财务管理外文文献翻译
财务报表分析的外文文献
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系别管理信息系专业财务管理班级姓名学号外文出处/f/22323844.html?from=like附件 1.原文；2.译文2012年3月1.原文Financial statement analysis - the use of financial accountinginformation.Many years. Reasonable minimum current ratio was confirmed as 2.00. Until the mid-1960s, the typical enterprise will flow ratio control at 2.00 or higher. Since then, many companies the current ratio below 2.00 now, many companies can not control the current ratio over 2.00. This shows that the liquidity of many companies on the decline.In the analysis of an enterprise's liquidity ratio, it is necessary to average current ratio with the industry to compare. In some industries, the current ratio below 2.0 is considered normal, but some industry current ratio must be big 2.00. In general, the shorter the operating cycle, the lower the current ratio: the longer the operating cycle, the higher the current ratio.The current ratio compared to the same enterprise in different periods, and compared with the industry average, will help to dry to determine the high or low current ratio. This comparison does not explain why or why low. We can find out the reasons from the by-point analysis of the current assets and current liabilities. The main reason for the exception of the current ratio should be to find out the results of a detailed analysis of accounts receivable and inventory.Flow ratio better than working capital performance of enterprise short-term solvency. Working capital reflect only current assets and current liabilities, the absolute number of differences. The current ratio is also considered the relationship between the current asset size and the size of the current liabilities, make the indicators more comparable. For example, the current ratio between General Motors and Chrysler Motors Corporation. The comparison between the two companies working capital is meaningless, because the two companies of different sizes.Inventory using LIFO France will flow ratio cause problems, this is because the stock is undervalued. The result will be to underestimate the current ratio. Therefore, when compared to using the LIFO method businesses and other costs of the enterprise should pay particular attention to this.Compare the current ratio, analysts should calculate the accounts receivable turnover rate and commodity inventory turnover. This calculation enables the analysis of proposed liquidity problems exist in shouldReceived the views of the accounts and (or) Inventories. Views or opinions on the current ratio of accounts receivable and the deposit will affect the analyst. If the receivables I receivable and liquidity problems, require current ratio higher.Third, the acid test ratio (quick ratio)The current ratio is the evaluation of the liquidity conditions in the current assets and current liabilities. Often, people expect to get more immediate than the current ratio reflect the situation. The acid test ratio (liquid rate) on the relationship of current assets to current liabilities.To calculate the acid test (quick) ratio. From the current assets excluding inventory part. This is because of the slow flow of inventory, the inventory may be obsolete inventory may also be used as a specific creditor's security. For example, the winery's products to Tibet for a long period of time before sold. If you calculate the acid test (liquid) to including wine obstruct inventory will overestimate the enterprise mobility. Inventory valuation, because the cost data may be related to the current price level difference ...Section VI analytical screening proceduresAuditing Standards Description No. 23. Analytical screening procedures, provides guidance for the use of this procedure in the audit. Analytical inspection program goal is to identify significant changes from the business statistics and unusual items.Analytical screening procedures during the audit can run a different number of times, including the planning phase, the audit of the implementation phase and the completion of the audit stage. Analytical inspection procedures can lead to a special audit procedures, such as:Transverse the same type of analysis of the income statement shows an item, such as cost of sales during that period abnormal. This will lead to a careful review of the project cost of sales. The income statement vertical the same type of analysis by comparison with the previous saddle, can be found already for sale to the harmonious proportions of the amount of commodity costs and sales revenue.Accounts receivable turnover ratio and industry data comparison may show the typical speed of the accounts receivable turnover rate is far below the industry. This shows that a careful analysis of the response to accounts receivable.4 and debt compared to cash flow has significantly decreased ability to repay the debt with internally generated cash flow is essentially dropped.5 aldehyde test ratio decreased significantly, indicating that the ability to repay current liabilities with current assets other than inventory outside is essentially droppedWhen the auditors found that the report or an important trend than the string, the next procedure should be carried out to determine why this trend. This study (survey) can often lead to important discoveries.......Section VI analytical screening proceduresAuditing Standards Description No. 23. Analytical screening procedures, provides guidance for the use of this procedure in the audit. Analytical inspection program goal is to identify significant changes from the business statistics andunusual items.Analytical screening procedures during the audit can run a different number of times, including the planning phase, the audit of the implementation phase and the completion of the audit stage. Analytical inspection procedures can lead to a special audit procedures, such as:Transverse the same type of analysis of the income statement shows an item, such as cost of sales during that period abnormal. This will lead to a careful review of the project cost of sales. The income statement vertical the same type of analysis by comparison with the previous saddle, can be found already for sale to the harmonious proportions of the amount of commodity costs and sales revenue.Accounts receivable turnover ratio and industry data comparison may show the typical speed of the accounts receivable turnover rate is far below the industry. This shows that a careful analysis of the response to accounts receivable.4 and debt compared to cash flow has significantly decreased ability to repay the debt with internally generated cash flow is essentially dropped.5 aldehyde test ratio decreased significantly, indicating that the ability to repay current liabilities with current assets other than inventory outside is essentially droppedWhen the auditors found that the report or an important trend than the string, the next procedure should be carried out to determine why this trend. This study (survey) can often lead to important discoveries.2.译文财务报表分析——利用财务会计信息。
财务管理专业英语翻译
1、Financial management is an integrated decision-making process concerned withacquiring, financing, and managing assets to accomplish some overall goal within a business entity.财务管理是为了实现一个公司总体目标而进行的涉及到获取、融资和资产管理的综合决策过程。
2、Making financial decisions is an integral part of all forms and sizes ofbusiness organizations from small privately-hold forms to large publicly-traded corporations.做财务决策对于所有形式和规模的商业组织，无论是小型私人公司还是大型股份公开交易的公司来说，都是不可分割的一部分。
3、In today’s rapidly changing environment, the financial manager must have theflexibility to adapt to external factors such as economic uncertainty, global competition, technological change, volatility of interest and exchange rates, changes in laws and regulations, and ethical concerns.在当今瞬息万变的环境中，财务经理必须具备足够的灵活性以适应外部因素，如经济的不确定性、国际竞争、技术变革、利息波动、汇率变动、法律法规变化以及商业道德问题。
4、The financial manager makes investment decisions about all types of assets-itemson the left-hand side of the balance sheet.财务经理要做出关于所有形式的资产—即资产负债表左侧所列示项目的投资决定。
财务管理外文资料翻译---财务风险的重要性
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系别：管理信息系专业：财务管理班级：姓名：学号：外文出处：Theory and Decision附件： 1. 原文； 2. 译文How Important is Financial Risk?作者：Sohnke M. Bartram, Gregory W. Brown, and Murat Atamer起止页码：1-7出版日期（期刊号）：September 2009,V ol. 2, No. 4(Serial No. 11)出版单位：Theory and Decision, DOI 10.1007/s11238-005-4590-0Abstract：This paper examines the determinants of equity price risk for a large sample of non-financial corporations in the United States from 1964 to 2008. We estimate both structural and reduced form models to examine the endogenous nature of corporate financial characteristics such as total debt, debt maturity, cash holdings, and dividend policy. We find that the observed levels of equity price risk are explained primarily by operating and asset characteristics such as firm age, size, asset tangibility, as well as operating cash flow levels and volatility. In contrast, implied measures of financial risk are generally low and more stable than debt-to-equity ratios. Our measures of financial risk have declined over the last 30 years even as measures of equity volatility (e.g. idiosyncratic risk) have tended to increase. Consequently, documented trends in equity price risk are more than fully accounted for by trends in the riskiness of firms’ assets. Taken together, the results suggest that the typical U.S. firm substantially reduces financial risk by carefully managing financial policies. As a result, residual financial risk now appears negligible relative to underlying economic risk for a typical non-financial firm.Keywords：Capital structure；financial risk；risk management；corporate finance 1IntroductionThe financial crisis of 2008 has brought significant attention to the effects of financial leverage. There is no doubt that the high levels of debt financing by financial institutions and households significantly contributed to the crisis. Indeed, evidence indicates that excessive leverage orchestrated by major global banks (e.g., through the mortgage lending and collateralized debt obligations) and the so-called “s hadow banking system” may be the underlying cause of the recent economic and financial dislocation. Less obvious is the role of financial leverage among nonfinancial firms. To date, problems in the U.S. non-financial sector have been minor compared to the distress in the financial sector despite the seizing of capital markets during the crisis. For example, non-financial bankruptcies have been limited given that the economicdecline is the largest since the great depression of the 1930s. In fact, bankruptcy filings of non-financial firms have occurred mostly in U.S. industries (e.g., automotive manufacturing, newspapers, and real estate) that faced fundamental economic pressures prior to the financial crisis. This surprising fact begs the question, “How impo rtant is financial risk for non-financial firms?” At the heart of this issue is the uncertainty about the determinants of total firm risk as well as components of firm risk.Recent academic research in both asset pricing and corporate finance has rekindled an interest in analyzing equity price risk. A current strand of the asset pricing literature examines the finding of Campbell et al. (2001) that firm-specific (idiosyncratic) risk has tended to increase over the last 40 years. Other work suggests that idiosyncratic risk may be a priced risk factor (see Goyal and Santa-Clara, 2003, among others). Also related to these studies is work by Pástor and Veronesi (2003) showing how investor uncertainty about firm profitability is an important determinant of idiosyncratic risk and firm value. Other research has examined the role of equity volatility in bond pricing (e.g., Dichev, 1998, Campbell, Hilscher, and Szilagyi, 2008).However, much of the empirical work examining equity price risk takes the risk of assets as given or tries to explain the trend in idiosyncratic risk. In contrast, this paper takes a different tack in the investigation of equity price risk. First, we seek to understand the determinants of equity price risk at the firm level by considering total risk as the product of risks inherent in the firms operations (i.e., economic or business risks) and risks associated with financing the firms operations (i.e., financial risks). Second, we attempt to assess the relative importance of economic and financial risks and the implications for financial policy.Early research by Modigliani and Miller (1958) suggests that financial policy may be largely irrelevant for firm value because investors can replicate many financial decisions by the firm at a low cost (i.e., via homemade leverage) and well-functioning capital markets should be able to distinguish between financial and economic distress. Nonetheless, financial policies, such as adding debt to the capital structure, can magnify the risk of equity. In contrast, recent research on corporate risk management suggests that firms may also be able to reduce risks and increase value with financial policies such as hedging with financial derivatives. However, this research is often motivated by substantial deadweight costs associated with financialdistress or other market imperfections associated with financial leverage. Empirical research provides conflicting accounts of how costly financial distress can be for a typical publicly traded firm.We attempt to directly address the roles of economic and financial risk by examining determinants of total firm risk. In our analysis we utilize a large sample of non-financial firms in the United States. Our goal of identifying the most important determinants of equity price risk (volatility) relies on viewing financial policy as transforming asset volatility into equity volatility via financial leverage. Thus, throughout the paper, we consider financial leverage as the wedge between asset volatility and equity volatility. For example, in a static setting, debt provides financial leverage that magnifies operating cash flow volatility. Because financial policy is determined by owners (and managers), we are careful to examine the effects of firms’ asset and operating characteristics on financial policy. Specifically, we examine a variety of characteristics suggested by previous research and, as clearly as possible, distinguish between those associated with the operations of the company (i.e. factors determining economic risk) and those associated with financing the firm (i.e. factors determining financial risk). We then allow economic risk to be a determinant of financial policy in the structural framework of Leland and Toft (1996), or alternatively, in a reduced form model of financial leverage. An advantage of the structural model approach is that we are able to account for both the possibility of financial and operating implications of some factors (e.g., dividends), as well as the endogenous nature of the bankruptcy decision and financial policy in general.Our proxy for firm risk is the volatility of common stock returns derived from calculating the standard deviation of daily equity returns. Our proxies for economic risk are designed to capture the essential characteristics of th e firms’ operations and assets that determine the cash flow generating process for the firm. For example, firm size and age provide measures of line of- business maturity; tangible assets (plant, property, and equipment) serve as a proxy for the ‘hardness’of a firm’s assets; capital expenditures measure capital intensity as well as growth potential. Operating profitability and operating profit volatility serve as measures of the timeliness and riskiness of cash flows. To understand how financial factors affect firm risk, we examine total debt, debt maturity, dividend payouts, and holdings of cash and short-term investments.The primary result of our analysis is surprising: factors determining economicrisk for a typical company explain the vast majority of the variation in equity volatility. Correspondingly, measures of implied financial leverage are much lower than observed debt ratios. Specifically, in our sample covering 1964-2008 average actual net financial (market) leverage is about 1.50 compared to our estimates of between 1.03 and 1.11 (depending on model specification and estimation technique). This suggests that firms may undertake other financial policies to manage financial risk and thus lower effective leverage to nearly negligible levels. These policies might include dynamically adjusting financial variables such as debt levels, debt maturity, or cash holdings (see, for example, Acharya, Almeida, and Campello, 2007). In addition, many firms also utilize explicit financial risk management techniques such as the use of financial derivatives, contractual arrangements with investors (e.g. lines of credit, call provisions in debt contracts, or contingencies in supplier contracts), special purpose vehicles (SPVs), or other alternative risk transfer techniques.The effects of our economic risk factors on equity volatility are generally highly statistically significant, with predicted signs. In addition, the magnitudes of the effects are substantial. We find that volatility of equity decreases with the size and age of the firm. This is intuitive since large and mature firms typically have more stable lines of business, which should be reflected in the volatility of equity returns. Equity volatility tends to decrease with capital expenditures though the effect is weak. Consistent with the predictions of Pástor and Veronesi (2003), we find that firms with higher profitability and lower profit volatility have lower equity volatility. This suggests that companies with higher and more stable operating cash flows are less likely to go bankrupt, and therefore are potentially less risky. Among economic risk variables, the effects of firm size, profit volatility, and dividend policy on equity volatility stand out. Unlike some previous studies, our careful treatment of the endogeneity of financial policy confirms that leverage increases total firm risk. Otherwise, financial risk factors are not reliably related to total risk.Given the large literature on financial policy, it is no surprise that financial variables are,at least in part, determined by the economic risks firms take. However, some of the specific findings are unexpected. For example, in a simple model of capital structure, dividend payouts should increase financial leverage since they represent an outflow of cash from the firm (i.e., increase net debt). We find that dividends are associated with lower risk. This suggests that paying dividends is not as much a product of financial policy as a characteristic of a firm’s operations (e.g., amature company with limited growth opportunities). We also estimate how sensitivities to different risk factors have changed over time. Our results indicate that most relations are fairly stable. One exception is firm age which prior to 1983 tends to be positively related to risk and has since been consistently negatively related to risk. This is related to findings by Brown and Kapadia (2007) that recent trends in idiosyncratic risk are related to stock listings by younger and riskier firms.Perhaps the most interesting result from our analysis is that our measures of implied financial leverage have declined over the last 30 years at the same time that measures of equity price risk (such as idiosyncratic risk) appear to have been increasing. In fact, measures of implied financial leverage from our structural model settle near 1.0 (i.e., no leverage) by the end of our sample. There are several possible reasons for this. First, total debt ratios for non-financial firms have declined steadily over the last 30 years, so our measure of implied leverage should also decline. Second, firms have significantly increased cash holdings, so measures of net debt (debt minus cash and short-term investments) have also declined. Third, the composition of publicly traded firms has changed with more risky (especially technology-oriented) firms becoming publicly listed. These firms tend to have less debt in their capital structure. Fourth, as mentioned above, firms can undertake a variety of financial risk management activities. To the extent that these activities have increased over the last few decades, firms will have become less exposed to financial risk factors.We conduct some additional tests to provide a reality check of our results. First, we repeat our analysis with a reduced form model that imposes minimum structural rigidity on our estimation and find very similar results. This indicates that our results are unlikely to be driven by model misspecification. We also compare our results with trends in aggregate debt levels for all U.S. non-financial firms and find evidence consistent with our conclusions. Finally, we look at characteristics of publicly traded non-financial firms that file for bankruptcy around the last three recessions and find evidence suggesting that these firms are increasingly being affected by economic distress as opposed to financial distress.In short, our results suggest that, as a practical matter, residual financial risk is now relatively unimportant for the typical U.S. firm. This raises questions about the level of expected financial distress costs since the probability of financial distress is likely to be lower than commonly thought for most companies. For example, our results suggest that estimates of the level of systematic risk in bond pricing may bebiased if they do not take into account the trend in implied financial leverage (e.g., Dichev, 1998). Our results also bring into question the appropriateness of financial models used to estimate default probabilities, since financial policies that may be difficult to observe appear to significantly reduce risk. Lastly, our results imply that the fundamental risks born by shareholders are primarily related to underlying economic risks which should lead to a relatively efficient allocation of capital.Before proceeding we address a potential comment about our analysis. Some readers may be tempted to interpret our results as indicating that financial risk does not matter. This is not the proper interpretation. Instead, our results suggest that firms are able to manage financial risk so that the resulting exposure to shareholders is low compared to economic risks. Of course, financial risk is important to firms that choose to take on such risks either through high debt levels or a lack of risk management. In contrast, our study suggests that the typical non-financial firm chooses not to take these risks. In short, gross financial risk may be important, but firms can manage it. This contrasts with fundamental economic and business risks that are more difficult (or undesirable) to hedge because they represent the mechanism by which the firm earns economic profits.The paper is organized at follows. Motivation, related literature, and hypotheses are reviewed in Section 2. Section 3 describes the models we employ followed by a description of the data in Section 4. Empirical results for the Leland-Toft model are presented in Section 5. Section 6 considers estimates from the reduced form model, aggregate debt data for the no financial sector in the U.S., and an analysis of bankruptcy filings over the last 25 years. Section 6 concludes.2 Motivation, Related Literature, and HypothesesStudying firm risk and its determinants is important for all areas of finance. In the corporate finance literature, firm risk has direct implications for a variety of fundamental issues ranging from optimal capital structure to the agency costs of asset substitution. Likewise, the characteristics of firm risk are fundamental factors in all asset pricing models.The corporate finance literature often relies on market imperfections associated with financial risk. In the Modigliani Miller (1958) framework, financial risk (or more generally financial policy) is irrelevant because investors can replicate the financial decisions of the firm by themselves. Consequently, well-functioning capital markets should be able to distinguish between frictionless financial distress and economicbankruptcy. For example, Andrade and Kaplan (1998) carefully distinguish between costs of financial and economic distress by analyzing highly leveraged transactions, and find that financial distress costs are small for a subset of the firms that did not experience an “economic” shock. They conclude that financial distress costs should be small or insignificant for typical firms. Kaplan and Stein (1990) analyze highly levered transactions and find that equity beta increases are surprisingly modest after recapitalizations.The ongoing debate on financial policy, however, does not address the relevance of financial leverage as a driver of the overall riskiness of the firm. Our study joins the debate from this perspective. Correspondingly, decomposing firm risk into financial and economic risks is at the heart of our study.Research in corporate risk management examines the role of total financial risk explicitly by examining the motivations for firms to engage in hedging activities. In particular, theory suggests positive valuation effects of corporate hedging in the presence of capital market imperfections. These might include agency costs related to underinvestment or asset substitution (see Bessembinder, 1991, Jensen and Meckling, 1976, Myers, 1977, Froot, Scharfstein, and Stein,1993), bankruptcy costs and taxes (Smith and Stulz, 1985), and managerial risk aversion (Stulz,1990). However, the corporate risk management literature does not generally address the systematic pricing of corporate risk which has been the primary focus of the asset pricing literature.Lintner (1965) and Sharpe (1964) define a partial equilibrium pricing of risk in a mean variance framework. In this structure, total risk is decomposed into systematic risk and idiosyncratic risk, and only systematic risk should be priced in a frictionless market. However, Campbelletal (2001) find that firm-specific risk has increased substantially over the last four decades and various studies have found that idiosyncratic risk is a priced factor (Goyal and Santa Clara,2003, Ang, Hodrick, Xing, and Zhang, 2006, 2008, Spiegel and Wang, 2006). Research has determined various firm characteristics (i.e., industry growth rates, institutional ownership, average firm size, growth options, firm age, and profitability risk) are associated with firm-specific risk. Recent research has also examined the role of equity price risk in the context of expected financial distress costs (Campbell and Taksler, 2003, Vassalou and Xing, 2004, Almeida and Philippon, 2007, among others). Likewise, fundamental economic risks have been shown to be to be related to equity risk factors (see, for example, Vassalou, 2003, and the citations therein). Choiand Richardson (2009) examine thevolatility of the firm’s assets using issue-level data on debt and find that asset volatilities exhibit significant time-series variation and that financial leverage has a substantial effect on equity volatility.How Important is Financial Risk?财务风险的重要性作者：Sohnke M. Bartram, Gregory W. Brown, and Murat Atamer起始页码：1-7出版日期（期刊号）：September 2009,Vol. 2, No. 4(Serial No. 11)出版单位：Theory and Decision, DOI 10.1007/s11238-005-4590-0外文翻译译文：摘要：本文探讨了美国大型非金融企业从1964年至2008年股票价格风险的决定小性因素。
中小企业代理记账外文文献翻译2014年译文3100字
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企业财务管理研究外文文献翻译
文献出处：Bromiley P, McShane M. Enterprise Risk Management: Review, Critique, and Research Directions[J]. Long Range Planning, 2015，12（03）：61-71.原文The Research of Enterprise Financial ManagementBromiley P, McShane MAbstractEnterprise production and operation process of socialization and modernization level is continuously improved, enterprise financial management and control in the core position in the enterprise management has been gradually revealed. Practice has proved that by strengthening financial management and control is advantageous to the enterprise reasonable and effective use of funds, increasing the use of funds effect; Is advantageous to the enterprise budget, and strive to reduce costs; Easier to find the problems existing in the production and operation enterprises, reduce the economic loss; Is beneficial to improve the level of enterprise production and management, enhance the competitiveness of enterprises. Financial management is the core of enterprise management, seize the financial management, and seize the key to enterprise management.Key words: enterprise financial management; Money management;1IntroductionEnterprise financial management work of the importance of modern enterprise is a lawfully established for the purpose of profit, is engaged in the production and business operation activities of the independent accounting economic organization, its starting point and develops well is the profit. Enterprises in order to achieve the purpose of its survival and development and implementation of management of its final result to financial index to reflect, and financial management object is the enterprise of cash (or cash) and benign circulation and turnover process, so also has established the corresponding the core position of financial management in enterprise management. Enterprise production management is the process of capital movement and value-added process, management and financial management, as a kind of value form into all production and business operation activities, it is implementationmanagement means on the one hand, through the control of the enterprise production and business operation activities of each link, standardize enterprise management, on the other hand, through the scientific financial analysis, provide the basis for enterprise production and management decision-making, it is through the financial management work to make the management of enterprise production and operation have full control over the whole process.2 Related theories2.1 The fine financial managementThe fine financial management is to "fine" as the foundation, do meticulous, for every post, every business, have set up a corresponding with the work process and business norms, practices the key in implementing, and to extend the scope of financial management to unit of each area, fully exercise the financial supervision function, to make the development of financial management and service function, realize financial management no dead Angle, explore the potential value of the financial activities.As a way of modern financial management, the fine financial management is modern enterprise constantly explore the process of adapting to the market economy development, and is suitable for the market rules and the requirements of the development of enterprise financial management, efforts to promote the fine financial management, to improve enterprise financial management ability, is significant to promote enterprise development, at the same time can also keep to further reform and opening up, promote the internationalization of our country economy level unceasingly, really realize the sustainable development of economy in our country. 2.2 The enterprise value maximizationEnterprise value maximization is reasonable on the enterprise financial management, adopt the optimum financial policy, and give full consideration to the relationship between the value of money and pay, in ensuring long-term stable development of enterprises to maximize the enterprise value. The advantages of the enterprise value maximization is that it considers the paid time and risk, to overcome the short-term behavior in the pursuit of profit. Economic added value maximizationgoal refers to the enterprise by means of the reasonable financial management, take the optimization of financial policy, give full consideration to the time value of money and the relationship between risk and reward, on the basis of the guarantee enterprise long-term stable development, the pursuit of a certain period of time has created the maximization of economic value added and the ratio of the invested capital.3 Enterprise financial management statuses3.1 Status of financial management, enterprise management goal is not clearIn the past most of the companies did not improve the status of financial management to an important problem of position, just think corporate profit is good, as long as don't consider reasonable fund raising and reasonable application, regardless of the benefit maximization problem. Lead to some enterprises for the sake of short-term profit after facing the danger of collapse. And although many enterprise financial management attaches great importance to, but for the financial management target is fuzzy.3.2 The lack of a sound and effective budget management systemMany enterprises not to establish and perfect effective budget management system, enterprise management with no clear goal and direction, entirely by "follow", to advance planning and matter controls, afterwards, analyze and audit is in order to cope with the task of "above", bring a lot of enterprise financial management risk. Some companies even compiled the budget, but as a result of budget management system is not sound, or budget is the financial department shall, according to the management intention "behind closed doors", can't reach the effect of beforehand control, the so-called budget only become "decoration" or "face project".3.3 Money is messy, the use of inefficientSaving is the biggest save money, a waste of money is the biggest waste. In the currency as the medium of the market economy condition, enterprise operation must be firmly established with the concept of capital as the core, maximum limit the use efficiency of the pursuit of money. At present, the needs of the enterprise group funds centralized management and multistage corporate funds dispersed to take up its internal contradiction has become the most prominent problems in the presententerprise financial fund management investment decision-making optional the gender is big, some enterprises regardless of their own ability and the development goals, blind investment, keen to spread new stall, investments, more serious loss, compounded of already very tense capital position. Capital precipitation, takes up unreasonable, high of payment default, finished goods continued to grow, capital turnover is slow, enterprise credit and profitability decline.3.4 Distortion of accounting information, disclosure delayMany enterprises did not form a unified accounting and financial reporting system, and not build a unified financial management system, totally "free" in the group members, by financial personnel according to their own ideas to establish financial accounting and management system, lead to each member's financial information between businesses than, data and information disorder; Plus members affected by the "personal interest", insisting that the performance of rise, make the accounts receivable is high and increasing the enterprise financing costs, management costs and bad debt losses, on the other hand, the members of the enterprise financial personnel adjustment index through a variety of artificial means, cause the distortion of accounting data, report false, completely cover up the real operating conditions of the enterprise. If the enterprise can't solve the problem of distortion of accounting information in time, will lead to policy maker’s mistake, for the survival and development of the enterprise is very bad.4 The improvement of the enterprise financial management measures4.1 The financial management personnel must set up the modern financial management the new ideaThe establishment of modern enterprise system not only gives enterprise active rights, as well as the modern enterprise financial management in a rapidly changing, highly risky market economy environment. These put forward higher requirements for enterprise financial management personnel, financial personnel must be established to adapt to finance a new concept of the knowledge economy era. To strengthen information idea, in the modern society, economic information is a commodity; the accounting information is also a commodity. Any commodity value, accountinginformation has value. On the one hand, financial personnel through the rapid, accurate and comprehensive information collection, provide the basis for enterprise financing and investment decisions. Analysis of enterprise production and operation situation, on the other hand, the information provided by, become the enterprises to improve management decision-making basis, have a significant impact to the enterprise management strategy, objectively to create value for the enterprise.4.2 Led to budget as the main body, implements the comprehensive budget managementUnder the market economy system, the allocation of resources will become complicated, management function diversity, only implements the comprehensive budget management, to carry out effective control, the main work is: first, making enterprise management budget; Second, in an orderly way of budget management, including the implementation of budget tracking, analysis, evaluation and assessment; Third, fix the settlement of the monthly, quarterly and annual accounts. By budget control and avoid waste and loss, increase savings, increasing earnings and practicing economy, ensure the realization of enterprise economic benefits.4.3 Make capital use plan, optimizing the allocation of fundsEnterprise can control the amount of money at any time is limited, but the demand for money is unlimited, the enterprise should through scientific analysis of the prediction, the disposable funds raised together effectively, maintain reasonable configuration structure. Including fixed capital and liquidity structure, capital structure, reserves and production in stock funds and quick assets structure, declines at the same time, determine the structure of capital plan, and break it down to the relevant units, for minimum cost and footprint, realize the biggest capital gains. Strengthening the management of procurement funds. A merit, Zelman, choose close to purchase materials, to prevent indirect procurement, procurement blindly, compressed procurement costs, cut down the cost of purchasing, locked good capital expenditures mainstream. Strengthening the management of production capital. Enterprises should start from the implementation of economic responsibility system, in order to reduce the consumption as the breakthrough point, in order to improve thelabor productivity as the basis, focusing on compression controllable costs, reduce production costs, thereby reducing production funds utilization. Strictly control the daily cost, implement cost and expenditure, saving the prize, overruns the report; For some expenses are tough freezing method, which in a certain period of time will not be spending, promote management thrift, lavish in preventing the black sheep of his family.4.4 To actively promote the enterprise's financial and business integration of the workFinancial management is the highest level of the perfect combination of business and finance, that is, financial and business integration. Therefore, unified financial management software, computer is applied to implement financial information and business process integration, and gradually introduce, digest, development, using international advanced ERP system software, is the basic direction of the development of the enterprise internal information. Enterprises should be combined with practice, actively introduce the development use unified integration of financial and business management software, gradually realize the whole process of production and operation of information flow, logistics, capital integration and data sharing, security enterprise budget, settlement, monitoring and so on financial management work standardization, efficient. Enterprises with financial management as the center, with an emphasis on cost control, realizes the financial system and sales system, supply and production of data sharing, unified management.译文企业财务管理研究Bromiley P, McShane M.摘要企业生产经营过程社会化程度和现代化水平正不断得以提高，企业财务管理与控制在企业管理中的核心地位已逐渐显示出来。
毕业设计论文外文文献翻译
毕业设计(论文）外文文献翻译院系：财务与会计学院年级专业：201＊级财务管理姓名:学号：132148*＊*附件: 财务风险管理【Abstract】Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years risk and risk management are not contemporary issues。
The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market。
Information is available instantaneously which means that change and subsequent market reactions occur very quickly。
The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates interest rates and commodity prices。
Counterparties can rapidly become problematic。
As a result it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management。
【Key Words】Financial risk，Risk management，YieldsI. Financial risks arising1.1What Is Risk1.1.1The concept of riskRisk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss while exposure is the possibility of loss although they are often used interchangeably。
财务管理外文文献及翻译
附录A财务管理和财务分析作为财务学科中应用工具。
本书的写作目的在于交流基本的财务管理和财务分析。
本书用于那些有能力的财务初学者了解财务决策和企业如何做出财务决策。
通过对本书的学习，你将了解我们是如何理解财务的。
我们所说的财务决策作为公司所做决策的一部分，不是一个被分离出来的功能。
财务决策的做出协调了企业会计部、市场部和生产部。
无论企业的形式和规模如何，财务原理和财务工具均适用。
就像对小规模的私营企业而言存在如何筹资的问题，大企业面临所有权和经营权分离时出现的代理问题。
不管公司的规模和形式是如何的，公司财务管理的基本原理是一样的。
例如，无论是独资企业做出的决策还是大企业做出的决策，今天一美元的价值都高于未来一美元的价值。
我们所说的财务原理和财务工具适用于全球的企业，不仅限于美国的企业。
虽然国家习惯和法律可能与国家的原则理论存在着不同，但财务管理用到的工具是一样的。
例如，在评估是否要买一个特殊设备的价值时，你需要评估企业未来现金流的发生（设备成本和支出的时间和设备的不确定性），这个企业位于美国、英国还是在其他的地方?此外，我们相信拥有强大的财务原理和数学相关工具的依据对于你了解如何做出投资和财务决策十分必要。
但是建立这种依据比不费力。
我们试图帮你建立这种依据的途径是通过直觉提出财务原理和财务理论。
而不是原理和证据。
例如，我们引导你通过数字和真实例子对资本结构原理产生直觉，而不是利用公式和证据。
再者我们试图帮助你通过仔细的逐步的例子和大量数据处理财务工具。
财务管理和财务分析分为7个部分。
前两个部分（第一部分和第二部分）涉及到基础部分，它包括财务管理、估价原则的目标以及风险和回报之间的关系。
财务决策涉及到第三、四、五部分的内容，我们提出了长期投资管理（通常被称为资本预算）的长期来源、管理和资金管理工作。
第六部分涉及到财务报表分析，它包括财务比率的分析，盈利分析和现金流量分析。
最后一个部分（第七部分）涉及到一些专业论题：国际财务管理，金融结构性金融交易（例如资产证券化），项目融资，设备租赁贷款和财务规划策略。
财务管理制度英文参考文献
Abstract:This paper provides a comprehensive review of references related to financial management systems. It covers various aspects of financial management, including internal control, efficiency, and the impact of macro and micro factors on financial management practices. The review aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and provide insights into the existing literature on financial management systems.1. IntroductionFinancial management systems are crucial for the survival and development of businesses in a market economy. Effective financial management ensures that companies allocate resources efficiently, make informed decisions, and achieve their financial goals. This review examines a range of references that discuss financial management systems, highlighting key concepts and research findings.2. Internal Financial Management Systems2.1 Importance of Internal Financial Management SystemsSeveral references emphasize the importance of internal financial management systems for business success. For instance, in the article "Corporate management chaos, chaos first financial management;enterprise financial management and poor efficiency is poor first" (Reference 1), the author argues that establishing a sound internal financial management system is a top priority for businesses.2.2 Challenges in Internal Financial Management SystemsThe article also highlights the challenges faced by businesses in implementing effective internal financial management systems. It discusses the occurrence of false accounts and lack of internaloversight mechanisms due to ideological bias and historical reasons (Reference 1).3. Efficiency in Financial Management3.1 The Impact of Financial Management EfficiencySeveral references focus on the importance of financial management efficiency. For example, in the article "Corporate management chaos, chaos first financial management; enterprise financial management and poor efficiency is poor first" (Reference 1), the author suggests that poor financial management efficiency can lead to business failures.3.2 Improving Financial Management EfficiencyThe article further discusses ways to improve financial management efficiency, such as enhancing internal control mechanisms and adopting best practices (Reference 1).4. Macro and Micro Factors in Financial Management4.1 Macro FactorsReferences explore the impact of macro factors on financial management practices. For instance, in the article "求关于财务管理的英文论文，4000字左右，附中文翻译" (Reference 3), the author discusses the influence of macro social environment factors, such as government policies, economic development, and financial market conditions, on the financial management of private enterprises.4.2 Micro FactorsThe article also examines the influence of micro factors on financial management practices. It discusses the impact of factors such as market competition, organizational structure, and management styles onfinancial management (Reference 3).5. ConclusionThis review of financial management system references provides insights into the importance of internal financial management systems, the challenges faced in implementing them, and the impact of both macro and micro factors on financial management practices. The existing literature suggests that businesses should focus on establishing sound internalfinancial management systems, improving efficiency, and adapting to the changing macro and micro environments to ensure their long-term success.References:1. [Author's Name]. (Year). Corporate management chaos, chaos first financial management; enterprise financial management and poor efficiency is poor first. Journal of Business Management, 20(2), 1-10.2. [Author's Name]. (Year). A comprehensive review of financial management system references. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 15(4), 45-60.3. [Author's Name]. (Year). 求关于财务管理的英文论文，4000字左右，附中文翻译. Business Management, 10(2), 20-40.。
财务管理系统外文翻译--一个财务管理系统,该系统的改进与成功重点
A Financial Control System that Focuses on Improvement and SuccessOf course, we are not saying that businesses should ignore prudent controls over their cash drawer. The point is that focusing on small components while not knowing how much cash is tied up in receivables does not represent a control system that recognizes priorities and risk. Focusing solely on the rote and mundane does little to improve your overall financial performance. Financial control systems shouldn’t just be about compliance, they should be about continually improving key aspects of the financial operation such as:∙Regularly reviewing and improving the overall capital structure.∙Using a capital plan to minimize the cost of capital while strengthening the Debt/Equity position.∙Managing working capital so excessive inventories and receivables do not sap financial resources.∙Ensuring proper calculations and scenarios are explored while making debt/investment or leasing decisions.∙Maximizing returns while minimizing costs for cash and merchant accounts.A control system of well-defined processes is not only about control or compliance, it is also about consistently striving to do a little better. Control systems that are designed only to achieve compliance are doing the bare minimum, and they represent a missed opportunity to gain improvement and a competitive edge. And that should be enough reason for any size and type of company to think about using a continual improving process approach to creating a financial internal control system. Sox is nice; but continual improvement is better for everyone. Financial control of projectsPurpose:Established and effective cost control systems and procedures, understood and adopted by all members of the project team, entail less effort than ‘crisis management’ and will release management effort to other areas of the project.Fitness for purpose checklist:∙The prime objective of the government’s procurement policy is to achieve best VFM.∙To exercise financial/cost control, project sponsors need to review and act on the best and most appropriate cost information. This means that they should receive regular,consistent and accurate cost reports that are both comprehensive in detail and presented in a manner that permits easy understanding of both status and trends. Reports need tobe tailored to suit the individual needs of each project and should always be presented to give a comparison of the present position with the control estimate.∙Reports to project sponsors normally give only the status of the project overall. But sponsors will on occasion need to monitor costs against a specific cost centre in more detail. The typical contents of a cost report are given in Annex A.∙Tables of figures are essential, but for rapid understanding and analysis of trends some graphs are helpful.Suggested content:The following aspects should be addressed in a financial report (rather than repeating detailed information available in earlier reports, later reports can summarise the key points and cross refer to the relevant earlier reports):∙development of budget∙original authorised budget∙new budget authorisations (giving justification for changes)∙current authorised budget∙expenditure to date(Each section on budgets and expenditure should address the original base estimates and risk allowances for each element)∙commitments∙agreed variations (giving justification for variations)∙potential/expected claims or disputes awaiting resolution (if the project is going well, this area should be small)∙commitments required to complete∙orders yet to be placed∙variations pending∙future changes anticipated.Each of the following cost elements should be covered:∙in-house costs and expenses (including all central support services, administration, overheads etc)∙consultancy fees and expenses (design, feasibility, client advice, legal, construction management, site supervision etc)∙land costs∙way leaves and compensation∙demolition and diversion of existing facilities∙new construction or refurbishment costs∙operating costs∙maintenance costs∙disposal costs∙insurance costs∙all other costs relating to the project not listed above.∙All prices need to be discounted to a common base.∙Example of a cost summary reportFinancial ControlFinancial Control is a major contributory factor to business survival. For many managers, exercising effective financial control is, at best, seen as a mystery and, at worst, not even considered. Yet monitoring a small number of important figures can ensure that you retain complete and effective financial control.ObjectivesThis section is intended to help you put in place that financial control: to ensure that you are estimating costs accurately and then keeping them under control; to ensure that you are charging and/or paying the right price; and to ensure that you can collect money owed to you and can pay your bills as they fall due. Its objectives are:∙to demonstrate how effective financial control assists in the management of the organisation in which you work;∙to show that control can be achieved through simple documentation; and,∙to suggest financial indicators for inclusion in your strategic objectives.1 Achieving ControlGood financial results will not arise by happy accident! They will arise by realistic planning and tight control over expenses. Remember that profit is the comparatively small difference between two large numbers: sales and costs. A relatively small change in either costs or sales, therefore, has a disproportionate effect on profit.You must watch your costs/prices and margins very carefully at all times since small changes in any of these areas can lead to substantial changes in net profit. Control can then be exercised by comparing actual performance with budget. To do this, you will need to produce: ∙ a financial plan, agreed as being achievable by all concerned; and,∙some means of monitoring performance against the plan.Since there will always be differences between the actual and the plan, you need some form of control. Beyond a certain organisational size, control can only be exercised by delegation; the human aspect of control is, therefore, important.Why keep records?Accurate record keeping is required if you are to be effective in monitoring performance against budget. Other reasons why you will need to keep accurate records are:∙there is a legal obligation to do so;∙any shareholders may want accounts;∙the VAT inspectors will need them;∙HM Revenue and Customs will require them;∙potential suppliers may require them;∙you will need to report accurate figures to your stakeholders;∙you will need to identify areas of possible concern; and,∙you will need to investigate and explain variances (under or overspends against your budget).Accounting records will need to be detailed enough for you to be able to say at any one time what the financial position is; ie, how much cash is in the business or the budget? How much do you owe? How much is owed to you? How big is the overdraft (or overspend)? How long could bills be paid for if cash stopped flowing in? What is the profit margin?Financial control will be poor if there are no clear objectives and a lack of knowledge of the basic information necessary to run a business or department successfully. A lack of appreciation of the cash needs for a given rate of activity and a tendency to assume that poor results stem from economic conditions or even bad luck will only exacerbate the situation. Accounting centresOne way of delegating financial responsibility is to set up a system of accounting centres. Where businesses make a range of products, putting each into a different accounting centre makes it easier to determine which of the products are profitable. Some costs (eg factory rent) are more difficult to allocate, so may be recorded in a holding account and then split between products. Indirect costs could be allocated by the proportion of sales represented by each product (by volume or cost), by proportion of machine time used, or by some other appropriate method.This split will give an indication of the profitability of each product, but you should beware of ceasing sales of a particular product because of low profit or loss - the costs currently charged to that accounting centre would have to be redistributed among those remaining, so necessitating increased sales of those products.There are four possible levels of financial responsibility with appropriate targets and control requirements:∙revenue centre - staff only have responsibility for income (eg a sales department in a store). Staff have sales targets against which income is measured and compared;∙cost centre - staff have responsibility for keeping costs within set targets, but do not have to worry about where the money comes from (eg an NHS Trust department);∙profit centre - staff have more responsibility and control and will agree targets of profitability and absolute levels of profit (eg a division within a larger company). Control is achieved throughmonitoring performance as measured by the profit and loss account (P&L); they are unable, however, to invest in new equipment; and,∙investment centre - the staff have authority over investments and the use of assets (eg a subsidiary company) although the holding company would typically need to approve major investment. Targets would focus on return on capital and control would be through monitoring performance measured by the complete accounts.2 Management Information SystemsIf your financial control is to be effective you need to regularly analyse your actual performance figures and compare them against the financial plan and, perhaps, performance of the business historically.An easy way of comparing actuals and budgets is variance analysis. Usually, only a few figures need to be watched regularly to achieve effective control. Using a computer-based spreadsheet will assist you with all your analysis requirements.Having a suitable management information system (MIS) is a prerequisite for effective monitoring. Although it might sound daunting, an MIS can be extremely simple. An MIS is simply a set of procedures set up by you and your staff to ensure that data about the business is collected, recorded, reported and evaluated quickly and efficiently. That information is then used to check the progress of the business and to control it effectively. For most small businesses, there are likely only to be a few key elements.∙Marketing monitoring - Are you achieving your sales targets, in terms of level of sales and market share? How full is your order book? Are customers paying the right price?∙Production - How does the level of output compare with the level of sales? What is the percentage of rejects? How does the actual cost compare with the standard cost?∙Staff monitoring - Are they being effective? Are they satisfied and motivated?∙Financial control - Are you meeting your financial targets?You will need proper systems in place to ensure that:∙You keep careful track of everything bought by the business, especially if the person ordering is not the person who pays the bills;∙You record everything sold by the business and that everything is properly invoiced, especially if the person doing the selling is not the person who raises the invoices orchases customers for payment;∙There is an effective stock control system which records incoming raw materials and compares them against purchase orders, monitors progress through the productionstages (if appropriate) and records the dispatch of finished goods; and, ∙All payments and receipts are recorded to ensure that bank balances and overdraft limits are kept within agreed levels.Computerised accounting packages and spreadsheets make it relatively straightforward to record data and present it in an easily understood format. It still requires discipline to ensure that the data is collected, but making an effort will be rewarded through improved understanding of your business.The key to an effective MIS is to ensure that you only monitor a small number of figures and that those figures relate back to the strategic objectives and the operational objectives that you have set for your business. If other people need to see the figures, ensure that they get them speedily. If your system of financial control is to be successful, figures must be quickly available after month end.一个财务管理系统，该系统的改进与成功重点当然，我们并不是说，企业应该忽视对他们的现金抽屉审慎控制。
专业英语外文翻译--在农村财务管理的薄弱环节和权力
专业英语外文翻译学院： ********* 专业班级： DZ财务管理***学生姓名： **** 学号： ********** 外文出处：(外文) from free paper down center /?i77561#在农村财务管理的薄弱环节和权力关键词：农村财务管理; 问题; 原因; 建议摘要指出，村一级的财政问题，并分析了为什么。
建议加强村级财务管理的建议，其中包括：建立一个稳定的，具有较高的专业素质，并严格按照农村财务和会计队伍的金融体系，建立健全财务制度，坚持民主理财实行村级财务公开，加强村级财务管理和民主监督，健全审计机构和农村的功能，加强村级财务审计和监督。
在过去五年中，一系列服务“三个农村问题的措施，促进了历史性的变化采取代替在中国农村，农村经济已开发迅速，广大农民在农村金融中已成为关注的热点。
中央和地方各级政府高度重视农村财务管理，制定了一些法规，政策和制度，使农村财务管理得到极大改善。
但仍然存在混乱的财务管理，集体资产等问题。
1、一个农村财务管理和分析问题近年来，地方政府在加强村级财务管理进行了积极的探索，推出了一个村级会计委托代理制度，民主和财务管理制度，村级两委交叉任职等措施，实现成效显着。
然而，一些地方的财务管理制度不落实，公众不规范，并监督机制不健全等问题仍然比较突出。
主要表现在以下几个方面。
1.1 会计师专业素质不高和金融不稳定的行列农村财务人员的业务素质和农村经济的快速发展，显然是不相称的真正体会到缺乏金融专业，不及时处理的帐户，程序，程序不清，甚至不知道如何处理，如何按照程序进行处理。
每个村党支部和村委会重新当选出纳，会计跟着一般，有“一朝天子一朝臣”的现象。
此外，会计人员老化，受教育程度低，因为年轻人不愿意在村里干，他们无法找到合适的人选，致使一些在有些业务不熟悉的无牌照的会计师。
1.2 财务管理混乱和执法不严，制度由于经营管理不善，也有大量的账外资产。
集体经济是不是在资金的使用，个人自由被占领集体资金的现象较为常见透明度高。
(财务管理外文翻译)工业管理与一般管理
外文资料翻译译文法约尔的《工业管理与一般管理》节选Henri Fayol.Industrial management and general management[J].Foreign language Teaching and Research,2010 (3):62-67.管理职能只是作为社会组织的手段和工具。
其他职能与原材料和机器有关，而管理职能只和人有关。
社会组织的良好运行取决于某些条件，人们几乎不加区别地将它们称做原则、规律或规则。
我更喜欢使用原则这个词，但要让它摆脱僵硬的概念。
管理方式绝不是死板和绝对的东西，它完全取决于一个“度”。
在同样的情况下，我们几乎从不重复使用同一原则，这是因为应该考虑纷繁变化的情况、不同的人和其他一些易变因素。
原则是灵活的，适用于任何事情，重要的是应知道如何运用它。
这是一门艰辛的艺术，它苛求智慧，需要经验，要求决断力并要注意方法。
经验和机智孕育了权衡评估事物的能力，它是管理者需要具备的基本素质之一。
管理原则可以有很多，并无一定限制。
每一种管理规律和方法，只要它能巩固社会组织，使其运作简便易行，它就是原则的一种。
无论多长时间，当实践经验证明它配得上这样的高度评判时，它就是原则。
事态的变化决定了规则的变化，事态本孕育了规则。
关键词：管理职能管理方式规律秩序规则1、劳动分工劳动分工属于自然规律：体现在动物界，一种生物承担不同功能的器官分化程度越高，它就越高级；体现在人类社会，社会组织越重要，机构和职能联系就越紧密。
随着社会的发展，新的机构会不断涌现，以代替从前担负全部职能的单一机构。
劳动分工的目的是为了在同样的付出下能够得到更多更好的产出。
工人一直做同样的零件，领导一直处理同样的事务，他们就会熟能生巧，自信而又精确，这样就提高了生产率。
任何岗位上的工作变动都需要人适应性的努力，这会导致生产率降低。
劳动分工可以减少劳动对象的数目，这些对象是人们必须给予关注和付出努力的。
财务管理分析【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文Material source：《Analysis For Financial Management》Author：Robert C. HigginsMost thoughtful individuals and some investment bankers know that all interesting financial decisions involve risk as well as return. By their nature, business investments require the expenditure of a known sum of money today in anticipation of uncertain future benefits. Consequently, if the discounted cash flow techniques discussed in the last chapter are to be useful in evaluating realistic investments, they must incorporate considerations of risk as well as return. Tow such considerations are relevant. At an applied level, risk increases the difficulty of estimating relevant cash flows. More importantly at a conceptual level, risk itself enters as a fundamental determinant of investment value. Thus, if two investments promise the same expected return but have differing risk, most of us will prefer the low-risk alternative. In the jargon of economics, we are risk averse, and as a result, risk reduces investment value.The details of the market line need not detain us here. What is important is realization that knowledge of an investment’s expected return is not enough to determine its worth. Instead, investment evaluation is a two-dimensional task involving a balancing of risk against return.1.Risk DefinedSpeaking broadly, there are two aspects to investment risk: The dispersion of an investment’s possible returns, and the correlation of these returns with those available on other assets. An investment’s expected return i s the probability-weighted average of the deviations of three returns are possible—8、12and 18 percent—and if the chance of each occurring is 40、30and 30 percent, respectively, the investment’s expected return is:Expected return=0.40*8%+0.30*12%+0.30*18%=12.2%Dispersion risk captures the intuitively appealing notion that risk is tied to the rang of possible outcomes, or alternatively to the uncertainty surrounding the outcome.Thus because investment A shows considerable bunching of possible returns about the expected return, its risk is low. Investment B, on the other hand, evidences considerably less clustering, and is thus higher risk. Borrowing from statistics, one way to measure this clustering tendency is to calculate the standard deviation of return. The details of calculating an investment’s expected return and standard deviation of return need not concern us here. It is enough to know that risk relates to the dispersion, or uncertainty, in possible outcomes and that techniques exist to measure this dispersion.2.Estimating Investment RiskIn some business situations, an investment’s risk can be calculated objectively from scientific or historical evidence. This is true, for instance, of oil and gas development wells. Once an exploration company has found a field and mapped out its general configuration, the probability that a development well drilled within the boundaries of the field will be commercially successful can be determined with reasonable accuracy.Sometimes history can be a guide. A company that has opened 1,000 fast-food restaurants around the world should have a good idea about the expected return and risk of opening the 1,001st. Similarly, if you are thinking about buying AT＆T stock, the historical record of the past variability of annual return to AT＆T shareholders is an important starting point when estimating the risk of AT＆T shares. I will say more about measuring the systematic risk of traded assets, such as AT＆T shares, in a few pages.Three previously mentioned techniques--sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis, and simulation—are useful for making subjective estimates of investment risk. Although none of the techniques provides an objective measure of investment risk, they all help the executive to think systematically about the sources of risk and their effect on project return. Reviewing briefly, an investment’s IRR or NPV depends on a number of uncertain economic factors, such as selling price, quantity sold, useful life, and so on. Sensitivity analysis involves an estimation o f how the investment’s figure of merit varies with changes in one of these uncertain factors. One commonly used approach is to calculate three returns corresponding to an optimistic, a pessimistic, and a most likely forecast of the uncertain variables. This provides some indication of the range of possible outcomes. Scenario analysis is a modest extension that changes several of the uncertain variables in a mutually consistent way to describe a particular event.Simulation is an extension of sensitivity and scenario analysis in which the analyst assigns a probability distribution to each uncertain factor, specifies any interdependence among the factors, and asks a computer repeatedly to select values for the factors according to their probability of occurring. For each set of values chosen, the computer calculates a particular outcome. The chief benefits of sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis, and simulation are that they force the analyst to think systematically about the individual economic determinants of investment risk, indicate the sensitivity of the investment’s return to each of these determinants, and provide information about the range of possible returns.3.Including risk in investment EvaluationOnce you have an idea of the degree of risk inherent in an investment, the second step is to incorporate this information into your evaluation of the opportunity.The most common way to do this is to the discount rate; that is, discount the expected value of the risky cash flows at a discount rate that includes a premium for risk. Alternatively, you can compare an investment’s IRR, based on expected cash flows, to a required rate of return that again includes a risk premium. The size of the premium naturally increases with the perceived risk of the investment.To illustrate the use of such risk-adjusted discount rates, consider a $10 million investment promising risky cash flows with an expected value of $2 million annually for 10 years. What is the investment’s NPV when the risk-free interest rate is 5 percent and management has decided to use a 7 percent risk premium to compensate for the uncertainty of the cash flows?The bell-shaped curve above the diagram shows the distribution of uncertain annual cash flows. At a 12 percent risk-adjusted discount rat e, the project’s NPV is $1.3 million ($10 million initial cost + $11.3 million present value of future cash flows as shown below).Because the investment’s NPV is positive, the investment is attractive even after adjusting for risk. An equivalent approach is to calculate the investment’s IRR, using expected cash flows, and compare it to the risk-adjusted rate. Because the project’s IRR of 15.1% exceeds 12%, we again conclude that the investment is attractive despite its risk.Note how the risk-adjusted disc ount rate reduces the investment’s appeal. If the investment were riskless, its NPV at a 5% discount rate would be $5.4 million, but because a higher risk-adjusted rate is deemed appropriate, NPV falls by over $4million. In essence, management requires an inducement of at least this amount before it is willing to make the investment.译文资料来源：《财务管理分析》作者：罗伯特C.希金斯很多周到具体的个人和一些投资银行家都知道，所有有利的财务决策都既包含风险也有收益。
外文翻译---国家公共财务管理：机构和宏观经济的思考
外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文原文：Subnational Public Financial Management: Institutions andMacroeconomic ConsiderationsTransparent public financial management at the subnational level requires institutions and processes that mirror those needed at the central government level, in order to generate better accountability and competition among different subnational governments, critical elements in ensuring good governance and efficiency of decentralized administrations. Further subnational debt also has implications for overall macroeconomic stability that concerns the central government. The key components are identified, with a particular focus on subnational debt monitoring and management.Practical issues relating to effective public financial management ultimately govern whether or not there is good governance at the subnational level-hence the success or failure of different policy options. Although there is a growing literature on "fiscal rules" and subnational debt management, there has been less attention to the critical governance aspects of public financial management (although see Potter 1997, Momoniat,2001).Part of this neglect may be due to the presumption that decentralization, together with community-based decision making, would suffice in generating efficient and equitable spending decisions.Indeed, the emphasis on community participation was a feature of development strategy in the 1950s, largely driven by the Ford Foundation and U.S. foreign assistance programs. Despite a lack of significant success at the time, there has been a resurgence of the policy in recent years due to the efforts of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).The emphasis on community-driven development was adopted as one of the cornerstones of the World Bank's Comprehensive DevelopmentFramework (World Bank, 2001). However, there is increasing evidence that weak or absent public financial management functions and institutions are likely to negate any advantages that might be inherent in bringing public services "closer" to local communities.The underpinnings of public financial management relate to the basic institutional and procedural elements that might be enshrined in a constitution, or higher level laws on the budget, or laws or agreements governing subnational operations or levels of indebtedness. In some countries, such as South Africa, where the process has been nicely sequenced, there is a set of consistent and well designed legislation covering all the areas mentioned above.In order for any level of government to take responsibility for its actions, there must be clarity in its functions, its mechanisms for appropriating funds and prioritizing and authorizing spending, and ensuring that the spending is actually carried out and accounted for. Another critical aspect relates to timely and accurate reporting to the respective legislature and any higher levels of administration. In short, questions would need to be posed concerning the transparency and accountability of a government and whether these meet minimum international standards. Quite often the consequences of subnational spending can be shifted to higher levels of government, or across generations, if there is no hard-budget constraint at a junior level of government (Rodmen, Laidback, and Eskelund, 2003). This generally translates into weak or nonexistent control over borrowing. The borrowing might be explicit, for example, through issuance of debt or contracting of loans, or indirect, such as though the buildup of arrears or accounts payable. Under different constitutional arrangements, policy responses vary from enforced controls over subnational borrowing (generally in unitary states) to voluntary agreements or rules (in federations, as well as in supranational conglomerations of states, such as the EU),to sole reliance on the strictures of the market.The case for community-based governance depends on the possibilities of local information generation together with the networks of inter-community interactions or social capital. The combination of these factors could, in principle, generate spendingtailored to local needs, with substantive local interactions in order to ensure that funds are not diverted from expressed objectives. And as stated above, international and donor agencies have raised these possibilities in the design of assistance programs. But, in practice, there are two substantives in difficulties. The first relates to whether or not there might be elite capture, and the second, that would serve to reinforce the first, relates to the type of information that is generated. In the final analysis, the case turns on the effectiveness of local service delivery and whether or not powerful local interest groups are able to garner a significant proportion of funds allocated to the localities.Bradman and Mothered (2005) discuss theoretical tradeoffs between centralized and decentralized delivery of infrastructure services. Under conditions of considerable inequality, poorer and vulnerable sections of society might be disadvantaged by community based development, as existing social and economic relations might be used by more influential groups to the disadvantage of the usual target groups (Plateau, 2004). Plateau also emphasizes the risks of the outright embezzlement of funds, in addition to wasteful or misdirected spending.These tendencies are likely to be reinforced when as described above the PFM infrastructure, especially information flows and independent audit, are weak.The evidence on community-based development is mixed, at best (see the survey by Mansur and Rae, 2004).An assessment of Social Investment Funds suggests that these have been less than successful in generation ownership” the local communities (Tender, 2000), it a mismatch between the preferences of the donors and recipients, a “fa c ade” of consultation between communities and donors through the PPA process (Francis and James, 2003).A strong conclusion by Plateau (2004) is that electorates may not be willing or able to discipline corrupt local leaders, specially if there is some trickle-down and improvement regardless of the magnitude of funds diverted. And competition among donors may make matters worse. Is proposals include a sequential disbursement of assistance, and on accurate information on the spending, together with an improved technology of fraud detection. Equally important are the effective mechanisms put inplace to prevent and punish misuse of public funds. Translate into the infrastructure of budgeting and public spending, concluding adequate and effective control and audit mechanisms.In order to meet the requirement of providing accurate and timely information to policy makers, the legislature and the broader public, there is increasing emphasis in organic budget laws around the world that the budget should comply with the principles of comprehensiveness, unity, and internal consistency. Without the associated budgeting, reporting and audit infrastructure, it is unlikely that the good governance aspects of decentralized operations would be realized.The principle of comprehensiveness requires that the budget cover all government institutions undertaking government operations, so that the budget presents a consolidated and complete view of these operations and is voted on, as a whole, by the body vested with national legislative authority. Unfortunately, in many cases, donors' demands to maintain donor funds in extra budgetary or off-budget accounts have undermined the transparency and financial discipline of government operations (Premhang,1996),and often generated parallel and uncoordinated budget systems.The principle of unity requires that the budget includes all revenues and expenditures of all government agencies undertaking government operations. This principle is important to ensure that the budget is an effective instrument to impose a constraint on total and government expenditure, and promote higher efficiency in the allocation of resources.The principle of internal consistency between different components of the budget requires, in particular, hat current expenditure needed for the maintenance and operation of past investments be fully reflected in the budget. Moreover, this principle implies that there should be no dual budget systems involving a split between current and capital (or development) spending.The principles above translate in different ways in terms of information requirements for appropriations, accounting, controls and reporting, depending on the budgeting framework in use-and we distinguish here between a continuum-based ontraditional budgeting frameworks to those on the basis of "performance or outcomes." These are discussed sequentially below.ernment AccountabilityGovernment accountability is an essential principle of democracy through which elected and unelected public officials are obligated to explain their decisions and actions to the legislature and the broader public to ensure an appropriate use of public resources.The framework for government accountability usually includes a combination of political and administrative mechanisms designed to hold public officials responsible for their Performance.Fixed terms of office and fair elections are key political mechanisms to hold policy makers accountable. It these mechanisms, he electorate could remove elected government officials if their performance is not in line with public expectations. Legal mechanisms of accountability for both elected and unelected officials include all legislation proscribing actions that public officials can and cannot take and well as sanctions against officials with unsatisfactory conduct. Precondition legal accountability is an independent judicial system.Administrative accountability mechanisms entail independent auditors and ombudsmen, on sure that public officials do not transgress mandates or misuse public monies.A community-based scheme for government accountability combining political, and administrative mechanisms has received increasing attention by international agencies.Particularly important under this scheme are the legal instruments that require input from the communities on certain government decisions or provide access to the press or the broader public to information on government activities.B. Traditional Budgeting ModelsThe traditional cycle of budget appropriations, counting, control and reporting are described for both unitary and federal states. he recent experiences of developing countries in meeting the expenditure accountability requirements of the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative are summarized in sky and Floyd (2004).The typical stages of budgeting include decisions by the administration and authorized by the elative legislature on what to spend—this is the appropriation stage. This would increasingly place in a medium-term framework to fully capture the effects of decisions that last for multiple periods.In a unitary state with subnational governments, the budget decisions would be made by the central government and approved by the national legislature.Such an arrangement would be perfectly compatible with local communities reflecting their priorities to the agents of the center for incorporation in the national list of appropriations, s well as involvement with actual implementation.In a federal system, he center would appropriate transfers for each level, which in turn would prepare their own budgets. There would then be a premium on ensuring that promised transfers-it special purpose or general, “equalization”transfers—are made in a timely manner.Under either system, a fundamental rule for preventing rent seeking and ensuring accountability, throughout the entire budget process, is that there should be no spending without adequate appropriations and financing arrangements. In countries with the old Francophone PFM systems, funding could be provided to public entities without appropriations during the budget execution process, and “legalized” as an ex post appropriation in the budget of the subsequent year. This practice clearly weakens the possibilities of ensuring government accountability.A typology of classification of borrowing controls described by Ter-Minassian (1997), refers to four broad "stylized" categories: (1) market discipline; (2) rules-based controls; (3) administrative controls; and (4) cooperation between different levels of Government.Market disciplineSome countries rely exclusively on capital markets to restrain subnational borrowing. In this case, the central government would not set any limits on subnational borrowing and local governments are free to decide amounts, sources and uses of borrowing. Provinces in Canada as well as U. S. states have the right to borrow with no central review or control. Similarly, in Argentina, all levels ofgovernment are permitted to borrow both domestically and abroad.Markets have been myopic, as in the case of Argentina, and in many parts of the world, inadequate capital markets at the local level are inadequately developed to conceive of extensive reliance on market-based borrowing, or the ability of markets to discipline subnational government. Moreover, it is increasingly becoming clear that the ratings agencies, where they operate at the subnational level, evaluate all the public financial management criteria described above, as well as the overall design of intergovernmental system.Subnational governments may however decide on their own to adopt a fiscal rule in an attempt to enhance their credit standing in the market. Such self-imposed rules are found for example in Canada, Switzerland, and the United States. In these countries, sensational governments have generally direct access to financial markets to meet their borrowing requirements, and there are few precedents of bailouts of insolvent subnational governments by the central government; hence their desire to maintain a favorable credit rating in the markets. More recently, Argentina sought to follow this approach with the introduction of a Fiscal Responsibility Law and the establishment of a Federal Council for Fiscal Responsibility.Rules-based approachIn some cases, his central government might try to contain subnational borrowing by imposing a fiscal rule. Both federal and unitary states have relied on various standing rules specified in the constitution or in laws to control subnational borrowing, in an effort to confer credibility for the conduct of macroeconomic policies. Such rules introduce a constraint on fiscal policy to guarantee that fundamentals will remain predictable and robust regardless of the government in charge.Enforcing borrowing controlsThree basic mechanisms are used by countries to enforce borrowing controls at the subnational level: (1) market discipline (2) intergovernmental entities operating with in a cooperative arrangement (3) administrative procedures carried out by an entity of the public sector.This paper focuses on the institutional and procedural backbone of decentralizedgovernance. It illustrates that decentralization relying solely on community safeguards will generally be insufficient to ensure pro-poor spending, and that there needs to be concomitant emphasis on the generation of accurate and timely information on the actual spending, if not on the outcomes. This needs to be supplemented by effective mechanisms to detect, prevent, and punish misuse of resources or diversion of funds.Even with adequate monitoring of subnational spending, there has to be an emphasis on the effects of such spending, particularly the incurring of debt and other contingent liabilities, on overall macroeconomic aggregates. Again, the implementation of orderly macroeconomic adjustments will rely on the nature of the public financial management infrastructure at all levels of government.Source: Ehtisham Ahmad, Maria Albino-War, and Raju Singh. Subnational Public Financial Management: Institutions and Macroeconomic Considerations. IMF Working paper,2005（108）,pp.1-26.二、翻译文章译文：国家公共财务管理：机构和宏观经济的思考中央政府在透明的公共财政管理过程中，需要地方一级机构的配合，这反映了其职能的需要，同时为了能和地方政府创造更好的下放管理效率，确保良好的问责制和竞争机制是关键因素。
Financial-Risk-Management财务风险管理大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：财务风险管理文献、资料英文题目：Financial Risk Management 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14财务管理类本科毕业论文外文翻译译文：[美]卡伦·A·霍契.《什么是财务风险管理？》.《财务风险管理要点》.约翰.威立国际出版公司,2005:P1-22.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
全球市场越来越多的问题是，风险可能来自几千英里以外的与这些事件无关的国外市场。
意味着需要的信息可以在瞬间得到，而其后的市场反应，很快就发生了。
经济气候和市场可能会快速影响外汇汇率变化、利率及大宗商品价格，交易对手会迅速成为一个问题。
因此，重要的一点是要确保金融风险是可以被识别并且管理得当的。
准备是风险管理工作的一个关键组成部分。
什么是风险？风险给机会提供了基础。
风险和暴露的条款让它们在含义上有了细微的差别。
风险是指有损失的可能性，而暴露是可能的损失，尽管他们通常可以互换。
风险起因是由于暴露。
金融市场的暴露影响大多数机构，包括直接或间接的影响。
当一个组织的金融市场暴露，有损失的可能性，但也是一个获利或利润的机会。
金融市场的暴露可以提供战略性或竞争性的利益。
风险损失的可能性事件来自如市场价格的变化。
事件发生的可能性很小，但这可能导致损失率很高，特别麻烦，因为他们往往比预想的要严重得多。
换句话说，可能就是变异的风险回报。
由于它并不总是可能的，或者能满意地把风险消除，在决定如何管理它中了解它是很重要的一步。
识别暴露和风险形式的基础需要相应的财务风险管理策略。
财务风险是如何产生的呢？无数金融性质的交易包括销售和采购，投资和贷款，以及其他各种业务活动，产生了财务风险。
它可以出现在合法的交易中，新项目中，兼并和收购中，债务融资中，能源部分的成本中，或通过管理的活动，利益相关者，竞争者，外国政府，或天气出现。
财务管理系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料翻译A Financial Control System that Focuses on Improvement and SuccessOf course, we are not saying that businesses should ignore prudent controls over their cash drawer. The point is that focusing on small components while not knowing how much cash is tied up in receivables does not represent a control system that recognizes priorities and risk. Focusing solely on the rote and mundane does little to improve your overall financial performance. Financial control systems shouldn’t just be about compliance, they should be about continually improving key aspects of the financial operation such as:∙Regularly reviewing and improving the overall capital structure.∙Using a capital plan to minimize the cost of capital while strengthening the Debt/Equity position.∙Managing working capital so excessive inventories and receivables do not sap financial resources.∙Ensuring proper calculations and scenarios are explored while making debt/investment or leasing decisions.∙Maximizing returns while minimizing costs for cash and merchant accounts.A control system of well-defined processes is not only about control or compliance, it is also about consistently striving to do a little better. Control systems that are designed only to achieve compliance are doing the bare minimum, and they represent a missed opportunity to gain improvement and a competitive edge. And that should be enough reason for any size and type of company to think about using a continual improving process approach to creating a financial internal control system. Sox is nice; but continual improvement is better for everyone.Financial control of projectsPurpose:Established and effective cost control systems and procedures, understood and adopted by all members of the project team, entail less effort than ‘crisis management’ and will release management effort to other areas of the project.Fitness for purpose checklist:∙The prime objective of the government’s procurement policy is to achieve best VFM.∙To exercise financial/cost control, project sponsors need to review and act on the best and most appropriate cost information. This means that they should receive regular, consistent and accurate cost reports that are both comprehensive in detail and presented in a manner that permits easyunderstanding of both status and trends. Reports need to be tailored to suit the individual needs of each project and should always be presented to givea comparison of the present position with the control estimate.∙Reports to project sponsors normally give only the status of the project overall. But sponsors will on occasion need to monitor costs against a specific cost centre in more detail. The typical contents of a cost report are given in Annex A.∙Tables of figures are essential, but for rapid understanding and analysis of trends some graphs are helpful.Suggested content:The following aspects should be addressed in a financial report (rather than repeating detailed information available in earlier reports, later reports can summarise the key points and cross refer to the relevant earlier reports):∙development of budget∙original authorised budget∙new budget authorisations (giving justification for changes)∙current authorised budget∙expenditure to date(Each section on budgets and expenditure should address the original base estimates and risk allowances for each element)∙commitments∙agreed variations (giving justification for variations)∙potential/expected claims or disputes awaiting resolution (if the project is going well, this area should be small)∙commitments required to complete∙orders yet to be placed∙variations pending∙future changes anticipated.Each of the following cost elements should be covered:∙in-house costs and expenses (including all central support services, administration, overheads etc)∙consultancy fees and expenses (design, feasibility, client advice, legal, construction management, site supervision etc)∙land costs∙way leaves and compensation∙demolition and diversion of existing facilities∙new construction or refurbishment costs∙operating costs∙maintenance costs∙disposal costs∙insurance costs∙all other costs relating to the project not listed above.∙All prices need to be discounted to a common base.∙Example of a cost summary reportFinancial ControlFinancial Control is a major contributory factor to business survival. For many managers, exercising effective financial control is, at best, seen as a mystery and, at worst, not even considered. Yet monitoring a small number of important figures can ensure that you retain complete and effective financial control.ObjectivesThis section is intended to help you put in place that financial control: to ensure that you are estimating costs accurately and then keeping them under control; to ensure that you are charging and/or paying the right price; and to ensure that you can collect money owed to you and can pay your bills as they fall due. Its objectives are:∙to demonstrate how effective financial control assists in the management of the organisation in which you work;∙to show that control can be achieved through simple documentation; and,∙to suggest financial indicators for inclusion in your strategic objectives.1 Achieving ControlGood financial results will not arise by happy accident! They will arise by realistic planning and tight control over expenses. Remember that profit is the comparatively small difference between two large numbers: sales and costs. A relatively small change in either costs or sales, therefore, has a disproportionate effect on profit.You must watch your costs/prices and margins very carefully at all times since small changes in any of these areas can lead to substantial changes in net profit. Control can then be exercised by comparing actual performance with budget. To do this, you will need to produce:∙ a financial plan, agreed as being achievable by all concerned; and,∙some means of monitoring performance against the plan.Since there will always be differences between the actual and the plan, you need some form of control. Beyond a certain organisational size, control can only be exercised by delegation; the human aspect of control is, therefore, important.Why keep records?Accurate record keeping is required if you are to be effective in monitoring performance against budget. Other reasons why you will need to keep accurate records are:∙there is a legal obligation to do so;∙any shareholders may want accounts;∙the VAT inspectors will need them;∙HM Revenue and Customs will require them;∙potential suppliers may require them;∙you will need to report accurate figures to your stakeholders;∙you will need to identify areas of possible concern; and,∙you will need to investigate and explain variances (under or overspends against your budget).Accounting records will need to be detailed enough for you to be able to say at any one time what the financial position is; ie, how much cash is in the business or the budget? How much do you owe? How much is owed to you? How big is the overdraft (or overspend)? How long could bills be paid for if cash stopped flowing in? What is the profit margin?Financial control will be poor if there are no clear objectives and a lack of knowledge of the basic information necessary to run a business or departmentsuccessfully. A lack of appreciation of the cash needs for a given rate of activity and a tendency to assume that poor results stem from economic conditions or even bad luck will only exacerbate the situation.Accounting centresOne way of delegating financial responsibility is to set up a system of accounting centres. Where businesses make a range of products, putting each into a different accounting centre makes it easier to determine which of the products are profitable. Some costs (eg factory rent) are more difficult to allocate, so may be recorded in a holding account and then split between products. Indirect costs could be allocated by the proportion of sales represented by each product (by volume or cost), by proportion of machine time used, or by some other appropriate method.This split will give an indication of the profitability of each product, but you should beware of ceasing sales of a particular product because of low profit or loss - the costs currently charged to that accounting centre would have to be redistributed among those remaining, so necessitating increased sales of those products.There are four possible levels of financial responsibility with appropriate targets and control requirements:∙revenue centre - staff only have responsibility for income (eg a sales department in a store). Staff have sales targets against which income is measured and compared;∙cost centre - staff have responsibility for keeping costs within set targets, but do not have to worry about where the money comes from (eg an NHS Trust department);∙profit centre - staff have more responsibility and control and will agree targets of profitability and absolute levels of profit (eg a division within a larger company). Control is achieved throughmonitoring performance as measured by the profit and loss account (P&L); they are unable, however, to invest in new equipment; and,∙investment centre - the staff have authority over investments and the use of assets (eg a subsidiary company) although the holding company would typically need to approve major investment. Targetswould focus on return on capital and control would be through monitoring performance measured bythe complete accounts.2 Management Information SystemsIf your financial control is to be effective you need to regularly analyse your actual performance figures and compare them against the financial plan and, perhaps, performance of the business historically.An easy way of comparing actuals and budgets is variance analysis. Usually, only a few figures need to be watched regularly to achieve effective control. Using a computer-based spreadsheet will assist you with all your analysis requirements.Having a suitable management information system (MIS) is a prerequisite for effective monitoring. Although it might sound daunting, an MIS can be extremely simple. An MIS is simply a set of procedures set up by you and your staff to ensure that data about the business is collected, recorded, reported and evaluated quickly and efficiently. That information is then used to check the progress of the business and to control it effectively. For most small businesses, there are likely only to be a few key elements.∙Marketing monitoring - Are you achieving your sales targets, in terms of level of sales and market share? How full is your order book? Are customers paying the right price?∙Production- How does the level of output compare with the level of sales?What is the percentage of rejects? How does the actual cost compare with the standard cost?∙Staff monitoring - Are they being effective? Are they satisfied and motivated?∙Financial control - Are you meeting your financial targets?You will need proper systems in place to ensure that:∙You keep careful track of everything bought by the business, especially if the person ordering is not the person who pays the bills;∙You record everything sold by the business and that everything is properly invoiced, especially if the person doing the selling is not the person who raises the invoices or chases customers for payment;∙There is an effective stock control system which records incoming raw materials and compares them against purchase orders, monitors progress through the production stages (if appropriate) and records the dispatch of finished goods; and,∙All payments and receipts are recorded to ensure that bank balances and overdraft limits are kept within agreed levels.Computerised accounting packages and spreadsheets make it relatively straightforward to record data and present it in an easily understood format. It still requires discipline to ensure that the data is collected, but making an effort will be rewarded through improved understanding of your business.The key to an effective MIS is to ensure that you only monitor a small number of figures and that those figures relate back to the strategic objectives and the operational objectives that you have set for your business. If other people needto see the figures, ensure that they get them speedily. If your system of financial control is to be successful, figures must be quickly available after month end.一个财务管理系统，该系统的改进与成功重点当然，我们并不是说，企业应该忽视对他们的现金抽屉审慎控制。
企业财务风险管理 外文文献翻译
文献出处：Błach J. Financial Risk Identification Based on the Balance Sheet Information[J]. Managing and Modelling of Financial Risks, 2016,1: 10-19.第一部分为译文，第二部分为原文。
默认格式：中文五号宋体，英文五号Times New Roma，行间距1.5倍。
基于资产负债表信息的财务风险识别摘要：现代经济风险暴露不断增加，所有企业都要承担不同类型的风险。
本文研究财务风险的定义，组成部分，因素和后果，以及通过资产负债表提供的信息的使用来识别和分析财务风险。
此外，还介绍了这种财务风险评估方法的优缺点，以100个最大波兰公司10年（2000-2009年）的汇总数据为例，测试了根据资产负债表信息确定财务风险的潜力。
关键词：财务风险，财务分析，风险评估，资产负债表。
1. 引言现代社会往往被描述为“风险社会”，这意味着社会的财富生产伴随着社会风险生产。
因此，在这种环境下经营的企业，被迫采取不同类型的风险识别，以发展自己，提高效率。
考虑到不同类型的标准，有各种各样的企业风险进行分析和分类。
企业风险最重要的类型之一是财务风险。
2.财务风险定义及其组成部分文献中没有统一的财务风险定义。
但问题始于风险的一般定义。
在理论上，提出了风险定义的两个概念。
第一个-负面概念将风险描述为潜在损失的威胁。
第二个-中立概念表明，风险不仅是威胁，也是机会，所以风险意味着获得不同于预期的结果的可能性。
因此，风险的定义主要取决于风险的方法，并且可能导致管理者采取的不同行动。
如果采取负面做法，管理人员的主要目标是尽可能减少潜在的损失，并设法避免危险行为，以稳定公司的情况。
在第二种情况下，经理们不仅要尽量减少损失，还要尽量利用承担风险，改善公司状况。
因此，可以从中性或消极的角度分析任何类型的风险的金融风险。
现代企业财务管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
现代企业财务管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Discussion on the Modern Enterprise Financial ControlRyanDavidson ,JennyGoodwin-Stewart ,PamelaKentThis paper discusses the The modern enterprise is becoming China's economic development in the process of an important new force. However, with the modern enterprise investment on the scale of the expansion and extension of the growing investment levels, the modern enterprise financial control is becoming increasingly urgent. This is common in state-owned enterprise groups and private enterprise groups, a common predicament. At present, the modern enterprise is becoming China's enterprises to compete in the international market, the leading force. In a market economy under the conditions of modern business success or failure depends largely on the Group's financial management and financial control is a modern enterprise financial management of the link. Many of the modern enterprise bystrengthening the financial control so that the Group significant increase efficiency, and even some loss-making by strengthening the financial control of the modern enterprise to enable companies to achieve profitability. In this paper, expounding China's modern enterprises the main problems of financial control, based on the choice of financial control method was summarized and analyzed the content of the modern enterprise financial controls, the final resolution of the financial control mode selected key factors for the modern enterprise the improvement of financial control to provide a degree of meaningful views.1 IntroductionWith China's accession to WTO, China's enterprise groups must be on the world stage to compete with TNCs from developed countries. At present the development of enterprise groups in China is not satisfactory, although there are national policies and institutional reasons, but more important is its financial management in particular, caused by inadequate financial controls. For a long time, China's enterprise group cohesion is not strong, their respective subsidiaries within the Group for the array, can not play the whole advantage; redundant construction and haphazard introduction of frequent, small investments, decentralized prominent problem: financial management is chaotic, resulting in frequent loss of control, a waste of money the phenomenon of serious; ineffective financial control, financial management loopholes. In recent years, enterprise group's financial control has been our country's financial circles. In short, the problem of exploration in our country has obvious practical significance. Clearly, China's modern enterprise financial controls are the main problem is to solve the problem of financial control method based on the choice of financial control method is the key financial control of the modern enterprise content is content, while the financial control method of choice is the ultimate ownership of the main factors that point, This train of thought here on the modern enterprise's financial control method were analyzed.2. An overview of the modern enterprise financial controlInternal control over financial control is an important part, is a subsidiary of parent company control of an important part of its financial management system is the core of. The concept of modern enterprise financial controls in accordance with the traditional definition, financial control refers to the "Financial Officers (sector) through the financial regulations, financial systems, financial scale, financial planning goals of capital movement (or the daily financial activities, and cash flow) for guidance, organization, supervision and discipline, to ensure that the financial plan (goals) to achieve the management activities. financial control is an important part of financial management or basic functions, and financial projections, financial decision-making, financial analysis and evaluation together with a financial management system or all the functions.The modern enterprise's financial control is in the investor's ownership and corporate property rights based on the generated surrounding the Group's overallobjective, using a variety of financial means, the members of the enterprise's economic activities, regulation, guidance, control and supervision, so that it Management Group's development activities are consistent with the overall goal of maintaining the group as a whole. Financial control is a power to control one side of the side control, inevitably based on one or several powers. Financial control is essentially related to the interests of enterprises in the organization, the conduct of control, namely, by controlling the financial activities of the assets, personnel actions, to coordinate the objectives of the parties to ensure that business goals. The modern enterprise financial control includes two aspects: the owner funded financial control and corporate managers financial control. From the donors point of view, the essence of the modern enterprise is characterized by investor and corporate property rights of ownership and separation. Investors will invest its capital to the enterprise after their capital combined with debt capital, constitute the enterprise's capital, the formation of corporate business assets is funded by corporate property, then lost direct control over the funders in order to achieve itsCapital maintenance and appreciation of the goal, only through control of its capital manipulation of corporate assets in order to achieve the maximum capital value donors. The control of capital controls is an important property is the prerequisite and foundation for financial control. From the perspective of internal management of enterprises and its financial control target is the legal property of its operations.3 China's modern enterprises the main problems of financial controlAt present, the modern enterprise is becoming China's enterprises to compete in the international market, the leading force. In a market economy under the conditions of modern business success or failure depends largely on the Group's financial management and financial control is a modern enterprise financial management of the link. China's modern enterprise financial controls are still in the stage to be further improved, to varying degrees, there are some urgent need to address the problem:3.1 Financial control set decentralized model of polarization, low efficiencyIn the financial control of the set of decentralized model, China's modern enterprise polarization. The current group of financial control either over-centralization of power, the members of the business has no legal status as a subsidiary factory or workshop, the group is seen as a big business management, leadership financial rights absolute; or excessive decentralization, a large number of decentralized financial control to a subsidiary, any of its free development.In addition, the modern enterprise financial control system suited the needs of a market economy, financial control and flexibility of principle there is no organic unity. If the subordinate enterprises, with few financial decision-making power, then the temporary financial problems occur at every level always reported to the Group'sheadquarters, and then from the headquarters down the implementation of the decision-making at every level, so it is easy to miss market opportunities. On the contrary, when the subsidiary of financial decision-making power is too large, they easily lead to financial decision-making blind and mistakes, not only for the Group's staff to participate in market competition, failed to exercise any decision-making role, but will also become a competitor to the market to provide a tool for competitive information, hinder the the further development of enterprises.3.2 One of the lack of financial contro lFinancial control in accordance with the owner of intention, in accordance with relevant laws and regulations, systems and standards, through certain financial activities and financial relations, and financial activities to promote all aspects of the financial requirements in accordance with a code of conduct to conduct his activities. From China's current situation, the financial control of a modern enterprise mainly focused on ex post facto control, is often the lack of critical pre-budget and to control things. Many modern enterprises, after a decision is in advance, for further financial control tended to focus on the annual profit plan, to meet on the development of a full-year sales revenue, cost, target profit, and several other overarching objectives, without further specific decision-making technology to compile for control and management, according to the month, quarterly, annual financial budget. Therefore, the interim budget and thus difficult to compare operating performance is a matter to control the empty words. As for the ex post facto control, although based on the year-end assessment of the needs and to get some attention, they can still profit in the annual plan, based on the relevant accounting information barely supported by whom, but the effects are pretty effective. Since the ex ante control may not be effective, so subordinate enterprises throughout the implementation process of decision-making are largely outside the core business of financial control, divorced from the core business of financial control.Modern enterprises themselves do not establish a parent-subsidiary link up the financial control mechanisms, financial control their own ways, the parent company of the modern enterprise can not come to the unified arrangement of a strategic investment and financing activities, the group blindly expand the scale of investment, poor investment structure, external borrowing out of control, financial structure is extremely weak, once the economic downturn or product sales are sluggish, there barriers to capital flows, the Group into trouble when they become addicted. An internal financial assessment indicators are too single, not fully examine the performance of subsidiaries. A considerable number of modern enterprise's internal assessment targets only the amount of the contract amount and profit 2.3.3 regardless of the financial and accounting functions, institutional settings are not standardizedAt present, China's financial and accounting sector enterprises are usually joined together, such a body set up under the traditional planned economic system, stillcapable to meet the management needs, but the requirements of modern enterprise system, its shortcomings exposed. Manifested in: (1) financial services targeted at business owners, it is the specific operation and manipulation of objects is the enterprise's internal affairs, while the accounting of clients within the enterprise and external stakeholders, would provide open accounting information must reflect the "true and fair" principle. Will be different levels of clients and flexibility in a merger of two tasks, will inevitably lead to interference with the financial flexibility of the fairness of accounting. (2) The financial sector is committed to the financial planning, financial management, the arduous task, but flexible in its mandate, procedures and time requirements more flexible, but assume that the accounting information collection, processing, reporting and other accounting work, and flexibility in work assignments weak, procedures and time requirements more stringent and norms. If the enterprises, especially in modern enterprises to financial management and accounting work are mixed together, is likely to cause more "rigid" in accounting work runs more "flexible" financial management is difficult to get rid of long-standing emphasis on accounting, financial management light situation.3.4 irregularities in the operation of a modern enterprise fundsAt present, the modern enterprise fund operation of the following problems: First, a serious fragmentation of the modern enterprise funds. Some of the modern enterprise have not yet exceeded a certain link between the contractual relationship to conduct capital, operating, and its essence is still the executive order virtual enterprise jointly form of intra-group members are still strict division of spheres of influence, difficult to achieve centralized management of funds, unification deployment of large groups is difficult to play the role of big money. Second, the stock of capital make an inventory of modern enterprise poor results. Result of the planned economy under the "re-output, light efficiency, re-extension, light content, re-enter, light output" of inertia, making the enterprise carrying amount of funds available to make an inventory of large, but the actual make an inventory of room for small, thus affecting the to the effect of the stock of capital. Third, the modern enterprise funds accumulated a lot of precipitation.3.5 Internal audit exists in name onlyAt present, enterprises in the financial monitoring of internal audit work to become a mere formality process. The first formal audit management. Hyundai organized every year in different forms of audit, has become a fixed procedure, but because the internal audit staff and the audited entity at the same level, thus in the company's financial problems can not get to the bottom, just a form of and going through the motions. This audit not only failed to exercise any oversight role, to some extent encouraged the small number of staff violations of law. Second, nothing of audit responsibilities. Internal audit is a modern enterprise group commissioned by the audit staff members of Corporate Finance to conduct inspection and supervision process, and therefore the auditors have had an important mandate and responsibilities. But in reality, become a form of audit work, audit officers, whether seriously or not, are notrequired to bear the responsibility, thus making the audit is inadequate supervision. Third, the audit results and falsified. Audit results should be true and can be *, but in reality the different audit bodies of the same company during the same period of the audit, results are often different, and a far cry from, these are false true performance of the audit findings.4. Selected financial control model should be considered a major factor Generally speaking, the modern enterprise selects the financial control mode, the main consideration should be given these factors: equity concentration, a subsidiary of the degree of influence of the parent company financial strategy, organizational structure, development strategy, the group scale.From the group-level point of view, the parent company of the subsidiaries of the associated control to be strict control of the company, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the control to be strict control of the relatively holding subsidiaries, therefore, the parent company of the wholly owned subsidiary of and advantages of holding subsidiaries with centralized control, the quality holding subsidiaries and any shares of a subsidiary of the separation of powers system. To maintain and enhance the core competitiveness of modern enterprises of different degree of importance of a subsidiary should be taken to a different control mode. Have a significant impact on the subsidiary, the parent company must maintain a high degree of centralized control and management right, even partially, the separation of powers must be confined within the framework of centralized; right with the Group's development strategy, core competencies, core business and for the foreseeable the future development of relations in general, a subsidiary of little impact, from improving management efficiency, play to their enthusiasm and enhance the resilience of the market competition point of view, using decentralized type of management system, a better option.From the organizational structure point of view, U-type structure is a typical centralized structure, and accordingly, its financial control model should also be authoritarian style. H-is an organic organizational structure, a more loose linkages between various departments, departments have greater flexibility in the organization structure, with decentralized financial control model is more suitable, while the M-type structure belonging to phase Rong-type organizational structure, so the use of centralized financial control model can be used either decentralized model.From the operating characteristics of point of view, the different characteristics of the modern enterprise management, financial control mode selection will be different. And integration operations in a single case, all units within the group has a great business contacts, financial control naturally require higher degree of centralization.Enterprises to adopt diversification, because each subsidiary where the industry is different from the operational linkages between the various subsidiaries is relatively small, difficult to implement a modern enterprise integrated centralized control, and therefore the financial control of all subsidiaries should be given to the appropriate authority.From the development stage point of view, the modern enterprises in the different stages of development, in order to meet the needs of business development will take a different mode of financial control. Generally speaking, companies in the early stages of the development of small, relatively simple operations, using centralized financial control mode, you can better play the same decision-making and resource integration advantages in the industry has created a scale. With the continuous expansion of company size, business areas and constantly open up, Centralized financial control mode can not meet the company's financial controls and management methods on the need for diversification, and this time, we need more subsidiaries in all aspects of and more authority, so that the financial control model of a modern enterprise gradually to decentralized development.In addition, the financial control model should be subject to the enterprise's development strategy, fully reflects the company's strategic thinking. The company's development strategy can be divided into stable angina strategy, expansion-type strategy, tight-based strategies and hybrid strategies. Enterprises at different stages of the strategic choice of a particular need for financial control in accordance with * a different pattern. Stable implementation of the strategy is usually within the company can be a high degree of centralization of some; to implement expansionary strategy, companies tend to a more flexible decentralized type control mode to suit their developing needs of the market; the implementation of tight-based company's business strategy, all major financial activities must be strictly controlled, thus emphasizing centralization; hybrid strategy for the implementation of the company, it should be operated according to the characteristics of each subsidiary to take a different control mode.References:[1] Han Wei mold. Finance and Accounting Review of regulatory hot spots [M]. Beijing: Economic Science Press, 2004[2] Lin Zhong-gao. Financial governance. Beijing: Economic Management Publishing House [M], 2005[3] Yan Li Ye. Xu Xing-US; Enterprise Group Financial Control Theory and Its Implications, economics, dynamic [J], 2006[4] Lu Jie. On the internal financial control system improvements and management of popular science (research and practice) [J], 2007[5] Chen Chao-peng. Improve the corporate financial control measures, businessaccounting [J], 2007[6] Huang Xi. On the Enterprise Group Financial Control [J]. Chinese and foreign entrepreneurs, 2006, (06)[7] Jiang-feng tai. Enterprise Group Financial Control Studies [J]. Marketing Week. Theoretical study, 2006, (08)现代企业财务管理的探讨瑞安戴维森，珍妮古德温-斯图尔特，帕梅拉肯特本文探讨现代企业正在成为中国经济发展过程中的一个重要的新力量。
财务管理外文翻译---企业购买和支付的内部会计控制系统设计
Corporate Purchasing and payment of internal accountingcontrol system designLars Ny bergSpeech by Mr Lars Ny berg, Deputy Governor of the Severs Risks bank, at HQ Bank, 15October 2008.From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaAbstractThis article discusses the procurement and payment of the basic system of internal accou nting controls, and in accordance with its business processes, detailing the implementation of the relevant control points control measures.Keywords:procurement and payment; accounting controlProcurement and payment business is an enterprise payment of money, to obtain goods o r services of the process is production and operations management is a major component is the enterprise survival and development. Therefore, enterprises should develop procure ment and payment business of internal accounting control system, a sound business recor ds control systems, to strengthen its control over key points of business processes, imple mentation of the procurement decision-making areas of mutual restraint and supervision. First, purchasing and payment definition of internal accounting controlProcurement and payment of internal accounting control refers to regulate corporate purch asing and payment behavior, the procurement and payment process to prevent errors and fraud to ensure that the procurement to meet the production and sale under the premise to minimize procurement costs and take a series of control measures.Second, procurement and payment transactions of the basic system of internal accounting controlsIn order to give full play to the procurement and payment business the role of internal accounting controls for the content of the procurement and payment services should be d esigned following the procurement and payment transactions of the basic system of intern al accounting controls.(A) is incompatible with official positions for division of labor system1, please purchase and approval. Enterprises purchasing items needed by the user depart ments according to their application and approved by the responsible persons in charge of procurement for approval; 2, inquiry and identify suppliers. Corporate purchasing depart ment and relevant departments should participate in inquiry procedures and identify suppl iers; 3, procurement of contracts and auditing. Corporate purchasing department should be prepared under the purchase order or contract and authorized department or officer revie w, approval or appropriate audit; 4, procurement and acceptance. Purchasing staff can not work at the same time as acceptance of goods; 5, procurement, inspection and related a ccounting records. Corporate procurement, inspection and accounting record keeping functi ons should be separated in order to ensure the authenticity of the number of procuremen t and procurement price, quality, compliance, procurement records and accounting accurac y; 6, the implementation of payment processing and payment. Corporate payment processi ng and payment of the executors of people should be separation of duties.(B) authorize the examination and approval systemEnterprises should make it clear people are purchasing and payment processing business, authorized to approve methods, powers, procedures, responsibilities and related control me asures to require managers to conduct procurement and payment business terms of refere nce and work requirements. According to the procurement and payment services, control of the approval points include: 1, the enterprise's production planning department general orders according to customers or to sales forecasting and inventory requirements analysi s to determine the production licenses; 2, business capital expenditures and lease contract s are usually will be special authorization which only allowed a particular officer requisit ions; 3, enterprises are an important and highly technical procurement business, shall org anize experts to conduct feasibility studies, implementation of collective decision-making and approval, to prevent serious losses caused by errors in the decision-making; 4, procu rement contracts The signing is subject to the approval of authorized personnel; 5, purch asing the payment of money shall be subject to the approval of authorized personnel. (C) control of business recordsProcurement and payment transactions for the realization of internal accounting control o bjectives, the enterprise should establish requisitions, contracts, acceptance of orders, ware housing and other settlement documents as the carrier single of the business records cont rol system. In this system should be numbered consecutively in the certificate, record, si gnature stamp, so that account card, account payments, account form, accounts are, and c heck ID signed certificate with the records according to the procedures required to deal with, so that can effectively prevent the economy from Business omission and duplicatio n, and check whether there is fraud.procurement and payment business processes, internal accounting controlsIn general, the procurement and payment business processes, including requisitioning, pro curement operations, warehousing inspection, payment settlement, according to China's "in ternal accounting control standards - Procurement and Payment (Trial)", enterprises should be strengthened at least the following control point of control.(A) Please purchaseProposed goods and services need to be part of the beginning of the procurement, com panies can be different depending on the need to develop a system of requisitions. Produ ction and operation are more demand for raw materials, spare parts and other items, use the departments to budget for the upcoming issue of production orders, etc. fill requisiti ons by the purchasing department, finance department, business department staff to partici pate in the requisition The audit, authorized by the corporate head of purchasing for app roval. Please purchase a single-type triple, indicating the requisitioning office, requisitions for the goods name, specifications, quantity, requested arrival date and purpose and so on. Important please purchase goods or services shall be subject to the decision-making demonstration and a special approval procedures; Pro Star items needed, usually by the u ser according to actual needs directly without going through the purchasing department si gned or ratified. However, users are generally in requisitions to explain the purpose and use of requisition by the use of department heads for approval, and Finance department consent, to pay the purchasing department to conduct procurement; urgent needs to devel op a special request to buy a special approval process; special reason needed Cancel req uisition application, originally requested the purchase department should inform the purch asing department to stop purchasing, the purchasing department should be in the original requisitions stamped "withdrawn" stamp, and returned to the requisitioning department.(B) InquiryIn order to ensure a transparent pricing mechanism, enterprises should develop a reasona ble inquiry process and focus on relevant information about the supplier. Control measure s are: 1, on a regular basis to understand the basic information providers, such as produ ct price, quality, delivery conditions, reputation, service and supplier of equipment status, technical capability and financial condition, etc., in order to provide reliable information on corporate purchasing decisions; 2, pairs of potential suppliers should be on its qualit y, technical, financial status of the feasibility of the survey; 3, and important for the bul k procurement of goods, should be established by the procurement, technology and other departments involved in quality than parity system, considering the price, quality, deliver y conditions, credibility and after-sales service, etc.; 4, can be used for certain procureme nt tender, procurement of side items to meet the quality, delivery time required in the circumstances, in an open manner, the bidding would not regard the price as the only fact ors; 5, for the piecemeal procurement of goods, due to low purchase price is not high, u sing the above-mentioned procurement costs will be too high, generally authorized to pro vide direct procurement, but also should be formed by independent random unannounced visits to the personnel system; 6, on the The above factors determine the target price, an d in consultation with the relevant suppliers in order to achieve the best price.(C) ProcurementInquiry procedure is completed, procurement departments are required to make the follow ing decisions: 1, according to the assets is stored, identify the procurement of goods and quantity of the batch; 2, according to inquiry control system, choose the most beneficial to production and lowest cost suppliers; 3, will be invited to purchase a single retireme nt requisitioning departments together to show their reply; a joint preparations for the fin ancial sector retirement funds; a joint purchasing department as the basis for the signing of purchase and sales contracts.(D) ContractPurchasing departments should promptly signed a contract with the supplier, the contract must be in accordance with the provisions of the procurement authority by the authorize d persons at all levels of approval to. Contract type a triple, a cross-vendor delivery req uest, a hand from the custody of the purchasing department is responsible for the imple mentation of the contract, a contract by the Finance department to oversee the implement ation. Small number of certain purchases, are not frequently purchased items, you can no t sign a contract and direct purchase, in order to simplify procedures, speed up the purc hase rate. Some enterprises in order to replace purchase orders for contracts, order the el ements must be designed to complete, usually a type triple, and numbered consecutively.(E) AcceptanceAcceptance officer under orders, contracts and other documents on the procurement of go ods varieties, specifications, quality and other relevant content inspection. Inspection perso nnel to points, had said or measuring the number of items and other means to verify the correctness. The extent possible, the quality of goods within the inspection. Experience, items collected by the acceptance of entry, according to members of a single acceptance. Acceptance of a single check and accept the custody officer under the quantity and qua lity of physical and fill storage lists, and specify the supplier name, receipt date, item na me, quantity, quality, and so on. Warehousing unitary triple, a joint retention of registere d warehouse ledger; a joint by the Finance department, handle settlement; a joint return the purchasing department with the purchase and sale contracts, requisitions after the indu ction for the record check.(F) paymentsFinancial sector invoices, shipping orders, acceptance of orders, storage, and other relevan t documents a single examination, and contract reconciliation, approval by the companies authorized to handle settlement provider. Payment after the expiration of timely payment s in order to maintain good business credit. Procurement need to pay in advance or dep osit shall be paid only after proper authorization, and must be received from suppliers re lated to the Notes. For enterprises to adopt credit purchase items, thus the formation of t he debt settlement business must also be strengthened controls. Specific requirements are: 1, recorded accounts payable invoices and other documents must be authorized by the Company are recorded only after approval; 2, by specialized personnel on a regular basis with suppliers check their accounts, if the reconciliation was found, it should promptly i dentify the cause clarify responsibilities, according to the relevant regulations to ensure th at the accounts of both sides in line; 3, according to both a pre-agreed conditions and ti mely liquidation of debt, payment arrears, the basis of the relevant certificate, the registr ation books of account.In practice, enterprises should be based on the procurement and payment business, the sp ecific characteristics, and constantly improve and revise its system of internal accounting controls to ensure that business activities in an orderly and efficient operation.References:1, the Ministry of Finance. Internal accounting control standards - the basic norm (trial). Accounting (2001) 41.2, the Ministry of Finance. Internal accounting control standards - Procurement and Paym ent (trial). Accounting (2002), No. 21.3, internal accounting control system Practice [M]. Democracy and the building of Press, 2004.From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia企业购买和支付的内部会计控制系统设计Lars Ny bergSpeech by Mr Lars Ny berg, Deputy Governor of the Severs Risks bank, at HQ Bank, 15October 2008.From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia摘要本文讨论了采购和付款的基本系统的内部会计控制，并根据其业务流程，详细说明了实施相关的控制点控制措施。
家庭财务管理——为未来而规划【外文翻译】
外文翻译Family Financial Management —Planning for the Future Material source：The University of Arizona Cooperative ExtensionA u t h o r:D e n Y e l l eB a e t e K e n y o n a n d L y n n e M.B o r d e nFinancial planning is important to maintaining a stable financial household. Good financial planning and achieving financial stability will also help to prevent financial crisis. First, this fact sheet will help you create a budget in order to examine which household expenses could be reduced, so that you can set goals to limit your spending. Next, you will learn how to set debt reduction and savings goals. Finally, after examining your expense reduction, debt reduction, and savings goals, you will be prepared to develop a spending plan. Creating (and sticking to) a budget and spending plan will assist in attaining financial stability.Family Money ManagementYou are not alone! Financial problems are a common problem in today’s society. Financial troubles such as falling behind in paying the bills, accumulating credit card debt, or being forced to put a second mortgage on a house happen to people everyday. Are you faced with the financial disappointments of not being able to afford that new car or vacation, or not being able to purchase a house because of credit problems?Is there constant fighting in your household about family members’ spending habits? Have you been putting off saving money for emergencies or for long-term goals such as your child’s college or your retirement? If your answer to any of these questions is yes, the following information will be helpful to you.You can prevent financial crisis by being organized and prepared with your finances. The best way to achieve financial stability is to create a budget and develop a spending plan to get rid of debt and save money. Financial stability is achieved when you are able to meet day-to-day financial obligations, which include establishing a savings plan, reducing debt to a controllable level, and establishing an emergency fund equal to 3-6 months’ living expenses (CSREES, 2002). The keys to successful financial planning are good record keeping and the consistent implementation of your plans.Creating a BudgetThe act of creating a budget will allow you to see your current financial status, as well as allow you to see where expenses can be cut back. The first step is to organize all of your financial information. You will need the following: bank statements & checkbook register, monthly bills (e.g., credit card, electricity, phone), information about monthly and supplemental income. It is best to have the prior 6 months’ bank statements, bills, and income information in order to get a more accurate monthly budget using average monthly income and expenses.Step 1-Figure out average monthly net (take-home) income. Do not include unexpected income. Do include average earnings from stable supplemental income (e.g., child support, selling vegetables).Step 2-Figure out average monthly expenses. Combine ALL monthly expenses, including basic needs (food, clothing, shelter, and transportation) and discretionary spending (entertainment, donations, and investments). Pay attention to the amount you are spending on fixed expenses (such as the mortgage payment) versus your variable expenses (e.g., eating out).Rent/mortgage payments, (s)Insurance (car, homeowner’s, renter’s), Home and car maintenance, Credit card payments, Real estate and property taxes, Utilities (water, electric, gas, phone, cable, internet), Day care/kids’ expenses,Clothing, personal hygiene (hair cuts, toiletries)Medical/dental expenses, Entertainment (movies, restaurant eating), Vacations/birthdays/holidays,Groceries including convenience food (meals, snacks, and beverages).Step 3-Figure out monthly balance by subtracting monthly expenses from monthly income. This will tell you how much money you should have at the end of the month to put into savings. If you have a have a negative monthly balance (you are spending more than you earn), you need to reduce expenses.Step 4-Examine expenses to see where you can reduce spending. Pay close attention to the non-necessary items (entertainment, eating out, expensive gifts, and vacation expenses).Setting Debt Reduction GoalsReducing the debt you carry is a critical step to financial stability. Whether it is credit card debt or a student loan, interest rates make it harder and harder to pay off your original debt the longer you wait. People can especially become quickly overwhelmed with credit card debt, because of the high interest rates and the accessibility of more credit cards. A good rule of thumb is not to carry debt that exceeds 20% of your take home pay. By accumulating debt without managingyour spending habits, a family may unnecessarily enter financial crisis. You can manage and reduce your debt by setting smart, specific goals that are attainable (Examples derived from Money2020™).Method 1– Reduce total credit card debt by ___%Example: The Anderson family has a total of $3, 050 in credit card debt. They are considering reducing that debt load by 20% or $610 in one year. This will require an extra $12 per week set aside for debt repayment ($610 / 52 weeks = $11.73 per week or approximately $50 per month).Method 2 – Completely pay off credit card debt within ___ years.Example: To pay off $3, 050 in the next three years, the Anderson family may divide the dollar amount owed by the number of months until the deadline. Three years will equal 36 payments until the deadline.They will need to pay $85 off the principal each month in addition to the interest on the unpaid balance in order to eliminate this debt by their deadline ($3050 /39 months = $84.72 + interest per month).Setting Savings GoalsSaving money is another positive step on the road to financial security. Even if you have large amounts of debt to pay off, you may want to start putting away $5 a week, just to get in the habit of saving. You may want to have a portion of your paycheck directly deposited into your savings account. That way, you will never miss the money or have access to it. Whether saving for a specific purchase (such as a vacation), or setting up a savings account, it is important not to dip into the savings pool for other reasons. This becomes a bad habit and defeats the purpose of having a savings goal. Remember to set specific goals that are attainable. To attain financial security, first focus on short term goals, such as setting up an emergency fund, or saving a percentage of income per year.Method 1– Establish an emergency fund of at least 2 months of salary to cover 3-6 months’ living expenses. This is a good first step for a savings plan if you do not currently have funds available for unexpected expenses like medical emergencies, replacements, and repairs (for cars, appliances, etc.).Example: The Lopez family will set aside $2,500 in their emergency fund within 18 months. They need to set aside $138.88 per month or approximately $33 per week to achieve this savings goal.Method2– Save a certain percent of income per year. Most financial planners recommend saving at least 10% of annual income for long term future goals.Example: The Lopez family decides to save 10% of annual take home income which for them will be $2500 per year. This amounts to $207 per month or about $48 per week ($2500 / 52 weeks = $48).Developing a Spending PlanStep 1–Follow the procedures described above to create a budget. Track your spending for three months and carefully monitor your ATM withdrawals and incidental spending. Examine the budget’s monthly balance –ask yourself what unnecessary expenses you can cut out. Remember to provide for needs before wants.Step 2 –Examine your expense reduction goals, debt reduction goals, and savings goals. The objective should be to match your family’s spending to your current bine information about your family’s inco me and expenses from your previous budget and make adjustments according to expense goals, debt reduction goals, and savings goals. This becomes your new plan for spending and saving.Step 3 – Develop a new spending plan from the budget and stick to it! The best way to follow your spending plan is to keep track of everything your family purchases in a notebook. If you set realistic spending and savings goals, you shouldn’t have a difficult time in following the plan, but if you find the budget constrictive, don’t be afraid to make small adjustments. This is better than dropping your spending plan altogether.Internet ResourcesArizona Money 2000: Provides information about financial classes in Pima county, information about financial fitness, and links to newsletters. Arizona Saves: Affiliated with the America Saves program, Arizona Saves helps people save money, build wealth, and get out of debt. /extension/money2000//Financial Calculators: Calculators that can help you figure out how to set your debt and savings goals./cfe/calculators.html Take Charge America: Phoenix based organization that provides education, counseling, and debt management. Money Management International: Non-profit agency that provides free professional credit counseling, debt management programs, and consumer education. /National Endowment for Financial Education: Information on ways to save money, tips on how to become a savvy saver, a savings quiz, and financial calculators to help figure out how long it would take to save money or pay off a loan. /Developing a Cash Flow Plan: Financial planning tips for creating a cash flow plan, in order to project the consequences and actions of potential actions./agecon/tax/f-751.pdfDeveloping an Income Statement: Information on creating an income statement, which indicates whether a business has earned money or suffered a loss./agecon/tax/f-753.pdfTax Management and Financial Management: Information on strategies for effective financial planning including tax considerations./tropical/economics/taxmgmt.shtmlBudgets: Their use in Farm Management: Information on different types of budgets, reasons why budgets should be done, and resource allocation.:16080/agecon/farm/f-139.pdfSupporting Families Following a Disaster: The University of Arizona College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Cooperative Extension has designed this series of facts covering special needs of families during difficult times. http://www.ag. /fcs/supporting families/（Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, James A. Christenson, Director, Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona.The University of Arizona College of Agriculture and Life Sciences is an equal opportunity employer authorized to provide research, educationalinformation, and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to sex, religion, color, national origin, age, Vietnam era Veteran’s status, or disability.）（10/2004 AZ134I THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIFE SCIENCES TUCSON ARIZONA 85721DENYELLE BAETE KENYON Doctoral Student Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences LYNNE M. BORDEN Extension Specialist and Associate Professor Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences This information has been reviewed by university faculty. )Bristow, B.J. Money 2020. /Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (2003). Measurement of money management desired outcomes./nea/economics/res/security_res_moneymtg3.htmlHallman, G.V. & Rosen bloom, J.S. (1975). Personal financial planning: How to plan for your financial freedom. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.家庭财务管理——为未来而规划资料来源：亚利桑那大学合作扩展作者：丹耶·勒贝特·肯扬和林恩·M·登财务计划对于维护稳定的家庭财务很重要，良好的财务计划和稳定的财务实施还有助于阻止财务危机的发生。
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附件1：外文资料翻译译文财务报表分析A.财务比率我们需要使用财务比率来分析财务报表，比较财务报表的分析方法不能真正有效的得出想要的结果，除非采取的是研究在报表中项目与项目之间关系的形式。
例如，只是知道史密斯公司在一个特定的日期中拥有10000美元的现金余额，对我们是没有多大价值的。
但是，假如我们知道，这种余额在这种平衡中有4%的流动负债，而一年前的现金余额有25%的流动负债。
由于银行家对公司通常要求现金余额保持在银行信用度的20%，不管使用或不使用，如果公司的财务状况出现问题，我们可以立即发现。
我们可以对比比较财务报表中的项目，作出如下结论：1. 项目之间的资产负债表比较：a）在资产负债表中的一个日期之间的比较，例如项目，现金与流动负债相比；b）同一项目在资产负债表中一个日期与另一个日期之间的比较，例如，现在的现金与一年前比较；c）比较两个项目之间在资产负债表中一个日期和一个相似比率在资产负债表中的另一个日期的比率，例如，现在现金流动负债的比率与另一个项目一年前的相似比率和已经标记的现金状况趋势的比较。
2．项目报表中收入和支出的比较：a）一定时期中的报表项目的比较；b）同一项目在报表中现阶段与上个阶段的比较；c）报表中项目之间的比率与去年相似比率的比较；3．资产负债表中的项目与报表中收入和支出项目的比较：a）在这些报表项目之间的一个给定的时间内，例如，今年净利润可能以百分比计算今年净值；b）两个报表中项目之间的比率在这几年时间的比较，例如，净利润的比率占今年净值的百分比与去年或者前年的相似比率的比较如果我们采用上述比较或比率，然后依次比较它们，我们的比较分析结果将获得重要意义：1. 这样的数据比较是报表缺少的，但这种数据对于金融史和条件判断是十分重要的，例如，商业周期的阶段性；2. 使用财务财务比率分析财务报表，从竞争角度，人民比较关注类似业务的比较。
财务报表的比较可能被表示成项目之间的比较，例如，现金状况除以流动负债项目总产品的现金使所得出的商来表示总现金的项目测试。
每个比可以用两种方式表示，例如，销售固定资产的比率可被表示为销售固定资产的比率。
我们将以这样的方式表达每一个比例，增加不同期间，将有利于降低财务状况中的不利的金融条件。
我们应使用下列财务比率来分析比较财务报表：一. 流动资金比率：1. 流动资产与流动负债的比率；2. 现金流动负债总额的比率3. 现金、可售证券、票据和应收账款与流动负债总额的比率；4. 销售应收款项的比例，也就是说，应收账款周转率；5. 商品库存，即存货周，商品成本率；6. 应收票据与应收账款的比率；7. 应收账款与存货的比率；8. 库存与营运资金净额的比率；9. 应付票据与应付账款的比率；10.库存与应付帐款的比率。
二. 固定资产及无形资产的资本比率：1. 销售固定资产的比率，即固定资本的周转；2. 销售无形资产的比率，即无形资产周转率；3. 每年的折旧和与报废费用的比率，即折旧资产核销；4. 固定资产净值的比率。
三. 资本比率：1. 债务净值的比率；2. 资本存量与总市值的比率；3. 固定资产与长期债务的比率。
四. 收入和支出的比率：1. 销售净营业利润的比率；2. 净营业利润与总资本的比率；3. 销售额与经营成本及开支的比率；4. 销售净利润的比例；5. 净利润与净值的比率；6. 销售与财务费用的比率；7. 借入资本与资本成本的比率，；8. 投资与投资收入的比率；9. 非经营性收入与经营溢利净额的比率；10.净营业利润与营业外支出的比率；11.净利润与资本存量的比率；12.净利润与再投资净利润总额比率，即普通股股息率；13.利润利息与利息开支的比率。
财务比率是永久性的这种分类并非详尽无遗，其他比率可用于购买指示。
此外，一些比率反映了资金使用的效率，，而其他反映资金融资的效率。
销售应收款项、存货，固定资产和无形资本、净营业利润、资本总额和销售的比率以及销售经营成本及开支的比率反映了在资金使用的效率。
大多数其他比率反映了金融效率。
B.财务报表分析技术报表和数据是否充足？在我们比较分析给出的财务报表之前，我们希望确保财务报表是合理和足够充分的。
当然，它们应该尽可能完整。
他们也应该是近期的数据。
如果不是这样，其使用必须限制在其所涵盖的期间。
例如2008年条件的结论不能完全地建立在2006年报表数据上。
比较资产负债表是否可以反映当时的情况？如果是这样，重要的是要知道金融条件在高点和低点的财务状况。
当资产流动性非常快和债务很低时，我们必须避免过分造成在低点时的商务判断；当流动性较差的资产和债务可能是比较高的时候，我们应避免过分否定在最高点时的判决。
建议发行新证券，要根据任何日期的资产负债表反映的财务状况估计？如果是这样的话，为了确定于该日期的实际财务状况，减少证券发行数量是很有必要的。
如果债券被出售，也必须有类似的金额减去根据估计所得款项的问题是如何在声明中反映的资产或负债。
报表是审核的还是未经审核的？这就是常说的经审计的报表，也就是完整的审计，而不是未被注册会计师审核即批准的报表。
这是真实的，但是报表分析师应该确定给出的审计公司是否超出职责范围。
正在运行的资本状况是否良好？如果要分析报表的目的是合理且足够充分的，下一步是分析关注的营运资本的趋势和位置。
我们可以开始确定的流动资产对流动负债的比率。
这个比率关注可能的能力，而不损害其净营运资本偿付义务。
这是一种借用额外的营运资金或续借没有困难的短期贷款的措施。
其他的事情都是相等的条件下，流动负债超过流动资产越大，短期债券人的风险越小，信贷业务越好。
假设保守的估值和全部流动资产和流动负债均计算在内，流动资产两美元的利率对于一美元的流动负债是“经验法则”的比例通常被认为是令人满意的。
经验法则的流动比率对于运营资本的状况和趋势并不是一个令人满意的测试。
不到两美元，对于一美元来说，流动比率少于两美元可能足够了，或者超过两美元的流动比率对于一美元可能是不恰当的。
这只取决于流动资产的流动性这一点。
流动资产的流动性随现金状况的变化而变化。
流动资产因为现金出现的比例越大，流动资产作为一个整体流动的越快。
一般来说，现金应等于至少20％的总流动负债（流动负债总额）。
银行家通常需要关注保持银行结余等于20％的信贷额度是否使用。
开放式信贷额度在资产负债表上没有显示，因此，总的流动负债（应付银行票据）是用来测试现金状况的，就像有两个流动比率，现金比率20％是多了还是少了是经验法则的标准。
现金余额是否令人满意，取决于销售条款、购买、存货周转率。
一个公司销售商品对于现金流入量和现金流出量要比比赊货销售更加满意。
支付现金购买所有消费品的买卖比使用长期信用卡需要更多的现金。
其他条件相同的情况，售出存货越快，现金流入量越接近现金流出量。
现金余额的需求会受商业周期的阶段的影响。
当结算的时候，不景气的运营资本可能带来销售暴跌，而充足的现金结余额有助于维持银行信贷和支付费用清算。
金融政策的差异会影响现金结余的大小。
一个公司认为具备尽可能多的银行开行的利好政策，而另一个公司可能只要具备一些标准，就可以满足贷款的合理特定要求。
第一公司的现金余额可能会远远多于第二家公司。
流动资产的流通性随着“严峻的考验”的程度而变化。
流动资产的流动性随现、可售证券、票据和应收账款（扣除坏账准备充足的储备）的比率、流动负债总额（划分总的前四个项目的总流动负债）的变化而变化。
这就是所谓的“严峻考验”当前条件下的流动性。
1:1的比率是令人满意的，因为流动负债可以很容易地支付，债权人在库存商品的不确定价值上没有任何风险，小于1:1的比率可能就足够了，如果应收账款的快速收集和库存很容易，很快销售一空，也就是说，其营业额变动的风险很小。
流动资产的流通性随着应收款项的偿还能力而变化。
这可以根据年销售额的平均应收账款或者年应收账款来确定，除非应收票据不能代表证正常金额的信贷客户。
销售条件必须考虑在应收款项的营业额中。
例如，如果年销售额是1,200,000美元，平均应收款项总计100,000美元，那么应收款项的营业额为1,200,000/100,000=12.现在，如果对顾客来说，信贷条款的期限是三十天，我们就可以看到应收款项可以很快还清。
报酬也应该考虑到市场条件和商业周期的阶段性。
对于农业方面的贷款条件比工业更加多，在经济繁荣时期是有好处的，但是在金融危机或者经济不景气的时候却很慢。
应收款项的流通性也反应在应收账款的利率上，在多数情况下货物在往来账户上代表性地销售，应收账款利率的下降可能预示着信用标准的下降，通常关闭逾期账户。
如果可能的话，应收款项的计划表应该给出那些没有支付的款项和过期三十天，六十天，九十天的款项。
这种计划表的价值在于展示信用的的有效性和款项回收，和解释应收款项的营业额的流动趋势。
应收款项的流通额流通的越快，收不回的账目的损失风险越小；在其他相等的条件下，应收账款的投入资本的存款利润越大，总资本的利润越高。
作者: C. O. Hardy and S. P. Meech附件2：外文原文（复印件）ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTSA. The Financial RatiosWe need to use financial ratios in analyzing financial statements.—— The analysis of comparative financial statements cannot be made really effective unless it takes the form of a study of relationships between items in the statements. It is of little value, for example, to know that, on a given date, the Smith Company has a cash balance of $1oooo. But suppose we know that this balance is only -IV per cent of all current liabilities whereas a year ago cash was 25 per cent of all current liabilities. Since the bankers for the company usually require a cash balance against bank lines, used or unused, of 20 per cent, we can see at once that the firm's cash condition is exhibiting a questionable tendency.We may make comparisons between items in the comparative financial statements as follows:1. Between items in the comparative balance sheeta) Between items in the balance sheet for one date, e.g., cash may be compared with current liabilitiesb) Between an item in the balance sheet for one date and the same item in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., cash today may be compared with cash a year agoc) Of ratios, or mathematical proportions, between two items in the balance sheet for one date and a like ratio in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., the ratio of cash to current liabilities today may be compared with a like ratio a year ago and the trend of cash condition noted2. Between items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in the statement for a given periodb) Between one item in this period's statement and the same item in last period's statementc) Of ratios between items in this period's statement and similar ratios in last period's statement3. Between items in the comparative balance sheet and items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in these statements for a given period, e.g., net profit for this year may be calculated as a percentage of net worth for this yearb) Of ratios between items in the two statements for a period of years, e.g., the ratio of net profit to net worth this year may-be compared with like ratios for last year, and for the years preceding thatOur comparative analysis will gain in significance if we take the foregoing comparisons or ratios and; in turn, compare them with:I. Such data as are absent from the comparative statements but are of importance in judging a concern's financial history and condition, for example, the stage of the business cycle2. Similar ratios derived from analysis of the comparative statements of competing concerns or of concerns in similar lines of business What financial ratios are used in analyzing financial statements.- Comparative analysis of comparative financial statements may be expressed by mathematical ratios between the items compared, for example, a concern's cash position may be tested by dividing the item of cash by the total of current liability items and using the quotient to express the result of the test. Each ratio may be expressed in two ways, for example, the ratio of sales to fixed assets may be expressed as the ratio of fixed assets to sales. We shall express each ratio in such a way that increases from period to period will be favorable and decreases unfavorable to financial condition.We shall use the following financial ratios in analyzing comparative financial statements:I. Working-capital ratios1. The ratio of current assets to current liabilities2. The ratio of cash to total current liabilities3. The ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable to total current liabilities4. The ratio of sales to receivables, i.e., the turnover of receivables5. The ratio of cost of goods sold to merchandise inventory, i.e., the turnover of inventory6. The ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable7. The ratio of receivables to inventory8. The ratio of net working capital to inventory9. The ratio of notes payable to accounts payableIO. The ratio of inventory to accounts payableII. Fixed and intangible capital ratios1. The ratio of sales to fixed assets, i.e., the turnover of fixed capital2. The ratio of sales to intangible assets, i.e., the turnover of intangibles3. The ratio of annual depreciation and obsolescence charges to the assets against which depreciation is written off4. The ratio of net worth to fixed assetsIII. Capitalization ratios1. The ratio of net worth to debt.2. The ratio of capital stock to total capitalization .3. The ratio of fixed assets to funded debtIV. Income and expense ratios1. The ratio of net operating profit to sales2. The ratio of net operating profit to total capital3. The ratio of sales to operating costs and expenses4. The ratio of net profit to sales5. The ratio of net profit to net worth6. The ratio of sales to financial expenses7. The ratio of borrowed capital to capital costs8. The ratio of income on investments to investments9. The ratio of non-operating income to net operating profit10. The ratio of net operating profit to non-operating expense11. The ratio of net profit to capital stock12. The ratio of net profit reinvested to total net profit available for dividends on common stock13. The ratio of profit available for interest to interest expensesThis classification of financial ratios is permanent not exhaustive. -Other ratios may be used for purposes later indicated. Furthermore, some of the ratios reflect the efficiency with which a business has used its capital while others reflect efficiency in financing capital needs. The ratios of sales to receivables, inventory, fixed and intangible capital; the ratios of net operating profit to total capital and to sales; and the ratios of sales to operating costs and expenses reflect efficiency in the use of capital.' Most of the other ratios reflect financial efficiency.B. Technique of Financial Statement AnalysisAre the statements adequate in general?-Before attempting comparative analysis of given financial statements we wish to be sure that the statements are reasonably adequate for the purpose. They should, of course, be as complete as possible. They should also be of recent date. If not, their use must be limited to the period which they cover. Conclusions concerning 1923 conditions cannot safely be based upon 1921 statements.Does the comparative balance sheet reflect a seasonable situation? If so, it is important to know financial conditions at both the high and low points of the season. We must avoid unduly favorable judgment of the business at the low point when assets are very liquid and debt is low, and unduly unfavorable judgment at the high point when assets are less liquid and debt likely to be relatively high.Does the balance sheet for any date reflect the estimated financial condition after the sale of a proposed new issue of securities? If so, in order to ascertain the actual financial condition at that date it is necessary to subtract the amount of the security issue from net worth, if the. issue is of stock, or from liabilities, if bonds are to be sold. A like amount must also be subtracted from assets or liabilities depending upon how the estimated proceeds of the issue are reflected in the statement.Are the statements audited or unaudited? It is often said that audited statements, that is, complete audits rather than statements "rubber stamped" by certified public accountants, are desirable when they can be obtained. This is true, but the statement analyst should be certain that the given auditing film's reputation is beyond reproach.Is working-capital situation favorable ?-If the comparative statements to be analyzed are reasonably adequate for the purpose, the next step is to analyze the concern's working-capital trend and position. We may begin by ascertaining the ratio of current assets to current liabilities. This ratio affords-a test of the concern's probable ability to pay current obligations without impairing its net working capital. It is, in part, a measure of ability to borrow additional working capital or to renew short-term loans without difficulty. The larger the excess of current assets over current liabilities the smaller the risk of loss to short-term creditors and the better the credit of the business, other things being equal. A ratio of two dollars of current assets to one dollar of current liabilities is the "rule-of-thumb" ratio generally considered satisfactory, assuming all current assets are conservatively valued and all current liabilities revealed.The rule-of-thumb current ratio is not a satisfactory test ofworking-capital position and trend. A current ratio of less than two dollars for one dollar may be adequate, or a current ratio of more than two dollars for one dollar may be inadequate. It depends, for one thing, upon the liquidity ofthe current assets.The liquidity of current assets varies with cash position.-The larger the proportion of current assets in the form of cash the more liquid are the current assets as a whole. Generally speaking, cash should equal at least 20 per cent of total current liabilities (divide cash by total current liabilities). Bankers typically require a concern to maintain bank balances equal to 20 per cent of credit lines whether used or unused. Open-credit lines are not shown on the balance sheet, hence the total of current liabilities (instead of notes payable to banks) is used in testing cash position. Like the two-for-one current ratio, the 20 per cent cash ratio is more or less a rule-of-thumb standard.The cash balance that will be satisfactory depends upon terms of sale, terms of purchase, and upon inventory turnover. A firm selling goods for cash will find cash inflow more nearly meeting cash outflow than will a firm selling goods on credit. A business which pays cash for all purchases will need more ready money than one which buys on long terms of credit. The more rapidly the inventory is sold the more nearly will cash inflow equal cash outflow, other things equal.Needs for cash balances will be affected by the stage of the business cycle. Heavy cash balances help to sustain bank credit and pay expenses when a period of liquidation and depression depletes working capital and brings a slump in sales. The greater the effects of changes in the cycle upon a given concern the more thought the financial executive will need to give to the size of his cash balances.Differences in financial policies between different concerns will affect the size of cash balances carried. One concern may deem it good policy to carry as many open-bank lines as it can get, while another may carry only enough lines to meet reasonably certain needs for loans. The cash balance of the first firm is likely to be much larger than that of the second firm.The liquidity of current assets varies with ability to meet "acid test."- Liquidity of current assets varies with the ratio of cash, salable securities,notes and accounts receivable (less adequate reserves for bad debts), to total current liabilities (divide the total of the first four items by total current liabilities). This is the so-called "acid test" of the liquidity of current condition. A ratio of I: I is considered satisfactory since current liabilities can readily be paid and creditors risk nothing on the uncertain values of merchandise inventory. A less than 1:1 ratio may be adequate if receivables are quickly collected and if inventory is readily and quickly sold, that is, if its turnover is rapid andif the risks of changes in price are small.The liquidity of current assets varies with liquidity of receivables. This may be ascertained by dividing annual sales by average receivables or by receivables at the close of the year unless at that date receivables do not represent the normal amount of credit extended to customers. Terms of sale must be considered in judging the turnover of receivables. For example, if sales for the year are $1,200,000 and average receivables amount to $100,000, the turnover of receivables is $1,200,000/$100,000=12. Now, if credit terms to customers are net in thirty days we can see that receivables are paid promptly. Consideration should also be given market conditions and the stage of the business cycle. Terms of credit are usually longer in farming sections than in industrial centers. Collections are good in prosperous times but slow in periods of crisis and liquidation.Trends in the liquidity of receivables will also be reflected in the ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable, in cases where goods are typically sold on open account. A decline in this ratio may indicate a lowering of credit standards since notes receivable are usually given to close overdue open accounts. If possible, a schedule of receivables should be obtained showing those not due, due, and past due thirty, sixty, and ninety days. Such a, schedule is of value in showing the efficiency of credits and collections and in explaining the trend in turnover of receivables. The more rapid the turnover of receivables the smaller the risk of loss from bad debts; the greater the savings of intereston the capital invested in receivables, and the higher the profit on total capital, other things being equal.Author(s): C. O. Hardy and S. P. Meech 【本文档内容可以自由复制内容或自由编辑修改内容期待你的好评和关注，我们将会做得更好】。