Analysis of the axle fracture of the bucket wheel excavator
Analysis of The Tyger and The Lamb by WILLIAM BLAK
Analysis of The Tyger and The Lamb by WILLIAMBLAKEIntroduction"The Tyger" ,one of William Blake(1759-1827)’s most famous poem published in a collection of poems called Songs of Experience , Blake wrote "The Tyger" during his more radical period. He wrote most of his major works during this time railing against oppressive institutions like the church or the monarchy, or any and all cultural traditions which stifled imagination or passion."The Lamp" wrote into his another poetry collection Songs of Innocence, in which contains idyllic poems.Many of those idyllic poems deal with childhood and innocence. Idyllic poems have pretty specific qualities: they’re usually positive, sometimes extremely happy or optimistic and innocent. They also often take place in pastoral settings and many times praise one or more of these things as subjects.Those two masterpieces reflected poet's meditation about the nature of humanity."Without contraries is no progression. Attraction and repulsion, reason and energy, love and hate, are necessary to human existence" .Addressing the contrasts of different states of the human mind is the main concern of William Blake. As a British Romantic poet of the 18th century, William Blake addresses the contrasts of different states of the human mind in his works Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. The main poem from this collection, "The Lamb," epitomizes innocence and the relationship between the young and the divine. In singsong verse, a curious child questions the nature of a gentle lamb, and he learns what he already knows: God created the lamb. World events and life itself greatly affected Blake. In Songs of Experience (1794), the sequel to Songs of Innocence, he addresses his loss of "faith in the goodness mankind" caused by the fall of the French Revolution. The outstanding poem from this collection, "The Tyger," seeks the answer to the unknown: how can the god who created the peaceful lamb also be the creator of the fierce, destructive tiger? The speaker asks many questions, but receives no answer. That same year, Blake combined the two contrasting works into Songs of Innocence and Experience "The Tyger" just might be William Blake’s most famous poem. Published in a collection of poems :Songs of Experience in 1794, Blake wrote "The Tyger" during his more radical period. He wrote most of his major works during this time, often railing against oppressive institutions like the church or the monarchy, or any and all cultural traditions – sexist, racist, or classist – which stifled imagination or passion. Blake published an earlier collection of poetry:the Songs of Innocence in 1789. Once Songs of Experience came out five years later, the two were always published together. In general, Songs of Innocence contains idyllic poems, many of which deal with childhood and innocence. Idyllic poems have pretty specific qualities: they’reusually positive, sometimes extremely happy or optimistic and innocent. They also often take place in pastoral settings :think countryside; springtime; harmless, cute wildlife; sunsets; babbling brooks; wandering bards; fair maidens, and many times praise one or more of these things as subjects.The poems in Songs of Experience, on the other hand, wrestle with issues of what happens when that innocence is lost. "The Tyger" is often paired with the poem called "The Lamb" from Songs of Innocence.The former references the latter and reexamines the themes of "The Lamb" through the lens of experience. "The Lamb" is one of those idyllic poems which asks the Lamb who made "thee" ,just like "The Tyger", praises how soft and cute it is, then tells it that God made it and how wonderful that is. Blake's tone almost seems ironic , he actually means something very different than what he seems to be saying.Many scholars have argued just that, especially when paired next to his poems about the dangers of religious dogma. The content of these two poem as following shows:The TygerTyger! Tyger! burning brightIn the forests of the night,What immortal hand or eyeCould frame thy fearful symmetry?In what distant deeps or skiesBurnt the fire of thine eyes?On what wings dare he aspire?What the hand, dare sieze the fire?And what shoulder, & what art,Could twist the sinews of thy heart?And when thy heart began to beat,What dread hand? & what dread feet?What the hammer? what the chain?In what furnace was thy brain?What the anvil? what dread graspDare its deadly terrors clasp?When the stars threw down their spears,And water'd heaven with their tears,Did he smile his work to see?Did he who made the Lamb make thee?Tyger! Tyger! burning brightIn the forests of the night,What immortal hand or eyeDare frame thy fearful symmetry?The LampLittle Lamb who made theeDost thou know who made theeGave thee life & bid thee feed.By the stream & o'er the mead;Gave thee clothing of delight,Softest clothing wooly bright;Gave thee such a tender voice,Making all the vales rejoice:Little Lamb who made theeDost thou know who made theeLittle Lamb I'll tell thee,Little Lamb I'll tell thee:He is called by thy name,For he calls himself a Lamb:He is meek & he is mild,He became a little child:I a child & thou a lamb,We are called by his name.Little Lamb God bless thee.Little Lamb God bless thee.The former poem, tiger is associated with fire in color:the burning fire is in the color between red and orange, similar to the color of the tiger; secondly, the tiger’s eyes are like flames, and made of flames.This poem is not so much about the tiger as it really is, or as a zoologist might present it to us; it is the Tyger, as it appears to the eye of the beholder. Blake imagines the tiger as the embodiment of God's power in creation: the animal is terrifying in its beauty, strength, complexity and vitality. Meanwhile,concerning to the social background of those poems ,the tiger is symbolic of the revolutionary forces:the French people in the French Revolution to which Blake was a supporter. It could destroy the old system and establish a new one.But compare the former with the latter poem, Blake enhanced the meaning of both.These poems focus on evil and the importance of understanding the evil around in hope of attaining a state of innocence. In The Songs of Innocence Blake suggests that by recapturing the imagination and wonderment of childhood, we could achieve the goal of self-awareness.The poems thus present views of the world as filtered through the eyes and mind of a child.We can also infer that evil can bring forth the loss of innocence. Therefore, one existing similarity is that they both concern the loss of innocence.Many poems from each set are companion pieces to each other.The Lamb is an symbol of innocence,corresponding to The Tiger as the symbol of experience.Blake seeks for balance and harmony in this unbalanced world. Thus to express the dialectic unity of the beautiful and the ugly, the good and the evil, the white and the black in the world. The dialectic ideas are fully shown. Another shared theme between the two works, The Tiger and The Lamb, is the theme of creation and divine intervention. In both poems Blake questions multiple times about how each was created. In The Lamb, Blake suggests that the lamb was created by a godlike being. In The Tiger Blake questions if the tiger was created by the same being that created the lamb. Such curiosity is a common theme to both poems. Thus, through theinformation discussed, it can be seen that there exists a common comparison in two separate works by William Blake. The themes of both poems are in conjunction with each other. Therefore, according to theme it can be proven that there exists significant similarities in these works by William Blake.It is said that human souls have two sides: a good side, and an evil side."The Lamb" and "The Tyger," by William Blake, are both poems of deep meaning. They seem to explain both sides of human nature: the light and the dark, the yin and the yang, the good and the evil. They can also represent the transition from a child to an adult or even Heaven and Hell. "The Lamb" is a poem that is referring to the good side of the human soul, while "The Tyger" is referring to the dark side. The lamb brings to mind innocence,purity,children,or Jesus; the tiger brings to mind viciousness, cunning, danger, or death. Human beings are capable of malicious things, as well as loving things. It seems like Blake believed that this was part of God's grand design. He seems in awe of the fact that he who created the lamb, also created the tiger. There is also references to the "twisted sinews of the heart " and how that heartbeat leads the Tiger to raise his "dread hands" and "dread feet" to spread his terror, much like how the evil side of a human leads him to commit wrongs.Those who marvel at the creation of tigers beside lambs are those questioned in this poem. God has created the meekness of the lamb,in addition to the ferocity of the tyger.So,Blake is dismissing this"reasonable"contradiction,highlighting the fact that the simple religious expalnation can not constantly constitutes the reality of things.With his collections Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience, William Blake analyzes the relationship between conflicting states of the human soul to show how each relies upon the other to benefit the progression of humanity."The Lamb" recreates the innocence well known to infancy and originates the hope and morals that blueprint the basis of an individual."The Tyger" then rectifies the assumed simplemindedness of its counterpart,"The Lamb," by asserting the importance of experience in developing humanity.Blake demonstrates how, through the varying distinctions of innocence and experience, two contrary states depend upon each other, though sometimes unknowingly.A person should not feel compelled to choose between the two, or label one as good and the other as bad. Learning and understanding the significance between the two, be it love and hate, war and peace, or something as mundanely simple as going and coming, enables individuals alone to comprehend their lives. As a whole, humanity could put itself at a greater advantage upon recognizing the balance of creation.ConclusionWilliam Blake is an important poet representing the pre-romanticism in English literature in whose masterpiece The Tiger the structural identicalness between the enlarged metaphor “tiger”and the deafening “anvil music”represents the splendid “making process of the tiger”.References:1.Hirsch, E. D., Jr. Innocence and Experience: An Introduction to Blake. YaleUniversity Press, 1964. 244-522.Mason, Michael, ed. William Blake: Selected Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.3."William Blake." Wikipedia.4.Smith, Erica. "Critical Essay on 'The Lamb.'" Poetry for Students 12 (2001)。
模具机械专用词汇中英文对照
模具机械专用词汇中英文对照模具机械专用词汇中英文对照来源：未知时间：2006—10-26 15:20:49 浏览数：【收藏这篇文章】abrasive grinding 强力磨削abrasive 磨料的,研磨的absence 不在，缺席accesssory 附件accommodate 适应accordingly 因此,从而，相应地accuracy 精度,准确性actuate 开动(机器)，驱动adequate 足够的adhesive 粘合剂adjacent 邻近的adopt 采用advance 进步advisable 可取的agitate 摇动a large extent 很大程度algorithm 算法align 定位，调准alignment 校直all—too-frequent 频繁allowance 容差，余量alternate 交替，轮流alternatively 做为选择，也许aluminiun 铝ample 充足的analysis 分析ancillary 补助的，副的angular 有角的annealing 退火aperture 孔applied loads 作用力appropriate 适当的arc 弧,弓形arise 出现,发生arrange 安排article 制品,产品ascertain 确定,查明assemble 组装attitude 态度auxiliary 辅助的avoid 避免axis 轴axle 轮轴，车轴alternative 替换物backup 备份batch 一批bearing 轴承，支座bed 床身behavior 性能bench—work 钳工工作bend 弯曲beneath 在？?？下bin 仓,料架blank 坯料blank 冲裁，落料blanking 落料模blast 一阵（风) blemish 缺点，污点bolster 模座,垫板boring 镗削，镗孔bracket 支架brass 黄铜break down 破坏breakage 破坏brine 盐水brittle 易碎的buffer 缓冲器built-in 内装的bulging 凸肚burr 毛刺bush 衬套by far ?？?得多,最by means of 借助于boost 推进cabinet 橱柜call upon 要求carbide 碳化物carburzing 渗碳carriage 拖板，大拖板carry along 一起带走carry down over 从？？?上取下carry out 完成case hardening 表面硬化case 壳,套cast steel 铸钢casting 铸造，铸件category 种类caution 警告，警示cavity and core plates 凹模和凸模板cavity 型腔，腔,洞centre—drilling 中心孔ceramic 陶瓷制品chain doted line 点划线channel 通道,信道characteristic 特性check 核算chip 切屑，铁屑chuck 卡盘chute 斜道circa 大约circlip （开口）簧环circuit 回路,环路circulate (使)循环clamp 夹紧clamp 压板clay 泥土clearance 间隙clip 切断，夹住cold hobbing 冷挤压cold slug well 冷料井collapse 崩塌,瓦解collapsible 可分解的combination 组合commence 开始，着手commence 开始commercial 商业的competitive 竞争的complementary 互补的complexity 复杂性complication 复杂化compression 压缩comprise 包含compromise 妥协,折衷concern with 关于concise 简明的，简练的confront 使面临connector 连接口，接头consequent 随之发生的，必然的console 控制台consume 消耗,占用consummate 使完善container 容器contingent 可能发生的CPU （central processing unit) 中央处理器conventional 常规的converge 集中于一点conversant 熟悉的conversion 换算,转换conveyer 运送装置coolant 冷却液coordinate （使)协调copy machine 仿形（加工)机床core 型芯，核心corresponding 相应的counteract 反作用,抵抗couple with 伴随contour 轮廓crack （使）破裂，裂纹critical 临界的cross—hatching 剖面线cross-section drawn 剖面图cross—slide 横向滑板CRT （cathoder—ray tube）阴极射线管crush 压碎cryogenic 低温学的crystal 结晶状的cubic 立方的，立方体的cup (使)成杯状,引伸curable 可矫正的curvature 弧线curve 使弯曲cutter bit 刀头，刀片cyanide 氰化物complicated 复杂的dash 破折号daylight 板距decline 下落，下降,减少deform (使）变形demonstrate 证明depict 描述deposite 放置depression 凹穴descend 下降desirable 合适的detail 细节，详情deterioration 退化,恶化determine 决定diagrammmatic 图解的，图表的dictate 支配die 模具，冲模,凹模dielectric 电介质die-set 模架digital 数字式数字dimensional 尺寸的,空间的discharge 放电,卸下，排出discharge 卸下discrete 离散的,分立的dislodge 拉出，取出dissolution 结束distinct 不同的，显著的distort 扭曲distort (使)变形，扭曲distributed system 分布式系统dowel 销子dramaticlly 显著地drastic 激烈的draughting 绘图draughtsman 起草人drawing 制图drill press 钻床drum 鼓轮dual 双的，双重的ductility 延展性dynamic 动力的edge 边缘e。
ECE R124 第1次修订
GE.11-AgreementConcerning the Adoption of Uniform Technical Prescriptions forWheeled Vehicles, Equipment and Parts which can be Fitted and/or be Used on Wheeled Vehicles and the Conditions for ReciprocalRecognition of Approvals Granted on the Basis of these Prescriptions *(Revision 2, including the amendments which entered into force on 16 October 1995)Addendum 123: Regulation No. 124Amendment 1Supplement 1 to the original version of the Regulation - Date of entry into force: 30 January 2011Uniform provisions concerning the approval of wheels for passenger cars andtheir trailersUNITED NATIONS* Former title of the Agreement: Agreement Concerning the Adoption of Uniform Conditions ofApproval and Reciprocal Recognition of Approval for Motor Vehicle Equipment and Parts, done at Geneva on 20 March 1958.E /ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1−E /ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.124 February 2011E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.12The list of contents, amend to read:" …Annex 9 – Reserved… "The text of the RegulationParagraph 1., amend to read (including the existing footnote 1):"1. This Regulation covers new replacement wheels designed for vehicles of categories M1, M1G, N1, N1G,O1 and O21It does not apply…___________1Categories M, N, and O as defined in Annex 7 to the Consolidated Resolution on the Construction of Vehicles (R.E.3) (document TRANS/WP.29/78/Rev.1/Amend.2)."Insert a new paragraph 2.1.5., to read:"2.1.5. "PCD", means the pitch circle diameter of bolt holes."Insert a new paragraph 2.2.8., to read:"2.2.8. "Styling", the wheel’s geometric shape, including basic contour and ratio between voids and material."Paragraphs 2.4.3. and 2.4.4., amend to read:"2.4.3. "Replica … contour, dimensions, inset/outset, material…wheels;2.4.4. "Pattern … the design, inset/outset, rim designation…different." Paragraph 2.6., amend to read:"2.6. "Inset/outset /zeroset" means the distance from the attachment face of the disc to the centre line of the rim (positive for inset as shown in Figure 1below; negative for outset ; zero for zeroset)."Insert a new paragraph 2.12., to read:"2.12. "Wheel family", are in case of light alloy, wheels of the same type; however, with different inset/outset values, PCD and centre bore."Paragraph 3.1.2.2., amend to read:"3.1.2.2. rim contour designation - wheel inset/outset - wheel attachment details;" Paragraph 3.1.2.9., amend to read:"3.1.2.9. maximum load capacity at rolling circumference;"Paragraph 4.5., amend to read:"4.5. The approval mark shall be permanent, visible, and clearly legible on the outward facing side of the wheel, when the wheel is fitted on the vehicle." Paragraph 5.1.3., amend to read:"5.1.3. the wheel inset/outset (positive for inset; negative for outset);"Paragraph 5.1.5., amend to read:"5.1.5. part number of the wheel / rim (optional wheel type)."E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1Paragraph 6.5.2.2.(e), should be deleted.Paragraph 6.5.3.2.(e), should be deleted.Paragraph 6.6., amend to read:"6.6. Where a wheel manufacturer submits an application for type approval for awheel family, it is not necessary to carry out tests for each wheel version.Worst case selection ..."Paragraph 6.7.1, amend to read:"6.7.1. The nominal rim diameter, nominal rim width and nominal inset/outset ofECE-approved …"Insert a new paragraph 6.8., to read:"6.8. When the replacement wheel is mounted on the vehicle, the requirements ofparagraphs 5.2.1.11.2.1. or 5.2.2.8.2.1. of Regulation No. 13 orparagraph 5.2.11.2.1. of Regulation No. 13-H shall be fulfilled."Annex 1,Item 2.5., amend to read:"2.5. Wheel inset/outset:…………………………………………...………………"Item 2.7., amend to read:"2.7. Maximum wheel load and respective theoretical rolling circumference…….."Annex 3, amend the last sentence, to read:"The marking shall be at a position selected by the manufacturer. It shall be easily visibleand clearly legible after the tyre has been mounted to the wheel."Annex 4,The table, amend to read:"Material TestsAluminium alloy a, b, c, eMagnesium alloy a, b, c, eSteel a, b, d"Paragraphs (c) to (e), amend to read:"(c) Check of the material characteristics (Rp0,2 , Rm and A) of specimentaken from critical zones (such as the spoke, for example) as well asthe inner and the outer rim flange. The take-off points and position ofthe samples must be depicted in the drawing.(d) Analysis of the defects and of the new material structure.(e) Analysis of the metallurgic defects and structure taken from thetransition zone of the wheel disc and rim or from the fracture zone, ifapplicable."3E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.14Annex 5,Paragraph 1.1., amend to read:"1.1. SamplepreparationA surface treated sample, taken from the production, shall be damaged bycross engraving (ISO 2409:2007) and stone impact (ISO 20567-1:2005) torepresent ..."Annex 6,Paragraph 2., amend to read:"2. Formula for the bending moment calculation…..d = inset/outset (positive for inset ; negative for outset) [m]…."Paragraph 3., the table, replace "M1 and M1 G" by "M1, M1 G, N1, and N1 G"Paragraph 4., amend to read:"4. Testschedulefor wheel familiesWheels of a wheel type with the same number of wheel attachment holes,same styling, different PCD and/or different inset/outset values can begrouped at the same or at a lower value of test bending moment taking intoaccount the test schedule to follow. Wheels with the largest centre holediameter shall be included in the test.In the case of a negative test, due to material failures, it can be compensatedby two positive tests of the same wheel version. If either or both of the finaltwo samples fail, then the application for approval of the replacement wheelshall be rejected.Necessarytests:…"Annex 7,Paragraph 1., amend to read:"1. TestdescriptionIn the rolling test …shall be tested.In the case of a negative test, due to material failures, it can be compensatedby two positive tests of the same wheel version. If either or both of the finaltwo samples fail, then the application for approval of the replacement wheelshall be rejected."Paragraph 3, the table, replace "M1 and M1 G" by "M1, M1 G, N1 and N1 G ."Footnote 1, amend to read:"1Only for steel disc wheels."E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.15Annex 8,Paragraph 1., amend to read:"1. Test descriptionThe fracture behaviour of the wheel striking an object at the outer rim flangeshall be checked at critical positions. For proof of adequate fracture behaviour, an impact test according to ISO 7141:2005 shall be carried out. In the case of a negative test, due to material failures, it can be compensated by two positive tests of the same wheel version. If either or both of the final two samples fail, then the application for approval of the replacement wheel shall be rejected."Paragraph 3, amend line 1 and line 2 of the table , to read: "M 1 , N 1 , M 1 G and N 1G Procedure and requirementsISO 7141: 2005….."Paragraph 4., amend to read:"4.Tests schedule for wheel familiesWheels to be tested Impact testSmallest pitch test diameter One for each impact position Largest pitch circle diameter One for each impact positiondeviation of inset valueup to -15 mm more than -15 mm andlarger than +2 mm one for each impact position"Insert a new paragraph 5., to read: "5. Failure criteria The wheel will not pass the test if one of the following criteria applies: (a) visible incipient crack in a zone of the wheel disc of wheel assembly; (b) the centre member separates from the rim;(c)total loss of pressure within one minute.The wheel is not considered to have failed the test by deformation of thewheel assembly or by fractures in the area of a rim section struck by the face plate of the striker."Annex 8 – Appendix , should be deleted.E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.16Annex 9, amend to read:"Annex 9Reserved"Annex 10,Paragraph 1.1., amend to read:"1.1. WheelcharacteristicsECE approval number, … and inset/outset."Paragraph 1.2., amend to read:"1.2. VehiclecharacteristicsThose vehicle characteristics should be listed that distinctly describe thevehicle type and version for which the wheel will be used. Thereby,depending on the restriction of the range of application of various marketswith respect to certain vehicle versions and variants, various specificationcharacteristics are possible.Absolutely required are the data of:(a)Vehiclemanufacturer;(b)Vehicletype:Additional optional data, e.g.:(c) Vehicle approval number; (if applicable variant/ version)(d) Engine performance (also possible range of performance).Other specification characteristics / restrictions may also be used."Paragraph 1.5., amend to read (including a new footnote 2):"1.5. Example of possible structures of the application and fitting information tableWheel characteristics (mandatory fields in bold characters)ApprovalNumberWheel TypeSize Fixing holes / pcd (mm) Inset/outset2(mm) Max. wheel load(N)6 Jx15 H2Wheel marking (Variant/Version) centeringmarkingCentering(mm)date ofmanufacture(week/year)at circumference(mm)Vehicles’ characteristics as well as additional conditions and adviceVehicle manufacturer: …….._____________2Positive for inset; negative for outsetE/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.1E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2/Add.123/Amend.17Fitting parts e.g. special bolts delivered by the wheel manufacturer M14x1.5, conical angle 60°, length of piston skirt xx mmVehicle Type Approval No.Performance (kW from – to) Vehicle Model namePermissible tyre size front and rear axleAdditional conditions and adviceA01)A02)A03) E01)Conditions and Advice A01) e.g. kind of balancing weights and their place of fitting; A02) e.g. kind of possible valves;A03) e.g. for using manufacturer’s replacement wheels only the standard fitting parts are allowed; E01)e.g. not allowed on 4x4 vehicles."。
螺旋环阻尼器在航空发动机锥齿轮减振中的应用
2023年第47卷第12期Journal of Mechanical Transmission螺旋环阻尼器在航空发动机锥齿轮减振中的应用王艳丰郜伟强徐勇强欧代松（中国航空发动机集团有限公司四川燃气涡轮研究院，四川成都610500）摘要针对某型航空发动机中央传动从动锥齿轮振动应力超出齿轮许用应力的问题，介绍了一种应用于锥齿轮的螺旋环摩擦阻尼器。
在齿轮轮缘内侧开一个凹槽，将螺旋阻尼环旋入凹槽中；工作时，齿轮轮缘和螺旋阻尼环因周向变形不协调而产生相互摩擦，从而消耗振动能量。
将这种阻尼器应用于某型航空发动机锥齿轮减振方案中，试验结果表明，螺旋环阻尼器能够有效降低锥齿轮的振动应力水平；阻尼器安装前后该型锥齿轮的4节径1阶后行波共振应力降幅比高达70.7%，3节径1阶前行波共振应力降幅比为53.4%，减振后的齿轮振动应力水平低于齿轮的许用应力。
此外，该型阻尼器还具有安装拆卸方便、附加不平衡量小等优点，在航空发动机齿轮减振中具有广阔的应用前景。
关键词锥齿轮螺旋环阻尼器摩擦阻尼减振振动应力Application of Spiral Ring Dampers in Vibration Reduction of Aeroengine Bevel GearsWang Yanfeng Gao Weiqiang Xu Yongqiang Ou Daisong(AECC Sichuan Gas Turbine Establishment, Chengdu 610500, China)Abstract In view of the problem that the vibration stress of the axle driven bevel gear of an aeroengine exceeds the permissible stress, a spiral ring friction damper is designed for the bevel gear. In detail, a concave groove is fabricated on the inside rim of gear wheels, in which the designed spiral damping ring is embedded. The circumferential deformation of the spiral damping ring is inconsistent with the gear rim under working conditions; thus the mutual friction is induced and the vibration energy could be consumed. The designed spiral damper is applied to the vibration reduction scheme of an aeroengine bevel gear. The test results show that the spiral damping ring can effectively reduce the vibration stress level of the bevel gear.The vibration reduction efficiency of the first-order, 4-pitch diameter backward traveling wave resonant vibration is about 70.7%, and that of the first-order, 3-pitch diameter forward traveling wave resonant vibration is about 53.4%. Then the vibration stress level of the gear after vibration reduction satisfies the allowable stress. Moreover, the spiral damper enjoys convenience in installation and disassembly, and possesses small additional imbalance, which leads to a promising and broad application for vibration reduction of aeroengine gears.Key words Bevel gear Spiral ring damper Friction damping Vibration reduction Vibration stress0 引言航空发动机传动系统锥齿轮是发动机设计关键件，为发动机各油泵及飞机系统输出必要的传动功率，维持发动机及飞机的正常运转。
The-Triumph-of-the-Egg
Reasons for the Break
➢Impact of Industrial Revolution
From East to Middle and West
Towns and Villages vs. Urbanization and Industrialization ➢Deformity of American Dream
The symbolic meaning of the Egg
➢Historical Factors
comparison between early stage of the US and the end of 19th century
New start and rising period VS. finalization of social design
Pursuit for the quiet rural life and irony of ambitious life.
Joe Kane
One of the guests in their restaurant and identified father’s complete failure.
The idea of the American Dream is rooted in the United States Declaration of Independence which proclaims that “All men are created equal" and that they are "endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights" including "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."
(整理)外文翻译汽车差速器
Failure analysis of an automobile differential pinion shaftAbstractDifferential is used to decrease the speed and to provide moment increase for transmitting the movement coming from the engine to the wheels by turning it according to the suitable angle in vehicles and to provide that inner and outer wheels turn differently. Pinion gear and shaft at the entrance are manufactured as a single part whereas they are in different forms according to automobile types. Mirror gear which will work with this gear should become familiar before the assembly. In case of any breakdown, they should be changed as a pair. Generally, in these systems there are wear damages in gears. The gear inspected in this study has damage as a form of shaft fracture.In this study, failure analysis of the differential pinion shaft is carried out. Mechanical characteristics of the material are obtained first. Then, the microstructure and chemical compositions are determined. Some fractographic studies are carried out to asses the fatigue and fracture conditions.Keywords: Differential; Fracture; Power transfer; Pinion shaft1. IntroductionThe final-drive gears may be directly or indirectly driven from the output gearing of the gearbox. Directly driven final drives are used when the engine and transmission units are combined together to form an integral construction. Indirectly driven final drives are used at the rear of the vehicle being either sprung and attached to the body structure or unsprung and incorporated in the rear-axle casing. The final-drive gears are used in the transmission system for the following reasons [1]:(a) to redirect the drive from the gearbox or propeller shaft through 90°and,(b) to provide a permanent gear reduction between the engine and the driving road-wheels.In vehicles, differential is the main part which transmits the movement coming from the engine to the wheels. On a smooth road, the movement comes to both wheels evenly. The inner wheel should turn less and the outer wheel should turn more to do the turning without lateral slipping and being flung. Differential, which is generally placed in the middle part of the rear bridge, consists of pinion gear, mirror gear, differential box, two axle gear and two pinion spider gears.A schematic illustration of a differential is given in Fig. 1. The technical drawing of the fractured pinion shaft is also given in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 shows the photograph of the fractured pinion shaft and the fracture section is indicated.In differentials, mirror and pinion gear are made to get used to each other during manufacturing and the same serial number is given. Both of them are changed on condition that there are any problems. In these systems, the common damage is the wear of gears [2–4]. In this study, the pinion shaft of the differential of aminibus has been inspected. The minibus is a diesel vehicle driven at the rear axle and has a passenger capacity of 15 people. Maximum engine power is 90/4000 HP/rpm, and maximum torque is 205/1600 Nm/rpm. Its transmission box has manual system (5 forward, 1 back). The damage was caused by stopping and starting the minibus at a traffic lights. In this differential, entrance shaft which carries the pinion gear wasbroken. Various studies have been made to determine the type and possible reasons of the damage.These are:studies carried out to determine the material of the shaft;studies carried out to determine the micro-structure;studies related to the fracture surface.There is a closer photograph of the fractured surfaces and fracture area in Fig. 4. The fracture was caused by taking out circular mark gear seen in the middle of surfaces.Fig. 1. Schematic of the analysed differential.Fig. 2. Technical drawing of the analysed pinion shaftFig. 3. The picture of the undamaged differential pinion analysed in the studyFig. 4. Photographs of failed shaft2. Experimental procedureSpecimens extracted from the shaft were subjected to various tests including hardness tests and metallographic and scanning electron microscopy as well as the determination of chemical composition. All tests were carried out at room temperature.2.1. Chemical and metallurgical analysisChemical analysis of the fractured differential material was carried out using a spectrometer. The chemical composition of the material is given in Table 1. Chemical composition shows that the material is a low alloy carburising steel of the AISI 8620 type.Hardenability of this steel is very low because of low carbon proportion. Therefore, surface area becomes hard and highly enduring, and inner areas becomes tough by increasing carbon proportion on the surface area with cementation operation. This is the kind of steel which is generally used in mechanical parts subjected do torsion and bending. High resistance is obtained on the surface and high fatigue endurance value can be obtained with compressive residual stress by making the surface harder [5–7].In which alloy elements distribute themselves in carbon steels depends primarily on the compound- and carbide-forming tendencies of each element. Nickel dissolves in the a ferrite of the steel since it has less tendency to form carbides than iron. Silicon combines to a limited extent with the oxygen present in the steel to form nonmetallicinclusions but otherwise dissolves in the ferrite. Most of the manganese added to carbon steels dissolves in the ferrite. Chromium, which has a somewhat stronger carbide-forming tendency than iron, partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases. The distribution of chromium depends on the amount of carbon present and if other stronger carbide-forming elements such as titanium and columbium are absent. Tungsten and molybdenum combine with carbon to form carbides if there is sufficient carbon present and if other stronger carbide-forming elements such as titanium and columbium are absent. Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature [8].Preliminary micro structural examination of the failed differential material is shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the material has a mixed structure in which some ferrite exist probably as a result of slow cooling and high Si content. High Si content in this type of steel improves the heat treatment susceptibility as well as an improvement of yield strength and maximum stress without any reduction of ductility [9].If the microstructure cannot be inverted to martensite by quenching, a reduction of fatigue limit is observed.Table 1Chemical analysis of the pinion gear material (wt%)Fe C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni 96.92 0.235 0.252 0.786 0.044 0.016 0.481 0.151 0.517 and fracture surfaces.Fig. 5. Micro structure of the material (200·).There are areas with carbon phase in Fig. 5(a). There is the transition boundary of carburisation in Fig. 5(b) and (c) shows the matrix region without carburisation. As far as it is seen in these photographs, the piece was first carburised, then the quenching operation was done and than tempered. This situation can be understood from blind martensite plates.2.2. Hardness testsThe hardness measurements are carried out by a MetTest-HT type computer integrated hardness tester. The load is 1471 N. The medium hardness value of the interior regions is obtained as 43 HRC. Micro hardness measurements have been made to determine the chance of hardness values along the cross-section because of the hardening of surface area due to carburisation. The results of Vickers hardness measurement under a load of 4.903 N are illustrated in Table 2.2.3. Inspection of the fractureThe direct observations of the piece with fractured surfaces and SEM analyses are given in this chapter. The crack started because of a possible problem in the bottom of notch caused the shaft to be broken completely. The crack started on the outer part, after some time it continued beyond the centre and there was only a little part left. And this part was broken statically during sudden starting of the vehicle at the traffic lights. As a characteristic of the fatigue fracture, there are two regions in the fractured surface. These are a smooth surface created by crack propagation and a rough surface created by sudden fracture. These two regions can be seen clearly for the entire problem as in Fig. 4. The fatigue crack propagation region covers more than 80% of the cross-section.Table 2Micro hardness values Distance from surface (lm) 50 100 200 400 CenterValues HV (4903N) 588 410 293 286 263Fig.Fig. 6. SEM image of the fracture surface showing the ductile shear.Fig. 7. SEM image of the fracture surface showing the beach marks of the fatigue crack propagation.Shaft works under the effect of bending, torsion and axial forces which affect repeatedly depending on the usage place. There is a sharp fillet at level on the fractured section. For this reason, stress concentration factors of the area have been determined. Kt = 2.4 value (for bending and tension) and Kt = 1.9 value (for torsion) have been acquired according to calculations. These are quite high values for areas exposed to combined loading.These observations and analysis show that the piece was broken under the influence of torsion with low nominal stresses and medium stress concentration [10].The scanning electron microscopy shows that the fracture has taken place in a ductile manner (Fig. 6). There are some shear lips in the crack propagation region which is a glue of the plastic shear deformations. Fig. 7 shows the beach marks of the fatigue crack propagation. The distance between any two lines is nearly 133 nm.3. ConclusionsA failed differential pinion shaft is analysed in this study. The pinion shaft is produced from AISI 8620 low carbon carburising steel which had a carburising, quenching and tempering heat treatment process. Mechanical properties, micro structural properties, chemical compositions and fractographic analyses are carried out to determine the possible fracture reasons of the component. As a conclusion, the following statements can be drawn:The fracture has taken place at a region having a high stress concentration by a fatigue procedure under a combined bending, torsion and axial stresses having highly reversible nature.The crack of the fracture is initiated probably at a material defect region at the critical location.The fracture is taken place in a ductile manner.Possible later failures may easily be prevented by reducing the stress concentration at the critical location.AcknowledgementThe author is very indebted to Prof. S. Tasgetiren for his advice and recommendations during the study.H. Bayrakceken / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1422–1428References[1] Heisler H. Vehicle and engine technology. 2nd ed. London: SAE International; 1999.[2] Makevet E, Roman I. Failure analysis of a final drive transmission in off-road vehicles. Eng Failure Anal 2002;9:579–92.[3] Orhan S, Aktu¨rk N. Determination of physical faults in gearbox through vibration analysis. J Fac Eng Arch Gazi University2003;18(3):97–106.[4] Tas getiren S, Aslantas K, Ucun I. Effect of press-fitting pressure on the fatigue damages of root in spur gears. Technol Res: EJMT2004;2:21–9.[5] Nanawarea GK, Pableb MJ. Failures of rear axle shafts of 575 DI tractors. Eng Failure Anal 2003;10:719–24.[6] Aslantas K, Tas getiren S. A study of spur gear pitting formation and life prediction. Wear 2004;257:1167–75.[7] Savas V, O¨zek C. Investigation of the distribution of temperature on a shaft with respect to the deflection. Technol Res: EJMT2005;1:33–8.[8] Smith FW. Principles of materials science and engineering. 3rd ed. USA: McGraw-Hill Series; 1996. p. 517–18.[9] ASM metal handbook, vol. 1. Properties and selection, irons, steels, and high performance alloys; 1991.[10] V oort GFV. Visual examination and light microscopy. ASM handbook metallography and microstructures. Materials Park(OH): ASM International; 1991. p. 100–65.汽车差速器小齿轮轴的失效分析摘要差速器的作用是根据车辆合适的角度, 通过将运动转向, 为运动传输减速或者提供瞬间加速, 这个运动来自引擎, 到车轮去, 使内外车轮转动不同。
基于Creo_的后桥差速器壳体的有限元分析及设计改进
限元分析ꎬ得出原设计状态下的差速器存在爪部断
裂风险ꎮ
２) 对差速器结构进行结构改进ꎬ增加爪部齿柱
的体积ꎬ再次对其进行有限元分析ꎬ得出此方案不能
解爪部决断裂的问题ꎮ
３ ) 改 进 差 速 器 的 材 料ꎬ 选 用 刚 性 更 好 的
２０ＣｒＭｎＴｉꎬ经过有限元分析后得出改进材料能有效
解决差速器爪部断裂的问题ꎮ
某公司出品的柴油版多功能全地形车具有良好
其主要工作原理:发动机输出的动力经过变速
的动力性与操纵性ꎬ是一款大扭矩、大功率、适宜运输
箱传递给后桥输入轴ꎬ通过伞齿轮啮合使输出齿轮
载货的车辆ꎮ 客户在使用过程中容易出现后桥差速
转动ꎬ最后通过球笼将动力传递给车轮ꎮ
器壳体爪部断裂现象ꎮ 据统计ꎬ出现这种故障多在路
２.１ 建立差速器的三维模型并划分网格
在差速锁状态下ꎬ可以将差速器组件视为一个
整体ꎬ使用 Ｃｒｅｏ Ｐａｒａｍｅｔｒｉｃ 绘制出差速器的三维模
型ꎮ 为了方便软件的计算处理ꎬ对三维模型进行简
化处理并划分网格ꎮ 一般来说ꎬ网格划分得越细致ꎬ
轮的位置添加载荷ꎮ
２.３ 静力分析结果
根据设定的材料、约束以及载荷ꎬ对差速器进行
就越大ꎬ如图 ４ 所示(图中左边为爪部最外圆位置)ꎮ
实际情况也是如此ꎬ在恶劣工况下ꎬ差速器爪部
图 ２ 差速器的网格划分图
上的每一个齿柱都是从红色区域开始撕裂ꎬ然后整
个脱落ꎬ导致零件失效ꎮ
如图 ３ 所示ꎬ爪根的最大应力为 ７７２.９８ ＭＰａꎬ已超
２.２ 设定材料、约束以及载荷
差速器外壳材料为 ５５ 钢ꎬ热处理为整体调质ꎬ
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英国文学（上）
英国文学（上）Exercises:1. After the fall of the Roman Empire and the withdrawal of Roman troops from Albion , the aboriginal _Cletic____ population of the larger part of the island was soon conquered and almost totally exterminated by the Teutonic tribes of ___Angles_ , __Saxons__ , and __Jutes___ who came from the continent and settled in the island , naming its central part __Anglio___ , or England.2. For nearly __400__ years prior to the coming of the English , British had been a Roman province . In__410_, the Rome withdrew their legions from Britain to protect herself against swarms of Teutonic invaders.3. The literature of early period falls naturally into two divisions, __pagan_and __Christian__.4.__The song of Beowulf__ can be justly termed England‘s national epic and its hero _Beowulf___—one of the national heroes of the English people.5. The Song of Beowulf reflects events which took place on the _European Continent___ approximately at the beginning of the _6th___ century , when the forefathers of the Jutes lived in the southern part of the __ Scandinavian peninsula __ and maintained close relations with kindred tribes ,e.g. with the __Danes__who lived on the other side of the straits.6. Among the early Anglo-Saxon poets we may mention _Caedmon___ who lived in the half of the ___7th_ century and who wrote a poetic Paraphrase of the Bible.7. __Caedmon__ is the first know religious poet of Engla nd . He is known as the father of English song.8. The didactic poem The Christ was produced by __Cynewulf__ .9. The most important work of __a__ is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles , which is regarded as the best monument of the old English prose.a. Alfred the Greatb. Caedmonc. Cynewulfd. Venerable Bede10. Who is the monster half-human who had mingled thirty warriors in The Song of Beowulf?ca. Hrothgatb. Heorotc. Grendeld. Beowulf11. ___b_ is the first important religious poet in English literature.a. Gynewulfb. Caedmonc. Shakespeared. Adam Bede12. The epic , The Song of Beowulf ,represents the spirit of _d__.a. Monksb. romanticistsc. sentimentalistsd. pagan13. Define the literary terms listed below. 1). Alliteration 2). Epic14. Please give brief description of The Song of Beowulf.Exercise:1.In the year __1066__, at the battle of _ Hasting___, the ___Normans_ headed by William Duke of Normandy, defeated the Anglo-Saxons.2. The literature with Normans brought to England is remarkable for its bright, __romantic__ tales of ___love_ and adventures, in marked contrast with the __strength__ and __somberness__ of Anglo-Saxon poetry.3. English literature of Anglo-Norman period is also a combination of __French__ and _Saxon___ elements.4. Defines the literary terms listed below.(1) Anglo-Norman Romance (2) Middle EnglishExercise:1. In the 14th century, the two most important writers are __William Langland__ and Chaucer.2. In the 15th century, there is only one important prose writer whose name is __Sir Thomas Malory__ . He wrote an important work called Morte d’Arthur.3. Geoffrey Chaucer ,the ―__father of English poetry__‖ and one of the greatest narrative poets of England, was born in London in about the year 1340.4. Chaucer‘s masterpiece is _The Canterbury Tales__,one of the most works in all literature.5.The _general prologue__ provides a frame work for the tales in The Canterbury Tales, and it comprises a group of vivid pictures of various medieval figures.6. Chaucer created in The Canterbury Tales a strikingly brilliant and picturesque panorama of _his time and his country___.7. The Canterbury Tales opens with a general “prologue”where we are told of a company of pilgrims that gathered at __Tabard__ Inn in Southwark ,a suburb of London.8. Chaucer believes in the right of man to __earthly__ happiness.9.The name of the ―jolly innkeeper‖ in The Canterbury Tales is __Harry Bailey__,who proposes that each pilgrim of the __30__ should tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way back.10.The pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales are on their way to the shrine of __St. Thomas Becket‘s __ at a place named Canterbury.11.Despite the enormous plan , The Canterbury Tales in fact contains a general ―prologue‖ and only _24__ tale , of which two are left unfinished.12.In contradistinction to the __alliterative__ verse of Anglo-Saxon poetry , Chaucer chose the metrical from which laid the foundation of the English __T onico-syllabic___ verse.13. Who is the ― father of English poetry ‖ and one of the greatest narrative poets of English?bA . Christopher Marlow B. Geoffrey ChaucerC. W. ShakespeareD. Alfred the Great14. When he died, Chaucer was buried in _a___ the Poet‘s Corner.A．Westminster Abbey B. NormandyC. CanterburyD. Southwark15. Chaucer‘s earliest work of any le ngth is his __c__ a translation of the French ―Roman de la Rose‖, which was a love allegory enjoying widespread popularity in the 13th and 14thcenturies throughout Europe.A. Troilus and CriseydeB. A Red Red RoseC. Romance of the RoseD. Piers the Plowman16. Chaucer composes a long narrative poem named __b___ based on Boccaccio‘s poem ―Filostrato‖.A. The Legend of Good WomenB. Troilus and CriseydeC. Sir Gawain and the Green KnightD. Beowulf17. In his literary development, Chaucer was influenced by three literatures. Which one is not true?dA. French literatureB. Italian literatureC. English literatureD. German literature18. There are various kinds of ballads _historical___, __legendary__, __fantanstical__, __lyrical__ and ___homorous__.19. In the numerous __border ballads__, the age-long strugglebetween the Scots and the English is reflected.20. Bishop __Thomas Perry__ was among the first to take a literary interest in ballads.21. Robin Hood, a __Saxon__ by birth, was an outlaw, a robber but he robbed only the rich and never molested the poor and needy.22. The first mention of Robin Hood in literature is in Langland‘s ___Piers the Plowman__.23. Define the literary terms listed below. (1) Ballad (2) Heroiccouplet24. Comment on Geoffrey Chaucer and his The Canterbury Tales. Exercise:1. The 16th century in England was a period of the breaking up of __feudal __ relation and the establishing of the foundations of __capitalism__.2. Because the wool trade was rapidly growing in bulk , it was s time when , according to Thomas More , ―__shape devoured man__ ‖.3. __King Henry the VIII__ broke off with the Pope , dissolved all the monasteries and Abbeys in the country , confiscated their lands proclaimed himself head of __Church of England__.4. Absolute monarchy in England reached its summit during the reign of __Queen Elizabeth I__.5. Together with the development of bourgeois relationships andformation of the English national state this period is marked by a Flourishing of national culture known as the __Renaissance__.6.__Thomas More_wrote his _Utopia__in which he gave a profound and truthful picture of people‘s sufferings and put forwards his ideal of a future happy society.7._Thomas Wyatt__was the first to introduce the Italian sonnet into English literature.8. Edmund Spenser was the author of the greatest epic poem of _The Faire Queene___.9. Define the literary terms listed below. (1)renaissance (2)Spenserian StanzaExercise:1.Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and __Macbeth___ are generally reg arded as Shakespea re‘s four great tragedies.2. During the 22 years of his literary work, Shakespeare produced __37__ plays, __2__ narrative poems and __154___ sonnets.3. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus is one of ___Christopher Marlowe__‘s best pl ays.4. __Edmund Spenser__ is often referred to as ― the poet‘s poet‖.5. ―Shall I compare thee to a summer‘s day‖ is one of _Shakespeare‘s___ best known sonnets.6. In the __Elizabethan__ Period, William Shakespeare is thegreatest writer of England.7. Define the literary terms listed below: Dramatic Irony8. Comment on William Shakespeare and The Merchant of Venice.9. Comment on William Shakespeare and Hamlet.Exercises:1.Pope described Francis Bacon as ― the _wisest__, _brightest__,__meanest_ of man kind‖.2. Ba con‘s works may be divided into three classes, the _philosophy__, the __professional_, the _literary__ works.3. The final edition of Bacon‘s essays contains __58_ essays.4. The 17th century was a period when _absolute monarchy__ impeded the further development of capitalism in England and the _bourgeoisie__ could no longer bear the sway of __landed nobility_.5. The government of James I was a __despotism_ based on the theory of the divine right of kings.6. There were religious division and confusion and a long bitter struggle between the people‘s Parliament and theThrone--- __Puritans_ fighting against the _Cavaliers__ who helped the king.7. England became a commonwealth under the leadership of __Oliver Cromwell_.8. After _Oliver Cromwell__‘s d eath, monarchy as again restored (1660). It was called the period of the Restoration____.9. The Glorious Revolution in _1688__ meant three things the supremacy of _Parliament__, the beginning of _modern England__, and the final triumph of the principle of _political liberty__.10. The Puritans believed in __simplicity_ of life.11. The Revolution Period is also called _the Puritan Age__, because the English Revolution was carried out under a religious cloak.12. Define the literary term – Blank verse.13. The first thing to strike the reader is Donne‘s extraordinary _frankness__ and penetrating _realism__. The next is the _cynicism__ which marks certain of the lighter poems and which represents a conscious reaction from the extreme __idealism__ of woman encouraged by the Petrarchan tradition.14. Donne entered the church in 1615, where he rose rapidly to be Dean of _St Paul‘s Cathedral__, and the most famous preacher of his time.15. Milton‘s father was a __Puritan_, but not so harsh as most of the _Puritans__ of his day.16. Milton opposed the __Monarchic_ party and gave all his energies to the writing of __pamphlets_ dedicated to the people‘s liberties.17. Paradise Lost tells how __Satan_ rebelled against God and how _Adam__ and __Eve_ were driven out of Eden.18. Paradise Lost presents the author‘s view in an_allegorical__, _religious__ form.19. The poem Paradise Lost consists of _12__ books.20. Paradise Lost is based on the __Bibelical__ legend of the imaginary progenitors of the human race --- __Adam_ and __Eve_ , and involves God and his eternal adversary _Santan__ in its plot.21. In Revolution period __John Milton__ towers over his age as William Shakespeare towers over the Elizabethan Age and as Chaucer over the Medieval period.22. During the civil war and the commonwealth, there were two leadersin England, Cromwell, the man of action, and _John Milton__ the man of thought.23. In 1637Milton wrote the finest pastoral elegy in English, ―__Lycidas_‖to memorize the tragic death of a Cam bridge friend.24. Milton wrote his masterpiece __Paradise Lost_ during his blindness.25. Comment on John Milton and his Paradise Lost.Exercise:1. Milton and Bunyan represented the extreme of English life in the 17th century. One gave us the only epic since _Beowulf___, the other gave us the only great _allegry___.2. Bunyan‘s most important work is _Pilgrim‘s Progess___, writtenin the old-fashioned medieval form of __allegory__ and ___dream_.3. In The Pilgrim‘s Progress, the story begins with a man called __Christian__setting out with a book in his hand and a great load on his back from the city of __Destuction__.4. Christian has two objects,--- to get rid of his __bureden__, which holds the sins and fears of his life, and to make his way tothe __Celestial City_.5. John Bunyan gives a vivid and satirical description of __Vanity Fair__ which is the symbol of London at the time of Restoration.6. The literature of the middle and later periods of the 17th century cultimated in the poetry of _John Milton___, in the prose writing of __John Bunyan__, and also in the plays and literary criticism of ___John Dryden_.Exercise:1. No sooner were the people in control of the government than they divided into hostile parties: the liberal _Whigs___, and the conservative __Tories__.2. Another feature of the 18th century was the rapid development of __social life__.3. The Enlighteners believed in the power of reason and therefore the 18th century is also called ―the age of _Reason___‖.4. The Enlightenment on the whole was an expression of struggle ofthe progressive class of _bourgeoisie__ against __feudalism__.5. The enlighteners repudiate the false religious doctrines about the __viciousness__ of human nature, and prove that man is born ___kind_ and __honest__, and if he becomes depraved, it is only due to the influence of _corrupted__ social environment.6. It is simply for convenience that we study 18th century writings in three main divisions: the reign of so-called __neo-classicism__, the revival of __romatic_poetry, and the beginnings of the ___modern novel__.7. The essays and stories of Addison and Steele devoted not only to social problems, but also to __private_ life_ and __adventures__.8. Pope was a man of extraordinary __wit__ and extensive __learning__, and his contemporaries considered him as the highest __authority__ in matters of literary art.9. The image of an enterprising Englishman of the 18th century was created by Daniel Defoe in his famous novel__Robinson Crusoe__.10. ___Alexander Pope_ is the leading figure of neo-classicism in the early period of the 18th century.11. Robinson Crusoe is largely an _adventure__ story, rather than the study of __human character__ which Defoe probably intended it to be.12. In The Shortest Way with the Dissenters, in a vein of grim _humor__ which recalls Swift‘s Modest Proposal Defoe advocatedhanging all dissenting ministers, and sending all member of the free churches into exile.13. The full name of Robinson Crusoe is __The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe__.14. The story of Robinson Crusoe itself is real enough to have come straight from a sailor‘s __logbook__.15. Robinson named __Friday__ to the saved savage.16. Define the literary term, Picaresque Novels.Exercise:1.The 18th century in English literature is an age of __Prose___.2.Swift is born of English parents in ___Dublin Ireland___.3.Swift was the most remarkable __satirist__ in the 18th centurywho criticized the new bourgeois-aristocratic society of his age with out mercy.4. Jonathan Swift‘s masterpiece is __Gulliver‘s Travels__.5. Gulliver‘s adventures begins with __Liliputians__, who are sosmall that Gulliver is a giant among them.6. The country in Gulliver‘s Travels is __Houyhnhnms__, wherehorses are the real people and human beings , __Yahoos___ are their filthy servants.7. In the country of __Brobdingnag __, Gulliver is but pygmy.8. Gulliver‘s third voyage is occupied with a visit to the flying islandof __Laputa__.9. A Modest Proposal is made to __English__ government to relievethe poverty of _Irish___ people.10. The Tale of a Tub is a satire on the various __churches__ of the day.Exercise:1.Henry Fielding is the greatest novelist of the __18th__ century.2.Fielding‘s fir st novel , _Joseph Andrews___ was inspir ed by thesuccess of Richardson‘s novel Pamela.3. Fielding‘s later novels are ___Jonathon Wild___, the story of arogue , which suggests Defoe‘s narrati ve ; __The History of _Tom Jones_, a Foundling_(1749) his best work; and__Amelia____ (1751) , the story of a good wife in contrast with an unworthy husband.4.In his works Fielding strongly criticizes __social relations__ in theContemporary England.5. Fielding hates that hypocrisy which tries to conceal itself under Amask of __morality__.6. The lack of __spirituality__ of the age finds the most ample expression in his page.7.To read Milton‘s __Il Penseroso__ and Gray‘s is to see thebeginning and the perfection of that ―literature of melancholy‖which largely Occupied English poets for more than a century.8. The author of the famous Elegy is the most scholarly andwell-balanced of all the early __romantic__ poets.9. Oliver Goldsmith was one of the most __versatile__ of author andmade distinguished contributions in several literary forms.10. Goldsmith was born in __Ireland__ , the son of an __Anglican__clergyman whose geniality he inherited and whose improvidence he imitated.11. As ___essayest_ ,Goldsmith is among the best of the century.12. As a __poet__ he makes the riming couples as natural and simple as his prose.13. The Deserted Village is a (n )__idylice__ story of the family of aclergy-man after they have lost their money and are living in poverty.14. Goldsmith‘s two comedies , The Good-natured Man and She Stoopsto Conquer met with opposition because the fashion wasthen for __sentimental__ comedy.15. The two plays by Sheridan and _Goldsmith___ are the only plays ofthe 18th century that have been kept alive upon the modem stage.16. Richard Brinsley Sheridan was, like Goldsmith ,a (n) _Irish__man.17. His famous comedy , _The Rivals__ , was written in histwenty-four year.18. Sheridan‘s famous comedy _The School of Scadal___, written in1777, is considered his masterpiece.19. Define the literary term, comedy of humors.20. Of all the romantic poets of the 18th century ,Blake is the mostindependent and the most _original___.21. For greater part of his life Blake was the poet of inspiration alone ,following no man‘ s __lead__ , obeying no voice but that which be heard in his own mystic __soul__.22. Beyond learning to __read__ and __write__, he received no education.23. His only formal education was in __art__.24. At 14, Blake apprenticed for seven years to a well-known __engraver__ , James Basire.25. After three years at Felpham ,Blake moved back to London , determined to follow his ―__Divine Vision___‖ though it meant a life of isolation , misunderstanding , and poverty.26. The underlying theme in Songs of Innocence is the all-pervading presence of divine and __sympathy__ , even in troubleand sorrow. 27.In 1790 Blake engraved his principal prose , ___The Marriage of Heaven and Hell_ , in which, with vigorous satire and telling apologue , he takes up his Revolutionary position.28. The__Songs of Experienc__ (1794) are in marked contrast with the Songs of Innocence.29. The brightness of the earlier work gives place to a sense of _gloom___ and mystery , and of the power of __evil__.30. In Jerusalem we have expounded Blake ?s theory of __Imagination__ .31. The greatest of __Scottish__ poets is Robert Burns.32. In 1786. when he was 27 years old ,Burns resolved to abandon the struggle and seek position in the far-off island of __Jamaica__.33.Burns wrote some __patriotic__ poems , in which he expressed his deep l ove for his motherlan d ,such as ―My Heart’s in the Highlands‖. 34. Burns‘ poetry bone of the bone and flesh of the flesh of the __Scottish__ common people.。
关于简爱论文（共五则范文）
关于简爱论文（共五则范文）第一篇：关于简爱论文论简爱对传统“灰姑娘” 的反抗【摘要】：作为世界童话著名形象的“灰姑娘”一直以来都是以男人为主体的父权社会的产物。
她命运悲惨，等待男人的救赎。
成为男人的附庸。
夏洛蒂·勃朗特笔下的简爱有着跟“灰姑娘”相同的命运。
虽然在她也不能免俗，对男人在一定程度上显示了其依赖性，但她的人格独立和平等意识却对传统的“灰姑娘”形象模式进行了全新的诠释。
【关键词】：灰姑娘；简爱；传统；反叛1、与同样身世凄惨的灰姑娘相比。
简爱并没有在恶势力，欺压她的人面前让步，而是昂起头，挺起胸，用坚定的声音向这个由男人控制的不公平的世界发出了自己的最强音在传统的童话故事中，“灰姑娘”总是处在社会的底层。
遭受社会的欺凌。
但是命运却让她邂逅了“白马王子”，得到了王子的爱情，并和王子过着幸福的生活。
在这种童话故事中，“王子”们是“灰姑娘”们的救赎。
因此，“灰姑娘”的形象还是由传统社会中的男人们制定的。
在父权制的社会结构中，根据男性需要而建构的这种灰姑娘的形象，她们应当是柔弱，依赖，谦恭和听话的，甘愿为他人做出奉献，并等待着男人的施舍和救赎。
“可怜的小女儿默默地忍受着这一切，有苦只往肚里咽，她不敢对父亲讲后母的半句不是，那样，父亲反而会责备她，因为他对老婆言听计从”。
从表面上看，夏洛蒂·勃朗特的《简爱》完全是由这种传统的“灰姑娘”小说题材建构起来的——一个平凡的女主人公。
得到一个有钱男人的青睐，并最终嫁给对方，过上了美满的婚姻生活。
然而，作者脱离父权制文化对女性角色的传统界定，比与她同时期的小说家更大胆地对女性自我进行重新定义。
正如灰姑娘的命运，《简爱》中的女主角也遭受了一系列坎坷，悲惨的生活经历。
在盖兹海德府和劳渥德学校，小简爱遭到了由自己的“孤儿”身世所带来的歧视和虐待。
成年后，在桑菲尔德庄园，在简爱与罗彻斯待的感情之路上，作者又构造了一个疯女人伯莎和一个坏女人英格拉姆小姐这两个障碍。
ThecaskofAmontillado文学分析（全英文）
Literary Analysis Essay of The cask of AmontilladoI want to talk about the suspense in the story—the cask of Amontillado. The writer Edgar Allen Poe uses a lot of suspense in the story. So when readers read the story they are deep attractive in it. The writer creates suspense by using foreshadowing and conflict. And it makes the suspense more dramatic and easy to understand.In the short story the cask of Amontillado, Edgar Allen Poe creates the main characters by the dialogue between them. The dialogue shows how dark and evil the protagonist is. The writer also mirrors the inner change of the main characters by using the conversation between them and some detailed depiction. Finally, the background of the writer is also very important for you to understand the theme of the story. The more you know about the writer, the deeper you will understand the story.The suspense in the story is very artful and attractive. The suspense also makes the beginning of the story more clearly. The whole story goes on very smoothly. Y ou can see the suspense almost everywhere in the story. But the writer uses many different ways such as foreshadowing and conflict to make them look different and dramatic.There are some examples of suspense in the short story. First, it is in the first paragraph of the story, Montresor said he must not punish but punish with impunity. (Edgar, 1) In my point of view, this is the first suspense in the story. It let the readers think about the two characters. The readers may have a first impression on one of the characters----Montresor, who is evil and revengeful. However, which evil ways Montresor used to punish Fortunato, every reader want to know it. Indeed, this is a very useful suspense to attract readers.The second suspense in the story is in the third paragraph. The key word is immolation. Similarly, the word shows the protagonist is an evil avenger. On the other hand, the word immolation shows that the protagonist would kill the antagonist in the end of the story.There is the third suspense in the middle of the story. The protagonist said that he cared about the illness of the antagonist, so they will go back because the antagonist is rich, respected, beloved, and happy. The health of the antagonist is more precious. (Edgar, 3) The forth suspense is in the forth page of the story. The two characters walked through the long walls of piled skeletons. In my view, it foreshadows the death of the antagonist------Fortunado. In addition, …its wall had been lined with human remains, piled to the vault overhead.‟(Edgar, 5) It is also suspense in the story.All in all, there is much suspense in the short story. The writer Edgar Allen Poe creates and sets them into the story gimmicky, as a result, the readers will have a deep impression on this story, when readers start reading this book, they cannot give up. Also, the writer describes the characters by using suspense. Y ou really want to know the characterization of the characters. Such as the darkness of the protagonist. Most important, the readers are focus on the polt of the story, they will clearly know the beginning, the climax, and the end of the story. So the readers might think about that they are one of the characters in the story. Then they will a deeper and particular considering of the story.In addition to suspense, Edgar Allen Poe uses the dialogue between the two main characters to make them fresher and more lifelikeness. The readers can easily distinguish the protagonist and the antagonist, but how the writer do it, the answer is the writer creates different dialogue for the characters have difference in ideology and characterization.Furthermore, the dialogues used in the story are close to real life, the readers can read them smoothly because they are spoken dialogue.Here are some examples of the dialogue in the story.First of all, the first dialogue between the two characters is in the sixth paragraph. The antagonist said: “Amontillado! A pipe! In the middle of the carnival.”(Edgar, 1)Then he repeated the word …Amontillado‟ several times. Surely, it shows that the antagonist is crazy about wine.The second example is in the middle of the story, after the antagonist coughed. The protagonist said: “Come, we will go back, your health is precious.” (Edgar, 4) Y ou can see that the protagonist is untruthful, he is kind to the antagonist but he really wants to kill him. The third dialogue is about mason. The antagonist asked the protagonist: “Are you the masons?”The protagonist replied:”Y es, yes, I am a mason.”“Y ou are the masons! Impossible”said the antagonist. (Edgar, 4) This conversation shows the characterization of the antagonist. He is got above himself. He thinks he is the mason and defies the people who are not as rich as him.There is the forth dialogue, the protagonist said: “Indeed, it is very dam. Once more let me implore you to return. No? Then I must positively leave you.” Answered the antagonist at once: “The Amontillado!”(Edgar, 5) Similarly, you can know the interest and the characterization of them.The final dialogue is in the end of the story. The antagonist laughed in a strange voice: “Y es, the Amontillado, but is it not getting late? Will not they be awaiting us at the palazzo, the lady Fortunato and the rest? Let us be gone.” (Edgar, 6) The antagonist still thinks it is ajoke make on him. Then the protagonist replied: “Y es, let us be gone.” From this, you can know how evil and untruthful the protagonist is. But after that, there is an exciting change. The protagonist called the other again and again: “Fortunato,”no answer, “Fortunato,” still no answer, it was horrible silence. The antagonist did not want the protagonist to feel satisfied. And the antagonist wants to make the protagonist feel guilty.In a word, the conversation between the two characters is very important; it can help the readers know about the characterization, the hobby and the thought of the characters. On the other hand, the dialogue is also a clue in the story; it shows how the story goes on. Readers can clearly know about the beginning, the climax and the end of the story. Y ou can also know the thinking ways of the characters.Edgar Allen Poe also used some detailed depiction in the story to represent the inner change of the characters. Y ou can find the detailed depiction in the dialogue, or in some other places in the story. The detailed depiction is very important for you to understand For instance, at the beginning of the story, the antagonist possessed himself of my arms; and putting on a mask of black silk and drawing a roquelaire closely about my person. This series of movement is detailed depiction; it shows that the antagonist is crazy about wine. He really wants to taste the Amontillado.There is the second example after it; the antagonist emptied a flagon of De Grave. His eyes flashed with a fierce light. He laughed and threw the bottle upwards with a strange gesticulation. (Edgar, 4) This is another series of detailed movement, from the words, like flash, fierce and throw, it surely sets off the arrogance of the antagonist. Unfortunately, the evil protagonist is beside him and he is the man who really wants to punish him. So you canimagine how angry and surprised the protagonist was at that moment.The third is in the end of the story: A succession of loud and shrill screams, bursting suddenly from the throat of the chained form, seemed to thrust me violently back. For a brief moment I hesitated, I trembled. Unsheathing my rapier, I began to grope with it about the recess; but the thought of an instant reassured me. (Edgar, 6) This is a detailed depiction. In my point of view, it represents the inner change of the protagonist. From scared to hesitated and then to satisfied.In a word, the detailed depiction is one of the most important parts of the story. It shows the inner change of the characters and depicts the characters. More importantly, the detailed depiction connects the polt of the story. Also, a good depiction can attract the readers.Edgar Allen Poe was born in 1809, and he wrote the story the cask of Amontillado in 1846. He blazons force the mysticism. And he used to write article about revenge, horror and death. The writer uses many ways such as parable, irony, metaphor and foreshadowing to create dark and suffocative situation. Readers can be easily taken into the story. There is an example in the story.At the most remote end of the crypt there appeared another less spacious. Its walls had been lined with human remains, piled to the vault overhead, in the fashion of the great catacombs of Paris. (Edgar, 4)All in all, the writer Edgar Allen Poe creates a story full of horror and darkness. He uses suspense, dialogue and detailed depiction. Because of these, he makes the story the cask of Amontillado really attract the readers, it makes deep impression on them. Also, the two main characters are very easy for readers to separate, because Edgar uses different kind ofdialogue for each of the character.By creating the suspense in the story, Edgar makes a clue in the story. It shows the development of the whole story. The suspense can also guide the readers read the story. For example, it sometimes shows what happened next and how the characters are. Further, Edgar uses the suspense to attract the readers, to make them focus on the story.In doing so, Edgar Allen Poe creates a kind of story about revenge, horror and death, different from the story always filled with justice and kindness. Although the cask of Amontillado is about revenge and other dark thing, the story still have good logic. So you can know about the reason and the result of everything happen in the story. According to this, people regard Edgar Allen Poe as …the founder of detective story.‟。
巴赫金.陀思妥耶夫斯基诗学问题 英文文献
巴赫金.陀思妥耶夫斯基诗学问题英文文献Mikhail Bakhtin's Poetics and the Works of Fyodor DostoevskyMikhail Bakhtin, the renowned Russian literary critic and philosopher, is widely recognized for his groundbreaking contributions to the understanding of literary works, particularly the writings of Fyodor Dostoevsky. Bakhtin's analysis of Dostoevsky's poetics has had a profound impact on the way we interpret and appreciate the complexities of the renowned Russian author's literary oeuvre.At the heart of Bakhtin's exploration of Dostoevsky's poetics lies the concept of the polyphonic novel. Bakhtin argued that Dostoevsky's works depart from the traditional monologic structure of the novel, where a single authorial voice dominates the narrative. Instead, Dostoevsky's novels are characterized by a plurality of independent and fully developed voices, each with its own distinct perspective and worldview. This polyphonic approach, Bakhtin contends, allows for a genuine dialogue between the characters, where no single voice or ideology is privileged over the others.One of the key aspects of Bakhtin's analysis is his understanding of the role of the hero in Dostoevsky's novels. Bakhtin asserts thatDostoevsky's heroes are not passive objects of the author's design but rather autonomous individuals with the capacity to challenge and even contradict the author's own views. This notion of the hero as a fully autonomous and self-conscious being is central to Bakhtin's conception of the polyphonic novel.Furthermore, Bakhtin explores the concept of the "unfinalized" hero in Dostoevsky's works. He argues that Dostoevsky's characters are not static, predetermined entities but rather dynamic, ever-evolving individuals who resist being reduced to a single, fixed identity. This idea of the "unfinalized" hero is closely tied to Bakhtin's understanding of the polyphonic novel, where the characters are not merely vehicles for the author's ideas but active participants in the ongoing dialogue that constitutes the literary work.Bakhtin's analysis also delves into the role of language and discourse in Dostoevsky's novels. He suggests that Dostoevsky's works are characterized by a multiplicity of social and ideological languages, each with its own distinct perspective and mode of expression. This heteroglossia, as Bakhtin terms it, serves to undermine the notion of a single, authoritative voice and instead presents a cacophony of competing voices and worldviews.Moreover, Bakhtin's exploration of Dostoevsky's poetics extends to the notion of the carnivalesque, a concept that he sees as central tothe author's literary approach. The carnivalesque, in Bakhtin's view, represents a subversive and liberating force that challenges traditional hierarchies and social norms. He argues that Dostoevsky's novels often incorporate elements of the carnival, such as the inversion of power structures, the blurring of boundaries between the sacred and the profane, and the celebration of the body and its functions.Bakhtin's insights into Dostoevsky's poetics have had a lasting impact on the field of literary criticism and have influenced generations of scholars and readers. By illuminating the complex and multifaceted nature of Dostoevsky's literary works, Bakhtin has helped us to better understand the profound philosophical and existential questions that lie at the heart of the Russian author's oeuvre.In conclusion, Mikhail Bakhtin's exploration of Dostoevsky's poetics has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of the Russian author's literary genius. Through concepts such as the polyphonic novel, the "unfinalized" hero, and the carnivalesque, Bakhtin has provided a nuanced and insightful perspective on the rich tapestry of Dostoevsky's literary universe. His work continues to inspire and challenge scholars and readers alike, inviting us to engage with the complexities and contradictions that lie at the core of Dostoevsky's enduring literary legacy.。
The-flea全诗赏析
注意观察这只跳蚤，就会看到你对我的拒绝显得多么渺小；它首先吮吸我的血液，然后轮到你，于是我们的血液在它的体内融为一体.你知道，这根本谈不上是一种罪孽,也不是羞耻或是失去少女的贞洁.然而它没有求婚就尽情享受,身体膨胀，对合而为一的血液过于迁就，这一点啊，比我们的行为更胜一筹。
哦，停手，别伤害一只跳蚤中的三条性命，我们在它体内几乎享受着比婚后更多的温情.这只跳蚤就是你和我的共同形象,这是我们的婚床和婚礼的殿堂； 尽管父母反对,你也不愿，我们依然相融， 并且隐居在黑玉色的活生生的墙壁之中。
尽管出于习惯你具有将我谋杀的用心， 可也不要再增添自杀和亵渎神灵 以及谋杀三条性命的三种罪行。
既然用无辜的血液将你的指甲染红， 这是一种多么残忍的出人意料的行动？ 这只跳蚤究竟犯了什么样的罪孽， 无非是从你的身上吮吸了一滴血液？ 而且你也以胜利者的口吻说过 你发现你我现在都没有变得更弱。
的确如此，那么，惧怕就显得毫无必要， 屈从于我，你的名誉也不会损失丝毫。
否则就虚度年华，如跳蚤之死也将你生命消耗。
The Flea" is a poem about class distinction ， marriage and strugglebetween religion conception and physical needs 。
• Direct address ： Marke but this flea.。
.• Repetition ： And marke in this• Conceits ： Flea 〉 Church > Flea• First stanza: Contemplative and whimsical•Second stanza: Becomes more absurd ， pace gets faster• Third stanza: Slowing and reversal of argument.• Not a good idea to write down, but interesting to note that the pace of the poem follows that of sex - a gradual build-up of intensity leading to the sudden, climactic 。
异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估
第53卷第1期2021年1月力学学报Chinese Journal of Theoretical and Applied MechanicsVol. 53, No. 1Jan.，2021高速列车设计和服役关键力学问题专题异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估I吴圣川*，2)罗艳*王文静t，3)李永恒**胡春明t f、西南交通大学牵引动力国家重点实验室，成都610031)t(北京交通大学机械与电子控制工程学院，北京100044)"(中国国家铁路集团有限公司科技和信息化部，北京100844)n(中科院高能物理研宄所中国散裂中子源，广东东莞523803)摘要车轴是高速列车关键承载部件，承受着源自车体、轨道的各种载荷，其疲劳行为直接关乎列车运行安全.疲劳裂纹往往具有较强的隐蔽性和突然性，由车轴断裂发生的列车脱轨事件具有灾难性，因此确保车轴在运行中不发生失效事故，对高速列车可靠运行至关重要.高速列车实际运营中，车轴外表面受到各种异物击打，会形成深度达毫米级的缺陷，破坏车轴表面完整性，严重威胁车辆安全.本研究采用空气炮装置预制合金钢车轴小试样异物致损（foreign object damage,FOD)缺陷，采用扫描电子显微镜和体视显微镜观测损伤特征.开展高周疲劳试验获得光滑试样和F0D损伤小试样的疲劳S-7V曲线，考虑载荷模式、表面质量和尺寸系数推证出全尺寸车轴的疲劳性能.断口分析表明，裂纹于FOD附近多处位置萌生，并在不同平面内连续扩展，最终汇聚为一个半椭圆形裂纹.基于Peterson公式和El Haddad模型估算异物冲击速度100 m/s和138 m/s试样的理论疲劳极限远低于试验结果，过于保守；同时也远低于标准推荐值，偏于危险.最后，采用修正的Miner•理论公式估算含FOD实物车轴的服役寿命，满足最低25年的服役寿命.关键词空心车轴，损伤容限，异物致损，剩余寿命，高速铁路中图分类号：0346.1 文献标识码：A doi: 10.6052/0459-1879-20-228FATIGUE STRENGTH AND RESIDUAL LIFETIME ASSESSMENT OF RAILWAY AXLES SUBJECTED TO FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGEW u Shengchuan*，2)Luo Yan*W ang Wenjingt3)Li Yongheng**H u Chunming+T*(State Key Laboratory of Traction Power, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China)f (School of M echanical, Electrical and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing100044, China)**{Department of S cience, Technology and Information Technology, China Notional Railway Group Co., Ltd, Beijing100844, China)(China Spallation Neutron Source, Institute of H igh Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Science, Dongguan 523803. Guangdong, China)Abstract As the key load-carrying component of high-speed vehicles,the axle bears various loads from both body and track,the service performance is directly related to the high-speed railway safety.On account of the fatigue crack is often2020~06-29收稿，2020-11-10录用，2020-丨丨-11网络版发表.丨>中国铁路总公司系统性重大项目自主探索研究课题（？2019>1002,202丨丁凡_丁()6)，牵引动力国家重点实验室川藏铁路项目群（2019-〇05)和北 京市科技新星计划（Z191100001119001)资助.2>吴圣川，研究员，主要研究方向：车辆结构完整性评估.E-mail: **************.cn3)王文静，教授，主要研究方向：结构的损伤、疲劳与断裂.E-mail: ***************.cn引用格式：吴圣川，罗艳，王文静，李永恒，胡春明.异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估.力学学报，2021，53(1): 84-95 Wu Shengchuan, Luo Yan, Wang Wenjing. Li Yongheng, Hu Chunming. Fatigue strength and residual lifetime assessment of railway___________axles subjected to foreign object damage. Chinese Journal o f Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 2021, 53( 1): 84-95___________________第1期吴圣川等：异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估85concealed and sudden,the train derailment caused by axle fracture is catastrophic.Therefore,it is very important for the safe and reliable operation of high-speed railway to ensure that the axle does not break suddenly during operation.Foreign object damage(FOD)larger than millimeter frequently happens during the running of high-speed railway axles,causing damage to the surface integrity of the axle,which significantly induces the safety problem.In the present study,by using a commercial compressed-gas device,foreign object damage was prepared on alloying steel specimens from high-speed railway hollow axles.The damage features were then observed using the stereomicroscopy and scanning electronic microscopy(SEM).The fatigue S-N curves and fatigue limits were acquired for smoothed and FODed specimens under high cycle fatigue (HCF)experiments.In view of the load variation,surface quality and size between the small-sized specimens and full-scale axles,the fatigue properties of FODed specimens were modified to deserve the fatigue performance of full-scale axles.Through the fracture surface analysis,it was found that the multi crack initiations occurred in the FOD crater,and the cracks propagated continuously in different planes to converge into a semi-elliptic crack.Besides, theoretical fatigue limits from Peterson formula and El Haddad model under two impact velocities(100 m/s and 138 m/s) were more conservative than those of experimental value and also far from standard value,showing an over dangerous design.Finally,the service life of FODed axles calculated by the modified Miner formula can satisfy the25 years design lifetime of high-speed hollow axles.Key words hollow railway axles,damage tolerance,foreign object damage,remaining life,high-speed railway引言铁路运输因具有成本低、运量大、速度快、安 全性高等特点，己成为地面交通的大动脉，备受世界 各国的青睐车轴是高速列车安全可靠运营的核心部件之一，其服役状态直接关乎车辆安全，实际运 行中车轴表面诱发的任何超标缺陷都有可能导致灾 难性事故a与欧洲和日本相比，中国高铁的运行环 境极端复杂，甚至同一线路会穿越超长隧道、桥梁、戈壁、风沙、极寒、高温、腐蚀、缺氧、辐照等区 域等.当列车在这些环境中保持超长时间高速运行 时，车轴表面很有可能受到空气动力学效应卷起的 道砟、冰雪等各型异物击伤车轴，形成异物致损(foreign object damage,FOD)缺陷.FOD 的引入不仅破坏 了表面完整性，而且使车轴内部金属基体暴露于盐 雾、雨水等腐蚀环境中，进一步降低车轴的抗疲劳断 裂性能.2006年，澳大利亚就发生了一起道砟击伤车 轴形成疲劳裂纹引起车轴断裂及列车脱轨的严重事 故|4_5].随着我国高速列车运行速度的不断提高及服 役环境的日益复杂和极端，FO D被认为是影响车辆 安全运行的重大隐患问题之一，应给于足够重视[4—6].FOD在材料表面形成体积型凹坑，破坏了部件 的表面完整性，严重降低了材料及结构的抗疲劳性 能.异物冲击过程中试件伤损主要有4种形式:（1)冲 击坑本身引起的几何应力集中效应;(2)外物冲击后底部材料塑性流动引起的组织变化;（3)缺口周围的 微观几何不连续损伤（如材料堆积、折叠、微裂纹 等);(4)缺口处残余应力（底部为压缩，边缘呈现拉伸 状态).目前研宄，多为航空航天中异物致损钛合 金叶片材料，在裂纹萌生和扩展及数值仿真方面做 了大量工作Nicholas等岡认为，材料损伤程度 与异物冲击速度有关，在一定范围内随着冲击速度 的提高，损伤程度增大.Ritchie等M分析了速度对钛 合金试件裂纹萌生的影响，当速度为200m/s时裂纹 在坑底萌生，当达到300 m/s时，裂纹萌生于缺陷边 缘.对于冲击角度的影响，Ruschau等_和Martinez 等1111发现，角度为30°的圆形异物造成的损伤大于 角度0°;当异物为块体时，角度50°和80°带来的损 伤比角度20°要小近年来，在无砟轨道和有砟轨道上运行的高速 列车车轴表面均发现了深度不一、形貌各异的异物 致损现象，初步分析应为强风或者空气动力学卷起 外物高速击打车轴所致，并且认为异物速度与列车 速度保持一致.截至目前，鲜有研究FO D致损高铁 车轴EA4T钢及疲劳性能研究工作.论文作者运用空 气炮开展圆形异物冲击车轴合金钢模拟，研究了不 同速度下FOD对车轴材料疲劳性能及服役寿命的 影响，初步构建了典型异物（模拟实际任意外物）致 损高铁空心车轴的损伤容限设计及服役性能评定方700 800 900 1000 1100 1200distance to the axle end/mm图3车轴F O D 的分布区域Fig. 3 Distributed FOD of railway axles1.3缺陷的尺寸如前所述，FO D 分别占合金钢EA 4T 车轴和碳素钢S 38C 车轴总缺陷的47.0%和43.4%，是最主要 和最危险的表面损伤形式.为此，采用工程中最常用 的复型法im 来测量车轴FOD 的尺寸和形貌.此外，车轴检修中的缺陷表征有深度和宽度两 个数据，深度可使用复型粉复型，而宽度则通过AC本论文首先统计国内外铁路车轴损伤类型，依 据实际合金钢车轴表面FO D 尺寸和形貌来预制出 球形体积缺陷.利用体式显微镜、扫描电子显微镜 (SEM )、高周疲劳试验机等深入研究了 FOD 对现役 高速列车空心车轴钢（EA 4T 或25CrMo 4)疲劳性能 及剩余寿命的影响.同时考虑到FOD 特征及几何尺 寸、表面质量、加载方式等因素对小试样疲劳性能 的影响，理论推证出实物车轴疲劳P -S -/V 曲线和疲 劳强度.最后，结合5级载荷谱估算了异物致损车轴 在变幅载荷作用下的服役寿命，以期为伤损铁路车 轴疲劳强度及寿命评价提供指导.1车轴表面损伤特征1.1缺陷的种类统计现役高铁车轴损伤分布，把表面损伤分为划 伤、磨损、锈蚀、裂纹和FOD 等5种.对合金钢EA 4T 车轴缺陷进行分析，得到如图1(a )所示的缺陷占scratch11.0%(a )合金钢车轴(a) Alloy steel axleothers1.9%(b )碳素钢车轴 (b) Carbon steel axle图1现役车轴表面缺陷种类及分布Fig. 1 Defect type and distribution of in-service railway axles比，其中划伤和FOD 两类缺陷约为89%;再对碳素钢S 38C 车轴表面缺陷统计分析（见图1(b ))， 划伤和FOD 两种缺陷比例超过90%131.由此可见，划 伤和FOD 是车轴的主要损伤特征.1.2缺陷的位置鉴于划伤和F O D 的高发性，对其分布位置进 一步统计.对于动车车轴，划伤分布在距非齿轮箱 轴端720〜1190 m m 之间，而FO D 分布在距轴端 700〜1160 mm 之间（如图2所示).从图3中还可以 看出，约88%的FOD 发生于轴端950〜1160 mm .图2多发划伤和F O D 的轴身区域Fig. 2 Scratch and FOD occurred locations of axle body86J j学报2021年第53卷o /o /3b o e o J U 3o J 3d第1期吴圣川等:异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估87一个尖端;（2)缺陷除存在一个主尖端外还存在次尖 端;(3)在整个缺陷宽度尺寸存在多个尖端（锯齿状);(4)较规则的椭圆形缺陷.试纸复型法得到.将复型法获得的FOD 缺陷深度和 宽度进行分析,发现最大宽度不超过7000 (xm ，最大 深度不超过500叫1 (见图4[4-5,15_16]).实际运用中，缺 陷限度多以深度作为评判指标，通常忽略其宽度对 于裂纹扩展特性的影响％因此将缺陷占比按照深 度进行划分，其中小于300 p m 占比为92%.尽管如 此，虽然深度为400〜500 |a m 的缺陷占比小，但危害 性较大，由此认为，400〜500 pm 深度的缺陷是车轴 FOD 最恶劣的情况.本文基于这一深度分布特征进 行车轴FOD 的模拟试验.width/mm(c )锯齿形(c) Zigzag图5车轴F O D 几何形貌Fig. 5 FOD morphology of the axle(d )规则椭圆形(d) Regular ellipse1.4缺陷的形貌必须指出，在研究缺陷对车轴疲劳性能的影响 中，仅依靠最大深度和宽度是不全面的，也有必要考 虑FOD 的几何形状变化.根据缺陷的复型测量，FOD 形貌主要包括如图5所示的几种形态：（1)缺陷存在〇100200300400500600700defect depth/|am图4车轴损伤深度和宽度分布Fig. 4 FOD depth and width points of the axlewidth/mm (a ) —个尖端(a) A tip width/mm(b )主尖端和数个次尖端(b ) Main tip and subtipsl u i u /q j p i MJ C J9J 3T3200•—average0 48 121620strain/%图6车轴表层材料的应力-应变曲线Fig. 6 Stress-strain curve of axle surface material2.2异物致损制备常用FOD 制备方法有：机械加工缺口法、准静 态挤压法、低速冲击法以及空气炮高速冲击法^181. 研宄表明，缺陷处残余应力对裂纹萌生有重要影响， 而机械加工难以得到有效的残余应力场.虽然低速 冲击和准静态挤压能够获得残余应力场，但它们都 无法真实模拟出高速飞行的异物与材料的动态作用 过程，不能得到微观特征.而航空发动机叶片FOD 研究中常用的空气炮装置能够克服这些不足，模拟 车轴运行中的异物冲击也比较准确114].由于FOD 多发生于轴身，并且约88%的FOD 发 生于距非齿轮箱端950〜1160 mm 处，在此处切取板 状试样进行缺陷预制，如图7所示.如图8所示，在气室内充入高压氮气，调节气压 控制弹体发射速度，在炮管末端使用光电测速装置 测定外物飞行速度.为尽可能模拟运营工况,异物冲2试样制备及疲劳试验论文所用材料取自现役合金钢EA 4T 空心车轴，这也是目前欧洲和中国高速铁路车轴的主流材质，具 有良好的力学和抗疲劳性能.2.1拉伸力学性能由于FOD 多发于轴身，表层材料尤其重要.在车 轴表面取9个试样通过MTS 809试验机进行单轴拉 伸试验，得到图6所示的应力-应变曲线.平均化处 理后，弹性模量为225 GPa ,屈服强度为591 MPa ,抗 拉强度为722 MPa ,断后伸长率为17.5%.图7异物冲击车轴试样尺寸和取样位置Fig. 7 Sample size and sampling position of FODed axle图8用于F O D 试样制备的空气炮装置Fig. 8 The compressed gas gun facility used to preparethe FODed specimens击速度设置为实际运行速度350 km /h (约100 m /s )和 未来的更高设计速度500 km /h (约138 m /s ),冲击角度为垂直冲击板状试样表面.参考如图5所示FOD 形貌测量，根据BS 7910 和GB/T 19624—2004标准，为便于研宄，目前所有缺 陷均采用标准的椭圆或半椭圆形状来表征.选取长 度和宽度上的最大值作为椭圆的长轴和短轴，最终 将车轴表面FOD 规则化为半椭圆.为得到截面呈半 椭圆形的FOD 形貌，采用直径6 mm 的钢球异物在 平板试样上进行垂直撞击.选用较高硬度GCH 5的 轴承钢，力学性能如表1所示.表1冲击异物材料的基本力学性能Table 1 Basic mechanical properties of impactforeign object materialsMaterials E/Poisson's Density/Hardness/GPa ratio (kg.m-3)HRC GCrl52190.3783061 〜65通过体式显微境观测损伤宏观形貌（见图9).可 见，F 0D 为较为规则的圆形，截面为半椭圆形，缺陷 深度、宽度及位置的离散性较小.可以预期，采用球 形异物制备的疲劳试样获得的疲劳P -S -W 曲线和疲 劳强度具有较高的可靠性|13\88力.7:报202丨年第53卷第丨期吴圣川等：异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估892.3高周疲劳试验为研宄F O D 的影响，以试样发生断裂作为失效 准则，采用MTS -810试验机对光滑试样和FOD 试样 进行疲劳试验，应力比/? = -1.考虑到试样的FOD 缺陷尺寸、宏观形貌和微结 构特征存在一定差异|13]，采用传统的升降法不易获 得含FOD 试样的疲劳极限.引入Maxwell 等[|9]提出 的逐步加载法测试单试样在1〇7周次下的疲劳极限. 设置初始应力小于预期疲劳极限，若第一个1〇7周次 内试样未断，增大应力后重复上述过程，直至第/个 107周次发生断裂.最后两个循环的最大应力可近似 为试样的疲劳极限(T f= 〇•,'_ 丨 + 盖(〇■;- 丨） （1)式中，^为107周次的疲劳极限，C T ,•和所ai分别为第 个循环时最大应力和循环周次.3结果与分析3.1外物损伤特征采用SEM 观测损伤特征（见图10).在缺陷边缘 可见明显的材料丢失、挤出及微裂纹和微缺口，这为 疲劳裂纹的萌生提供了有利条件.图10车轴钢EA4T 试样FO D 微观损伤特征Fig. 10 FOD microscopic damage characteristics of typicalaxle steel EA4T specimen(a )宏观形貌（b )断口特征（c )含缺陷的试样(a) Macroscopic (b) Fracture (c) Defect position morphologycharacteristicson the sample图9外物冲击模拟Fig. 9 Simulation of foreign object impact3.2基于缺口系数的疲劳强度预测通过高周疲劳获得光滑试样、冲击速度100 m /s 以及丨38 m /s 的中值疲劳曲线.由图11可知,FOD 试样的疲劳性能较光滑试样差，且冲击速度越 高，疲劳极限越低.同时发现，FOD 试样寿命数据的 离散性明显大于光滑试样.这是由于FOD 直接形成 了不同水平的应力集中.2001〇5106107fatigue life ///cycles图11光滑试样和F O D 试样的疲劳S -/V 曲线Fig. 11 Fatigue S -N curves of smoothed and FOD specimens异物冲击在试样表面形成了微缺陷或缺口，并 引起应力的局部提高现象.缺陷的损伤程度及影响 可用理论应力集中系数&来表示= 1 + 2(2)式中，r 为缺陷半径，d 为缺陷深度，其中r 一般可等 效为冲击外物半径[i a 2()].通过体式显微镜测量疲劳试样断口从而得到缺 陷深度和投影面积，见表2所示.表2不同FO D 缺陷深度和投影面积 Table 2 FOD defect depths and projected areasImpact velocity Defect depthDefect projection v/(m.s_1)d/mmarea A/mm21000.420.401380.610.80由Peterson 公式[21]，并结合理论应力集中系数估算FOD 试样的疲劳缺口系数沿&-1K f1 + a * !r(3)oo o5 0 50052B c u2/-b ^2q d l u Bs s a qs0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0defect depth ci/mm图12两种系数随缺陷深度变化趋势Fig. 12 Variation trend of two coefficients with defect depth基于Peterson 公式，冲击速度v = 100 m /s 下试样 的理论疲劳极限Acr ^ = 386 MPa (试验值544 MPa ), 而v = 138 m /s 时理论疲劳极限A 〇v.2 = 356 MPa (试 验值516 MPa ).由此可见，基于疲劳缺口系数预测的 理论值低于实测结果，显得过于保守如图13所示.造 成这一重要偏差的可能原因是，经典的弹性力学Pe terson 公式并未考虑材料本身塑性贡献及异物高速 冲击后残余应力和微结构特征等的综合影响而 是仅考虑了宏观几何缺口效应.事实上，FODed 试样 的疲劳性能与宏观缺口、残余应力和微结构特征及 材质韧性等都有关.3.3基于El Haddad 模型的疲劳强度预测在评价含缺陷构件的疲劳性能时，研究者利用 Murakami 参数力来描述缺陷尺寸的影响[22].鉴式中，a *为材料常数，此处有= 0.18 mmI 21〗，缺口 敏感系数g 可进一步表示为注意^值在0〜1之间变化，它反映了缺口的 敏感程度，该值越大，代表缺口敏感性越高.由此得 FOD 试样缺口敏感系数^ = 0.94,说明当外物半径为 3 mm 时试样缺口敏感性较高.图12给出了理论应力集中系数&和疲劳缺口 系数心随着缺陷深度^/变化的规律.由图可知，疲劳 缺口系数A 总是小于应力集中系数&，且两者均随 着缺陷深度的增大而增大，即随着深度的增加，疲劳 性能降低，裂纹萌生的概率增大.600|<1-400B2000.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0defect depth d/mm图13基于疲劳缺口系数的疲劳极限预测结果Fig. 13 Theoretical prediction results of fatigue limitbased on fatigue notch factor于标准的Kitagawa-Takahashi (K -T )图在对含缺陷材料及构件疲劳强度评价时未考虑短裂纹或者近门槛区效应，根据El Haddad 1231引入的本征裂纹参数，结 合Murakami 参数对标准的K -T 图进行修正，进而评 估含缺陷车轴试样的疲劳强度.F w • A 〇-〇 * ^71 • V^o(5)A /：,h =F w •A 〇-w • ^71 • ( + V ^o )(6)△crw =A cr 〇 • y V «〇/(+ V «o )(7)V ^o =~ (A /^th /F w A cro )"71(8)式中,AKth 为长裂纹扩展门槛值（单位MPa _m 〃2), Fw 为几何位置参数（对于表面缺陷，有Fw = 0.65)，A <t 〇 和Acr w 分别代表光滑试样和含缺陷车轴试样的疲劳 极限（单位MPa ), #为材料及结构的Murakami 本征缺陷尺寸参数（单位：pm ).为此，基于光滑试样疲劳极限A (r 〇 = 660 MPa , 和长裂纹扩展门槛值A&h = 14 计算得到_= 344，，绘制图14所示的FOD 车轴试样缺陷尺寸和疲劳极限的修正K -T 图.由图14可知，标准K -T 图所确定的安全域仍然 存在缺陷致失效点，导致评估不可靠、不安全，而E 1 Haddad 模型的安全域内无失效点，可见预测结果是 较为安全和保守的.但是，应该注意的是El Haddad 模 型预测的疲劳极限结果与试验值同样具有一定偏差, 且理论预测值（Acr w,v =1〇〇 m /s =447 MPa , Acr H , v =i38 m /s = 362 MPa )仍然是小于试验值的，这一结果与疲劳缺口 系数的理论预测相似，同样忽略了材质塑性的影响.90h'7:7:报2021年第53卷3n l c a >l c 3l o €30CJ第1期吴圣川等：异物致损铁道车轴的疲劳强度及寿命评估9110° 10' 102103 104 1〇5T a l \x m图14基于El Haddad 模型的疲劳极限预测结果Fig. 14 Prediction results o f fatigue limit based on standardEl Haddad model在引言中提到，异物致损对构件疲劳性能的影 响主要有4种形式.研究者使用金相显微镜和电子 背散射衍射对FOD 缺口处晶粒进行表征发现，在异 物冲击大的形变以及高形变率下缺口处发生了塑性 流动，晶粒发生细化，形成局部强化层强化层的 形成,一定程度上增大了材料的表层硬度，提高了材 料的局部抗疲劳裂纹萌生能力.同时，在高速冲击下， 缺口发生不均匀塑性变形并产生残余应力场.残余 应力场对材料的疲劳性能有重要影响，坑底部引入 的残余压应力能有效缓解外载荷产生的拉应力，这 使得材料及结构服役中疲劳裂纹不易从缺口根部萌 生，有利于提高寿命；相应地，在冲击坑边缘形成了 残佘拉应力，多数疲劳裂纹萌生和扩展于此处，往往 降低寿命,是材料失效的主要原因之一^24-25』.综上，异物冲击形成的材料强化层和残余压应 力会提高其抗疲劳性能，宏观缺口形成的应力集中 及坑边缘处的残余拉应力则会降低服役性能,异物致 损试样的疲劳性能是坑底部微结构、残余应力、应 力集中及材质本身韧性等综合作用的结果.本论文 中，在引入Peterson 公式和El Haddad 模型进行疲劳 极限预测时仅考虑了宏观缺口的消极作用，未考虑 积极因素，尤其是未考虑材质本身的影响，这是试验 值与理论值具有较大差异的原因之一[26].从图13和 图14中理论预测的疲劳极限与试验所得疲劳极限的 对比，可以看到理论模型预测的疲劳极限明显低于试 验值，这恰恰说明了两类理论模型仅考虑了冲击坑缺 陷本身的几何应力集中影响，未考虑基体材料的重要 贡献.另外，鉴于异物冲击缺口的特殊性，疲劳极限采 用逐步加载法进行测试.该方法在试验过程中会使材 料产生“锻炼效应”，即随着低应力载荷频次的增加， 材料疲劳极限会呈现提高的趋势^28].显然，理论疲 劳极限的预测模型并未考虑到这种试验测试过程诱 导的疲劳强度提高现象.因此，这可能也是理论预测 值低于试验测试值的可能原因之一.由此认为，无论是Peterson 公式还是El Haddad 模型的疲劳极限预测都过于保守，用于异物致损车 轴的疲劳性能评估是不经济的.3.4断口特征对典型高周疲劳试样的断口分析发现，在疲劳 源区发现裂纹呈现多源萌生模式，并最终汇聚为典 型的半椭圆形长裂纹（见图15).图15异物冲击试样的高周疲劳断口Fig. 15 High cycle fatigue fracture of FOD specimen这一多裂纹源萌生裂纹现象表明，高速异物冲 击后在坑底部形成的大量微缺口（见图10)成为了二 次裂纹的萌生源区，在坑边缘起裂后直接贯穿底部 的微缺陷，呈现出多裂纹源现象.在扩展区可见放射 性条纹，在稳定扩展区放大观察可见疲劳条带[%.这 一现象清楚地表明，异物冲击是相对比较危险的一 种损伤形式，应引起足够重视.4实物车轴的疲劳性能4.1疲劳曲线如前所述，由于FOD 的作用，伤损小试样的疲劳 性能较光滑试样差.据此推测，坚硬异物冲击全尺寸 车轴导致FOD ，破坏车轴结构完整性，会严重降低车 轴的疲劳性能.为此，有必要对含有FOD 的全尺寸实 物车轴的疲劳性能进行研究.oo oooo 1042105 106107fatigue life N图17 v = 138 m /s 小试样和实物车轴疲劳曲线Fig. 17 Small-sized and full-scali fatigue curves of v = 138 m/s根据式（9)得到的全尺寸实物车轴在不同存活 率下的疲劳极限如表5和表6所示.分析发现，两种FO D 车轴在存活率97.5%的疲 劳极限均低于EN 13104标准中240 M Pa 的限值.可 能的原因是，EN 13104标准在强度设计时未考虑车 轴存在FOD 的情况.本研究对此进行了有益的尝试， 为车轴运用评价提供了理论参考.表5冲击速度r = 100 m/s 下车轴的疲劳极限 Table 5 Axle fatigue limit of v = 100 m/s105 106107fatigue life N图16 v = 100 m /s 小试样和实物车轴疲劳曲线Fig. 16 Small-sized and full-scali fatigue curves of v = 100 m/s450 400Specimen typeFatigue limit 〇"f/MPasurvival rates 50%2.5% 97.5%Knee-point life A ^fsmall-sized full-scale2722942452342532103.7 x 106然而，实物车轴疲劳极限与同材质小试样疲劳 极限存在显著差异印1.为此，需要综合考虑FOD 诱 导缺口效应、尺寸效应、表面质量、加载方式及环境 条件等因素的影响13'如下式所示C T f a= O -fsQ ^e (9)式中，〇"fa 为FOD 车轴疲劳极限，<r fs 为FOD 试样疲 劳极限,a ,/?，e 分别为载荷系数、表面质量系数和尺 寸系数，取值[3Q ]为1.11，0.9和0.86.表3和表4给出了两种冲击速度下疲劳寿命的分布.可见两者的寿命标准差不同，并且随着应力水平的降低，离散性增大；同时，速度v = 100 m /s 时低应力水平的标准差略小于速度v = 138 m /s .这两个 应力值均接近于各自的疲劳极限值，说明随着异物冲击速度的增大，试样疲劳极限离散性增大.也就是 说，异物速度越高，缺口底部的微裂纹、材料丢失及 残余应力等对疲劳裂纹萌生的影响越复杂，或者说 裂纹萌生源的不确定性增加[91.表3冲击速度v = 100 m/s 下疲劳寿命分布参数 Table 3 Fatigue life distribution parameters of v = 100 m/sSeries numberStress level cr/MPa Mean value /j Standard deviation ‘1400 4.860.0732360 5.330.1133330 5.710.14342756.520.197表4冲击速度v = 138 m/s 下疲劳寿命分布参数 Table 4 Fatigue life distribution parameters of v = 138 m/sSeries numberStress level〇-/MPaMean value "Standard deviation s 1400 4.850.1632360 5.270.1833330 5.610.19842626.520.23考虑到疲劳寿命数据的离散性，尤其是高速异 物冲击下低应力水平离散性增大，引入概率方法采 用样本信息聚集原理绘制不同冲击速度下小试 样和全尺寸车轴的疲劳曲线，如图16和图 17.由图可知，不同存活率下小试样和全尺寸车轴的疲劳曲线不平行，为向下开口的喇叭形状，更 进一步说明了 FOD 试样和实物车轴不同应力水平下 离散性存在差异这一本质特征.92力'7:学报2021年第53卷oooo55^3 3 2 2B c u s 'b 3P 21D .I U B S S 3JJSo o54 4ooo 5201«sd I ^/b 3p n l l l d l u c o s s <u i2s。
英国文学选读名词解释
1.epic 史诗An epic is a long oral narrative poem that operates on a grand scale and deals with legendary or historical events of national or universal significance .Most epics deal with the exploits of a single individual and also interlace the main narrative with myths, legends, folk tales and past events; there is a composite effect, the entire culture of a country cohering in the overall experience of the poem . Epic poems are not merely entertaining stories of legendary or historical heroes; they summarize and express the nature or ideals of an entire nation at a significant or crucial period of its history.2.caesura 停顿a break or pause in a line of poetry, dictated by the natural rhythm of the languageand sometimes enforced by punctuation. In Old English verse, such as Beowulf, the caesura was used rather monotonously to indicate the half line.3.alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound or sounds at the beginning of two or more words that are close to each other. It is a feature of Beowulf and other Old English poems.4.alliterative verse 头韵诗poetry written in alliteration. Nearly all Old English verse, including Beowulf, is heavily alliterative, and the pattern is fairly standard –with either two or three stressed syllables in each line alliterating.5.kenning 隐喻语a metaphor usually composed of two words and used for description andassociation. Beowulf is full of kennings, such as “helmet bearer” for “warrior” and “swan road” for “sea”.6.protagonist 主角the principal character of a drama or fiction. Hamlet is the protagonist of William Shakespeare’s drama Hamlet.7.antagonist 反角In drama or fiction the antagonist opposes the hero or protagonist. In Hamlet Claudius is antagonist to Hamlet.8.romance 传奇a type of literature that was popular in the Middle Ages, usually containingadventures and reflecting the spirit of chivalry. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was a great verse romance, but its author remains unknown.9.bob and wheel诗节末尾的短行与叠唱a rhyming section of five lines that concludes a stanza in Sir Gawain and theGreen Knight. The “bob” is a very short line, sometimes of only two syllables, followed by the “wheel”, longe r lines with three stresses and internal thyme.10.poet’s corner 诗人角a part of Westminster Abbey, London, which contains the tombs or monuments ofsome famous English poets, such as Geoffrey Chaucer and John Milton.11.heroic couplet 英雄双韵体Two successive lines o f rhymed poetry in iambic pentameter. Geoffrey Chaucer’smasterpiece The Canterbury Tale was written in heroic couplet.Named from its use by Dryden and others in the heroic drama of the late 17th century, the heroic couplet had been established much earlier by Chaucer as a major English verse-form for narrative and other kinds of non-dramatic portry: it dominated English poetry of the 18th century, notably in the couplets of Pope, before declining in importance in the early 19th century.12.ballad meter 民谣体traditionally a four-line stanza containing alternating four-stress and three-stress lines, usually with a refrain and the rhyme scheme of abcb. Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose” is a great love ballad.13.refrain 叠句，副歌a phrase, line or lines repeated at intervals during a poem and especially at the endof a stanza. It is very often found in English ballads, such as Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose”.14.English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴the literary flowering of England in the late 16th century and early 17th century, with humanism as its keynote. William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is considered the summit of this renaissance.Renaissance(文艺复兴)The word “renaissance” means rebirth or revival. It is commonly applied to the movement or period in western civilization , which marks the transition from the medieval to the modern world . It sprang up first in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe, the date differing for different countries. The Renaissance indicates a revival of classical (Greek and Roman) arts and sciences after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism. The study and propagation of classical learning and art was carried on by the progressive thinkers of the humanists. They held their chief interest not in ecclesiastical knowledge, but in man, his environment and doings and his brave fight for the emancipation of man from the tyranny of the church and religious dogmas.Because in the ancient Greek and Roman mythology were found the ideas of universal love, respect to human beings and approval of man’s power, ability and knowledge. And at the same time worldly enjoyment on the earth was affirmed. In short, man became the center of the world instead of God as upheld in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance Movement is a great revolution carried out in the fourteenth to the mid-seventeenth century Europe. It broke the chain and bondage of feudal and theological ties and brought human wisdom and capacity into full play.15.Elizabethan literature 伊丽莎白时代的文学literature written in the Elizabethan Age (1558-1603). William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet was a masterpiece of this period.16.sonnet 十四行诗a fixed form consisting of fourteen lines of 5-foot iambic verse. It first flourishedin Italy in the 14th century. William Shakespeare was a great English sonnet writer famous for his 154 sonnets.17.iambic pentameter 五步抑扬格the basic line in English verse, with five feet in a line, usually an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. It was probably introduced by Geoffrey Chaucer and certainly established by him in The Canterbury Tales.18.meter 格律the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in verse. In English verse a line may have a fixed number of syllables and yet have a varying number of stresses;the commonest meter is iambic. William Shakespeare’s so nnets are written in iambic.19.foot 音步a group of syllables forming a metrical unit. We measure feet in terms of syllablevariation: long and short syllables, stressed and unstressed. The commonest foot in English verse is iamb; the commonest line is five-foot line, called pentameter.William Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18” contains fourteen iambic pentameter lines. 20.rhyme scheme 押韵格式the pattern of end-thymes in a stanza or poem, generally described by using letters of the alphabet to denote the recurrence of rhyming lines. For example, heroic couplets are “aabbcc” and so on.21.quatrain 四行诗节a stanza of four lines, rhymed or unrhymed. It is the commonest of all stanzaicforms in English poetry. Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose” has four quatrains.22.image 意象a concrete representation of an object or sensory experience. Typically, such arepresentation helps evoke the feelings associated with the object or experience itself. Many images are conveyed by figurative language. An image may be visual, olfactory, tactile, auditory, gustatory, abstract and kinaesthetic. The rose in Robert Burns’ poem “A Red, Red Rose” is a beautiful image.23.poetic license 诗的破格the liberty allowed to the poet to wrest the language according to his needs in the use of figurative speech, archaism, rhyme, strange syntax, etc. An example is the last sentence of “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns –“Tho’ it were ten thousand mile!”24.verse drama 诗剧drama written in the form of verse. It was most widely used in the Elizabethan Age. William Shakespeare’s dramas are all verse dramas, Hamlet being the most famous.25.blank verse 无韵诗，素体诗unrhymed iambic pentameter, the most widely used of English verse forms and usually used in English dramatic and epic poetry. William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet is written in blank verse.26.Globe Theatre 环球剧场One of the most famous of all theatres, it was built in 1599, with three stories. The roof was thatched, with the centre open to the sky. Many of William Shakespeare’s plays were performed in it. It was destroyed by fire in 1613, rebuilt the next year and finally demolished in 1644. Again it was rebuilt in 1997.27.essay 散文a composition, usually in prose, which may be of only a few hundred words or ofbook length and which discusses, formally or informally, a topic or a variety of topics. It is one of the most flexible and adaptable of all literary forms. Francis Bacon is a great essayist; his “Of Studies” is a model of good essay.28.English Romanticism 英国浪漫主义a literary movement that aimed at free expression of the writer’s ideas and feelingsand flourished in the early 19th century England. A great representative of this movement is Percy Bysshe Shelley, the author of “Ode to the West Wind”.ke poets 湖畔诗人are a group of English poets who all lived in the Lake District of England at the turn o f the nineteenth century. They are considered part of the Romantic Movement. The thr ee main figures of what has become known as the Lakes School are William Wordswo rth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey.30.poet laureate 桂冠诗人A poet honored for his artistic achievement or selected as most representative of his countryor era; in England, a court official appointed by the sovereign, whose original duties included the composition of odes in honor of the sovereign’s birthday and in celebration of state occasions of importance. William Wordsworth became poet laureate in 1843.31. Humanism(人文主义)Broadly, this term suggests any attitude which tends to exalt the human element or stress the importance of human interests, as opposed to the supernatural , divine elements ---or as opposed to the grosser, animal elements.In a more specific sense, humanism suggests a devotion to those studies supposed to promote human culture most effectively----in particular, those dealing with the life,thought, language, and literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It proclaimed that man is the most important noble creature in the world; the goal of life is to enjoy oneself in this present world instead of afterlife. According to the humanists ; both man and world are hindered by external checks from infinite improvement. Man could mould the world according to his desires, and attain happiness by removing all external checks by the exercise of reason. In literary history the most important use of the term is to designate the revival of classical culture which accompanied the Renaissance.32. Ode(颂歌) Long, often elaborate formal lyric poem of varying line lengths dealing with a subject matter and treating it reverently. It aims at glorifying an individual, commemorating an event, or describing nature intellectually rather than emotionally. Conventionally, many odes are written or dedicated to a specifie subject. For instance,Ode to the West Wind is about the winds that bring change of season in England. Ode to the Nightingale is about the nightingale that lures the poet temporarily away from his great misery. The earliest English odes include the Epithalamion and the Prothalamion,or marriage hymns by poet Edmund Spenser. 33. Romanticism(浪漫主义)The term refers to the literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and early 19th century. Romanticism rejected the earlier philosophy of the Enlightenment, which stressed that logic and reason were the best response humans had in the face of cruelty, stupidity, superstition, and barbarism. Instead ,theRomantics asserted that reliance upon emotion and natural passions provided a valid and powerful means of knowing and a reliable guide to ethics and living.The Romantic movement typically asserts the unique nature of the individual, the privileged status of imagination and fancy, the value of spontaneity over “artifice” and “convention”, the human need for emotional outlets, the rejection of civilized corruption, and a desire to return to natural primitivism and escape the spiritual destruction of urban life Their writings are often set in rural, or Gothic settings and they show an obsessive concern with “innocent”characters----children, young lovers, and animals. The major Romantic poets included William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats , Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Gordon Byron.34. Aestheticism( 美学主义)The basic theory of the Aesthetic movement----“art for art’s sake”----was set forth by a French poet, Theophile Gautier. The first Englishman who wrote about the theory of aestheticism was Walter Pater, the most important critical writer of the late 19th century. The chief representative of the movement in England was Oscar Wilde,with his Picture of Dorian Gray. Aestheticism places art above life, and holds that life should imitate art, not art imitate life. According to the aesthetes, all artistic creation is absolutely subjective as opposed to objective. Art should be free from any influence of egoism. Only when art is for art’s sake,can it be immortal They believed that art should be unconcerned with controversial issues, such as politics and morality, and that it should be restricted to contributing beauty in a highly polished style. This was one of the reactions against the materialism and commercialism of the Victorian industrial era, as well as a reaction against the Victorian convention of art for morality’s sake, or art for money’s sake.35. Stream of Consciousness(意识流)(psychol organized by William James) individual conscious experience regarded as continuously moving forward in time in an uneven flow. In creative writing the interior monologue makes use of this to reveal character and comment on life.（由威廉·詹姆士创立的心理学）个人的内心体验以不平衡的方式不断流动着。
英国文学期末考试题四川大学锦江学院
英国文学期末考试题四川大学锦江学院I. Multiple Choice（50 points in all, 1for each）Select from the four choices of each item the one that best answers the question or completesthe statement. Write the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.1.The sentence "Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?"is the beginning line of one ofShakespeare’s .A. comediesB. tragediesC. sonnetsD. histories2.The major concern of fiction lies in the tracing of the psychological development of hischaracters and in his energetic criticism of the dehumanizing effect of the capitalistindustrialization on human nature.A. Charles Dickens’sB. D. H. Lawrence’ｓC. Thomas Hardy’sD. John Galsworthy’ｓ3.Daniel Defoe describes as a typical English middle-class man of the eighteenth century, thevery prototype of the empire builder or the pioneer colonist.A. Tom JonesB. GulliverC. Moll FlandersD. Robinson Crusoe4."She lived unknown, and few could knowWhen Lucy ceased to be;But she is in her grave, and, oh,The difference to me?""She Dwelt The word "me" in the last line of the above stanza quoted from Wordsworth’s poem Among the Untrodden Ways" may possibly refer to .A. the poetB. the readerC. her one-sided loverD. everybody5. is a typical feature of Sw ift’s writings.A. Bitter satireB. Elegant styleC. Casual narrationD. Complicated sentence structure6.The statement "It reveals the dehumanizing workhouse system and the dark, criminalunderworld life" may well sum up the main theme of Dickens’s .A. David CopperfieldB. Bleak HouseC. Great ExpectationsD. Oliver Twist7."Do you think, because I am poor, obscure, plain, and little, I am soulless and heartless? ... Andif God had gifted me with some beauty, and much wealth, I should have made it as hard for you to leave me, as it is now for meto leave you."The above quoted passage is most probable taken from .A. Pride and PrejudiceB. Jane EyreC. Wuthering HeightsD. Great Expectations8.The short story“Eveline”is one of the stories in James Joyce’s collection .A. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young ManB. UlyssesC. Finnegans WakeD. Dubliners9.In William Blake’s poetry, the father (and any other in whom he saw the image of the fathersuch as God, priest, and king) was usually a figure of .A. benevolenceB. admirationC. loveD. tyranny10.After reading the first chapter of Pride and Prejudice, we may come to know that Mrs. Bennet isa woman of .A. simple character and quick witB. simple character and poor understandingC. intricate character and quick witD. intricate character and poor understandingfor more, Oliver11.“For a week after the commission of the impious and profane offence of askingOliver Twist) What did remained a close prisoner in the dark and solitary room ...”(Dickens,Oliver ask for?A. More time to play.B. More food to eat.C. More book to read.D. More money to spend.is a (n) .12.Christopher Marlow’ｓ“The Passionate Shepherd to His Love”A. pastoral lyricB. elegyC. folk songD. epicthere is a apparent touch in his description of the simple and13.In Hardy’s Wessex novels,beautiful though primitive rural life.A. humorousB. romanticC. nostalgicD. sarcastic“Brobdingnag,”14.In which of the following works can you find the proper names “Lilliput,”“Houyhnhnm,” and “Yahoo”?Ulysses. B. Charles Dickens’sBleak House.A. James Joyce’sWomen in love.s Travels. D. D. H. Lawrence’sGulliver’C. Jonathan Swift’s"Ode to the West Wind" with all the15.We can perhaps describe the west wind in Shelley’s poemfollowing terms except .A. tamedB. swiftC. proudD. wild16.“When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table.”(T.s.) What does the image in the quoted lines suggest?Eliot, “The Love song of J. Alfred Prufrock”A. Violence.B. Horror.C. Inability.D. Indifference.17.Which of the following qualifies does NOT feature Jane Austen's style?A.Austen's main literary concern is about human beings in their personal relationships.B.Everything in Austen's novel results in an observation, of a quiet, uneventful and contentedlife of the English country.C.Austen is a great realist and her characters are from all walks of life.D.Austen's works show clearly her firm belief in the predominance of reason over passion.18.The work that presented, for the first time in English literature, a comprehensive realistic pictureof the medieval English society and created a whole gallery of vivid characters from all walks oflife is most likely .Piers Plowman B. Geoffrey Chaucer’ｓThe Canterbury TalesA. William Langland’sConfession Amantis D. Sir Gawain and the Green KnightC. John Gower’19." Damn the fool! There he is’, cried Heathcliff, sinking back into his seat. ’HusHush, hush, Catherine! I’ll stay. If he shot me so, I’d expire with a blessing in my lips.novel from which the passage is taken must be .Pride and PrejudiceA.Jane Austen’sThe Old Curiosity ShopB.Charles Dickens’sPamelaC.Samuel Richa rdson’sWuthering HeightsD.Emily Bronte’s20.James Joyce is the author of all the following novels except .A. DublinersB. Jude the ObscureC. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young ManD. Ulysses21.Naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious aless sympathetic but more ironic and more .A. rationalB. humorousC. optimisticD. pessimistic22."He was afraid of her - the small, severe woman with graying hair suddenly bursting out in suchfrenzy. The postman came running back, afraid something had happened. They saw his trippedcap over the short curtains. Mrs. Morel rushes to the door." The above passage is taken from.Domebey and SonThe Professor B. Ch arles Dickens’ｓA. Charlotte Bronte’sThe Forsyte SagaC. D. H. Lawrence ’s Sons and Lovers D. John Galsworthy’s23.Tess of the D’Urbervilles, one of Thomas Hardy’s best known novels, portrays man as.A. being hereditarily either good or badB. being self-sufficientC. having no control over his own fateD. still retaining his own faith in a world of confusion24.Romance, which uses narrative verse or prose to tell stories of adventures or other heroicdeeds, is a popular literary form in the medieval period.A. ChristianB. KnightlyC. GreekD. Primitive25."Bassanio: Antonio, I am married to a wifeWhich is as dear to me as life itself;But life itself, my wife, and all the world,Are not with me esteem’d above thy life;I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all,Here to the devil, to deliver you.Portia: Your wife would give you little thanks for that,If she were by to hear you make the offer."The Merchant of Venice. The quoted The above is a quotation taken from Shakesp eare’s comedypart can be regarded as a good example to illustrate .A. dramatic ironyB. personificationC. simileD. symbolism26."If Winter comes, can spring be far behind?"is an epigrammatic line by .A. J. KeatsB. W. BlakeC. W. WordsworthD. P. B. Shelley27.The Victorian Age was largely and age of , eminently represented by Dickens andThackeray.A. poetryB. dramaC. proseD. novel28.Which of the following is NOT a typical feature of Modernism?A. To elevate the individual and inner being over the social being.B. To put the stress on traditional values.C. To portray the distorted and alienated relationships between man and his environment.D. To advocate a conscious break with the past.29."And we will sit upon the rocks, /Seeing the shepherds feed their flocks, /By shallow rivers towhose falls/ Melodious birds sing madrigals." The above lines are probably taken from .Paradise LostA. John Milton’s"The Sun Rising"B. John Donne’s"Sonnet 18"C. Shakespeare’ｓ"The Passionate Shepherd to His Love"D. Marlowe’s30.The Romantic writers would focus on all the following issues EXCEPT the in theAmerican literary history.A. individual feelingsB. idea of survival of the fittestC. strong imaginationD. return to nature31.The essence of humanism is to .A. restore a medieval reverence for the churchB. avoid the circumstances of earthly lifeC. explore the next world in which men could live after deathD. emphasize human qualities32.The poetic view of can be best understood from his remark about poetry, that is, "allgood poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings."A. Samuel Taylor ColeridgeB. John KeatsC. William WordsworthD. Percy Bysshe Shelly33.In his poem, "Ode to the West Wind," Shelley intends to present his wind as a centralaround which the poem weaves various cycles of death and rebirth.A. conceptB. symbolC. simileD. personificationhis deepest tone, speaking in 34.“Come to me－come to me entirely now,” said he ; and added, inhappiness－I will make yours.” The above my ear as his cheek was laid on mine, “Make mypassage presents a scene in .Jane EyreA. Emily Bronte’sWithering Height s B. Charlotte Bronte’sTess of the D′ Urbervilles The Forsyte Saga D. Thomas Hardy’sC. John Galswo rthy’s35.Which of the following best describes the nature of Thomas Hardy’s later works?A. Sentimentalism.B. Tragic sense.C. Surrealism.D. Comic sense.36.A possible theme of James Joyce’s short story"Araby" is .A. hopeB. disillusionmentC. puppy loveD. loss37.The Normans brought the Mediterranean civilization, include to England.A. Greek cultureB. Roman lawC. the Christian religionD. all of above38.The Enlighteners believed in EXCEPT .A.They believed in self-restraint, self-reliance and hard work.B.They believed in God and fate.C.They celebrated reason/rationality, equality and science.D.They advocated universal education, which could make people rational and perfect, theybelieved.39.In the poem “A violet by a mossy stone Half hidden from the eye!－Fair as a star, when onlyone Is shining in the sky.” What literary devices are used?A. simile and personificationB. simile and metaphorC. metaphor and symbolD. simile and pun40.In Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, Antonio could not pay back the money he borrowed fromShylock, because .A．his money was all invested in the newly-emerging textile industryB．his enterprise went bankruptC．Bassanio was able to pay his own debtD．his ships had all been lost41. In the first part of Gulliver’s Travels, Gulliver told his experience in .A. BrobdingnagB. LilliputC. Flying IslandD. Houyhnhnm42. All of the following novels by Thomas Hardy reveal the conflict between the traditional and themodern EXCEPTA. The Mayor of CasterbridgeB. Tess of the D’UrbervillesC. Jude the ObscureD. Under the Greenwood Tree43. D. H. Lawrence’s novel is a rema rkable novel in which the individual consciousness i ssubtly revealed and strands of themes are intricately wound up.A. Sons and LoversB. The RainbowC. Woman in LoveD. Lady Chatterley’s Lover44. All of the following plays are among Shakespeare’s four greatest tragedies EXCEPT。
电子硬件工程师专业英文
中压：middle voltage电力系统power system发电机generator励磁excitation励磁器excitor电压voltage电流current母线bus变压器transformer升压变压器step-up transformer高压侧high side输电系统power transmission system输电线transmission line固定串联电容补偿fixed series capacitor compensation稳定stability电压稳定voltage stability功角稳定angle stability暂态稳定transient stability电厂power plant能量输送power transfer交流AC装机容量installed capacity电网power system落点drop point开关站switch station双回同杆并架double-circuit lines on the same tower变电站transformer substation补偿度degree of compensation高抗high voltage shunt reactor无功补偿reactive power compensation故障fault调节regulation裕度magin三相故障three phase fault故障切除时间fault clearing time极限切除时间critical clearing time切机generator triping高顶值high limited value强行励磁reinforced excitation线路补偿器LDC(line drop compensation)机端generator terminal静态static (state)动态dynamic (state) 单机无穷大系统one machine - infinity bus system机端电压控制AVR电抗reactance电阻resistance功角power angle有功（功率）active power无功（功率）reactive power功率因数power factor无功电流reactive current下降特性droop characteristics斜率slope额定rating变比ratio参考值reference value电压互感器PT分接头tap下降率droop rate仿真分析simulation analysis传递函数transfer function框图block diagram受端receive-side裕度margin同步synchronization失去同步loss of synchronization阻尼damping摇摆swing保护断路器circuit breaker电阻：resistance电抗：reactance阻抗：impedance电导：conductance电纳：susceptance导纳：admittance电感：inductance电容: capacitancecoupling 耦合intermittent 周期的dislocation 错位propeller 螺旋桨switchgear 配电装置dispersion 差量flange 法兰盘dielectric 介电的binder 胶合剂alignment 定位elastomer 合成橡胶corollary 必然的结果rabbet 插槽vent 通风孔subtle 敏感的gearbox 变速箱plate 电镀crucial 决定性的flexible 柔性的technics 工艺ultimate 最终的resilience 弹性vendor 自动售货机partition 分类rigid 刚性的prototype 样机diagram 特性曲线interfere 干涉compatible 兼容的simulation 模拟clutch 离合器refinement 精加工fixture 夹具torque 扭矩responsive 敏感的tensile 拉伸cushion 减震器rib 肋strength 强度packing 包装metallized 金属化stress 应力mitigate 减轻trade off 折衷方案yield 屈伸line shaft 中间轴matrix 母体inherent 固有的spindle 主轴aperture 孔径conformance 适应性axle 心轴turbulence 扰动specification 规范semipermanent 半永久性的enclosure 机壳specialization 规范化bolt 螺栓oscillation 振幅calling 职业nut 螺母anneal 退火vitalize 激发screw 螺丝polymer 聚合体revelation 揭示fastner 紧固件bind 凝固dissemination 分发rivit 铆钉mount 支架booster 推进器hub 轴套distortion 变形contractual 契约的coaxial 同心的module 模块verdict 裁决crank 曲柄slide 滑块malfunction 故障inertia 惰性medium 介质allegedly 假定active 活性的dissipation 损耗controversy 辩论lubrication 润滑assembly 总装dictate 支配graphite 石墨encapsulate 封装incumbent 义不容辞的derivative 派生物adhesive 粘合剂validation 使生效contaminate 沾染turbine 涡轮procurement 收购asperity 粗糙bearing 支撑架mortality 失败率metalworking 金属加工isostatic 均衡的shed light on 阐明viscous 粘稠的osculate 接触adversely 有害的grinding 研磨imperative 强制的consistency 连续性corrosin 侵蚀lattice 晶格fitness 适应性flush 冲洗fracture 断裂warrant 保证inhibitor 防腐剂diffusivity 扩散率turning 车工dispersant 分散剂vice versa 反之亦然ways 导轨deteriorate 降低tribological 摩擦的hybrid 混合物neutralize 平衡screen 屏蔽ID=inside diameterpulley 滑轮exclusion 隔绝OD=outside diameterhydraulic 液压的insulation 绝缘reciprocate 往复运动delicate 精密的elaborate 加工dress 精整dampen 阻尼incontrovertible 无可争议的by and large 大体上pivotal 中枢的luminous 发光的plastic 塑胶utilitarian 功利主义out of round 失园organic 有机的grass root 基层premature 过早的film 薄膜state-of-the -art 技术发展水平guard 防护罩polyester 聚酯blade 托板permeate 渗入epoxy 环氧的carrier 载体spillage 溢出polypropylene 聚丙烯chuck 卡盘erosion 浸蚀photoconductive 光敏的infeed 横向进给routine 程序miniaturization 小型化lapping 抛光postprocess 后置处理降低servo 伺服机构 solderability 可焊性 proportion 比例dedicated 专用的 shock 机械冲击 inverse ratio 反比interpolation 插补 endurance 耐久性 direct ratio 正比compensation 校正 initial value 初始值 plus 加upload 加载 flashing 飞弧 subtract 减overload 过载 canned 千篇一律的 multiply 乘lightload 轻载 lot 抽签 divide 除stagger 交错排列 parallel 并联 impedance 阻抗traverse 横向 in series 串联 damp 阻尼 longitudinal 纵向的 equivalent 等效的 reactance 电抗latitudinal 横向的 terminal 终端 admittance 导纳restrain 约束 creep 蠕动 susceptance 电纳 square 平方Hyperlink 超级连接 spring 触发 memo 备忘录 wastage 损耗 presentation 陈述 principle 原理 binder 打包 planer 刨床 source program 源程序 Client-Server Model 客户机 server 服务器 table 表 query 查询 form 表单 report 报表 macro 宏 module 模块 field 字段 record 记录printed circuit 印制电路 printed wiring 印制线路 printed board 印制板printed circuit board 印制板电路 printed wiring board 印制线路板 printed component 印制元件 printed contact 印制接点本页已使用福昕阅读器进行编辑。
轴承专业英语词汇
A back to top-----ABEC:Annular Bearing Engineers Committee. Used as a prefix for tolerance grades of bearings as set up by this committee.ABEC 1, 3, 5, 7, 9:Annular Bearing Engineers Committee classes or grades of ball bearing precision.ABMA:American Bearing Manufacturers Association. This is a non-profit association consisting of American manufacturers of anti-friction bearings, spherical plain bearings or major components thereof. The purpose of ABMA is to define national and international standards for bearing products and maintain bearing industry statistics.ABRASION:The wearing away of a surface by mechanical action such as rubbing, scraping or erosion. ABRASIVE BLASTING:Process for removing scale from product after heat treatment and prior to grinding; product pieces are placed in a tumbler that bombards the surface with high-velocity metal shot particles. This process also acts as a tempering or stabilizing process. (Also called Shotblasting)ABRASION RESISTANCE:The ability of a rubber compound to resist mechanical wear.ABS (ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEM):Ability to brake and steer at the same time. A braking system, usually electronically controlled, that prevents wheel lock during heavy brake application.ACCELERATED LIFE TEST:Any set of test conditions designed to reproduce in a short time the deteriorating effect created under normal service condition.ACID ETCH:The process of checking surface of ground product for cracks or burns by using a series of acids or neutralizers. Also called Nital Etch.ALL PURPOSE BEARING:The Timken Company "AP" Bearing; a self-contained pre-assembled, pre-adjusted, pre-lubricated, completely sealed unit. Applied to and removed from an axle without exposing the bearing elements, seal or lubricant to contamination or damage.AMBIENT TEMPERATURE:The surrounding temperature. Note that ambient temperature is not necessarily the same as atmospheric temperature.AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE - ANSI:An agency that develops standards and requirements regarding all things which affect the health and safety of associates.ANGULAR CONTACT BEARING:A type of ball bearing whose internal clearances and ball race locations result in a definite contact angle between the races and the balls when the bearing is in use.ANSI:The American National Standards Institute is a private organization that identifies industrial standards and coordinates their development. Many ANSI standards relate to safe design, performance and practices for equipment.ANTI-FRICTION BEARING:These bearing types use rolling contact to cut power loss resulting from friction.ANTI-OXIDANT:An additive that is usually incorporated in a relatively small proportion to retard oxidation of lubricants, including greases and gear lubricants. It is an oxidation inhibitor.ANTI-RUST OR ANTI-CORROSION ADDITIVES:These additives help prevent oxidation of metal by displacing water from metal surfaces. They plate to metal with a polarized effect to give the metal an internal “umbrella,” helping to deter iron-oxide formation.APEX:The common point on the axis of a bearing where angular lines of each of the various tapered roller surfaces meet.AXIAL CLEARANCE:The gap between the toe face of the head section and the inside surface of the inner case.AXIAL INTERNAL CLEARANCE:In a ball bearing assembly, the axial internal clearance is the total maximum possible movement parallel to the bearing axis or the inner ring, in relation to the outer ring.AXIAL LOAD:A type of load on a bearing that is parallel to the axis of rotation.AXIAL RUNOUT:Also called lateral runout, is the measurable irregularity or wobble parallel to the axis of rotation. AXIS:A straight line about which an object rotates; a straight line about which the parts of a bearing are regularly arranged. The center line of a shaft serves as an axis for a bearing; the cup and housing remain stationary while the shaft and cone rotate OR the cone and shaft remain stationary and the cup and housing rotate around it. The relative motion of the cup and cone is accommodated by the rolling motion of the rollers.AXLE:Rod or spindle on or with which a wheel revolves; the bar connecting two opposite wheels. The shaft (axle) of an automobile fits through the bore of a cone of the tapered roller bearing.-----B-----BALL:A spherical rolling element.BALL BEARING:An anti-friction bearing that uses a series of steel balls held between inner and outer bearing races. BALL DETENT:A spring-loaded ball mechanism that aligns the needle rollers of a full complement drawn cupbearing before it is pressed into a housing. The rollers are aligned when the ball detent forces the rollers apart, gathering circumferential clearance in one location.BENCH TEST:A modified service test in which service conditions are approximated using conventional laboratory equipment, not necessarily application-identical equipment.BORE:The inside diameter of the inner ring or cone.BORE CORNER:The maximum shaft fillet radius that will provide for proper bearing fit.BORE SIZE:The inner diameter of a cone, which accommodates a shaft.BOUNDARY LUBRICATION:A state of lubrication that occurs w hen, due to speed, load or lubricant combination, the “thick film” or hydrodynamic conditions do not completely separate the rubbing surfaces. Special additives sometimes are used for bearing protection under these conditions.BRUISING:A form of bearing surface damage from other fatigued parts.-----C back to top-----CAGE:The separator that spaces and holds rolling elements in their proper positions along the races.CAGE DEFORMATION:Improperly installed or dropped bearing.CAGE POCKET WEAR:Heavy contact between the rollers and cage pocket surfaces caused by a bearing's operating too loosely.CAGED BEARING:Similar to a full complement bearing, except that there are fewer rollers, allowing room for the cage. CLOSED-END BEARING:A drawn cup bearing where one end of the cup has a solid face, which fully encloses that end of the bearing. This allows the housing to be through bored (straight housing). The closed end of the installed bearing seals the housing.COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION:The ratio of the friction between two surfaces to the pressure between them. A low coefficient of friction means low friction losses that are influenced by the viscosity and character of the lubricant and by materials, surface conditions and other factors.COHESION:The molecular attraction between grease particles that causes them to stick together. This attraction contributes to its resistance to flow.COMBINED LOAD:Both radial and thrust loads applied to the same bearing at one time.CONE:The bearing's inner ring that is fixed to and/or pressed onto a rotating shaft.CONE BORE DAMAGE:Fractured cone due to out-of-round or over-sized shaft.CONE LARGE RIB FACE DEFORMATION:Metal flow from excessive heat generation.CONE LARGE RIB FACE SCORING:Welding and heat damage from metal-to-metal contact.CONRAD DEEP-GROOVE BALL BEARING:Standard single-row deep-groove bearing. Also referred to as a radial ball bearing.CONTACT LINE HEIGHT:The axial distance from the outside seal face to the lip contact line.CONTACT POINT:The line of intersection between the outside and inside lip surfaces of a radial lip seal. In across-sectional view, this intersection is illustrated as a point.CONTAMINATION:The pollution of a lubricant by an external agent.CORROSION:A chemical attack on metals by acids, alkalies, oxygen, chlorine, sulfur or other chemicals. This is distinct from metal destruction by wear and may be evident by either discoloration or pitting. CORROSION INHIBITOR:An additive that protects lubricated metal surfaces from chemical attack by water or other contaminants.The bearing's outer ring that sits on the housing and remains stationary during rotation.CUP-FACE DENTING:Indentations from hardened driver.CUP SPINNING:A loose cup fit in a rotating wheel hub.-----D back to top-----DEAD-END HOUSING:A housing that is not through bored. The machining stops part way through the housing forming a blind hole.DIAL INDICATOR:A measuring device, equipped with a readout dial, used most often to determine end motion or irregularities/runout.DRAWN CUP NEEDLE ROLLER BEARING:A needle roller radial bearing with a thin, pressed steel outer ring (drawn cup). It is usually employed without an inner ring. Available in caged and full complement designs. Drawn cup bearings are normally supplied with both ends open, but most sizes are also available with one end closed. A drawn cup bearing can only carry a radial load.DYNAMIC SEAL:A seal required to prevent leakage past parts that are in relative motion.E back to top-----ECCENTRIC:Circles or diameters not having the same exact centers.ECCENTRICITY:This is determined by measuring the shaft runout, TIR and the shaft-to-bore misalignment. ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION (EHD):A lubricant regime characterized by high-unit loads and high speeds where the mating parts, usually in roller bearings, deform elastically, causing an increase in lubricant viscosity andload-carrying capacity.END PLAY:The amount of axial or end-to-end movement in a shaft due to clearance in the bearings. ETCHING:Rusting with pitting and corrosion from moisture and water exposure.EVAPORATION LOSS:The portion of a lubricant that evaporates under the effects of temperature, pressure and time. The test methods include ASTM D 972 and ASTM D 2595.-----F back to top-----FACE:The side surface of a bearing.FALSE BRINELLING:Wear caused by vibration or relative axial movement between the rollers and races. (See Fretting.) FATIGUE:The fracture and breaking away of metal in the form of a spall. Generally, three modes of contact fatigue are recognized:Inclusion originGeometric stress concentrationPoint surface originFILLET RADIUS:Shaft or housing corner dimension that bearing corner must clear.FIXED BEARING:Bearing which positions shaft against axial movement in both directions.FLOATING BEARING:Bearing so designed or mounted as to permit axial displacement between shaft and housing.FLUTING:A series of small axial burns caused by an electric current passing through the bearing while it is rotating.FPM:Feet per minute.FRETTING:Wear characterized by the removal of fine particles from mating surfaces. Fretting is caused by vibratory or oscillatory motion of limited amplitude between contacting surfaces. (See False Brinelling.)FRICTION:Resistance to motion due to the contact of surfaces.FRICTION BREAK-OUT:Friction developed during initial or starting motion.FRICTION RUNNING:Constant friction created during the operation of a dynamic seal.FULL COMPLEMENT BEARING:A bearing without a cage that contains the maximum number of rollers and has maximum load carrying ability. The rollers are mechanically retained by the cup in most full complement drawn cup bearings.-----G back to top-----GALLING:A form of wear in which seizing or tearing of the gear or bearing surface occurs.GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION:Spalling from misalignment, deflections or heavy loading.GROOVING:Large particle contamination imbedding into the soft cage material.GROSS MARGIN:The difference between the cost of merchandise and its selling price.-----H back to top-----HARDNESS:The resistance to indentation. This is measured by the relative resistance of the material to an indentor point of any one of a number of standard hardness testing instruments.HDLTM:Timken Hydrodynamic Labyrinth (HDLTM) Seal.HEAD SECTION:The portion of a lip seal that is generally defined by the inside and outside lip surfaces and the spring groove.HEAVY-DUTY NEEDLE ROLLER BEARINGS:A needle roller radial bearing with a machined and ground channel-shaped outer ring with a complement of needle rollers, retained and guided by a cage. A heavy-duty needle roller bearing can only carry a radial load.HEAVY PARTS:Examples of heavy parts are chassis (shock absorbers, mufflers and exhaust system products, struts), drivetrain (U-joints, transmission parts, clutches), brake parts (rotors, discs) and crash parts (body repair kits, fenders and bumpers, fiberglass panels, glass).HIGH SPOTS IN CUP SEATS:Localized spalling on the cup race from stress riser created by a split housing pinch point. HOUSING:A rigid structure that supports and locates the seal assembly with respect to the shaft.HOUSING FITAmount of interference or clearance between bearing outside surface and housing bearing seat.HUB BEARING ASSEMBLY:A packaged wheel-end unit that contains bearings, seals and all components necessary for easy installation. It is pre-sealed, pre-lubricated and pre-set for precise performance.HUB GREASE CAP/DUST COVER:A metal cap that fits over the outer end of the hub to keep grease in and dirt out of the bearing assembly.HYDRODYNAMIC (FLUID-FILM) LUBRICATION:That state of lubrication in which the shape and relative motion of the sliding surfaces cause the formation of a continuous fluid film under sufficient pressure to prevent any contact between the surfaces. It is commonly called fluid-film lubrication.-----I back to top-----INCLUSION ORIGIN:Spalling from oxides or other hard inclusions in the bearing steel.INNER CASE:A rigid, cup-shaped component of a seal assembly that is placed inside the outer seal case. It has one or more of the following devices: reinforcing member, shield, spring retainer or a lip-clamping component.INNER RING:Bearing component with the inner raceway on its OD surface.INNER RING RACE:The surfaces on the cup and cone where the rolling elements make contact.INSIDE CASE INNER DIAMETER:The inner diameter of the inner case of a radial-lip seal.INSIDE FACE:The surface of the inner case that faces and is usually in contact with the sealed fluid.INSIDE LIP ANGLE:The angle between the inside lip surface and the axis of the seal case.INSIDE LIP SURFACE:The inside truncated conical surface of the lip.INTERNAL CLEARANCE:The internal clearance of a single-row radial contact ball bearing is the average outer ring racediameter, minus the average inner ring race diameter, minus twice the ball diameter. It also is known as the radial internal clearance or end play.INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION:Most commonly referred to as the ISO STANDARD. An international standard setting body that is composed of representatives from various national standards organizations.-----L back to top-----LIFE TEST:A laboratory procedure that is used to determine the amount and duration of resistance of an article to a specific set of destructive forces or conditions.LINE SPALLING:Roller spaced spalling from bearings operating after etching damage.LIP HEIGHT:The axial distance from the outside seal face to the toe face.LIP LENGTH:The axial distance between the thinnest part of the flex section and the contact line.LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY:The property of a lubricant that forms a film on the lubricated surface, which resists rupture under given load conditions. It is expressed as the maximum load the lubricated system can support without failure or excessive wear.LUBRICANT:Any substance used to separate two surfaces in motion and reduce the friction or wear of the surfaces.LUBRICATION:The control of friction and wear by introducing a friction-reducing film between moving surfaces that make contact. It may be a fluid, solid or plastic substance.LUBRICITY:A term used to describe the ability of a lubricant to reduce friction between rubbing surfaces. There are no generally accepted test methods available to evaluate this property. Lubricity is important mostly in conditions of boundary lubrication and probably represents some relationship to the ability of the oil to wet the bearing surfaces and to resist being rubbed off. Lubricity has no known direct relationship to oil viscosity. It is also referred to as oiliness.-----M back to top-----MAXIMUM CAPACITY BEARING:A bearing with filling notches to allow the loading of the maximum number of balls.METAL (OUTER) CASE:The outer, thin-wall, rigid structure of the lip-seal assembly that contains the primary sealing ring and, if present, the inner case, spring and secondary seal.MISALIGNMENT:An irregular roller path from deflection, inaccurate machining or wear of bearing seats.-----N back to top-----NEEDLE ROLLER:Cylindrical roller with large length to diameter ratio. The length is between three and ten times the diameter, which does not usually exceed 5 mm. The ends of the needle roller may be one of several shapes.-----O back to top-----OPEN-END BEARING:A drawn cup bearing that does not have a closed end. This allows a shaft to extend through the bearing.OUTER RING:A bearing component with the outer raceway on its bore surface.OUTER RING RACE:The ball or roller path on the bore of the outer ring.OUTSIDE CASE INNER DIAMETER:The inside or smallest diameter of the outer case of a lip-seal assembly.OUTSIDE DIAMETER:The diameter of the outer ring or cup. It also is known as O.D.OUTSIDE FACE:The surface of the seal case perpendicular to the shaft axis that is not in contact with the fluid being sealed.OUTSIDE LIP ANGLE:The angle between the outside lip surface and the axis of the seal case.OUTSIDE LIP SURFACE:The outside truncated conical surface of the lip.OVERALL BEARING WIDTH:The overall dimension when the cup and cone are mated, including rollers and cage. OXIDATION:This occurs when oxygen attacks petroleum fluids. The process is accelerated by heat, light, metal catalysts and the presence of water, acids, or solid contaminants. It leads to increased viscosity and deposit formation.OXIDATION INHIBITOR:A substance (chemical additive) added in small quantities to a petroleum product to increase its oxidation resistance, thereby lengthening its service or storage life.OXIDATION STABILITY:The resistance of a petroleum product to oxidation and, therefore, a measure of its potential service or storage life.-----P back to top-----PEELING:Micro-spalling due to a thin lubricant film from high loads/low RPM or elevated temperatures. PITTED:Small indentations appearing as black dots on finished surfaces of any piece of product; undesirable surface defects.POINT SURFACE ORIGIN:Spalling from debris or raised metal exceeding the lubricant film thickness.PRELOAD:Thrust load applied to bearings that support a rotating part; eliminates axial endplay or movement. -----R back to top-----RACES:The surfaces on the cup and cone where the rolling elements make contact.RACEWAY:The functional surfaces in an anti-friction bearing that contact the rolling elements.RADIAL DEVIATION:The amount of deviation from the true circular form.RADIAL INTERNAL CLEARANCE:Also called radial clearance. It is the total distance the inner ring (or shaft) may be displaced relative to the outer ring of an assembled, installed bearing.RADIAL LOAD:A load applied perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.RADIAL RUNOUT:Measurable irregularity or out-of-roundness in a rotating assembly, at a right angle to an axis.RIB (HELIX):In seals, a long, narrow projection that is normally triangular in the cross section. It is molded into the outside lip surface of a helix seal. The rib is oriented at an angle to the shaft axis. One end of the rib forms part of the seal-lip contact surface. In tapered roller bearings, it is a raised structure at the end of the raceway that guides or supports the rollers.RMS:Root mean square.ROLLER BINDING SKEWING:Cage ring compressed during installation or interference during service.ROLLER END SCORING:Metal-to-metal contact resulting from the breakdown of lubricant film.ROLLER NICKING/DENTING:Damage from rough handling or installation damage.ROLLER SPACE NICKING:Raised metal on races from contact with roller edges.ROLLERS:Rolling elements that are located between the cone and cup.RUNOUT:Measurable irregularity across a plane surface, such as a disc brake rotor, hub or wheel assembly. RUNOUT (SHAFT):This is the same as gyration. When it is expressed in inches alone or accompanied by the abbreviation TIR (total indicator reading), it refers to twice the radial distance between the shaft axis and axis of rotation.-----S back to top-----SCALLOPING:Uneven localized wear resulting from excessive endplay.SCUFFING:Abnormal wear due to localized welding and fracture. It can be prevented through the use ofanti-wear, extreme-pressure and friction-modifier additives.SENSOR-PAC™ BEARING:A light-duty packaged bearing that includes a sensing system for antilock brake and traction control systems.SHAFT FIT:Amount of interference or clearance between bearing inside diameter and shaft bearing seat outside diameter.SHAFT HARDNESS:The resistance to indentation. At minimum, it should be Rockwell C45.SHAFT LOBING:Uniform radial deviation of the shaft surface. An oval shaft is said to have two lobes. Faulty centerless grinding usually causes an odd number of lobes to occur. Higher order lobing is also referred to as chatter.SHAFT OUT-OF-ROUND:The deviation of the shaft cross section from a true click. Out-of-round is measured as the radial distance, on a polar chart recording, between concentric, circumscribed and inscribed circles that contain the trace and are centered to minimize the radial distance.SHAFT TOLERANCE:This is the allowable variation in the shaft diameter.SPALLING:Metal flaking (off) of the race or roller caused by inclusions in bearing steel, misalignment, deflection or heavy loading.SPINDLE:A short tapered axle that supports a free rolling wheel. Also referred to as a stub axle. SPINDLE NUT:A nut threaded on the end of the spindle for adjusting the wheel bearing endplay or preload. SPLINES:External or internal slots or grooves cut in a shaft/gear/hub or yoke used so that two different components must rotate together.STAINING:Surface stain with no significant corrosion from moisture exposure.STATIC POINT:The section of the helix seal lip incorporating the contact line.STRAIGHT HOUSING:A housing that is through bored. The machining passes all the way through the housing forming a through hole.STRAIGHT MINERAL OIL:A petroleum oil not containing compounds, animal or vegetable oils or chemical additives.-----T back to top-----TAPERED ROLLER BEARING:A friction reducing bearing that is made up of a cup, cone and tapered rollers, which rotate around the raceway of the bearing.THERMAL EXPANSION:The expansion caused by the increase in temperature. This may be linear or volumetric. THRUST:The continuous pressure of one object against another, parallel to the center of the axis. THRUST LOAD:A load applied parallel to the center line of rotation.THRUST NEEDLE BEARINGS:A needle roller thrust bearing contains a cage that holds needle rollers in a spoke-like configuration.A thrust needle roller bearing can only carry a thrust load.TIER ONE SUPPLIERS:Automotive parts manufacturers that supply final equipment directly to automakers (OEMs or original equipment manufacturers). Increasingly, tier one suppliers are becoming "systems integrators" or producers of major subassemblies and modular components that can be installed into a vehicle as a unit, such as a complete chassis.TORQUE:The turning force of a shaft.TORQUE WRENCH:A torque wrench measures the amount of turning force being applied to a fastener (nut or bolt). Scales usually read in foot-pounds or Newton-meters.TRUE BRINELLING:Damage from shock or impact.TRUE ROLLING MOTION:Tapered roller bearings naturally align themselves as a result of the balance of forces on the bearing, keeping rolling elements moving smoothly in wheels and other automotive applications.-----U back to top-----UNIPAC-PLUS™ BEARING:An enhanced UNIPAC design that incorporates a flange to ease mounting of the bearing assembly. UNIPAC™ BEARING:A double-row tapered bearing configuration originally designed for light- and heavy-duty automotive applications.UNIT BEARING:An automotive bearing that is sold as an assembled set and is non-adjustable; characterized by a cone with no large rib.-----W back to top-----WEAR:Damage resulting from the removal of materials from surfaces in relative motion. Wear is generally described as:Abrasive: Removal of materials from surfaces in relative motion by a cutting or abrasive action of a hard particle, which is usually a contaminant.Adhesive: Removal of materials from surfaces in relative motion as a result of surface contact. Galling and scuffing are the extreme cases.Corrosive: Removal of materials by chemical action.-----Z back to top-----ZERO CLEARANCE:No clearance between the roller and races.。
美国文学作品问答题
美国文学作品问答题Part III. The Literature of RomanticismPassage 4Once upon a midnight dreary, while i pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door."Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door—Only this, and nothing more. "Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December,And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor.Eagerly I wished the morrow; —vainly I had tried to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow-sorrow for the lost.1. Who is the writer of these lines?2. What is the title of this poem from which the selection is selected?3. Recognize the sound devices in the following lines. LI ________ L4 ________L7________ L10________4. Describe the mood of this poem.Answers:1. Edgar Allan Poe2. The Raven3. LI—Alliteration, L4—Onomatopoeia, L7—Internal rhyme, L10—Assonance4. A sense of melancholy over the death of a belovedbeautiful young woman pervades the whole poem, the portrayal of a young man grieving for his lost Leno-re, his grief turned to madness under the steady one-word repetition of the talking bird.Passage 5Lo! in you brilliant window-nicheHow statue-like I see thee stand,The agate lamp within thy hand!Ah, Psyche, from the regions whichAre Holy-Land!1. This is the last stanza of a poem To Helen. Who wrote this poem T o Heleni2. With whom is Helen associated in Line 4 of the present stanza?3. Who is Psyche?Answers1. Edgar Allan Poe2. Psyche3. Psyche is the goddess of the soul in Greek mythology.To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society. I am not solitary whilst I read and write, though nobody is with me. But if a man would be alone, let him look at the stars. The rays that come from those heavenly worlds, will separate between him and vulgar things. One might think the atmosphere was made transparent with this design, to give man, in the heavenly bodies, the perpetual presence of the sublime. Seen in the streets of cities, how great they are! If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how would men believe and adore; and preserve for many generations the remembrance of the city of God which had been shown! But every night comeout these preachers of beauty, and light the universe with their admonishing smile.Questions:1. This paragraph is taken from a famous essay. What is the name of the essay?2. Who is the author?3. What does the author say would happen if the stars appeared one night in a thousand years?4. Give a peculiar term to cover the author's belief.Answers:1. Nature2. Ralph Waldo Emerson3. Then, the men cannot believe and adore the God, cannot preserve there membrance of the city of God which had been shown.4. TranscendentalismPassage 7Standing on the bare ground—my head bathed by the blithe air and uplifted into infinite space—all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eyeball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God.Questions:1. Which work is this selection taken from?2. How do you understand the philosophical ideas in these words?Answers:1. Nature2. Ralph Waldo Emerson regards nature as the purest, and the most sanctifying moral influence on man, and advocated adirect intuition of a spiritual and immanent God in nature. In this connection, Emerson' s emotional experiences are exemplary in more ways than one.3. Now this is a moment of "conversion" when one feels completely merged with the outside world, when one has completely sunk into nature and become one with it, and when the soul has gone beyond the physical limits of the body to share the omniscience of the Oversoul. In a word, the soul has completely transcended the limits of individuality and become part of the Oversoul. Emerson sees spirit pervading everywhere, not only in the soul of man, but behind nature, throughout nature.I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practice resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion. For most men, it appears to me, are in a strange uncertainty about it, whether it is of the devil or of God.1. This passage is taken from a famous work entitled _________ .2. The author of the work is____________ .3. List by yourself at least five reasons that the author gives for going to live in the woods.Answers:1. Walden2. Henry David Thoreau3. Find the answer from the passage.Passage 10Tell me not, in mournful numbers. Life is but an empty dream!For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real-life is earnest—And the grave is not its goal. Dust thou art, to dust retumest, Was not spoken of the soul.1. Who is the writer of these lines?2. What is the title of the whole poem from which the two stanzas are taken?3. Summarize the poet’s advice on living.Answers:1. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow2. A Psalm of Ufe3. His optimism which has characterized much of his poetry, also endeared many critics to him. He seemed to have persevered despite tragedy. In his poem, The Psalm of Life, he writes: Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal. This is the cry of the heart, "rallying from depression" , ready to affirm life, to regroup from losses, to push on despite momentary defeat.Forth into the sunshine which, falling on all alike, seemed, to her sick and morbid heart, as if meant for no other purpose than to reveal the scarlet letter on her breast. Perhaps there was a more real torture in her first unattended footsteps from the threshold of the prison, than even in the procession and spectacle that have been described, where she was made the common infamy, at which all mankind was summoned to point its finger. Then, she was supported by an unnatural tension of thenerves, and by all the combative energy of her character, which enabled her to convert the scene into a kind of lurid triumph.1. Which novel is this selection taken from?2. What is the name of the novelist?3. What are the symbolic meanings of the scarlet letter on Hester's breast?Answers:1. The Scarlet Letter Nathaniel Hawthorne2. adultery, able, angelPassage 12It was not very long after speaking the Goney that another homeward-bound whaleman, the Town-Ho, was encountered. She was manned almost wholly by Polynesians. In the short game that ensued she gave us strong news of Moby Dick. To some the general interest in the White Whale was now wildly heightened by a circumstance of the T own-Ho's story, which seemed obscurely to involve with the whale a certain wondrous, inverted visitation of one of those so called judgments of God which at times are said to overtake some men. This latter circumstance, with its own particular accompaniments, forming what may be called the secret part of the tragedy about to be narrated, never reached the ears of Captain Ahab or his mates. For that secret part of the story was unknown to the captain of the Town-Ho himself. It was the private property of three confederate white seamen of that ship, one of whom, it seems, communicated it to Tashtego with Romish injunctions ofsecrecy, but the following night Tashtego rambled in his sleep, and revealed so much of it in that way, that when he was wakened he could not well withhold the rest. Nevertheless, so potent an influence did this thing have on those seamen in the Pequod who came to the fullknowledge of it, and by such a strange delicacy, to call it so, were they governed in this matter, that they kept the secret among themselves so that it never transpired abaft the Pequod' s main-mast . Interweaving in its proper place this darker thread with the story as publicly narrated on the ship, the whole of this strange affair I now proceed to put on lasting record.1. From which novel is this paragraph taken?2. What is the name of the novelist?3. Who is Ahab?4. What is Pequod?5. What is the theme of the novel?Answers:1. Moby Dick2. Herman Melville3. The captain of the whaling ship4. The name of the whaling ship5. The rebellious struggle of Captain Ahab against the overwhelming, mysterious vastness of the universe and its awesome sometimes merciless forces.Part IV. The Literature of RealismPassage 1I celebrate myself, and sing myself,And what I assume you shall assume,For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.I loafe and invite my soul,I learn and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.1. These are the first two stanzas in the first section of a long poem entitled2. The name of the poet is___________ .3. Who is the poet celebrating? Whom do lines 2 ~ 3 also include in the celebration?4. What is the verse, structure?5. Take the fifth line as a hint, can you write out the name of the poet’s completed collections of poems? Answers:1. Song of Myself2. Walt Whitman3. The poet is celebrating himself, his own life. Lines 2-3 also include "you”, the readers and their lives in the celebration.4. free verse5. Leaves of GrassPassage 2Because I could not stop for Death—He kindly stopped for me—The Carriage held but just Ourselves—Questions:1. Who is the writer of these lines?2. In which category would you place this poem?A. narrativeB. dramaticC. lyric3. Emily Dickinson is noted for her use of_____________ to achieve special effects.A. perfect rhymeB. exact rhymeC. slant rhymeAnswers:1. Emily Dickinson2. C3. CPassage 3It is impossible to conceive of a human creature more wholly desolate and forlorn than Eliza, when she turned her footsteps from Uncle Tom’s cabin.Questions:1. This is taken from a famous novel. What is the name of the novel?2. What is the name of the writer?3. Who is Uncle Tom?Answers:1. Uncle Tom' s Cabin2. Harriet Beecher Stowe3. He is the main character in the novel, a suffering slave, a victim of slavery.Tom Sawyer stepped forward with conceited confidence and soared into the unquenchable and indestructible "Give me liberty or give me death" speech, with fine fury and frantic gesticulation, and broke down in the middle of it. A ghastly stage fright seized him, his legs quaked under him, and he was like to choke. True, he had the manifest sympathy of the house------ but he had the house’s silence, too, which was even worse than its sympathy. The master frowned, and this completed the disaster. Tom struggled awhile and then retired, defeated.1. Which novel is this passage taken from?2. Who is the author?Answers:1. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer2. Mark TwainPassage 5I took the sack of corn meal and took it to where the canoewas hid, and shoved t, he vines and branches apart and put it in; then I done the same with the side of bacon; then the whisky-jug.I took all the coffee and suga, r there was, and all the ammunition;I took the wadding; I took the bucket and gourd; took a dipper and a tin cup, and my old saw and two blankets, and the skillet and the coffee-pot. I took fish-lines and matches and other things—everything that was worth a cent. I cleaned out the place.I wanted an ax, but there wasn't any, only the one out at the woodpile, and 1 knew why I was going to leave that. I fetched out the gun, and now I was done.Questions:1. Which novel is this passage taken from?2. Analyze the language style of this passage.Answers1. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn2. The words used here are, except perhaps "ammunition" which is etymologically French, mostly Anglo-Saxon in origin, and are short, concrete and direct in effect. Sentence structures are most of them simple or compound, with a series of "thens" and "ands" and semi-colons serving as connectives. The repetition of the word "took" and the stringing together of things leave the impression that Mark Twain depended solely on the concrete object and action for the body and move ment of his prose. And what is more, there is an ungrammatical element which gives the final finish to his style. The whole book does approximate the actual speech habit of an uneducated boy from the American South of the mid-nineteenth century.On his bench in Madison Square, Soapy moved uneasily. When wild geese honk high of nights, and when women without sealskin coats grow kind to their husbands, and when Soapymoves uneasily on his bench in the park, you may know that winter is near at hand.Questions:1. This passage is taken from a short story entitled____________ .2. The author's name is William Sidney Porter. What is his pen name?Answers:1. Vie Cop and the Anthem2. O. HenryPassage 9When a girl leaves her home at eighteen, she does one of two things. Either she falls into saving hands and becomes better, or she rapidly assumes the cosmopolitan standard of virtue and becomes worse. Of an intermediate balance, under the circumstances, there is no possibility. The city has its cunning wiles, no less than the infinitely smaller and more human tempter. There are large forces which allure with all the soulfulness of expression possible in the most cultured human. The gleam of a thousand lights is often as effective as the persuasive light in a wooing and fascinating eye. Half the undoing of the unsophisticated and natural mind is accomplished by forces wholly superhuman. A blare of sound, a roar of life, a vast array of human hives, appeal to the astonished senses in equivocal terms. Without a counsellor at hand to whisper cautious interpretations, what falsehoods may not these things breathe into the unguarded ear! Unrecognised for what they are, their beauty, like music, too often relaxes, then weakens then perverts the simpler human perceptions.1. From which novel is this paragraph taken?2. Who is the author of this novel?3. How do you understand "the cosmopolitan standard of virtue"?4. Is there any naturalist tendency in this passage?Answers:1. Sister Carrie2. Theodore Dreiser3. "The cosmopolitan standard of virtue" is something that makes a person become low in virtue and value and become worse.Part V. Twentieth Century Literature (I) Before WWIIPassage 1:In a Station of the MetroThe apparition of these faces in the crowd;Petals on a wet, black bough.Questions:1. Who is the author of this short poem?2. What two images are juxtaposed, or placed next to each other in this poem?3. How do you appreciate this poem?Answers:1. Ezra Pound2. The writer uses the image of "petals" on another image, that is, "wet, black bough".3. In In a Station of the Metro Pound attempts to produce the emotion he felt when he walked down into a Paris subway station and suddenly saw a number of faces in the dim light. To capture the emotion, Pound uses the image of petals on a wet, black bough. The image is not decoration; It is central to the poem's mean? ing. In fact, it is the poem's meaning.Passage 2:And he was rich—yes, richer than a king—And admirably schooled in every grace:In fine, we thought that he was everything To make us wish that we were in his place. So on we worked, and waited for the light,And went without the meat, and cursed the bread; And Richard Cory, one calm summer night, Went home and put a bullet through his head.Questions:1. What is the title of the poem?2. Who wrote this poem?3. How are the "we" of the poem different from Richard Cory?4. Do you think the use of the adjective "calm" in the next-to-hist line is an example of verbal irony? What is verbal irony?5. There is an element of dark humor in the mistaken ideas that the townspeople have of Richard Cory, do you think so?Answers:1. Richard Cory2. Edwin Arlington Robinson3. The "we" in the poem refers to the poor townspeople who live a hard life and admire the rich. But Richard Cory is the rich person who is admired by the poor, and appears to be calm and smart, but with a heart of suicidal despairing.4. Yes, it is an example of verbal irony. Verbal irony occurs when words that appear to be saying one thing are really saying something quite different.The woods are lovely, dark and deep.But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before 1 sleep.1. Who wrote this poem?2. What is the title of this poem?3. What kind of feeling does this stanza show?4 What do you think of this poem?Answers:1. Robert Frost2. "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening"3. It shows a kind of sad, sentimental but also strong and responsible feeling.4. It is one of the most quietly moving of Frost' s lyrics. On the surface, it seems to be simple, descriptive verses, records of close observation, graphic and homely pictures. It uses the simplest terms and commonest words. But it is deeply meditative, adding far-reaching meanings to the homely music. It uses its superb craftsmanship to come to a climax of responsibility: the promises to be kept, the obligation to be fulfilled. Few poems have said so much in so little.Passage 4:Hog Butcher for the World,Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat,Player with Railroads and the Nation's Freight Handler;Stormy, husky, brawling,City of the Big Shoulders:1. These lines are talking about a big American city which is also the title of the poem. What is it?2. Who wrote this poem?3. What is the city called in the first line?Answers:1. Chicago2. Carl Sandburg3. Hog butcher for the worldLet us go then, you and I,When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a pati ent etherized upon a table;Let us go, through certain half-deserted streets, he muttering retreatsOf restless nights in one-night cheap hotels And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells Streets that follow like a tedious argument Of insidious intentTo lead you to an overwhelming question... Oh, do not ask, "What is it?"Let us go and make our visit. In the room the women come and goTalking of Michelangelo.1. This is the first 14 lines of a famous poem "The love Song of J. Alfred Pnifrock. “What is the name of the poet wrote it?2. What image is created in this passage?3. Do you think Prufrock is a tragic figure? Why?4. Is this poem a dramatic monologue? Why?Answers:1. Thomas Stearns Eliot2. a patient etherized upon a table3. He is a tragic figure. The plight of this hesitant, inhabited man, an aging dreamer trapped in decayed, shabby-genteel surroundings, aware of beauty and faced with sordidness, mirrors the plight of the sensitive in the presence of the dull.4. Yes, it is a dramatic monologue. He is a character created by Eliot, and he speaks directly to us. He tells us his thoughts in leaps and bounds, jumping from one image to another, just as ahuman mind does.Passage 8:The Burial of the DeadApril is the cruellest month, breeding Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire stirring Duil roots with spring rain. Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers.1. This is the first seven lines of a masterpiece poem. What is the name of this masterpiece?2. Who is the author of this masterpiece?3. What theme can you get from these lines?Answers:1. The Waste Land2. Thomas Stearns Eliot3. The theme of the poem is modern spiritual barrenness, the despair and de?pression that followed the First World War, the sterility and turbulence of the mod?ern world, and the decline and breakdown of Western culture.They were careless people, Tom and Daisy—They smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them together and let other people clean up the mess they had made. . .1. Which novel is this passage taken from?2. Who is the writer of this novel?3. What is the author' s attitude toward such persons as Tom and Daisy?Answers:1. The Great Gatsby2. F. Scott Fitzgerald3. The author criticized them as selfish, hypocritical persons.Passage 10:Poor, poor dear Cat. And this was the price you paid for sleeping together. This was the end of the trap. This was what people got for loving each other. Thank God for gas, anyway. What must it have been like before there were anaesthetics? Once it started, they were in the mill-race. Catherine had a good time in the time of pregnancy. It wasn't bad. She was hardly ever sick. She was not awfully uncomfortable until toward the last. So now they got her in the end. You never got away with anything. Get away hell! It would have been the same if we had been married fifty times. And what if she should die? She won't die. People don't die in childbirth nowadays. That was what all husbands thought. Yes, but what if she should die? She won' t die, She' s just having a bad time. Afterward we’d say what a bad time and Catherine would say it wasn't really so bad. But what if she should die?1. Which novel is this passage taken from?2. Who is the writer of this novel from which the passage is selected?3. What do you think of the language style?Answers:1. A Farewell to Arms2. Ernest Hemingway3. Hemingway manages to choose words concrete, specific, more commonly found, more casual and conversational. He employs these kinds of words often in a syntax of short, simple sentences, which are orderly and patterned and sometimes ungrammatical.The migrant people, scuttling for work, scrabbling to live,looked always for pleasure, dug for pleasure, manufactured pleasure, and they were hungry for amusement. Sometimes amusement lay in speech, and they climbed up their lives with jokes. And it came about in the camps along the road, on the ditch banks beside the streams, under the sycamores, that the story-teller grew into being, so that the people gathered in the low firelight to hear the gifted ones.1. Which novel is this passage taken from?2. Who is the writer of this novel?Answers:1. The Grapes of Wrath2. John SteinbeckPassage 12:When Miss Emily Grierson died, our whole town went to her funeral; the men through a sort of respectful affectation for a fallen monument, the women mostly out of curiosity to see the inside of her house, which no one save an old manservant—a combined gardener and cook—had seen in at least ten years.1. Which book is this paragraph taken from?2. Who is the writer of this book?V. Analyze Hie main works.1. Analysis of Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken.2. The story summary and the analysis of Chapter 3 of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.3. Analysis of John Steinbeck's the Grapes of Wrath.4. Analysis of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury.Answers:1. A Rose for Emily2. William Faulkner。
某汽车轮毂轴断裂原因分析
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马伟众．汽车轮毂轴承加工方法研究ＥＪ３．应用科学，２０１０，（６）：
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［４］刘喜明，张庆茂，邦成菊，等．轿车后轮毂轴早期疲劳断裂的原因
某汽车轮毂轴断裂原因分析
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Analysis of the axle fracture of the bucket wheel excavatorMile Savkovic´a ,⇑,Milomir Gašic ´a ,Miodrag Arsic ´b ,Radovan Petrovic ´a aUniversity of Kragujevac,Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Kraljevo,Dositejeva 19,36000Kraljevo,Serbia b Institute for Testing Materials IMS,Bulevar Vojvode Mišic´a 43,11000Belgrade,Serbia a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 4May 2010Received in revised form 27September 2010Accepted 28September 2010Available online 27October 2010Keywords:Bucket wheel excavator Bucket wheel axle Failure analysis Experimental testinga b s t r a c tThe common design of the bucket wheel drive mechanism in some bucket wheel excava-tors (BWE)consists of a gearbox and a hollow shaft,while the bucket wheel is supported bythe axle passing through the hollow shaft.Improper maintenance and inadequate elimina-tion of axis misalignment of the hollow shaft and the bucket wheel axle are the maincauses of excavator failure and axle fracture.The paper examines the causes of bucketwheel axle fractures.Experimental testing of the chemical composition and mechanical properties of thematerial used to make the bucket wheel axle and metallographic inspections of the frac-ture surfaces in the bucket wheel axle by means of electronic and light microscope carriedout in the first part of the paper have shown that there are no significant inhomogeneitiesand errors in the material of the axle.The second part of the paper presents the FEM analysis of influences of disturbances onthe manner of support of the bucket wheel axle on the fracture.It shows that the negativeinfluences of support of the axle reflected through the increase in the stress concentrationand occurence of the initial crack are the main causes of the axle fracture.Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionDigging and depositing of layers of materials in open pit mines are most frequently performed by bucket wheel excava-tors (BWE).BWE SRs 2000.32/5.0+VR92(Fig.1a)is used in the open pit mine in ‘‘Kolubara”–Serbia.After more than 40,000h of exploitation of the BWE SRs 2000.32/5.0+VR92(Fig.1a)during a period of ten years,there occurred a fracture of the bucket wheel axle (Fig.1b and c),which caused the failure of the BWE.Since the digging drive in the BWE represents a subsystem of vital importance for the reliability in operation and stability of the BWE,research into the cause of the fracture of the bucket wheel axle is of particular significance [1].For the mentioned BWE,the largest diameter of the axle is 550mm,the length is 4500mm,the mass is 5934kg and the frequency of rotation is 4.394min À1.The bucket wheel axle was made by forging.The gearbox of the mass ffi51,000kg is connected to the bucket wheel by means of the hollow shaft.Additional support of the gearbox on the bucket wheel axle through the hollow shaft is accomplished through the sliding bushing (Fig.2).After the BWE had been exploited for more than 10years,at the end of 2006there occurred pronounced misalignment between the hollow shaft and the bucket wheel axle,which was most noticeable in the zone of the hollow shaft ending.Without prior analysis of the cause of misalignment between the hollow shaft and the bucket wheel axle,the user,wishing to solve the problem that had arisen,inserted a split bronze bushing in the zone of the hollow shaft ending (Fig.2).1350-6307/$-see front matter Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2010.09.031⇑Corresponding author.Tel.:+38136383392;fax:+38136383380.E-mail address:savkovic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.rs (M.Savkovic´).2.Examination of the causes of fracture of the bucket wheel axleAfter more than 8500h of exploitation of the BWE,there occurred a fracture of the bucket wheel axle.For the purpose of investigating the causes of the fracture,an experimental procedure was carried out and it covered the examination of the chemical composition and mechanical properties of the material [2],visual and metallographic inspection of the fracture surface on the axle as well as the analysis of the stress state of the bucket wheel axle.2.1.Experimental procedureAccording to the manufacturer’s data,the bucket wheel axle is made of steel 30CrMoV9V.Samples for analysis of the chemical composition and preparation of test pieces for examination of the mechanical properties of the bucket wheel axle were taken from the points presented in Fig.3b.The results of examination of the chemical composition of the samples taken at the point of fracture are shown in Table 1.The test results of the mechanical properties of the bucket wheel axle are shown in Table 2.The hardness of the material of the axle is appropriate,in compliance with the requirements for the mentioned type of steel,i.e.259–260HB 5/750.The measured hardness at the point of fracture in the longitudinal and lateral directions shows that there is no significant scattering and that it is uniform for all samples taken at the points marked in Fig.3b.excavator SRs 2000.32/5.0+VR92:(a)outlook of BWE,(b)bucket wheel axle before the failure and (c)bucket2.2.Visual and metallographic examinationFor the purpose of obtaining as realistic a picture of the fracture surface on the bucket wheel axle as possible,besides visual examination,stereoscopy was performed.Metallographic examination was made using Axiovert25,ZEISS.Fracto-graphic examinations were made using SEM JOEL JSM-5800.The fatigue fracture initiation on the bucket wheel axle of the BWE SRs 2000.32/5.0+VR92is shown in Fig.4.The en-larged initial crack is shown in Fig.5,and the structure of the material in the longitudinal section in the polished and etched states with non-metallic inclusions,in the zone of fatigue failure,is presented in Fig.6.The enlarged crack in the material in the zone of plastic fracture is shown in Fig.7,and the structure of the material of the longitudinal section in the polished and etched states with fractures in the zone of plastic fracture is shown in Fig.8.2.3.Discussion of the results of the examinationThe results of examination of the samples taken at the point of the bucket wheel axle fracture have shown that the chem-ical composition and mechanical properties correspond to the quality of steel 30CrMoV9V (according to DIN 17200;1987).The external appearance of the fracture surface (Figs.3and 4)indicates the fracture was due to material fatigue in which characteristic signs of tearing can be seen [3–5].The fatigue fracture initiation can also be clearly seen (Fig.4).The state of the structure of material of the bucket wheel axle is improved.The analysis of the microstructure of the material of the bucket wheel axle in the lateral and longitudinal sections has shown that there is slight anisotropy,i.e.the inclusions shown are slightly elongated.By examining the micro strength in the cross section on the sample surface,it was established that there was no decarburization according to ASTM 381standard.The performed experimental procedure of testing the chemical composition and mechanical properties of the material,as well as the visual and metallographic examination of the fracture surface on the axle,show that the fracture did not occur due to an error in the material.3.Calculation of the stress stateThe analysis of the stress state of the bucket wheel axle was carried out by applying the FEM method [6–8].By the anal-ysis ANSYS program was used [9].According to the project documentation (case 1),the axle support was realized through bearings A and B with the existence of contact between the axle and the hollow shaft through the sliding bushing C (Figs.2Fig.2.Position of the bucket wheel axle within the bucket wheel drive.and 9a ).The user having inserted the split bronze bushing,the new additional contact D between the axle and the hollow shaft was formed (Fig.9b).By synthesis of 3D models of all structural parts,a 3D model of the bucket wheel axle was built (Fig.10).The model represents a continuum discretized by 10-node tetrahedral elements [6]for the purpose of creating an FEM model (45124nodes,25016elements).surface on the bucket wheel axle:(a)general look and point of transition from plastic fracture into the zone of brittle for examination.Table 1The results of examination of the chemical composition of the samples taken at the point of fracture.Elements (%)C Si S P Mn Cr Mo V Prescribed values 30CrMoV9V DIN17200;1987from 0.28max max max 0.40 2.300.150.10to 0.350.400.0300.0350.70 2.700.250.20Values obtained by testing 0.290.230.0160.0150.59 2.350.230.19Table 2The test results of the mechanical properties of the bucket wheel axle.Elements (%)R p 0,2(N/mm 2)R m (N/mm 2)A 5(%)K (J)Prescribed values 30CrMoV9V DIN17201;1987from min 800min min to 5909501435Values obtained by testing 60280117.544In compliance with the norms defined by the German code[10],the analysis of the bucket wheel axle was carried out for static(H1a)and variable(H1b)loads.The variability of digging resistance is the source of variable loads,which leads to the occurrence of dynamic inter-actions and impacts at the point of contact between the bucket wheel axle and the hollow shaft relized through the bushing.The uniaxial stressfield,according to the Huber-Hencky-von Mises hypothesis[11–13],for case1of the load,is presented in Fig.11.The maximum value of the uniaxial stress was obtained for case2,in the zone of support,Fig.12.3.1.Discussion about the results of the FEM analysisOn the basis of the FEM results,it can be concluded that:The stress state for case2is considerably more unfavourable.Due to the additional support,there occurs the stress con-centration in the zone of contact between the axle and the hollow shaft by means of the bushing.The level of the stress state in the zone of axle fracture for the case of additional support of the hollow shaft on the bucket wheel axle is very high.The values of uniaxial stresses,at the point of support are3.1times higher than the stresses for the basic case of load.The degree of safety of the axle in the characteristic section for case1of support is S¼r yr eq;max;I ¼613114¼5:4,while for case2S¼r yr eq;max;II ¼613498¼1:23.of fatigue fracture initiation on the bucketFig.7.The enlarged crack in the material in the zone of plastic fracture.longitudinal section in the polished and etched states with cracks,in9.Model of supports of the bucket wheel axle:(a)case1and(b)caseM.Savkovic´et al./Engineering Failure Analysis18(2011)433–441441 4.ConclusionOn the basis of the presented research results,the following conclusions can be made:The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the material from which the bucket wheel axle is made are within the prescribed limits for steel30CrMoV9V(according to DIN17200;1987).The metallographic examination of the fracture surface show that the fracture did not occur due to any errors in the material.Elimination of the misalignment between the bucket wheel axle and the hollow shaft of the gearbox,realized through the additional split bronze bushing,resulted in considerable increase in uniaxial stresses in the bucket wheel axle.That increase is3.1times higher than the stress without any additional supports,where the degree of safety of the axle at that point decreased from5.4to1.23,which is the main cause of the bucket wheel axle fracture.The bucket wheel axle fracture is caused by improper elimination of axis misalignment of the bucket wheel axle and the hollow shaft which resulted in:-An increased stress concentration in the bucket wheel axle,-A triple increase of uniaxial stresses in the axle,-A quadruple decrease of the degree of safety of the axle.References[1]Kowalczyk M,Czmochowski J,Rusinski E.Construction of diagnostic models of the states of developing fault for working parts of the multi-bucketexcavator.Maint Reliab2009;2(42):17–24[In Polish].[2]Rusinski E,Czmochowski J,Iluk A,Kowalczyk M.An analysis of the causes of a BWE counterweight boom support 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