对森林病虫害发生的影响，在此基础上，结合森林病虫害的特点，进一步提出了有针对性的应对策略，有助于不断提高森林病虫害防治水平，进而避免森林病虫害的发生。
关键词 环境因素；森林；病虫害防治中图分类号：S763 文献标识码：B 文章编号：2095–3305(2023)09–0242-03环境因素对森林病虫害的发生和流行起着至关重要的作用，由于气候变化、土壤退化、生态环境破坏等原因，森林病虫害问题日益严重，对森林生态系统的破坏也越来越严重[1-2]。
因此，有必要继续深入研究环境因素对森林病虫害的影响及其应对策略，为森林保护措施的制定提供科学、合理的依据。
1 环境因素对森林病虫害发生的影响1.1 气候因素1.1.1 温度 温度对病原体和害虫的生长、发育和繁殖有着直接的影响。
温度全面影响着虫卵的发育质量，也是害虫进行有效繁殖的重要条件[3-4]。
适宜的温度有利于昆虫的发展和形成，可以提高病原体和害虫的代谢速率和活动水平，加快其生长和繁殖进程，促进森林病虫害扩散。
温度过高或过低都会影响害虫的生长发育速度，害虫体内的代谢活动性减弱，会导致昆虫的生长发育缓慢，甚至进入休眠的状态。
1.1.2 湿度 湿度对害虫的影响，主要表现在害虫发育期、生殖力和分布地区等方面。
大部分害虫最适宜的湿度范围为70%~90%。
适宜的湿度环境可以为病原体和害虫提供所需的湿度和水分，促进真菌、病毒等病虫害的生长、繁殖和扩散[5-6]。
关于环保英语作文
Environmental protection is a critical issue that affects the wellbeing of our planet and its inhabitants.Writing an essay on this topic allows you to explore various aspects of environmental conservation and raise awareness about the importance of sustainable practices.Introduction:Begin your essay by introducing the concept of environmental protection and its significance.You might mention the alarming rate of environmental degradation and the urgent need for collective action.The Importance of Environmental Protection:Discuss why environmental protection is essential.You could talk about the impact of pollution on human health,the loss of biodiversity,and the effects of climate change. Causes of Environmental Degradation:Identify the main causes of environmental problems,such as industrial pollution, deforestation,overfishing,and the excessive use of fossil fuels.Consequences of Ignoring Environmental Protection:Explain the potential consequences of not addressing environmental issues,including natural disasters,resource depletion,and the extinction of species.Individual and Collective Actions:Describe the actions that individuals and communities can take to protect the environment.This could include reducing waste,recycling,conserving water,and supporting renewable energy sources.Government and Corporate Responsibility:Discuss the role of governments and corporations in environmental protection.Highlight policies,regulations,and initiatives that promote sustainability and reduce environmental impact.Technological Innovations:Explore how technology can contribute to environmental protection.Mention advancements in clean energy,electric vehicles,and sustainable materials that can help reduce our ecological footprint.Education and Awareness:Emphasize the importance of educating the public about environmental issues.Discuss the role of schools,media,and nongovernmental organizations in raising awareness andpromoting ecofriendly behaviors.International Cooperation:Highlight the need for international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges.Discuss international agreements and treaties aimed at combating climate change and protecting the environment.Conclusion:Conclude your essay by summarizing the key points and reiterating the importance of environmental protection.Encourage readers to take action and contribute to a more sustainable future.Sample Paragraph:Environmental protection is not just a moral obligation but a practical necessity for the survival of our species.The consequences of ignoring our environmental responsibilities are dire,ranging from the loss of precious ecosystems to the exacerbation of climate change.It is through individual and collective efforts,supported by government policies and technological advancements,that we can hope to mitigate these cation plays a pivotal role in this endeavor,as an informed public is more likely to adopt sustainable practices.International cooperation is also crucial,as environmental challenges do not respect borders.By working together,we can ensure a healthier planet for future generations.Remember to use clear and concise language,provide evidence to support your arguments,and engage your readers with compelling examples and persuasive arguments.。
The Impact of Urbanization on the Environment
The Impact of Urbanization on theEnvironmentUrbanization, the process of increasing the population and infrastructure in urban areas, has had a significant impact on the environment. The rapid growth of cities has led to a host of environmental problems, including air and water pollution, deforestation, and the destruction of natural habitats. In this essay, I will explore the impact of urbanization on the environment from multiple perspectives.One of the most significant environmental impacts of urbanization is air pollution. As cities grow, so does the number of vehicles on the road, which leads to an increase in air pollution. The exhaust fumes from cars and trucks release harmful pollutants into the air, including nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. These pollutants can have serious health effects, including respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer. In addition, urban areas often experience a phenomenon known as the urban heat island effect, where the concentration of buildings and pavement traps heat, leading to higher temperatures and poor air quality.Another environmental impact of urbanization is water pollution. As cities expand, they often encroach on natural waterways, leading to increased runoff and pollution. Urban areas generate large amounts of wastewater, which can contain harmful chemicals and pollutants. This wastewater often ends up in rivers and streams, leading to the degradation of water quality and the destruction of aquatic habitats. In addition, urban areas often experience flooding due to the increased amount of impermeable surfaces, such as roads and buildings, which prevent water from being absorbed into the ground.Urbanization also leads to the destruction of natural habitats. As cities expand, they often encroach on natural areas, leading to the destruction of forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems. This destruction can have a significant impact on biodiversity, as many species rely on these habitats for survival. In addition, urban areas often introduce invasive species, which can outcompete native species and further disrupt ecosystems.Despite the negative environmental impacts of urbanization, there are also some positive aspects. Urban areas often have higher population densities, which can lead to more efficient use of resources. For example, public transportation systems are often more viable in urban areas, which can reduce the number of cars on the road and decrease air pollution. In addition, urban areas often have more green spaces, such as parks and gardens, which can help to mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization on the environment.In conclusion, the impact of urbanization on the environment is complex and multifaceted. While there are some positive aspects, such as more efficient resource use and the availability of green spaces, the negative impacts, including air and water pollution and the destruction of natural habitats, cannot be ignored. As cities continue to grow and expand, it is important to consider the environmental impacts and take steps to mitigate them, such as investing in public transportation, promoting sustainable development, and protecting natural areas. Only by taking these steps can we ensure that urbanization does not come at the cost of the environment.。
The Impact of Pesticides on Ecosystem Health
The Impact of Pesticides on Ecosystem Health Pesticides have been used for decades to control pests and increase crop yields. However, the use of pesticides has raised concerns about their impact on the environment and human health. In this essay, we will discuss the impact of pesticides on ecosystem health from multiple perspectives.Firstly, the use of pesticides has a direct impact on non-target organisms such as beneficial insects, birds, and mammals. Pesticides can kill or harm these organisms, disrupting the balance of the ecosystem. For example, the use of neonicotinoid pesticides has been linked to the decline of bee populations, which are essential for pollination and the production of food crops. Similarly, pesticides can harm birds that feed on insects, leading to a decline in their populations. The loss of these organisms can have a cascading effect on the ecosystem, leading to a reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem services.Secondly, pesticides can accumulate in the environment, leading to long-term impacts on ecosystem health. Pesticides can persist in soil, water, and air, and can bioaccumulate in the food chain. This means that organisms at higher trophic levels, such as birds of prey and top predators, can accumulate high levels of pesticides in their tissues. This can lead to reproductive failure, immune system suppression, and other health problems. For example, the use of DDT in the mid-20th century led to the near-extinction of the bald eagle and other bird species due to eggshell thinning.Thirdly, the use of pesticides can lead to the development of pesticide-resistant pests. Pesticides kill pests by disrupting their nervous system or other physiological processes. However, some pests can develop resistance to pesticides over time, rendering them ineffective. This can lead to an increase in the use of pesticides, which can further harm the environment and human health. In addition, the use of pesticides can also harm beneficial organisms that help control pest populations, such as predators and parasites.Fourthly, pesticides can have indirect impacts on human health. Pesticides can contaminate food, water, and air, leading to exposure to toxic chemicals. This can lead to a range of health problems, including cancer, birth defects, and neurological disorders.Children and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to the effects of pesticides. In addition, pesticide exposure can also harm farmers and farmworkers who handle and apply pesticides.Finally, there are alternatives to pesticides that can help protect ecosystem health. Integrated pest management (IPM) is an approach that uses a combination of biological, cultural, and chemical methods to control pests. This approach emphasizes the use of non-toxic methods, such as crop rotation, habitat manipulation, and biological control, before resorting to chemical pesticides. IPM can help reduce the use of pesticides and promote a healthier ecosystem.In conclusion, the use of pesticides has a significant impact on ecosystem health. Pesticides can harm non-target organisms, accumulate in the environment, lead to the development of pesticide-resistant pests, have indirect impacts on human health, and harm farmers and farmworkers. However, there are alternatives to pesticides, such as integrated pest management, that can help protect ecosystem health. It is important to consider the environmental and human health impacts of pesticides when making decisions about their use.。
The Impact of Deforestation on Biodiversity Loss
The Impact of Deforestation on Biodiversity Loss Deforestation is a major environmental issue that has been affecting the world for many years. It involves the removal of trees and other vegetation in a particular area, leading to a loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms in a particular ecosystem, including plants, animals, and microorganisms. The impact of deforestation on biodiversity loss is significant, and it has far-reaching consequences for the environment and the people who depend on it.One of the major impacts of deforestation on biodiversity loss is the destruction of habitats for various species of plants and animals. Trees provide a home and food for many species, and when they are cut down, these species are forced to relocate or die. This loss of habitat can have a ripple effect on the entire ecosystem, as the loss of one species can lead to the decline of others that depend on it for survival. This can ultimately lead to the extinction of certain species, which can have devastating consequences for the environment and the people who depend on it.Another impact of deforestation on biodiversity loss is the disruption of the water cycle. Trees play a crucial role in regulating the water cycle by absorbing water from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere through a process known as transpiration. When trees are cut down, this process is disrupted, leading to changes in the local climate and weather patterns. This can have a significant impact on the flora and fauna in the area, as well as on the people who depend on the ecosystem for their livelihoods.Deforestation also contributes to climate change, which has far-reaching consequences for biodiversity. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and store it in their biomass. When trees are cut down, this carbon is released into the atmosphere, contributing to the greenhouse effect and global warming. This can have a significant impact on the environment, leading to changes in temperature, weather patterns, and sea levels. These changes can have a devastating impact on the biodiversity of the area, leading to the loss of many species and the disruption of entire ecosystems.The impact of deforestation on biodiversity loss is not just limited to the environment. It also has significant social and economic consequences for the people who depend on the ecosystem for their livelihoods. Many communities around the world rely on forests for food, fuel, and other resources. When these resources are depleted, it can lead to food insecurity, poverty, and social unrest. Deforestation can also lead to the loss of cultural heritage, as many indigenous communities have a deep connection to the forests and the biodiversity they support.In conclusion, the impact of deforestation on biodiversity loss is significant and far-reaching. It has devastating consequences for the environment, the people who depend on it, and the global community as a whole. To address this issue, we need to take urgent action to reduce deforestation and promote sustainable land use practices. This includes protecting forests and other natural habitats, promoting reforestation and afforestation, and supporting sustainable agriculture and forestry practices. By working together, we can help to protect the biodiversity of our planet and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.。
The Importance of Environmental Protection
The Importance of EnvironmentalProtectionEnvironmental protection is a crucial aspect of our lives that we often takefor granted. The environment is the foundation of all life on earth, and it is our responsibility to ensure that it is protected and preserved for future generations. The importance of environmental protection cannot be overstated, and it isessential that we all work together to ensure that our planet remains healthy and sustainable. One of the primary reasons why environmental protection is so important is that it directly impacts our health and well-being. The air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat are all dependent on a healthy environment. If we do not take care of our environment, we risk exposing ourselves to harmful pollutants and toxins that can cause serious health problems. This is particularly true for vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions. Another reason why environmental protection is important is that it is essential for the preservation of biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms that exist on earth, and it is crucial for maintaining the balance of ecosystems. When wedestroy habitats and pollute the environment, we put many species at risk of extinction. This can have far-reaching consequences, as the loss of even one species can have a ripple effect throughout the entire ecosystem. Environmental protection is also important for economic reasons. Many industries rely on natural resources, such as timber, water, and minerals, to produce goods and services. If we do not protect these resources, we risk depleting them, which can have a negative impact on the economy. Additionally, environmental degradation can leadto increased healthcare costs and decreased productivity, which can also have a negative impact on the economy. From a moral standpoint, environmental protection is the right thing to do. We have a responsibility to protect the environment for future generations, and to ensure that they have access to the same resources and opportunities that we have. By taking care of the environment, we are also taking care of our fellow human beings, as well as the many other species that share our planet. Finally, environmental protection is important because it is a globalissue that requires a global solution. Climate change, pollution, and habitat destruction are all problems that affect people and ecosystems all over the world. In order to effectively address these issues, we need to work together as a global community. This requires cooperation, collaboration, and a willingness to put the needs of the planet above our own individual interests. In conclusion, environmental protection is a critical issue that affects us all. It impacts our health, our economy, our biodiversity, our morality, and our global community. We must all take responsibility for protecting the environment, and work together to create a sustainable future for ourselves and future generations. By doing so, we can ensure that our planet remains healthy and vibrant, and that we leave a positive legacy for those who come after us.。
环保英语作文题目
1.The Impact of Plastic Pollution on Marine Life:A Call for Action这篇作文可以探讨塑料污染对海洋生物的影响，分析其原因，并提出解决方案。
2.Sustainable Development:Balancing Economic Growth with Environmental Protection讨论可持续发展的概念，如何实现经济增长与环境保护的平衡。
3.The Role of Renewable Energy in Combating Climate Change分析可再生能源在减少温室气体排放和应对气候变化中的作用。
4.Urban Greening:Transforming Cities into EcoFriendly Spaces探讨城市绿化的重要性，以及如何通过城市规划实现更环保的城市环境。
5.The Importance of Biodiversity Conservation for a Healthy Planet论述生物多样性保护的重要性，以及其对地球健康的影响。
6.Reducing Carbon Footprint:Personal and Corporate Responsibility讨论个人和企业如何通过减少碳足迹来承担环保责任。
7.EcoTourism:A Sustainable Way to Explore the World分析生态旅游的概念，以及它如何促进环境的可持续性和保护。
8.The Future of Transportation:Electric Vehicles and Green Mobility探讨电动汽车和绿色出行方式如何塑造未来的交通系统。
9.Waste Management:Strategies for a Cleaner and Healthier Environment讨论有效的废物管理策略，以及它们如何帮助创造一个更干净、更健康的环境。
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Impact of environment factors on solar cell parameters of a-Si J m c-Si photovoltaic modulesKyoko Ichida a,Shunichi Fukushige a,Akihiko Nakajima b,Takashi Minemoto a,Ã,Hideyuki Takakura aa College of Science and Engineering,Ritsumeikan University,1-1-1Nojihigashi,Kusatsu,Shiga525-8577,Japanb Kaneka Corporation,2-1-1Hieitsuji,Otsu,Shiga520-0104,Japana r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received17December2007Accepted11October2008Available online26November2008Keywords:Tandem-type photovoltaic moduleOutdoor performanceEnvironmental factors introductiona b s t r a c tThe behavior of amorphous silicon J micro crystalline silicon(a-Si J m c-Si)tandem-type photovoltaic(PV)module is complex because the output current is limited by the lower current component cell.Also,theoutdoor behaviors are not fully understood.The impact of environment factors on solar cell parametersof a-Si J m c-Si PV module was quantitatively analyzed and the module was compared with other silicon-based PV modules(single crystalline silicon(sc-Si)and amorphous silicon(a-Si)).The contour maps ofsolar cell parameters were constructed as a function of irradiance and module temperature.The contourmap of a-Si J m c-Si PV modules is similar to that of a-Si modules.The results imply that outputcharacteristics of a-Si J m c-Si PV modules are mainly influenced by the a-Si top cell.Furthermore,theefficiency of a-Si J m c-Si PV modules was compared other solar cell parameters and the contour map ofefficiency is similar to that offill factor.&2008Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionWe are analyzing the outdoor performance of silicon-basedphotovoltaic(PV)modules and having measurements of environ-mental factors.The outputs of PV devices under real workingconditions are influenced by some environmental factors,i.e.,irradiance,module temperature and incident spectrum.Amor-phous silicon J micro-crystalline silicon(a-Si J m c-Si)tandem-typePV module has gathered much attention as one of the low costand high efficiency PV module[1].The a-Si J m c-Si PV moduleconsists of a-Si(top cell)and m c-Si(bottom cell)solar cellsconnected in series.The a-Si solar cell absorbs the light with theshort wavelength and the m c-Si solar cell absorbs the light withthe long wavelength.As a result,a-Si J m c-Si PV module absorbs thewide range of solar spectrum.However the behavior of a-Si J m c-SiPV module is complex.The output current is limited by the lowercurrent component cell.Also,the outdoor behaviors are not fullyunderstood.Solar cell parameters reflect the impact of differentenvironmental factors on solar cells.In this study,the impact ofenvironmental factors on the parameters of a-Si J m c-Si PV modulein the outdoorfield test was quantitatively analysed.Furthermore,the module was compared with other silicon-based PV modulessuch as single-crystalline silicon(sc-Si)and amorphous silicon(a-Si)PV modules.2.ExperimentalA PV system is located in Shiga-prefecture,and the averagedaily irradiance in this region is 3.9kWh/m2(The observationpoint:Hikone City,Shiga-prefecture(351north and1361east)),which almost corresponds to that of the mainland of Japan.Therefore,it is expected that standard data of our country iscollected.In this PV system,silicon-based PV modules(bulk type:sc-Si PV module and thin-film type:a-Si and a-Si J m c-Si PVmodules)are facing due south installed with a tilt angle of371.Additionally,the thermo-couple that measures each module backside temperature,the thermometer,the hygrometer,the spectralradiometer,the pyranometer and the I–V curve tracer are also setup.Not only the output of PV modules but also,the severalenvironment factors that will influence on the output have beenmeasured.Mainly,they are irradiance,module temperature andspectral irradiance distribution.Solar spectra of the wavelengthrange350–1050nm are recorded by a spectro-radiometer(MS700,EKO)that experiences the same exposure conditions as the PVmodules.Here,the spectral index named Average Photon Energy(APE)[2]was used.APE is an index that indicates a spectralirradiance distribution and is defined as the integrated irradiancedivided by the integrated photonflux density,yielding the averageenergy per photon:APE¼R baEðlÞd lqR baFðlÞd l(1)Contents lists available at ScienceDirectjournal homepage:/locate/solmatSolar Energy Materials&Solar Cells0927-0248/$-see front matter&2008Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2008.10.011ÃCorresponding author.Tel./fax:+81775613065.E-mail addresses:minemoto@se.ritsumei.ac.jp,ro001036@se.ritsumei.ac.jp(T.Minemoto).Solar Energy Materials&Solar Cells93(2009)879–8830.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e2002/1~2003/122)0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l eT 2002/1~2003/122)0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e T e m p e r a t u r e (°C )70-8060-7050-6040-5030-4020-302002/1~2003/12Irradiation (kWh/m 2)Fig.1.Contour map of irradiation of (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and (c)a-Si as a function of module temperature and irradiance.0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u lIsc (A )0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o du l 0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e T e m p e r a t u r e (°C ) 0.8-0.90.7-0.80.6-0.70.5-0.60.4-0.50.3-0.4Isc (A )2002/1~2003/12Fig.2.Contour map of irradiance and module temperature dependence of the I sc of (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and (c)a-Si PV modules.K.Ichida et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 93(2009)879–883880where q is the electronic charge,E spectral irradiance and F the spectral photon flux density.The APE value for the standard solar spectrum [3,4]calculated with 350–1050nm wavelength range is 1.88eV.If the APE value is higher than 1.88eV,then the spectrum is blue-rich.If the APE value is lower than 1.88eV,then the spectrum is red-rich.The solar spectrum in the experiment ground were significantly blue-rich throughout the year [5]compared to standard spectrum of APE ¼1.88eV.For that reason,a-Si J m c-Si PV module top limited for standard solar spectrum was used in this analysis.Contour maps of solar cell parameters short-circuit current (I sc ),open circuit voltage (V oc ),fill factor (FF ),and the conversion efficiency (Eff ))were made as a function of irradiance and module temperature.The measurement period is 2years from January 1,2002through December 12,2003.The number of data points is greater than 60,000.The measurement data of each IV parameters are categorized by irradiance and module temperature,and then the mean value of the data for the same condition is used to create the each contour map.The data correction for standard test condition is not performed.The similar analysis was performed on the sc-Si and a-Si PV modules.3.Results and discussionFig.1.shows the contour map of the irradiation of (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and (c)a-Si as a function of module temperature and irradiance.The contour map of the irradiation to the module temperature and irradiance has a similar distribution in all modules.The total irradiance to 2years is 2416kWh/m 2.There-fore,all the PV modules experienced similar outdoor condition.First,the behavior of the I sc is discussed.Fig.2shows irradiance and temperature dependence of the I sc for (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si1.861.881.91.921.941.961.985Module Temperature (°C)A P E (e V )2004006008001000120035040045050055060065070075080085090095010001050Wavelength (nm)S p e c t r a l i r r a d i a t i o n(W /m 2/µm )101520253035404550556065Fig.3.(a)The APE as a function of module temperature and irradiance and(b)spectralirradiance distribution for the APE ¼1.90and 1.95eV.0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e2002/1~2003/120.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e2002/1~2003/120.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d uFig.4.Contour map of irradiance and module temperature dependence of the V oc of (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and (c)a-Si PV modules.K.Ichida et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 93(2009)879–8838810.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e T e m p e r a t u r e (°C )0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e T e m p e r a t u r e (°C )0.59-0.6050.575-0.590.56-0.5750.545-0.560.53-0.5450.515-0.53FFFig.5.Contour map of irradiance and module temperature dependence of the FF of (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and (c)a-Si PV modules.0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e T e m p e r a t u r e (°C ) 10-119-108-9Eff (%)0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l2002/1~2003/12Eff (%)0.10.30.50.70.91.1515253545556575Irradiance (kW/m 2)M o d u l e T e m p e r a t u r e (°C )10-119-108-97-86-75-6Eff (%)Fig.6.Contour map of irradiance and module temperature dependence of the Eff of (a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and (c)a-Si PV modules.K.Ichida et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 93(2009)879–883882and(c)a-Si PV modules.A similar environmental factor dependency was seen in all modules.The I sc mainly depends on irradiance.The I sc of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module increases at the high temperature.Fig.3(a)shows the correlation between APE and module temperature at different irradiance.The APE increases with increasing the module temperature,which closely relates to the ambient temperature during the measurement,regardless of the irradiance.Fig.3(b)shows the solar spectrum with the APE¼1.90and1.95eV.The solar spectrum with1.95eV contains a lot of short wavelength elements and few long wavelength elements compared to that with1.90eV.Therefore,it was found that the I sc increased due to the current match occurred in summer(at high temperature)because the light with short wavelength increased.The contour map of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module is similar to that of a-Si PV module.Secondly,the behavior of the V oc is discussed.Fig.4shows irradiance and temperature dependence on the V oc for(a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and(c)a-Si PV modules.A similar environmental factor dependency was seen in all modules.The V oc strongly depends on the module temperature, and there is hardly an irradiance dependency.The contour map of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module is similar to that of sc-Si and a-Si PV modules.Next,the behavior of the FF is discussed.Fig.5shows the irradiance and temperature dependence on the FF for(a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and(c)a-Si PV modules.In the a-Si J m c-Si PV module,it was expected that the FF would decrease due to the current match that occur in summer(at the high temperature)when the spectra contains a lot of short wavelength light.Besides,it was also expected that the FF would increase due to the current mismatch that occurs in winter(at the low temperature)because the spectra contains a lot of long wavelength light.However,the experimental result showed an opposite dependency.This is because that the effect of thermal annealing[6],which enhances the FF in summer, is larger than the influence of the current match and current mismatch.The contour map of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module is similar to that of a-Si PV module.Finally,the behavior of the Eff is discussed.Fig.6shows irradiance and temperature dependence on Eff for(a)a-Si J m c-Si,(b)sc-Si and(c)a-Si PV modules.When the Eff of all PV modules is compared with other PV parameters, the contour map of the Eff is similar to that of the FF.In the a-Si J m c-Si PV module,at high temperature and low irradiance the Eff is high as shown in Fig.6(a).The contour map of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module is similar to that of the a-Si PV module(Fig.6(c)). These results indicate that the influence of the a-Si top cell is dominant in the output characteristics of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module.4.ConclusionsImpact of environment factors on solar cell parameters of a-Si J m c-Si PV module was analyzed with contour maps.The I sc increased due to the current match occurred in summer because the light with short wavelength increased.The effect of thermal annealing,which enhances the FF in summer,is larger than the influence of the current match and current mismatch.Output characteristics of the a-Si J m c-Si PV module are directly influenced by the a-Si top cell.In all modules,the FF most strongly influences on the Eff.AcknowledgementsThis work was supported by the Incorporated Administrative Agency New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization(NEDO)under the Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry(METI).References[1]A.Nakajima,M.Ichikawa,T.Sawada,M.Yoshimi,K.Yamamoto,Optimizationof device design for thin-film stacked tandem solar modules in terms of outdoor performance,Jpn.J.Appl.Phys.43(2004)L1162.[2]S.Williams,T.Betts,T.Helf,R.Gottschalg,H.Beyer,D.Infield,in:Proceedingsof3rd World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion Osaka,Japan, 2003,pp.1908–1911.[3]International Electrotechnical Commission,IEC60904-3,1989,Japan IndustrialStandard Committee,JIS8910,2001.[4]Japan Industrial Standard Committee,JIS8910,2001.[5]T.Minemoto,M.Toda,S.Nagae,M.Gotoh, A.Nakajima,K.Yamamoto,H.Takakura,Y.Hamakawa,Effect of spectral irradiance distribution on the outdoor performance of amorphous Si//thin-film crystalline Si stacked photovoltaic modules,Sol.Energy Mater.Sol.Cells91(2007)120–122.[6]P.Siamchai,A.Yamada,M.Konagai,Improvement of a-Si solar cell fabricatedby mercury-sensitized photochemical vapor deposition using H2dilution technique,Jpn.J.Appl.Phys33(1994)6099–6104.K.Ichida et al./Solar Energy Materials&Solar Cells93(2009)879–883883。