Detailed Example of Stratified Log-rank Test
国际商务英文版
Legal System
The legal system of a country refers to the rules, or laws, that regulate behavior along with the processes by which the laws are enforced and through which redress for grievances is obtained. A country’s laws regulate business practice, define the manner in which business transactions are to be executed, and set down the rights and obligations of those involved in business transactions.
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Legal System
—— Different Legal System
Common law: common law system is based on tradition, precedent, and custom. Tradition refers to a country’s legal history, precedent to cases that have come before the courts in the past, custom to the ways in which laws are applied in specific situations. Common law system has a degree of flexibility. Judges have the power to interpret the law. It is now found in most of Great Britain’s former colonies. 4fferences in Contract Law
An overview of ocean renewable energy in China 中国海洋资源开发回顾
An overview of ocean renewable energy in ChinaRenewable and Sustainable Energy ReviewsFacing great pressure of economic growth and energy crisis, China pays much attention to the renewable energy. An overview of policy and legislation of renewable energy as well as status of development of renewable energy in China was given in this article. By analysis, the authors believe that ocean energy is a necessary addition to existent renewable energy to meet the energy demand of the areas and islands where traditional forms of energy are not applicable and it is of great importance in adjusting energy structure of China. In the article, resources distribution and technology status of tidal energy, wave energy, marine current energy, ocean thermal energy and salinity gradient energy in China was reviewed, and assessment and advices were given for each category. Some suggestions for future development of ocean energy were also given.Design pressure distributions on the hull of the FLOW wave energy converterThis paper presents a procedure to calculate the design pressure distributions on the hull of a wave energy converter (WEC). Design pressures are the maximum pressure values that the device is expected to experience during its operational life time. The procedure is applied to the prototype under development by Martifer Energy (FLOW—Future Life in Ocean Waves).A boundary integral method is used to solve the hydrodynamic problem. The hydrodynamic pressures are combined with the hydrostatic ones and the internal pressures of the large ballast tanks. The first step consists of validating the numerical results of motions by comparison with measured experimental data obtained with a scaled model of the WEC. The numerical model is tuned by adjusting the damping of the device rotational motions and the equivalent damping and stiffness of the power take-off system. The pressure distributions are calculated for all irregular sea states representative of the Portuguese Pilot Zone where the prototype will be installed and a long term distribution method is used to calculate the expected maximum pressures on the hull corresponding to the 100-year return period.海波流能量转换器压力分散设计Development of an adaptive disturbance rejection system for the rapidly deployable stable platform–part 1: Mathematical modeling and open loop response 海面作业平台系统的稳定性保证：数学建模与开环响应模拟实验A Rapidly Deployable Stable Platform (RDSP) concept was investigated at Florida Atlantic University in response to military and civilian needs for ocean platforms with improved sea-keeping characteristics. The RDSP is designed to have enhanced sea-keeping abilities through the combination of a novel hull and thruster design coupled with active control. The RDSP is comprised of a catamaran that attaches via a hinge to a spar, enabling it to transit like a trimaran and then reconfigure so that the spar lifts the catamaran out of the water, creating a stable spar platform. The focus of this research is the mathematical modeling, simulation, and response characterization of the RDSP to provide a foundation for controller design, testing, and tuning. The mathematical model includes a detailed representation of residual drag, friction drag, added mass, hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressure, and control actuator dynamics. Validation has been performed by comparing the simulation predicted motions of the RDSP operating in waves to the measured motions of the 1/10th scale prototype measured at sea. Resulting from this paper is an empirical assessment of the response characteristics of the RDSP that quantifies the performance under extreme conditions and provides a solid basis for controller development and testing.Combined use of dimensional analysis and modern experimental design methodologies in hydrodynamics experiments海洋工程设计的多维度分析与现代化的实验化设计与验证的方法In this paper, a combined use of dimensional analysis (DA) and modern statistical design of experiment (DOE) methodologies is proposed for a hydrodynamics experiment where there are a large number of variables. While DA is well-known, DOE is still unfamiliar to most ocean engineers although it has been shown to be useful in many engineering and non-engineering applications. To introduce and illustrate the method, a study concerning the thrust of a propeller is considered. Fourteen variables are involved in the problem and after dimensional analysis this reduces to 11 dimensionless parameters. Then, a two-level fractional factorial design was used to screen out parameters that do not significantly contribute to explaining the dependent dimensionless parameter. With the remaining five statistically significant dimensionless parameters, various response surface methodologies (RSM) were used to obtain a functional relationship between the dependent dimensionless thrust coefficient, and the five dimensionless parameters. The final model was found to be of reasonable accuracy when tested against results not used to develop the model. The methodologies presented in the paper can be similarly applied to systems with a large number of control variables to systematically derive approximate mathematical models to predict the responses of the system economically and accurately.Progress toward autonomous ocean sampling networks海洋实验与勘测的自动取样网络化系统的设计进程The goals of the Autonomous Ocean Sampling Network (AOSN) are reviewed and progress toward those goals is assessed based on results of recent, major field experiments. Major milestones include the automated control of multiple, mobile sensors for weeks using spatial coverage metrics and the transition from engineering a reliable data stream to managing the complexities of decision-making based on the data and the possibilities of timely feedback.Non-uniform adaptive vertical grids for 3D numerical ocean modelsOcean Modelling采用垂直化网格表示的的三维数字化海洋模型海洋建模学报A new strategy for the vertical gridding in terrain-following 3D ocean models is presented here. The vertical grid adaptivity is partially given by a vertical diffusion equation for the vertical layer positions, with diffusivities being proportional to shear, stratification and distance from the boundaries. In the horizontal, the grid can be smoothed with respect to z-levels, grid layer slope and density. Lagrangian tendency of the grid movement is supported. The adaptive terrain-following grid can be set to be an Eulerian–Lagrangian grid, a hybrid σ–ρ or σ–z grid and combinations of these with great flexibility. With this, internal flow structures such as thermoclines can be well resolved and followed by the grid. A set of idealised examples is presented in the paper, which show that the introduced adaptive grid strategy reduces pressure gradient errors and numerical mixing significantly. The grid adaption strategy is easy to implement in various types of terrain-following ocean models. The idealised examples give evidence that the adaptive grids can improve realistic, long-term simulations of stratified seas while keeping the advantages of terrain-following coordinates.Procedures for offline grid nesting in regional ocean models海岸离散测绘网布局点与区域海洋模型图绘制仿真步骤与过程One-way offline nesting of a primitive-equation regional ocean numerical model (ROMS) is investigated, with special attention to the boundary forcing file creation process. The model has a modified open boundary condition which minimises false wave reflections, and is optimised to utilise high-frequency boundary updates. The model configuration features a previously computed solution which supplies boundary forcing data to an interior domain with an increased grid resolution. At the open boundaries of the interior grid (the child) the topography is matched to that of the outer grid (the parent), over a narrow transition region. A correction is applied to the normal baroclinic and barotropic velocities at the open boundaries of the child to ensure volume conservation. It is shown that these steps, together with a carefully constructed interpolation of the parent data, lead to a high-quality child solution, with minimal artifacts such as persistent rim currents and wave reflections at the boundaries.Development of a Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere–Wave–Sediment Transport (COAWST) Modeling SystemUnderstanding the processes responsible for coastal change is important for managing our coastal resources, both natural and economic. The current scientific understanding of coastal sediment transport and geology suggests that examining coastal processes at regional scales can lead to significant insight into how the coastal zone evolves. To better identify the significant processes affecting our coastlines and how those processes create coastal change we developed a Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere–Wave–Sediment Transport (COAWST) Modeling System, which is comprised of the Model Coupling Toolkit to exchange data fields between the ocean model ROMS, the atmosphere model WRF, the wave model SWAN, and the sediment capabilities of the Community Sediment Transport Model. This formulation builds upon previous developments by coupling the atmospheric model to the ocean and wave models, providing one-way grid refinement in the ocean model, one-way grid refinement in the wave model, and coupling on refined levels. Herein we describe the modeling components and the data fields exchanged. The modeling system is used to identify model sensitivity by exchanging prognostic variable fields between different model components during an application to simulate Hurricane Isabel during September 2003. Results identify that hurricane intensity is extremely sensitive to sea surface temperature. Intensity is reduced when coupled to the ocean model although the coupling provides a more realistic simulation of the sea surface temperature. Coupling of the ocean to the atmosphere also results in decreased boundary layer stress and coupling of the waves to the atmosphere results in increased bottom stress. Wave results are sensitive to both ocean and atmospheric coupling due to wave–current interactions with the ocean and wave growth from the atmosphere wind stress. Sediment resuspension at regional scale during the hurricane is controlled by shelf width and wave propagation during hurricane approach.Contact dynamics of two floating cable-connected bodiesWe consider two ship-like bodies connected by six cables and excited by waves. The cables might be under tension, or they might be slack, thus forming a unilateral system generating possible impacts. The impact forces can reach 20,000 kN and are able to cause damage to a ship. In order to avoid such large impact forces, anti-shock buffers might be adopted but good buffer design requires knowledge of the impact forces. We have evaluated these using multi-body theory with unilateral contacts in combination with classical ship dynamics, which allows modeling of the contact dynamics of two floating bodies in an ocean. Based on an optimization algorithm a method using an artificial neural network (NNW) has been developed to determine the combination of possible constraints at each step. The results of a numerical example compare reasonably well with experiments. We have thus established a theoretical basis for further buffer design.Joint modelling of wave spectral parameters for extreme sea statesCharacterising the dependence between extremes of wave spectral parameters such as significant wave height (H S) and spectral peak period (T P) is important in understanding extreme ocean environments andin the design and assessment of marine structures. For example, it is known that mean values of wave periods tend to increase with increasing storm intensity. Here we seek to characterise joint dependence in a straightforward manner, accessible to the ocean engineering community, using a statistically sound approach.Many methods of multivariate extreme value analyses are based on models which assume implicitly that in some joint tail region each parameter is either independent of or asymptotically dependent on other parameters; yet in reality the dependence structure in general is neither of these. The underpinning assumption of multivariate regular variation restricts these methods to estimation of joint regions in which all parameters are extreme; but regions where only a subset of parameters are extreme can be equally important for design. The conditional approach of Heffernan and Tawn (2004), similar in spirit to that of Haver (1985) but with better theoretical foundation, overcomes these difficulties.We use the conditional approach to characterise the dependence structure of H S and T P. The key elements of the procedure are: (1) marginal modelling for all parameters, (2) transformation of data to a common standard Gumbel marginal form, (3) modelling dependence between data for extremes of pairs of parameters using a form of regression, (4) simulation of long return periods to estimate joint extremes. We demonstrate the approach in application to measured and hindcast data from the Northern North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the North West Shelf of Australia. We also illustrate the use of data re-sampling techniques such as bootstrapping to estimate the uncertainty in marginal and dependence models and accommodate this uncertainty in extreme quantile estimation.We discuss the current approach in the context of other approaches to multivariate extreme value estimation popular in the ocean engineering community.极端海洋多外力因素环境的综合作用仿真Robust diving control of an AUVMobile systems traveling through a complex environment present major difficulties in determining accurate dynamic models. Autonomous underwater vehicle motion in ocean conditions requires investigation of new control solutions that guarantee robustness against external parameter uncertainty.A diving-control design, based on Lyapunov theory and back-stepping techniques, is proposed and verified. Using adaptive and switching schemes, the control system is able to meet the required robustness. The results of the control system are theoretically proven and simulations are developed to demonstrate the performance of the solutions proposed.移动式潜水器的鲁棒控制Transient behavior of towed cable systems during ship turning maneuversThe dynamic behavior of a towed cable system that results from the tow ship changing course from a straight-tow trajectory to one involving steady circular turning at a constant radius is examined. For large-radius ship turns, the vehicle trajectory and vehicle depth assumed, monotonically and exponentially, the large-radius steady-state turning solution of Chapman [Chapman, D.A., 1984. The towed cable behavior during ship turning manoeuvers. Ocean Engineering 11, 327–361]. For small-radius ship turns, the vehicle trajectory initially followed a corkscrew pattern with the vehicle depth oscillating about and eventually decaying to the steady-state turning solution of Chapman (1984). The change between monotonic and oscillatory behavior in the time history of the vehicle depth was well defined and offered an alternate measure to Chapman's (1984) critical radius for the transition point between large-radius and small-radius behavior. For steady circular turning in the presence of current, there was no longer a steady-state turning solution. Instead, the vehicle depth oscillated with amplitude that was a function of the ship-turning radius and the ship speed. The dynamics of a single 360° turn and a 180° U-turn are discussed in terms of the transients of the steady turning maneuver. For a single 360°large-radius ship turn, the behavior was marked by the vehicle dropping to the steady-state turning depth predicted by Chapman (1984) and then rising back to the initial, straight-tow equilibrium depth once the turn was completed. For small ship-turning radius, the vehicle dropped to a depth corresponding to the first trough of the oscillatory time series of the steady turning maneuver before returning to the straight-tow equilibrium depth once the turn was completed. For some ship-turning radii, this resulted in a maximum vehicle depth that was greater than the steady-state turning depth. For a 180°turn and ship-turning radius less than the length of the tow cable, the vehicle never reached the steady-state turning depth.海洋勘测船的光缆稳定性与海波振动影响传输On the structure of Langmuir turbulenceThe Stokes drift induced by surface waves distorts turbulence in the wind-driven mixed layer of the ocean, leading to the development of streamwise vortices, or Langmuir circulations, on a wide range of scales. We investigate the structure of the resulting Langmuir turbulence, and contrast it with the structure of shear turbulence, using rapid distortion theory (RDT) and kinematic simulation of turbulence. Firstly, these linear models show clearly why elongated streamwise vortices are produced in Langmuir turbulence, when Stokes drift tilts and stretches vertical vorticity into horizontal vorticity, whereas elongated streaky structures in streamwise velocity fluctuations (u) are produced in shear turbulence, because there is a cancellation in the streamwise vorticity equation and instead it is vertical vorticity that is amplified. Secondly, we develop scaling arguments, illustrated by analysing data from LES, thatindicate that Langmuir turbulence is generated when the deformation of the turbulence by mean shear is much weaker than the deformation by the Stokes drift. These scalings motivate a quantitative RDT model of Langmuir turbulence that accounts for deformation of turbulence by Stokes drift and blocking by theair–sea interface that is shown to yield profiles of the velocity variances in good agreement with LES. The physical picture that emerges, at least in the LES, is as follows. Early in the life cycle of a Langmuir eddy initial turbulent disturbances of vertical vorticity are amplified algebraically by the Stokes drift into elongated streamwise vortices, the Langmuir eddies. The turbulence is thus in a neartwo-component state, with suppressed and . Near the surface, over a depth of order the integral length scale of the turbulence, the vertical velocity (w) is brought to zero by blocking of the air–sea interface. Since the turbulence is nearly two-component, this vertical energy is transferred intothe spanwise fluctuations, considerably enhancing at the interface. After a time of order half the eddy decorrelation time the nonlinear processes, such as distortion by the strain field of the surrounding eddies, arrest the deformation and the Langmuir eddy decays. Presumably, Langmuir turbulence then consists of a statistically steady state of such Langmuir eddies. The analysis then provides a dynamical connection between the flow structures in LES of Langmuir turbulence and the dominant balance between Stokes production and dissipation in the turbulent kinetic energy budget, found by previous authors.Effects of vertical variations of thickness diffusivity in an ocean general circulation model洋流循环模型The effects of a prescribed surface intensification of the thickness (and isopycnal) diffusivity on the solutions of an ocean general circulation model are documented. The model is the coarse resolution version of the ocean component of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Climate System Model version 3 (CCSM3). Guided by the results of Ferreira et al. (2005) [Ferreira, D., Marshall, J., Heimbach, P., 2005. Estimating eddy stresses by fitting dynamics to observations using a residual-mean ocean circulation model and its adjoint. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 35, 1891–1910.] we employ a vertical dependence of the diffusivity which varies with the stratification, N2, and is thus large in the upper ocean and small in the abyss. We experiment with vertical variations of diffusivity which are as large as 4000 m2 s−1 within the surface diabatic layer, diminishing to 400 m2 s−1 or so by a depth of 2 km. The new solutions compare more favorably with the available observations than those of the control which uses a constant value of 800 m2 s−1 for both thickness and isopycnal diffusivities. These include an improved representation of the vertical structure and transport of the eddy-induced velocity in the upper-ocean North Pacific, a reduced warm bias in the upper ocean, including the equatorial Pacific, and improved southward heat transport in the low- to mid-latitude Southern Hemisphere. There is also a modest enhancement of abyssal stratification in the Southern Ocean.Using satellite altimetry to correct mean temperature and salinity fields derived from Argo floats in the ocean regions around AustraliaWe present results from a suite of methods using in situ temperature and salinity data, and satellitealtimetric observations to obtain an enhanced set of mean fields of temperature, salinity (down to 2000-m depth) and steric height (0/2000 m) for a time-specific period (1992–2007). Firstly, the improved global sampling resulting from the introduction of the Argo program, enables a representative determination of the large-scale mean oceanic structure. However, shortcomings in the coverage remain. High variability western boundary current eddy fields, continental slope and shelf boundaries may all be below their optimal sampling requirements. We describe a simple method to supplement and improve standard spatial interpolation schemes and apply them to the available data within the waters surrounding Australia (100°E–180°W; 50°S–10°N). This region includes a major current system, the East Australian Current (EAC), complex topography, unique boundary currents such as the Leeuwin Current, and large ENSO related interannual variability in the southwest Pacific. We use satellite altimetry sea level anomalies (SLA) to directly correct sampling errors in in situ derived mean surface steric height and subsurface temperature and salinity fields. The surface correction is projected through the water column (using an empirical model) to modify the mean subsurface temperature and salinity fields. The errors inherent in all these calculations are examined. The spatial distribution of the barotropic–baroclinic balance is obtained for the region and a ‘baroclinic factor’ to convert the altimetry SLA into an equivalent in situ height is determined. The mean fields in the EAC region are compared with independent estimates on repeated XBT sections, a mooring array and full-depth CTD transects.海洋开发的航空与遥感大规模探测技术。
students approach to learning(学习品质)
ISSN 1306-3065 Copyright © 2006-2013 by ESER, Eurasian Society of Educational Research. All Rights Reserved.Student Approaches to Learning in Physics – Validityand Exploration Using Adapted SPQManjula Devi Sharma*1, Chris Stewart 1, Rachel Wilson 1, and MuhammedSait Gökalp 2Received 22 December 2012; Accepted 9 March 2013Doi: 10.12973/ijese.2013.203aAbstract: The aim of this study was to investigate an adaptation of the Study ProcessesQuestionnaire for the discipline of physics. A total of 2030 first year physics students at an Australian metropolitan university completed the questionnaire over three different year cohorts. The resultant data has been used to explore whether the adaptation of the questionnaire is justifiable and if meaningful interpretations can be drawn for teaching and learning in the discipline. In extracting scales for deep and surface approaches to learning, we have excised several items, retaining an adequate subset. Reflecting trends in literature, our deep scale is very reliable while the surface scale is not so reliable. Our results show that the behaviour of the mean scale scores for students in different streams in first year physics is in agreement with expectations. Furthermore, different year cohort performance on the scales reflects changes in senior high school syllabus. Our experiences in adaptation, validation and checking for reliability is of potential use for others engaged in contextualising the Study Processes Questionnaire, and adds value to the use of the questionnaire for improving student learning in specific discipline areasKeywords: Student approaches to learning, learning in disciplines, university physics education1University of Sydney, Australia* Corresponding author. Sydney University Physics Education Research group, School of Physics, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email: sharma@.au 2Dumlupınar University, TurkeyIntroductionSince the mid 1960’s a series of inventories exploring student learning in highereducation have been developed based on learning theories, educational psychology and study strategies. For reviews of the six major inventories see Entwistle and McCune (2004)International Journal of Environmental & Science EducationVol. 8, No. 2, April 2013, 241-253242C o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E Rand Biggs (1993a). As can be seen from the reviews, these inventories have two common components. One of these components is related to study strategies and the other one is about cognitive processes. Moreover, these inventories usually have similar conceptual structures and include re-arrangement of the items (Christensen et al., 1991; Wilson et al., 1996).In the current study, as one of these inventories, The Study Processes Questionnaire (SPQ) has been selected to be adapted for use in physics. The SPQ is integrated with the presage-process-product model (3P model) of teaching and learning (Biggs, 1987). Several studies have successfully used the SPQ across different culture s and years to compare students’ approaches in different disciplines (Gow et al., 1994; Kember & Gow, 1990; Skogsberg & Clump, 2003; Quinnell et al., 2005; Zeegers, 2001). Moreover, several other researchers used modified version of the SPQ at their studies (Crawford et al. 1998a,b; Fox, McManus & Winder, 2001; Tooth, Tonge, & McManus, 1989; Volet, Renshaw, & Tietzel, 1994). For example, Volet et al (2001) used a shortened SPQ included 21 items to assess cross cultural differences. Fox et al (2001) modified the SPQ and tested its structure with confirmatory factor analysis. In their study the modified version of the SPQ had 18 items, and this shortened version had same factor structure as the original SPQ. In another study, Crawford et al. (1998a, b) adapted the SPQ for the discipline of mathematics. That adapted questionnaire was named as Approaches to Learning Mathematics Questionnaire.Three different approaches of the students to learning are represented in the SPQ: surface, deep, and achieving approaches. Idea of approaches to learning was presented by Marton and Säljö (1976) and further discussed by several other researchers (eg. Biggs, 1987; Entwistle & Waterston, 1988). Basically, surface approach indicates that the students’ motivation to learn is only for external consequences such as getting the appreciation of the teacher. More specifically, it is enough to fulfill course requirements for the students with surface approach. On theother hand, a deep approach to learning indicates that the motivation is intrinsic. This approach involves higher quality of learning outcomes (Marton & Säljö, 1976; Biggs, 1987). Students with deep approach to learning try to connect what they learn with daily life and they examine the content of the instruction more carefully. On the other hand, achieving approach is about excelling in a course by doing necessary things to have a good mark. However, current study is not focused on this approach. Only the first two approaches were included in the adapted SPQ.Inventories like the SPQ are used in higher education because of several reasons. Such inventories can help educators to evaluate teaching environments (Biggs, 1993b; Biggs, Kember, & Leung, 2001). Moreover, with the use of these inventories, university students often relate their intentions and study strategies for a learning context in a coherent manner. On the other hand, the SPQ is not a discipline specific inventory. It can be used across different disciplines. However, in a research study, if the research questions are related with the common features of learning and teaching within 3P model framework, the SPQ can be used satisfactorily for all disciplines. But, a discipline specific version of the SPQ is required if resolution of details specific to a discipline area is necessary for the research questions. Moreover, in order to reduce systematic error and bias that can be resulted from students in different discipline areas; a discipline specific version may be required. As a community of educators, we are aware that thinking, knowing, and learning processes can differ across discipline areas. A direct consequence of this acknowledgement is the need to understand and model learning in specific discipline areas, such as by adapting the SPQ. However, for the theoretical framework to be valid the conceptual integrity of the inventory must be maintained.This paper reports on how the SPQ has been adapted for physics. The teaching context is first year physics at a research focused Australian university where students are grouped according to differing senior243Student approaches to learning in physicsC o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E Rhigh school experiences into Advanced, Regular, and Fundamentals streams.We report on the selection of items for the deep and surface scales and reliability and validity analyses. A comparison of the Advanced, Regular and Fundamentals streams is carried out to ensure that interpretations associated with the deep and surface scales are meaningful. This is a stage of a large-scale project. The project aims to understand and improve student learning based on the deep and surface approaches to learning inherent in the 3P model (Marton & Säljö, 1976; Biggs, 1987).The studyAs mentioned before, The SPQ has been designed for higher education; however, this questionnaire is not discipline specific. Therefore, in this study, we adapted the SPQ to physics for the following reasons: (1) The first year students have confusions about university studies when they come to university (White et al., 1995). This can lead to misinterpretation of the items. However, specific items related to physics can reduce these misinterpretations. For example students enrolled in a general science degree would view questions related to employment differently to those in professional degrees, and the students we have surveyed are from a range of degree programs. (2) In order to compare the students from the different discipline areas, we need discipline specific inventories. (3) We believe that there are contentious items in the original SPQ and aspects that are specific to physics. For example the use of “truth” in the following item was strongly challenged by a group of physicists validating the questionnaire. While I realize that truth is forever changing as knowledge is increasing, I feel compelled to discover what appears to me to be the truth at this time (Biggs, 1987, p. 132).The item was changed to the following, more in line with the post-positivist paradigm and agreeable to physicists.While I realize that ideas are always changing as knowledge is increasing, I feel a need to discover for myselfwhat is understood about the physical world at this time.One could argue that this is an issue of clarifying the item rather than being specific to physics. However, to our knowledge the clarity of this item has not been debated in literature.Just after we commenced this study in 2001, we became aware that Biggs et al (2001) had produced a revised Study Processes Questionnaire (R-SPQ- 2F). However, it was too late for our study and we did not switch midway. There are four main differences between the SPQ and the R-SPQ-2F; first, the removal of all items on employment after graduation; second, increased emphasis on examination; third, removal of words that imply specificity; and fourth exclusion of the contentious achieving factor identified by Christensen et al., 1991. We focus on the deep and surface approaches and not on the strategy and motive sub-scales as these are not pertinent to our larger study. The SPQ deep and surface scales, in particular, have been shown to be robust (see for example Burnett & Dart, 2000).The participant of the current study was from a university in New South Wales, Australia. Students are provided three basic physics units in the School during their first semester of university: Fundamentals, Regular or Advanced. Students are divided into these three groups of physics units based on their senior high school physics backgrounds. The students from the Fundamentals unit have done no physics in senior high school or have done poorly. On the other hand, in the Regular unit, there were the students had scored high grades in senior high school physics. The last unit, the Advanced unit, is suitable for those who have done extremely well overall in physics during all their years in senior high school.The three physics units that students can register in are for the degree programs in Engineering, Medical Science and Arts. Students who intend to major in physics as well as postgraduate physics students are selected from those enrolled in all three basic physics course in their first semester at university. The largest proportion of students of physics major is from the Advanced244C o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E Rstream, followed by those in the Regular stream, and finally the Fundamentals stream. The data was collected from these streams from 2001 to 2004. From 2001 to 2004, the high school physics syllabi and assessment system was changed in the state of New South Wales in Australia. The details of the changes can be seen in Binnie (2004). Due to these changes, the 2004 cohort of students in this study were instructed using a different curriculum.Within the above context, we have adapted the SPQ to generate a Study Processes Questionnaire for Physics (SPQP). The research questions addressed in this paper are as follows.(a) How do the factor solutions for the SPQP compare with those of the SPQ? (b) Is the SPQP reliable and valid?(c) Are the scales robust enough to reflect detail in senior high school syllabus change? The answers to the research questions will determine if the SPQP is a reliable and valid measure of student approaches to learning physics in our context.MethodRevising the items for the SPQPWe have adapted the SPQ by simply inserting the word “physics” in some items and making substantial changes to others. The adaptations are based on our experiences of student responses to open-ended questions and discipline knowledge, and have been extensively discussed amongst a group of physics educators. The adaptations are of the types listed below. (See appendix A for all items and the types of adaptations.) Type 0: No changeType 1: A simple insertion of terms such as “physics”, “studying physics”.I find that at times studying gives me afeeling of deep personal satisfaction. I find that at times studying physics gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction.Type 2: A substantial change in wording that can change the meaning, without intending to.I usually become increasingly absorbed in my work the more I do. When studying physics, I become increasingly absorbed in my work the more I do.Type 3: An intentional change in meaning.My studies have changed my views about such things as politics, my religion, and my philosophy of life. My studies in physics have challenged my views about the way the world works.The number of items corresponding to each Type of change is displayed in Table 1, as are the number of items selected from each Type for inclusion in the SPQP. Type 1 items were more useful in generating the items used in the SPQP.Administering the SPQPThe SPQP was administered at the beginning of the first semester to students in the Advanced, Regular and Fundamentals streams in 2001, 2002 and 2004, respectively. On the questionnaire, the students were requested to indicate their level of agreement with each item on a Likert scale with the options of Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, and Strongly Agree . Response rates of 2001, 2002, and 2004 cohorts was 95%, 65%, and 85%, respectively. Except 2002 cohort, the response rates were satisfactory. The main reasons of the lower response rate of 2002 cohort were the changes in class organization and questionnaire administration. Over these245Student approaches to learning in physicsC o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E Rthree years, a total of 2030 first year physics student were responded the SPQP: 63 percent of students in the Fundamentals stream was female, and about 30 percent of them was females in the Regular and Advanced streams. Nevertheless, the three streams are similar in other respects. The sample size of 2030 is large enough to access the natural variance within the diverse population. However, due to missing answers some of the cases were excluded from the analysis. These exclusions were only about 3% of the whole sample. Therefore, we can say that this missing data did not affect the overall results. Data Analysis MethodsFollowing analyses were carried out to answer research questions.(a) Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed to validate the two-factor solution: the deep and surface scales. (b) Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to determine the reliability for the deep and surface scales for the complete data set and for each stream.(c) ANOVA and boxplots were used to determine if the SPQP is able to differentiate between the three streams and changes in syllabus.ResultsFactor analysisIn order to gain construct related evidence for the validity of the SPQP, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was carried out by using principal components as factor extraction method with quartimax, an orthogonal rotation. The complete data set was included in this analysis. Before proceeding to interpret the results, each item was checked for normality and sphericity. In order to check multicollinearity, the correlation matrix was examined. In terms of multicollinearity, we expect the items to be intercorrelated; however, these correlations should not be so high (0.90 or higher), whichcauses to multicollinearity and singularity. The intercorrelation was checked by Bartlett’s test of sphericity. This test showed that the correlation matrix is not an identity matrix. Moreover, multicollinearity was checked with the determinant of the correlation matrix. The determinant was more than 0. This showed that there is no multicollinearity (Field, 2000). Extraction of factors was based on two criteria: Scree test and Kaiser criterion (eigen values). Based on eigen values and the Scree test, two factors, which accounts for 48% of the variance, were extracted. The items with factor loadings of less than .4 were excluded from the further analyses (Field, 2000). Appendix A shows the two-factor solution for all items including loadings. Those that were retained for the SPQP are starred – 10 items form the deep scale and 6 items the surface scale.According to the results of the EFA, we note that the deep scale is in better agreement with Biggs ’s deep scale than the surface scale - there are more “usable” items on the deep scale than on the surface scale.After having results of the EFA, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed. This second step of the factor analysis helped us to ensure the factor structure of the SPQP (see Figure 1). Maximum likelihood (ML) was used as the method of estimation at the CFA. The results of the study showed that relative chi-square, which is the “chi square/degree of freedom” ratio is 3.1. Moreover, RMSEA and CFI were found to be 0.07 and 0.69 respectively. According to Browne and Cudeck (1992), RMSEA values less than 0.05 indicate close fit and models with values greater than 0.10 should not be employed. Here, RMSEA indicates moderate fit of the model whereas relative chi-square indicates good fit. However, the CFI should be over 0.90 to have good fit. Nonetheless, we can say that the first two indices support this two-factor model of the SPQP and indicate moderate fit.246C o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E RFigure 1. Validated two-factor structure of the SPQP.Reliability of the SPQPCronbach alpha coefficients of each scale were calculated for each stream and whole data. The results are shown in Table 2. It is apparent that the surface scale has the lowest Cronbach alpha coefficients at each stream. Similar findings were also reported at other studies (Biggs, 1987; Biggs et al, 2001; Wilson and Fowler, 2005). The foundational efficacy of these scales, given such low reliability, is questionable. However, in ourstudy higher levels of internal consistency were apparent (lowest α =.61).Comparing reliabilities across streams, students who have less experience with physics report surface approaches more reliably than students with more experience. On the other hand, students who have more experience with physics report deep approaches more reliably than those who have less experience. Considering reliabilities within streams, the Fundamentals students report deep approaches as reliably as surface247Student approaches to learning in physicsC o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E Rapproaches with values greater than 0.80, while the Advanced students report very different reliabilities for the two scales. The trends are not surprising since Advanced students would tend to be more confident in content and study strategies.The above trends also raise the question: Are the persistently low reliabilities noted for the su rface scale due to student ‘behaviours’ or poor items on the inventory? An adequate reliability measure for the surface scale for the Fundamentals stream α > .80, one that is similar in magnitude to that of the deep scale, implies that there is internal consistency amongst the items for each scale for this group of students. We note that the Fundamentals students have experienced junior high school physics, and are doing concurrent science and mathematics subjects at university. University students tend to have high internal coherence among learning components, intentions and study strategies and are able to adapt their ideas of knowledge and study methods to their expectations of studying in a particular context. The internal coherence is demonstrated in the reliability scores. So why are the reliabilities for the surface scale as low as 0.61 for the Advanced stream? Is it because the nature of the surface approach is different for the Advanced and Fundamentals streams, requiring possibly different items? Or is it because the Advanced students adapt their surface approaches in diverse ways, hence report this scale less reliably? Answers to such questions will indeed add to our understanding of student learning.ANOVA and BoxplotsTo determine if the SPQP is able to differentiate between the three streams, item and scale means were compared using one-way ANOVA.When comparing the means of the three streams for each item on the SPQP, the assumption of homogeneity of variances underpinning ANOVA was tested using Mulachy’s test of Sphericity. Items A5, A13 and A25 were excluded from ANOVA because they violated the assumption of sphericity. This does not affect their use on the SPQP scales. The results of ANOVA showed that there is a significant differenceamong the SPQP scores of the students from Fundamentals, Regular, and Advanced streams for both surface and deep scales (p < .05).There is a debate among the researchers to use ANOVA with the ordinal data mainly because of the normality concern. As stated in Glass, Peckham, and Sanders (1972), violation of normality is not fatal to the ANOVA. Moreover, performing ANOVA with the ordinal data, likert type items in this case, is a controversial issue among the researchers. Here, we have a big sample and this surely increases the power of the test. Therefore, failure to meet normality assumption will not affect the results of the ANOVA. Moreover, we performed Kruskal Wallis test as non-parametric alternative of the ANOVA. The results of that test supported the results of the ANOVA given above.Moreover, in order to investigate if SPQP is robust enough to be able to differentiate changes in syllabus even when sum of the items is used instead of factor scores, boxplots were checked (see Figure 2). The boxplots show a sequence for each scale with the first panel representing the factor scores, the second panel the simple sums of the items scores for the SPQP and the third panel the simple sums of all 16 item scores that should have loaded on each scale. We note two important features. First, the three panels representing the deep scale are sufficiently similar implying that if an adaptation such as that in this study is made, the sums of the 10 SPQP item scores, and indeed all 16 items scores provide a reasonable measure of deep approaches to learning. However, this is not so for the surface scale, while the sum of the 6 SPQP item scores provides a reasonable measure of surface approaches to learning, the sum of all 16 items does not do so. This raises concerns regarding the surface scale and is a reflection of the low reliabilities for the scale.DiscussionAs we are particularly interested in issues to do with learning physics, the rationale and manner in which items were modified and the SPQ adapted are discussed in detail. The advantages of adapting an established, well248C o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E RFigure 2. A comparison by stream and year of the deep and surface scales. The boxplots show a vertical sequence for each scale with panel (a) representing the factor scores for the SPQP deep scale and panel (d) those for the SPQP surface scale. Panel (b) represents the simple sum of item scores for the SPQP deep scale and panel (e) those for the SPQP surface scale. Panel (c) represents the simple sum of all 14 item scores that were intended to load on the deep scale and panel (f) those for the surface scale.implemented inventory with a sound theoretical framework, both for itsdevelopment and for its practical use in a teaching environment, are evident in the249Student approaches to learning in physicsC o p y r i g h t © 2006-2013 b y E S E Rmeaningful interpretations of our results summarized below.1. The SPQ items were modified for our context based on our experiences and any changes were extensively discussed amongst a group of physics educators. Ten items were retained for the deep scale and six for the surface. The rejection of items that had anomalous factor loadings could be conceptually justified. This two-factor solution of the SPQP confirmed with the EFA and CFA and supported the factor structure of the original SPQ (Biggs, 1987).2. The trends in reliabilities according to streams are as expected, with students with less experience in physics reporting less reliably on the deep scale and more reliably on the surface scale and vice versa. The issue of low reliabilities of the surface scale for the Advanced stream raises the question of whether Advanced students have more diverse forms of exhibiting surface approaches to learning. Moreover, the issue with the surface scale coincides with the previous studies (Biggs, 1987; Biggs et al, 2001; Wilson and Fowler, 2005).3. Comparisons of deep factor scores, simple sums of the 10 SPQP items and all 16 items suggest that the deep scale is reliable and particularly robust, see Figure 2. The surface factor scores compare well with the simple sums of the 6 SPQP items, but not with all 16 items, suggesting that reliability and validity checks are particularly important for the surface scale. The implication is twofold: first the SPQ is robust when contextualised as shown by reliability scores; and second, the contextualisation did not alter the overall coherency of the inventory as shown by the meaningful interpretations across streams and years. This, together with the conceptual meanings associated with the items, provides confidence that the SPQP is consistent with the theoretical framework of the SPQ.4. Changes in senior high school physics syllabus have impacted on approaches to study in the cohorts sampled in this study. The SPQP can illustrate differences between streams and years. From our study we are confident that the SPQP is a reliable andvalid measure of approaches to learning physics in our context.5. The adaptation of the SPQ into physics adds value to our project findings as it allows us to illustrate physics’ specific detail between the streams. We are confident that features that could have systematically biased the findings have been minimized. Lastly the ways of thinking, learning and knowing in physics are embedded in the larger context of intentions and study methods in higher education.ConclusionWe have adapted the Study Processes Questionnaire into physics and confirmed that a two-factor solution provides two subsets of selected items representing deep and surface approaches to learning. The resulting inventory is called the Study Processes Questionnaire for Physics, or SPQP. Further reliability and validation checks demonstrate that the two-scale SPQP is a useable inventory for our context. Reliabilities for the Advanced, Regular and Fundamentals streams are adequate and the behaviour of the mean scale scores for the three streams is not contradictory to expected student behaviours.The process of adapting the SPQ has provided useful insights into the way physicists interpret the items, and how deep and surface approaches can be conceptualised in physics. The sound theoretical framework and research underpinning the SPQ has added value to the use of questionnaires for understanding student learning in our project. Such contextualised inventories have the potential to provide context-specific understandings of teaching and learning issues and for improving student learning.AcknowledgementsThe authors acknowledge Science Faculty Education Research (SciFER) grants, University of Sydney, and support from staff and students. The authors are grateful to Professor David Boud for his constructive feedback on this paper.。
《孟德尔随机化研究指南》中英文版
《孟德尔随机化研究指南》中英文版全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Mendel's Randomization Research GuideIntroductionMendel's Randomization Research Guide is a comprehensive resource for researchers in the field of genetics who are interested in incorporating randomization into their study designs. Developed by Dr. Gregor Mendel, a renowned geneticist known for his pioneering work on the inheritance of traits in pea plants, this guide provides a detailed overview of the principles and methods of randomization in research.Key ConceptsRandomization is a crucial tool in scientific research that helps to eliminate bias and increase the validity of study findings. By randomly assigning participants to different treatment groups or conditions, researchers can ensure that the groups are comparable and that any observed differences are truly due to the intervention being studied.The guide covers a range of topics related to randomization, including the importance of random assignment, the different types of randomization methods, and the potential pitfalls to avoid when implementing randomization in a study. It also provides practical guidance on how to design and conduct randomized experiments, including tips on sample size calculation, randomization procedures, and data analysis methods.Benefits of RandomizationRandomization offers several key benefits for researchers, including:1. Increased internal validity: Random assignment helps to ensure that the groups being compared are equivalent at the outset of the study, reducing the risk of confounding variables influencing the results.2. Improved generalizability: By minimizing bias and increasing the reliability of study findings, randomization enhances the external validity of research findings and allows for more generalizable conclusions to be drawn.3. Ethical considerations: Randomization is considered a fair and unbiased method for allocating participants to differentgroups, helping to ensure that all participants have an equal chance of receiving the intervention being studied.Practical ApplicationsThe guide provides practical examples of how randomization can be applied in research studies, ranging from clinical trials to observational studies. For example, researchers conducting a randomized controlled trial may usecomputer-generated randomization software to assign participants to different treatment groups, while researchers conducting an observational study may use stratified random sampling to ensure that key variables are evenly distributed across study groups.In addition, the guide outlines best practices for implementing randomization in research studies, including the importance of blinding participants and investigators to group assignment, documenting the randomization process, and conducting sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of study findings.ConclusionIn conclusion, Mendel's Randomization Research Guide is an invaluable resource for researchers seeking to incorporaterandomization into their study designs. By following the principles and methods outlined in the guide, researchers can enhance the validity and reliability of their research findings, ultimately leading to more impactful and meaningful contributions to the field of genetics.篇2Mendel Randomization Research GuideIntroduction:The Mendel randomization research guide is a comprehensive manual that provides researchers with detailed instructions on using Mendelian randomization (MR) in their studies. MR is a statistical method that uses genetic information to investigate causal relationships between exposures, known as risk factors, and outcomes, such as diseases or health-related outcomes. This guide aims to help researchers understand the principles of MR, design robust studies, and interpret their results accurately.Key Sections:1. Introduction to Mendelian Randomization:- Overview of MR as a method for assessing causality- Explanation of the assumptions underlying MR studies- Discussion of the advantages and limitations of MR compared to traditional observational studies2. Study Design:- Selection of genetic instruments for exposure variables- Matching of genetic instruments to outcome variables- Consideration of potential biases and confounding factors- Power calculations and sample size considerations3. Data Analysis:- Methods for instrumental variables analysis- Sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of results- Techniques for handling missing data and population stratification4. Interpretation of Results:- Methods for assessing causality using MR- Consideration of biases and limitations in MR studies- Implications of findings for public health and clinical practiceCase Studies:The Mendel randomization research guide includes several case studies that demonstrate the application of MR in various research settings. These case studies illustrate the steps involved in designing MR studies, selecting appropriate genetic instruments, analyzing data, and interpreting results. Researchers can use these examples as a guide for conducting their own MR studies and interpreting their findings.Conclusion:The Mendel randomization research guide is a valuable resource for researchers interested in using MR to investigate causal relationships in health research. By following the guidelines outlined in this manual, researchers can design rigorous MR studies, analyze their data accurately, and draw meaningful conclusions about the impact of risk factors on health outcomes. This guide will help advance the field of epidemiology and pave the way for more robust and reliable research in the future.篇3Mendel Randomization Research GuideIntroductionThe Mendel Randomization Research Guide is a comprehensive resource aimed at providing researchers with the necessary tools and techniques to conduct randomized studies in the field of genetics. The guide covers various aspects of Mendel randomization, a method that uses genetic variants as instruments for studying the causal effects of exposures or interventions on outcomes.Key Concepts1. Mendelian Randomization: Mendelian randomization is a technique that uses genetic variants as instrumental variables to study the causal relationship between an exposure and an outcome. By leveraging genetic variability, researchers can overcome confounding and reverse causation biases that often plague traditional observational studies.2. Instrumental Variables: Instrumental variables are genetic variants that are associated with the exposure of interest but do not have a direct effect on the outcome, except through the exposure. These genetic variants serve as instruments for estimating the causal effect of the exposure on the outcome.3. Bias Minimization: Mendel randomization helps minimize bias in observational studies by mimicking the random assignment of exposures in a controlled experiment. By usinggenetic variants as instruments, researchers can ensure that any observed associations are less likely to be influenced by confounding factors.Guide Contents1. Study Design: The guide provides detailed information on how to design Mendelian randomization studies, including selecting genetic instruments, conducting power calculations, and assessing instrument validity.2. Data Collection: Researchers will learn about the various data sources available for Mendel randomization studies, such as genome-wide association studies, biobanks, and electronic health records.3. Analysis Methods: The guide covers statistical techniques for analyzing Mendelian randomization data, includingtwo-sample MR, inverse variance-weighted regression, and sensitivity analyses.4. Reporting Guidelines: Researchers will find guidelines on how to report Mendelian randomization studies in a clear and transparent manner, following best practices in scientific research.ConclusionThe Mendel Randomization Research Guide offers a comprehensive overview of the principles, methods, and applications of Mendelian randomization in genetic research. By following the guidelines outlined in the guide, researchers can conduct rigorous and unbiased studies that provide valuable insights into the causal effects of exposures on health outcomes.。
SPRINT 在线版发表原文
T h e ne w engl a nd jour na l o f medicineThe members of the writing committee (Jackson T. Wright, Jr., M.D., Ph.D., Jeff D. Williamson, M.D., M.H.S., Paul K. Whelton, M.D., Joni K. Snyder, R.N., B.S.N., M.A., Kaycee M. Sink, M.D., M.A.S., Michael V. Rocco, M.D., M.S.C.E., David M. Reboussin, Ph.D., Mahboob Rahman, M.D., Suzanne Oparil, M.D., Cora E. Lewis, M.D., M.S.P.H., Paul L. Kimmel, M.D., Karen C. Johnson, M.D., M.P.H., David C. Goff, Jr., M.D., Ph.D., Lawrence J. Fine, M.D., Dr.P.H., Jeffrey A. Cutler, M.D., M.P.H., William C. Cush-man, M.D., Alfred K. Cheung, M.D., and Walter T. Ambrosius, Ph.D.) assume re-sponsibility for the overall content and integrity of the article. The affiliations of the members of the writing group are listed in the Appendix. Address reprint requests to Dr. Wright at the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Universi-ty Hospitals Case Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, 1100 Euclid Ave. Cleveland, OH 44106-6053, or at j ackson .w right@c ase .e du.*A complete list of the members of the Systolic Blood Pressure I ntervention Trial (SPRINT) Research Group is pro-vided in the Supplementary Appendix, available at .This article was published on November 9, 2015, at .DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1511939Copyright © 2015 Massachusetts Medical Society.BACKGROUNDThe most appropriate targets for systolic blood pressure to reduce cardiovascularmorbidity and mortality among persons without diabetes remain uncertain.METHODSWe randomly assigned 9361 persons with a systolic blood pressure of 130 mm Hg or higher and an increased cardiovascular risk, but without diabetes, to a systolic blood-pressure target of less than 120 mm Hg (intensive treatment) or a target of less than 140 mm Hg (standard treatment). The primary composite outcome was myocardial infarction, other acute coronary syndromes, stroke, heart failure, or death from cardiovascular causes.RESULTSAt 1 year, the mean systolic blood pressure was 121.4 mm Hg in the intensive-treatment group and 136.2 mm Hg in the standard-treatment group. The interven-tion was stopped early after a median follow-up of 3.26 years owing to a signifi-cantly lower rate of the primary composite outcome in the intensive-treatment group than in the standard-treatment group (1.65% per year vs. 2.19% per year; hazard ratio with intensive treatment, 0.75; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.64 to 0.89; P<0.001). All-cause mortality was also significantly lower in the intensive-treatment group (hazard ratio, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.60 to 0.90; P = 0.003). Rates of serious adverse events of hypotension, syncope, electrolyte abnormalities, and acute kidney injury or failure, but not of injurious falls, were higher in the intensive-treatment group than in the standard-treatment group.CONCLUSIONSAmong patients at high risk for cardiovascular events but without diabetes, target-ing a systolic blood pressure of less than 120 mm Hg, as compared with less than 140 mm Hg, resulted in lower rates of fatal and nonfatal major cardiovascular events and death from any cause, although significantly higher rates of some adverse events were observed in the intensive-treatment group. (Funded by the National In-stitutes of Health; number, NCT01206062.)ABSTR ACTA Randomized Trial of Intensive versus Standard Blood-Pressure ControlThe SPRINT Research Group*T h e ne w engl a nd jour na l o f medicineHypertension is highly prevalent in the adult population in the United States, especially among persons older than 60 years of age, and affects approximately 1 billion adults worldwide.1,2 Among persons 50 years of age or older, isolated systolic hyperten-sion is the most common form of hypertension,3,4 and systolic blood pressure becomes more impor-tant than diastolic blood pressure as an indepen-dent risk predictor for coronary events, stroke, heart failure, and end-stage renal disease (ESRD).5-13The Global Burden of Disease Study identified elevated blood pressure as the leading risk fac-tor, among 67 studied, for death and disability-adjusted life-years lost during 2010.14Clinical trials have shown that treatment of hypertension reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease outcomes, including incident stroke (by 35 to 40%), myocardial infarction (by 15 to 25%), and heart failure (by up to 64%).5,15,16 However, the target for systolic blood-pressure lowering is uncertain. Observational studies have shown a progressive increase in cardiovascular risk as systolic blood pressure rises above 115 mm Hg,10 but the available evidence from randomized, controlled trials in the general population of patients with hypertension only documents the benefit of treatment to achieve a systolic blood-pressure target of less than 150 mm Hg, with limited data concerning lower blood-pressure targets.11,17-21 In a trial involving patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, the rate of major cardio-vascular events was similar with a systolic blood-pressure target of less than 120 mm Hg and the commonly recommended target of less than 140 mm H g, though the rate of stroke was lower with the target of less than 120 mm Hg.22 A re-cent trial involving patients who had had a stroke compared treatment to lower systolic blood pres-sure to less than 130 mm Hg with treatment to lower it to less than 150 mm Hg and showed no significant benefit of the lower target with re-spect to the overall risk of another stroke but a significant benefit with respect to the risk of hemorrhagic stroke.23The hypothesis that a lower systolic blood-pressure goal (e.g., <120 mm Hg) would reduce clinical events more than a standard goal was designated by a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) expert panel in 2007 as the most important hypothesis to test regarding the preven-tion of hypertension-related complications among patients without diabetes.24 The current article describes the primary results of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT), which com-pared the benefit of treatment of systolic blood pressure to a target of less than 120 mm Hg with treatment to a target of less than 140 mm Hg.MethodsStudy Design and OversightSPRINT was a randomized, controlled, open-label trial that was conducted at 102 clinical sites (or-ganized into 5 clinical center networks) in the United States, including Puerto Rico (see the Sup-plementary Appendix, available with the full text of this article at ). A trial coordinating center served as a data and biostatistical core center and supervised the central laboratory, the electrocardiography reading center, the magnetic resonance imaging reading center, and the drug-distribution center. The rationale and protocol for the trial are publicly available,25,26 and the protocol is available at .SPRINT was sponsored by the NH LBI, with cosponsorship by the National Institute of Dia-betes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, and the National Institute on Aging. An independent data and safety monitoring board monitored unblinded trial results and safety events. The study was approved by the institu-tional review board at each participating study site. The steering committee designed the study, gathered the data (in collaboration with investi-gators at the clinics and other study units), made the decision to submit the manuscript for publi-cation, and vouches for the fidelity of the study to the protocol. The writing committee wrote the manuscript and vouches for the complete-ness and accuracy of the data and analysis. The coordinating center was responsible for analyz-ing the data. Scientists at the National Institutes of Health participated in the design of the study and as a group had one vote on the steeringcommittee of the trial.Study PopulationParticipants were required to meet all the follow-ing criteria: an age of at least 50 years, a systolic blood pressure of 130 to 180 mm Hg (see the Supplementary Appendix), and an increased riskof cardiovascular events. Increased cardiovascu-A Quick Take is available atIntensive vs. Standard Blood-Pressure Controllar risk was defined by one or more of the fol-lowing: clinical or subclinical cardiovascular dis-ease other than stroke; chronic kidney disease, excluding polycystic kidney disease, with an esti-mated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of 20 to less than 60 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 of body-surface area, calculated with the use of the four-variable Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation; a 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease of 15% or greater on the basis of the Framing-ham risk score; or an age of 75 years or older. Patients with diabetes mellitus or prior stroke were excluded. Detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed in the Supplementary Appen-dix. All participants provided written informed consent.Randomization and InterventionsEligible participants were assigned to a systolic blood-pressure target of either less than 140 mm Hg (the standard-treatment group) or less than 120 mm Hg (the intensive-treatment group). Randomization was stratified according to clin-ical site. Participants and study personnel were aware of the study-group assignments, but out-come adjudicators were not.After the participants underwent randomiza-tion, their baseline antihypertensive regimens were adjusted on the basis of the study-group assignment. The treatment algorithms were sim-ilar to those used in the Action to Control Car-diovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) trial.22 These algorithms and our formulary are listed in Figures S1 and S2 and Table S1 in the Supple-mentary Appendix. All major classes of antihy-pertensive agents were included in the formulary and were provided at no cost to the participants. SPRINT investigators could also prescribe other antihypertensive medications (not provided by the study). The protocol encouraged, but did not mandate, the use of drug classes with the stron-gest evidence for reduction in cardiovascular out-comes, including thiazide-type diuretics (encour-aged as the first-line agent), loop diuretics (for participants with advanced chronic kidney dis-ease), and beta-adrenergic blockers (for those with coronary artery disease).5,27 Chlorthalidone was encouraged as the primary thiazide-type diuretic, and amlodipine as the preferred calcium-channel blocker.28,29 Azilsartan and azilsartan combined with chlorthalidone were donated by Takeda Pharmaceuticals International and Arbor Phar-maceuticals; neither company had any other role in the study.Participants were seen monthly for the first 3 months and every 3 months thereafter. Medi-cations for participants in the intensive-treat-ment group were adjusted on a monthly basis to target a systolic blood pressure of less than 120 mm Hg. For participants in the standard-treat-ment group, medications were adjusted to target a systolic blood pressure of 135 to 139 mm Hg, and the dose was reduced if systolic blood pres-sure was less than 130 mm Hg on a single visit or less than 135 mm H g on two consecutive visits. Dose adjustment was based on a mean of three blood-pressure measurements at an office visit while the patient was seated and after 5 min-utes of quiet rest; the measurements were made with the use of an automated measurement sys-tem (Model 907, Omron H ealthcare). Lifestyle modification was encouraged as part of the man-agement strategy. Retention in the study and ad-herence to treatment were monitored prospec-tively and routinely throughout the trial.26Study MeasurementsDemographic data were collected at baseline. Clinical and laboratory data were obtained at baseline and every 3 months thereafter. A struc-tured interview was used in both groups every 3 months to obtain self-reported cardiovascular disease outcomes. Although the interviewers were aware of the study-group assignments, they used the same format for interviews in the two groups to minimize ascertainment bias. Medical records and electrocardiograms were obtained for documentation of events. Whenever clinical-site staff became aware of a death, a standard protocol was used to obtain information on the event.Serious adverse events were defined as events that were fatal or life-threatening, that resulted in clinically significant or persistent disability, that required or prolonged a hospitalization, or that were judged by the investigator to represent a clinically significant hazard or harm to the participant that might require medical or surgical intervention to prevent one of the other events listed above.30,31 A short list of monitored condi-tions were reported as adverse events if they were evaluated in an emergency department: hypoten-sion, syncope, injurious falls, electrolyte abnor-malities, and bradycardia. We also monitoredT h e ne w engl a nd jour na l o f medicineoccurrences of acute kidney injury or acute renal failure if they were noted on admission or oc-curred during a hospitalization and were re-ported in the hospital discharge summary as a primary or main secondary diagnosis. The Medi-cal Dictionary for Regulatory Activities was used to classify the safety events. Coding was performed at the coordinating center, and up to three codes were assigned to each safety event. The relation-ship of serious adverse events to the intervention was assessed by the trial safety officer and re-viewed monthly by the safety committee.Study OutcomesDefinitions of study outcomes are outlined in the Supplementary Appendix. A committee whose members were unaware of the study-group as-signments adjudicated the clinical outcomes specified in the protocol. The primary hypothe-sis was that treatment to reach a systolic blood-pressure target of less than 120 mm Hg, as com-pared with a target of less than 140 mm H g, would result in a lower rate of the composite outcome of myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome not resulting in myocardial infarction, stroke, acute decompensated heart failure, or death from cardiovascular causes. Secondary out-comes included the individual components of the primary composite outcome, death from any cause, and the composite of the primary out-come or death from any cause.We also assessed renal outcomes, using a dif-ferent definition for patients with chronic kidney disease (eGFR <60 ml per minute per 1.73 m2) at baseline and those without it. The renal outcome in participants with chronic kidney disease at baseline was a composite of a decrease in the eGFR of 50% or more (confirmed by a subsequent laboratory test) or the development of ESRD re-quiring long-term dialysis or kidney transplanta-tion. In participants without chronic kidney dis-ease at baseline, the renal outcome was defined by a decrease in the eGFR of 30% or more to a value of less than 60 ml per minute per 1.73 m2. Incident albuminuria, defined for all study par-ticipants by a doubling of the ratio of urinary albumin (in milligrams) to creatinine (in grams) from less than 10 at baseline to greater than 10 during follow-up, was also a prespecified renal outcome.Prespecified subgroups of interest for all out-comes were defined according to status with respect to cardiovascular disease at baseline (yes vs. no), status with respect to chronic kidney disease at baseline (yes vs. no), sex, race (black vs. nonblack), age (<75 vs. ≥75 years), and base-line systolic blood pressure in three levels (≤132 mm Hg, >132 to <145 mm Hg, and ≥145 mm Hg). We also planned a comparison of the effects of systolic blood-pressure targets on incident de-mentia, changes in cognitive function, and cere-bral small-vessel ischemic disease; these results are not presented here.Statistical AnalysisWe planned a 2-year recruitment period, with a maximum follow-up of 6 years, and anticipated a loss to follow-up of 2% per year. With an enroll-ment target of 9250 participants, we estimated that the trial would have 88.7% power to detect a 20% effect with respect to the primary outcome, assuming an event rate of 2.2% per year in the standard-treatment group.Our primary analysis compared the time to the first occurrence of a primary outcome event between the two study groups with the use of the intention-to-treat approach for all randomly assigned participants; for this analysis, we used Cox proportional-hazards regression with two-sided tests at the 5% level of significance, with stratification according to clinic. Follow-up time was censored on the date of last event ascertain-ment. Interactions between treatment effect and prespecified subgroups were assessed with a likelihood-ratio test for the interaction with the use of Hommel-adjusted P values.32 Interim analy-ses were performed for each meeting of the data and safety monitoring board, with group-sequen-tial stopping boundaries defined with the use of the Lan–DeMets method with an O’Brien–Flem-ing–type spending function.33 The Fine–Gray model for the competing risk of death was used as a sensitivity analysis.34R esultsStudy ParticipantsA total of 9361 participants were enrolled be-tween November 2010 and March 2013 (Fig. 1). Descriptive baseline statistics are presented in Table 1. On August 20, 2015, the NHLBI director accepted a recommendation from the data and safety monitoring board of the trial to inform the investigators and participants of the cardio-Intensive vs. Standard Blood-Pressure Controlprimary outcome exceeded the monitoring bound-ary at two consecutive time points (Fig. S3 in theearly. The median follow-up on August 20, 2015,was 3.26 years of the planned average of 5 years.Blood PressureThe two treatment strategies resulted in a rapidand sustained between-group difference in sys-tolic blood pressure (Fig. 2). At 1 year, the meansystolic blood pressure was 121.4 mm Hg in theintensive-treatment group and 136.2 mm Hg inthe standard-treatment group, for an average dif-ference of 14.8 mm Hg. The mean diastolic bloodpressure at 1 year was 68.7 mm Hg in the inten-sive-treatment group and 76.3 mm Hstandard-treatment group (Fig. S4 in the Supple-was 121.5 mm Hgroup and 134.6 mm Hg in the standard-treat-ment group, and the mean number of blood-pres-sure medications was 2.8 and 1.8, respectively. Therelative distribution of antihypertensive medica-tion classes used was similar in the two groups,though the use of each class was greater in theintensive-treatment group (Table S2 in the Sup-plementary Appendix).Clinical OutcomesA primary outcome event was confirmed in 562participants — 243 (1.65% per year) in the inten-sive-treatment group and 319 (2.19% per year) inthe standard-treatment group (hazard ratio with intensive treatment, 0.75; 95% confidence inter-val [CI], 0.64 to 0.89; P<0.001) (Table 2). Separa-tion in the primary outcome between the groups was apparent at 1 year (Fig. 3A). The between-group differences were consistent across the components of the primary outcome and other prespecified secondary outcomes (Table 2).A total of 365 deaths occurred — 155 in the intensive-treatment group and 210 in the stan-dard-treatment group (hazard ratio, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.60 to 0.90; P = 0.003). Separation in mortal-ity between the groups became apparent at ap-proximately 2 years (Fig. 3B). Causes of death are provided in Table S3 in the Supplementary Ap-pendix. The relative risk of death from cardio-vascular causes was 43% lower with the inten-sive intervention than with the standard treatment (P = 0.005) (Table 2).The numbers needed to treat to prevent a primary outcome event, death from any cause, and death from cardiovascular causes during the median 3.26 years of the trial were 61, 90, and 172, respectively. The effects of the intervention on the rate of the primary outcome and on the rate of death from any cause were consistent across the prespecified subgroups (Fig. 4, and Fig. S5 in the Supplementary Appendix). There were no significant interactions between treat-ment and subgroup with respect to the primary outcome or death from any cause. When death was treated as a competing risk in a Fine–Gray model, the results with respect to the primaryT h e ne w engl a nd jour na l o f medicineIntensive vs. Standard Blood-Pressure Controloutcome were virtually unchanged (hazard ratio, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.64 to 0.89).Among participants who had chronic kidney disease at baseline, no significant between-group difference in the composite outcome of a de-crease in the eGFR of 50% or more or the devel-opment of ESRD was noted, though the number of events was small (Table 2). Among partici-pants who did not have chronic kidney disease at baseline, the incidence of the outcome defined by a decrease in the eGFR of 30% or more to a value of less than 60 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 was higher in the intensive-treatment group than in the standard-treatment group (1.21% per year vs. 0.35% per year; hazard ratio, 3.49; 95% CI, 2.44 to 5.10; P<0.001).Serious Adverse EventsSerious adverse events occurred in 1793 partici-pants in the intensive-treatment group (38.3%) and in 1736 participants in the standard-treat-ment group (37.1%) (hazard ratio with intensive treatment, 1.04; P = 0.25) (Table 3, and Table S4 in the Supplementary Appendix). Serious adverse events of hypotension, syncope, electrolyte ab-normalities, and acute kidney injury or acute renal failure, but not injurious falls or bradycar-dia, occurred more frequently in the intensive-treatment group than in the standard-treatment group. Orthostatic hypotension as assessed dur-ing a clinic visit was significantly less common in the intensive-treatment group. A total of 220 participants in the intensive-treatment group (4.7%) and 118 participants in the standard-treatment group (2.5%) had serious adverse events that were classified as possibly or definitely re-lated to the intervention (hazard ratio, 1.88; P<0.001) (Table S5 in the Supplementary Appen-dix). The magnitude and pattern of differences in adverse events according to treatment assign-ment among participants 75 years of age or older were similar to those in the overall cohort (Table S6 in the Supplementary Appendix).DiscussionSPRINT showed that among adults with hyper-tension but without diabetes, lowering systolic blood pressure to a target goal of less than 120 mm Hg, as compared with the standard goal of less than 140 mm Hg, resulted in significantly lower rates of fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events and death from any cause. Trial partici-pants assigned to the lower systolic blood-pres-sure target (intensive-treatment group), as com-pared with those assigned to the higher target (standard-treatment group), had a 25% lower relative risk of the primary outcome; in addition, the intensive-treatment group had lower rates of several other important outcomes, including heart failure (38% lower relative risk), death from cardiovascular causes (43% lower relative risk), and death from any cause (27% lower relative risk). During the follow-up period of the trial (median, 3.26 years), the number needed to treat with a strategy of intensive blood-pressure con-* P lus–minus values are means ±SD. There were no significant differences (P<0.05) between the two groups except for statin use (P = 0.04). To convert the values for creatinine to micromoles per liter, multiply by 88.4. To convert the values for cholesterol to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.02586. To convert the values for triglycerides to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.01129. To convert the values for glucose to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.05551. GFR denotes glomer-ular filtration rate, and HDL high-density lipoprotein.† I ncreased cardiovascular risk was one of the inclusion criteria.‡ C hronic kidney disease was defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate of less than 60 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 of body-surface area.§ R ace and ethnic group were self-reported.¶ B lack race includes Hispanic black and black as part of a multiracial identification.‖ T he body-mass index is the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters.T h e ne w engl a nd jour na l o f medicinetrol to prevent one primary outcome event was 61, and the number needed to treat to prevent one death from any cause was 90. These benefits with respect to both the primary outcome and death were consistent across all prespecified subgroups, including participants 75 years of age or older. Owing in part to a lower-than-expected de-cline in the eGFR and to the early termination of the trial, the number of renal events was small. Among participants who had chronic kidney disease at baseline, the number of participants with a decrease in the eGFR of 50% or more or reaching ESRD over the course of the trial did not differ significantly between the two inter-vention groups. Among participants who did not have chronic kidney disease at baseline, a de-crease in the eGFR of 30% or more to a value of less than 60 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 occurred more frequently in the intensive-treatment group than in the standard-treatment group (1.21% per year vs. 0.35% per year). Among all participants, acute kidney injury or acute renal failure oc-curred more frequently in the intensive-treatment group than in the standard-treatment group (Ta-ble 3, and Table S5 in the Supplementary Appen-dix). The differences in adverse renal outcomes may be related to a reversible intrarenal hemo-dynamic effect of the greater reduction in blood pressure and greater use of diuretics, angioten-sin-converting–enzyme inhibitors, and angioten-sin-receptor blockers in the intensive-treatment group.35,36 With the currently available data, there is no evidence of substantial permanent kidney injury associated with the lower systolic blood-pressure goal; however, the possibility of a long-term adverse renal outcome cannot be excluded. These observations and hypotheses need to be explored further in analyses that incorporate more clinical outcomes and longer follow-up. The results of SPRINT add substantially to the evidence of benefits of lowering systolic blood pressure, especially in older patients with hyper-tension. Trials such as the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program trial,17 the Systolic Hyper-Intensive vs. Standard Blood-Pressure Controltension in Europe trial,11 and the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial18 showed the benefits of lowering systolic blood pressure below 150 mm Hg. However, trials evaluating systolic blood-pressure levels lower than those studied in these trials have been either underpowered19-21 or per-formed without specific systolic blood-pressure targets.37 A major component of the controversy regarding the selection of the systolic blood-pressure goal in this population has resulted from inadequate data on the risks versus bene-fits of systolic blood-pressure targets below 150 mm H g.11,17-21,37 SPRINT now provides evidence of benefits for an even lower systolic blood-pres-sure target than that currently recommended in most patients with hypertension. Comparisons between SPRINT and the ACCORD trial22 are inevitable, because the trials examined identical systolic blood-pressure targets (<120 mm H g vs. <140 mm H g). In contrast to the findings of SPRINT, the cardiovascular and mor-tality benefits observed in the ACCORD trial were not statistically significant and were of a lesser magnitude. Several important differences be-tween these trials should be noted. The ACCORD trial enrolled participants with diabetes exclu-* C I denotes confidence interval, and CKD chronic kidney disease.† T he primary outcome was the first occurrence of myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome, stroke, heart failure, or death from cardio-vascular causes.‡ T he composite renal outcome for participants with CKD at baseline was the first occurrence of a reduction in the estimated GFR of 50% or more, long-term dialysis, or kidney transplantation.§ R eductions in the estimated GFR were confirmed by a second laboratory test at least 90 days later.¶ I ncident albuminuria was defined by a doubling of the ratio of urinary albumin (in milligrams) to creatinine (in grams) from less than 10 at baseline to greater than 10 during follow-up. The denominators for number of patients represent those without albuminuria at baseline.‖ N o long-term dialysis or kidney transplantation was reported among participants without CKD at baseline.。
调查问卷报告_英语模板
IntroductionThis report presents the findings from a survey conducted to [briefly describe the purpose of the survey]. The survey was designed to gather insights on [topic/issue being investigated], aiming to understand the opinions, behaviors, and preferences of [target audience]. The following sections provide a detailed analysis of the survey results, includingthe methodology, key findings, and recommendations.Methodology1. Survey Design- The survey was conducted [describe the type of survey: online, paper-based, etc.].- It consisted of [number] questions, which were categorized into [list question types: multiple-choice, open-ended, Likert scale, etc.].2. Sample- The survey was distributed to [number] participants.- The sample was [describe the sampling method: random, stratified, convenience, etc.].- The participants were [describe the target audience: age range, gender, occupation, etc.].3. Data Collection- The survey was [describe the data collection period: e.g., from [start date] to [end date]].- Responses were collected through [describe the platform or method:e.g., email, online survey tool, etc.].4. Data Analysis- Data were analyzed using [mention the statistical software or methods used: e.g., SPSS, Excel, descriptive statistics, etc.].- Responses were coded and categorized to ensure consistency and accuracy.Key Findings1. Overall Satisfaction- [Percentage] of respondents reported being [satisfied/unsatisfied] with [the topic/issue being investigated].- The most common reasons for satisfaction/unatisfaction were [list reasons based on survey results].2. Frequency of Occurrence- [Percentage] of participants indicated that [the topic/issue] occurs [frequently/infrequently] in their daily lives.- Factors contributing to the frequency were [list factors based on survey results].3. Preferences and Choices- When asked about [specific preference or choice], [percentage] of respondents preferred [option A], [percentage] preferred [option B], and [percentage] preferred [option C].- The reasons for these preferences were [elaborate on the reasons based on survey results].4. Open-Ended Questions- Responses to open-ended questions provided valuable insights into [topic/issue]:- [Summary of responses 1]- [Summary of responses 2]- [Summary of responses 3]5. Demographic Analysis- The survey revealed that [describe any significant demographic patterns or trends]:- [Example: Older age groups were more likely to express satisfaction with the current system, while younger respondents preferred more innovative solutions.]ConclusionThe survey results provide valuable insights into the opinions and behaviors of [target audience] regarding [topic/issue]. The findings suggest that [state a general conclusion or trend]. However, it is important to note that [mention any limitations of the survey or areas that require further investigation].RecommendationsBased on the survey findings, the following recommendations are proposed:1. [Recommendation 1]2. [Recommendation 2]3. [Recommendation 3]Additional Considerations- Further research is needed to [mention any areas that require more in-depth analysis].- The findings of this survey should be considered in conjunction with other data sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the issue.References[If applicable, include a list of references or sources used in the survey or report.]---This template can be adapted to fit the specific details of your survey. Remember to include relevant data and analysis specific to your survey's objectives and target audience.。
液晶显示模式视角特性的数值模拟（理学）
液晶显示模式视角特性的数值模拟作者：任芝学位授予单位：河北工业大学被引用次数：2次1.谢毓章液晶物理学 19982.孙政民.王新久液晶物理学 19903.T J Scheffer.J Nehring A New Highly Multiplexagle Liquid Crystal display 19844.T J Scheffer.J Nehring Investigation of The Electro-Optical Properties of 270° Chiral Nematic Layers in The Birefringence Mode 19855.T P Brody.J A Asars.G D Dixon A6.6 Inch 20 Lines-per-Inch Liquid-Crystal Display Panel 19736.Terry Scheff.Jürgen Nehring超扭曲向列相液晶显示 1995(03)7.Terry Scheff.Jürgen Nehring超扭曲向列相液晶显示(二) 1995(04)8.Schadt M.Helfrich W Voltage-Dependent Optical Activity of A Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystal1971(04)9.Schwffer T J.Nehring J.Kaufmann M24× 80 Character LCD Panel Using The Supertwisted Birefringence Effect 198510.黄锡珉TFT LCD技术的进步[期刊论文]-液晶与显示 1999(2)11.黄锡珉LCOS技术的发展[期刊论文]-液晶与显示 2002(1)12.Berreman D W.Heffner W R New Bistable Liquid-crystal Twist Cell 198113.Katoh K.Endo Y.Akatsuka M Application of Retardation Compensation;A New Highly Multiplexable Black-white Liquid Crystal Display with Two Supertwisted Nematic Layers 198714.Takiguchi Y.Kanemoto A.Limura H Achromatic Super Twisted Nematic LCD Having A Polymeric Liquud Crystal Compensator 199015.Amstutz H.Heimgartner D.Kaufmann M Swiss patent application 3819/83 198316.Lien A Optimization of The Off-states for Single-layer and Double-layer General Twisted Nematic Liquid-crystal Displays 1989(09)17.Hirakata J.Komura S.Nagae Y A Monochromatic Black and White Supertwisted Nematic Liquid Crystal Display with A Single Cell and A Birefringent Film 1991(04)18.Odai H.Hanami T.Hara M Optical Compensation of Super Twisted Nematic LCD Applied by Polymer Retardation Film 198819.Fukuda I.Kotani Y.Uchida T Achromatic Supertwisted Nematic LCD Using Birefringent Film 198820.Matsumoto S.Hatoh H.Murayama A A Single-cell-high-quality Black & White ST LCD 198821.马红梅超扭曲向列相液晶显示中指向矢分布和膜补偿光学性质的研究[学位论文]硕士 200322.Schad M.Helfrich W Voltage-dependent Optical Active of A Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystal 197123.Schad M The Twisted Nematic Effect:Liquid Crystal Displays and Liquid Crystal Materials 198824.Wu Shin-Tson Film-compensated Homeotropic Liquid-crystal Cell for Direct View Display 1994(10)25.Crandall K A.Fisch M R.Petschek R G Homeotropic,nib-free Liquid Crystal Light Shutter 1994(01)。
手册：统计分析使用R - 第2版 - 布兰·S·埃维里特和托尔斯坦·豾伯恩说明书
A Handbook of Statistical Analyses Using R—2nd EditionBrian S.Everitt and Torsten HothornCHAPTER11Survival Analysis:Glioma Treatment andBreast Cancer Survival11.1Introduction11.2Survival Analysis11.3Analysis Using R11.3.1Glioma RadioimmunotherapyFigure11.1leads to the impression that patients treated with the novel radioimmunotherapy survive longer,regardless of the tumour type.In order to assess if this informalfinding is reliable,we may perform a log-rank test viaR>survdiff(Surv(time,event)~group,data=g3)Call:survdiff(formula=Surv(time,event)~group,data=g3)N Observed Expected(O-E)^2/E(O-E)^2/Vgroup=Control64 1.49 4.23 6.06group=RIT112 4.51 1.40 6.06Chisq= 6.1on1degrees of freedom,p=0.01which indicates that the survival times are indeed different in both groups. However,the number of patients is rather limited and so it might be danger-ous to rely on asymptotic tests.As shown in Chapter4,conditioning on the data and computing the distribution of the test statistics without additional assumptions are one alternative.The function surv_test from package coin (Hothorn et al.,2006,2008)can be used to compute an exact conditional test answering the question whether the survival times differ for grade III patients. For all possible permutations of the groups on the censored response variable, the test statistic is computed and the fraction of whose being greater than the observed statistic defines the exact p-value:R>library("coin")R>logrank_test(Surv(time,event)~group,data=g3,+distribution="exact")Exact Two-Sample Logrank Testdata:Surv(time,event)by group(Control,RIT)Z=-2,p-value=0.03alternative hypothesis:true theta is not equal to134SURVIVAL ANALYSIS R>data("glioma",package ="coin")R>library("survival")R>layout(matrix(1:2,ncol =2))R>g3<-subset(glioma,histology =="Grade3")R>plot(survfit(Surv(time,event)~group,data =g3),+main ="Grade III Glioma",lty =c(2,1),+ylab ="Probability",xlab ="Survival Time in Month",+legend.text =c("Control","Treated"),+legend.bty ="n")R>g4<-subset(glioma,histology =="GBM")R>plot(survfit(Surv(time,event)~group,data =g4),+main ="Grade IV Glioma",ylab ="Probability",+lty =c(2,1),xlab ="Survival Time in Month",+xlim =c(0,max(glioma$time)*1.05))02040600.00.20.40.60.81.0Grade III Glioma Survival Time in Month P r o b a b i l i ty 0204060..2.40.6.81.0Grade IV GliomaSurvival Time in MonthP ro bab i l i ty Figure 11.1Survival times comparing treated and control patients.which,in this case,confirms the above results.The same exercise can be performed for patients with grade IV gliomaR>logrank_test(Surv(time,event)~group,data =g4,+distribution ="exact")Exact Two-Sample Logrank Testdata:Surv(time,event)by group (Control,RIT)Z =-3,p-value =2e-04alternative hypothesis:true theta is not equal to 1which shows a difference as well.However,it might be more appropriate toANALYSIS USING R5 answer the question whether the novel therapy is superior for both groups of tumours simultaneously.This can be implemented by stratifying,or blocking,with respect to tumour grading:R>logrank_test(Surv(time,event)~group|histology,+data=glioma,distribution=approximate(B=10000)) Approximative Two-Sample Logrank Testdata:Surv(time,event)bygroup(Control,RIT)stratified by histologyZ=-4,p-value=1e-04alternative hypothesis:true theta is not equal to1Here,we need to approximate the exact conditional distribution since the exact distribution is hard to compute.The result supports the initial impression implied by Figure11.1.11.3.2Breast Cancer SurvivalBeforefitting a Cox model to the GBSG2data,we again derive a Kaplan-Meier estimate of the survival function of the data,here stratified with respect to whether a patient received a hormonal therapy or not(see Figure11.2).Fitting a Cox model follows roughly the same rules as shown for linear models in Chapter6with the exception that the response variable is again coded as a Surv object.For the GBSG2data,the model isfitted viaR>GBSG2_coxph<-coxph(Surv(time,cens)~.,data=GBSG2)and the results as given by the summary method are given in Figure11.3.Sincewe are especially interested in the relative risk for patients who underwent a hormonal therapy,we can compute an estimate of the relative risk and a corresponding confidence interval viaR>ci<-confint(GBSG2_coxph)R>exp(cbind(coef(GBSG2_coxph),ci))["horThyes",]2.5%97.5%0.7070.5490.911This result implies that patients treated with a hormonal therapy had a lowerrisk and thus survived longer compared to women who were not treated this way.Model checking and model selection for proportional hazards models are complicated by the fact that easy-to-use residuals,such as those discussed in Chapter6for linear regression models,are not available,but several possibil-ities do exist.A check of the proportional hazards assumption can be done by looking at the parameter estimatesβ1,...,βq over time.We can safely assume proportional hazards when the estimates don’t vary much over time.The null hypothesis of constant regression coefficients can be tested,both globally aswell as for each covariate,by using the cox.zph functionR>GBSG2_zph<-cox.zph(GBSG2_coxph)R>GBSG2_zph6SURVIVAL ANALYSIS R>data("GBSG2",package ="TH.data")R>plot(survfit(Surv(time,cens)~horTh,data =GBSG2),+lty =1:2,mark.time =FALSE,ylab ="Probability",+xlab ="Survival Time in Days")R>legend(250,0.2,legend =c("yes","no"),lty =c(2,1),+title ="Hormonal Therapy",bty ="n")050010001500200025000.00.2.4.6.81.Survival Time in DaysP r o babi l it y Hormonal TherapyyesnoFigure 11.2Kaplan-Meier estimates for breast cancer patients who either receiveda hormonal therapy or not.chisq df phorTh 0.23910.6253age 10.43810.0012menostat 5.40610.0201tsize 0.19110.6620tgrade 10.71220.0047pnodes 0.80810.3688progrec 4.38610.0362estrec 5.89310.0152GLOBAL 24.42190.0037There seems to be some evidence of time-varying effects,especially for age and tumour grading.A graphical representation of the estimated regression coeffi-ANALYSIS USING R7 R>summary(GBSG2_coxph)Call:coxph(formula=Surv(time,cens)~.,data=GBSG2)n=686,number of events=299coef exp(coef)se(coef)z Pr(>|z|)horThyes-0.3462780.7073160.129075-2.680.00730age-0.0094590.9905850.009301-1.020.30913menostatPost0.258445 1.2949150.183476 1.410.15895tsize0.007796 1.0078270.003939 1.980.04779tgrade.L0.551299 1.7355060.189844 2.900.00368tgrade.Q-0.2010910.8178380.121965-1.650.09920pnodes0.048789 1.0499980.007447 6.55 5.7e-11progrec-0.0022170.9977850.000574-3.870.00011estrec0.000197 1.0001970.0004500.440.66131exp(coef)exp(-coef)lower.95upper.95horThyes0.707 1.4140.5490.911age0.991 1.0100.973 1.009menostatPost 1.2950.7720.904 1.855tsize 1.0080.992 1.000 1.016tgrade.L 1.7360.576 1.196 2.518tgrade.Q0.818 1.2230.644 1.039pnodes 1.0500.952 1.035 1.065progrec0.998 1.0020.9970.999estrec 1.000 1.0000.999 1.001Concordance=0.692(se=0.015)Likelihood ratio test=105on9df,p=<2e-16Wald test=115on9df,p=<2e-16Score(logrank)test=121on9df,p=<2e-16Figure11.3R output of the summary method for GBSG2_coxph.cient over time is shown in Figure11.4.We refer to Therneau and Grambsch (2000)for a detailed theoretical description of these topics.The tree-structured regression models applied to continuous and binary responses in Chapter9are applicable to censored responses in survival analysis as well.Such a simple prognostic model with only a few terminal nodes might be helpful for relating the risk to certain subgroups of patients.Both rpart and the ctree function from package party can be applied to the GBSG2 data,where the conditional trees of the latter select cutpoints based on log-rank statisticsR>GBSG2_ctree<-ctree(Surv(time,cens)~.,data=GBSG2)and the plot method applied to this tree produces the graphical representation in Figure11.6.The number of positive lymph nodes(pnodes)is the most important variable in the tree,corresponding to the p-value associated with this variable in Cox’s regression;see Figure11.3.Women with not more than three positive lymph nodes who have undergone a hormonal therapy seem to have the best prognosis whereas a large number of positive lymph nodes and a small value of the progesterone receptor indicates a bad prognosis.8SURVIVAL ANALYSIS R>plot(GBSG2_zph,var ="age")−0.6−.4−0.20.00.2.4TimeBe ta(t)f o r age2704405607701100140018002300Figure 11.4Estimated regression coefficient for age depending on time for theGBSG2data.ANALYSIS USING R 9R>layout(matrix(1:3,ncol =3))R>res <-residuals(GBSG2_coxph)R>plot(res ~age,data =GBSG2,ylim =c(-2.5,1.5),+pch =".",ylab ="Martingale Residuals")R>abline(h =0,lty =3)R>plot(res ~pnodes,data =GBSG2,ylim =c(-2.5,1.5),+pch =".",ylab ="")R>abline(h =0,lty =3)R>plot(res ~log(progrec),data =GBSG2,ylim =c(-2.5,1.5),+pch =".",ylab ="")R>abline(h =0,lty =3)20406080−2−101age Ma r t i ngal eResi d uals010********−2−101pnodes 02468−2−11log(progrec)Figure 11.5Martingale residuals for the GBSG2data.10SURVIVAL ANALYSIS R>plot(GBSG2_ctree)050015002500050015002500050015002500050015002500Figure 11.6Conditional inference tree for the GBSG2data with the survival func-tion,estimated by Kaplan-Meier,shown for every subgroup of patientsidentified by the tree.BibliographyHothorn,T.,Hornik,K.,van de Wiel,M.,and Zeileis,A.(2008),coin: Conditional Inference Procedures in a Permutation Test Framework,URL /package=coin,R package version1.0-21. Hothorn,T.,Hornik,K.,van de Wiel,M.A.,and Zeileis,A.(2006),“A Lego system for conditional inference,”The American Statistician,60,257–263. Therneau,T.M.and Grambsch,P.M.(2000),Modeling Survival Data:Ex-tending the Cox Model,New York,USA:Springer-Verlag.。
通过gat分析anrlog
通过gat分析anrlog现在mtklog⾥⾯都有意个aee_exp⽂件，⾥⾯有两个⽂件⼀个是ZZ_INTERNAL，只有⼀句话，说出报的是什么错误，发⽣错误的是那个程序，报错时间。
另外⼀个⽂件叫db.01.JE，这个⽂件⾥⾯放的报错的具体信息以及报错时候机器各种状态的保存，但是这个⽂件只能⽤mtk特制的gat软件打开。
运⾏gat软件，第⼀感觉是跟eclipse差不多，打开后第⼀个界⾯是ddms，应该是在eclipse⾥⾯增加了⼀些插件点击菜单上window--openlogView，点击file-OpenAeeDB,选择要打开的dbg格式的⽂件，左边的⼀列⽬录是各种报错时候的信息，最主要的是第⼀项exp_main.txt，点开能发现最主要的报错信息Exception Class: ANRException Type: system_app_anrCurrent Executing Process:com.android.settingscom.android.settings v19 (4.4.4-eng.scm.1428072972)Backtrace:Process: com.android.settingsFlags: 0x40c8be45Package: com.android.settings v19 (4.4.4-eng.scm.1428072972)Subject: Broadcast of Intent { act=.conn.CONNECTIVITY_CHANGE flg=0x4000010 cmp=com.android.settings/workReceiver (has extras) } Build: alps/M366A/M366A:4.4.4/KTU84P/1428069651:user/test-keys下⾯可以看到其他的⼀些信息，也可以根据具体的时间点去mainlog下⾯找全部的log信息gat已经上传群空间。
$number{01}
Situation • Exploration of Training
Strategy
01
Introduction
Background and significance
Education Reform Requirement: With the deepening of education reform, cultivating students' critical thinking ability has become an important goal of English writing teaching in high schools
03
Analysis of the Current Situation
Analysis of the Current Situation
In order to develop effective questionnaire design, we need to focus on the following aspects
Development of Students' Core Competencies: Critical thinking ability is an essential core competency for students, which helps them analyze and solve problems independently, make judgments, and evaluate information objectively
中国整合胃癌前病变临床管理指南 英文版
中国整合胃癌前病变临床管理指南英文版Title: Clinical Management Guidelines for Gastric Cancer Precursor Lesions in ChinaGastric cancer is a significant public health concern worldwide, with China bearing a disproportionate burden ofthe disease. Recognizing the importance of early detectionand management of precursor lesions, the Chinese medical community has developed a comprehensive set of clinical management guidelines for gastric cancer precursor lesions. This article aims to provide an overview of the key aspectsof these guidelines, focusing on the English-language version.The guidelines cover the clinical assessment, diagnosis, and management of various gastric cancer precursor lesions, including atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasia, and dysplasia. These conditions are recognized as important intermediate steps in the multistep carcinogenesis processleading to gastric cancer, and their early identification and appropriate management can significantly impact patient outcomes.The guidelines emphasize the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to the management of gastric cancer precursor lesions. This includes the involvement of gastroenterologists, pathologists, and oncologists, ensuring a comprehensive and coordinated care plan for patients. The guidelines provide detailed recommendations on the appropriate diagnostic modalities, including endoscopic examination, biopsies, and histopathological analysis, to accurately identify and stage the precursor lesions.One of the key aspects of the guidelines is the risk stratification of patients based on the severity and extent of the precursor lesions. Patients with more advanced or extensive lesions are considered to be at a higher risk of progressing to gastric cancer and are therefore recommendedfor more intensive surveillance and management strategies. The guidelines outline specific recommendations for the frequency and modality of follow-up endoscopies, as well as the indications for more aggressive interventions, such as endoscopic resection or surgical treatment.The guidelines also emphasize the importance of addressing underlying risk factors for gastric cancer, such as Helicobacter pylori infection, dietary factors, and genetic predisposition. Appropriate management of these risk factors is considered an essential component of the overall approach to gastric cancer prevention and early detection.Furthermore, the guidelines provide guidance on the development and implementation of public health initiatives aimed at raising awareness about gastric cancer precursor lesions and promoting early detection and management. This includes the integration of these guidelines into nationalcancer control programs and the development of educational materials for healthcare providers and the general public.In conclusion, the Chinese clinical management guidelines for gastric cancer precursor lesions represent a comprehensive and evidence-based approach to the early detection and management of these conditions. By focusing on a multidisciplinary, risk-stratified approach and addressing underlying risk factors, these guidelines have the potential to significantly improve the prevention and early detection of gastric cancer in China and contribute to the global efforts to reduce the burden of this disease.。
介绍二里头遗址小学英语作文
介绍二里头遗址小学英语作文The Erlitou archaeological site is a remarkable and significant discovery that sheds light on the early development of Chinese civilization. Located in Henan Province, this ancient site has provided invaluable insights into the cultural, social, and technological advancements of one of the earliest urban centers in China. As a student, I am fascinated by the rich history and the fascinating stories that this site has to offer.The Erlitou site dates back to the Xia dynasty, which is believed to have existed from around 2100 BCE to 1600 BCE. This period is often considered the earliest dynasty in Chinese history, and the Erlitou site is believed to have been the capital of the Xia dynasty. The site was first discovered in the 1950s and has since been the subject of extensive archaeological excavations, revealing a wealth of information about the lives and achievements of the people who inhabited this ancient city.One of the most striking features of the Erlitou site is its impressive urban planning. The city was laid out in a grid-like pattern, with well-designed streets and a sophisticated system of drainage and water management. This suggests that the people of Erlitou had a deep understanding of urban planning and engineering, which was highly advanced for the time. The discovery of large-scale buildings, such as palaces and temples, also indicates that the Erlitou society was highly organized and hierarchical, with a strong political and religious leadership.Another fascinating aspect of the Erlitou site is the evidence of advanced technology and craftsmanship. Archaeologists have uncovered a wide range of artifacts, including bronze vessels, jade ornaments, and intricate pottery. These artifacts demonstrate the high level of skill and artistry possessed by the Erlitou people, and they also provide insights into the economic and trade networks that existed during this period.One of the most significant discoveries at the Erlitou site is the remains of a large-scale bronze foundry. This foundry was capable of producing large-scale bronze objects, such as bells and ritual vessels, which were likely used in religious and ceremonial contexts. The discovery of this foundry highlights the technological sophistication of the Erlitou people and their ability to harness the power of metallurgy to create impressive and lasting works of art.The Erlitou site has also provided valuable insights into the socialand cultural practices of the people who lived there. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of elaborate burial practices, including the discovery of numerous tombs containing a wealth of grave goods. These grave goods, which include jade ornaments, bronze vessels, and other valuable items, suggest that the Erlitou society was highly stratified, with a clear social hierarchy.In addition to these material discoveries, the Erlitou site has also provided important clues about the religious and spiritual beliefs of the people who lived there. Archaeologists have found evidence of large-scale ritual complexes, including temples and altars, which suggest that the Erlitou people had a sophisticated system of religious beliefs and practices.Overall, the Erlitou archaeological site is a truly remarkable and significant discovery that has provided invaluable insights into the early development of Chinese civilization. Through the careful study and analysis of the artifacts and remains found at the site, scholars have been able to piece together a rich and detailed picture of the lives and achievements of the people who lived in this ancient city. As a student, I am deeply fascinated by the stories and mysteries that this site has to offer, and I am eager to continue learning more about the Erlitou people and their place in the broader history of China.。
初二家长会英语教师发言稿范文
初二家长会英语教师发言稿范文篇1I'm so glad to have this opportunity to talk to you as your children's English teacher in the second year of junior high school. My responsibility is to help your kids master the English language and cultivate their interest in it.Let me summarize the overall situation of your children's English learning since the beginning of this grade. On the positive side, many students have made remarkable progress in reading comprehension. They can understand and analyze various types of texts more accurately and quickly. However, there are still some shortcomings. For instance, some students often make common mistakes in grammar application, which affects the accuracy and fluency of their expressions.To help your children improve further, I sincerely hope that you can encourage them to read more English extracurricular books. This can expand their vocabulary and improve their understanding of the language. Also, creating an English language environment at home, such as playing English songs or watching English movies, would be of great benefit!Let's work together to help our children achieve better results in English learning. Thank you so much!I am extremely glad to welcome you all to this parents' meeting! I am the English teacher of your children in the second year of junior high school.The key and difficult points in English learning for this grade are quite obvious. Firstly, the expansion of vocabulary is crucial. With more complex texts and topics, a rich vocabulary is the foundation for understanding and expressing. Secondly, the cultivation of listening ability needs much attention. It's not just about hearing but understanding accurately in various situations.In my teaching practice, I have adopted several effective methods and achieved remarkable results. For instance, organizing English corner activities has been very helpful. Through these activities, students can practice speaking English freely and bravely, which greatly improves their oral expression and communication skills.Dear parents, your support and cooperation are indispensable. Let's join hands to create a better learning environment for our children. How wonderful it would be if we could work together! I believe that with our joint efforts, your children's English will surely improve significantly. Don't you think so?Thank you all!I'm very glad to have this opportunity to communicate with you today. Let's first talk about the importance of Grade Eight English in the entire junior high school stage. It is a crucial period that builds a solid foundation for future English learning.Now, let's look at the stratified situation of the students in our class. The top students, such as Tom and Mary, have shown excellent comprehension skills and a strong desire for knowledge. They always actively participate in class and complete assignments with high quality. The middle-level students, like John and Lily, have stable performances but need to improve their independent thinking abilities. As for the students with learning difficulties, like David and Susan, they face challenges but have made efforts to catch up.For example, Tom has been insisting on reading English materials every day, which greatly improves his language sense. Mary actively participates in various English competitions and gains valuable experience.Finally, I would like to give some specific guidance for parents to help their children at home. Encourage them to read English books and watch English movies. Help them review and preview lessons regularly.I believe that with our joint efforts, the children will make greater progress in English learning! Thank you!First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to you for your continuous support and trust in our school's work! This semester, I have made detailed plans for English teaching to help your children improve their language skills.Our courses are arranged systematically. We have regular classes focusing on grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing and listening. Besides, there will be frequent quizzes and monthly tests to monitor the students' progress.However, for students in the second year of junior high school, there are some common psychological problems in English learning. The heavy study pressure often leads to weariness of study. For example, some students may feel frustrated when they can't master certain knowledge points. But don't worry! We have corresponding strategies. For instance, we encourage them to take breaks and do some relaxing activities. We also communicate with them frequently to understand their thoughts and difficulties.Let me take one student as an example. Tom used to be very passive in learning English. Through communication between the school and you, we found out that he was afraid of making mistakes. We provided him with more opportunities to practice and gave him timely encouragement. Now, his performance has improved significantly!I believe that with our joint efforts, your children will make great progress in English learning! Thank you again for your support!篇5Hello everyone! I'm the English teacher of your children. I'm very glad to have this opportunity to communicate with you. The purpose of holding this parents' meeting is to let you know more about your children's English learning and to seek better cooperation between home and school.The English textbook for grade eight has some new features and requirements. There are more new knowledge points and more comprehensive ability tests. For example, the grammar becomes more complex and the reading materials are more diverse.In our class, there is a good atmosphere of English learning. The students actively participate in mutual assistance activities. The group learning has achieved good results. They help each other and make progress together.However, parents, your supervision at home is also very important! You should encourage your children to read English materials regularly, and check their homework carefully. How wonderful it would be if we could work together to help our children improve their English! Don't you think so? Let's do our best to create a better future for our children. Thank you!。
评价全身FDG-PETCT在诊断淋巴瘤患者骨髓浸润中的价值
ｂｌａｓｔｉｃｌｅｕｋｅｍｉａｐａｔｉｅｎｔｓｗｉｔｈｒｅｌａｐｓｅａｆｔｅｒｔｒａｎｓｐｌａｎｔａｔｉｏｎ［Ｊ］．ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＪｏｕｒｎａｌｏｆＥｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔａｌＨｅｍａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，２０１９，１１（４）：１０４０－１０４５．［１４］ ＨＵＧＭ，ＬＩＺＡ，ＳＨＩＭＩＮＷＡＮＧ．Ｔｕｍｏｒ－ｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｎｇＦｏｘＰ３＋Ｔｒｅｇｓｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｆａｖｏｒａｂｌｅｏｕｔｃｏｍｅｉｎｃｏｌｏｒｅｃｔａｌｃａｎｃｅｒｐａｔｉｅｎｔｓ：Ａｍｅｔａ－ａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ［Ｊ］．Ｏｎｃｏｔａｒｇｅｔ，２０１７，８（４３）：７５３６１－７５３７１．［１５］ ＪＯＮＥＳＭＢ，ＡＬＶＡＲＥＺＣＡ，ＪＯＨＮＳＯＮＪＬ，ｅｔａｌ．ＣＤ４５Ｒｂ－ｌｏｗｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｒＴｃｅｌｌｓｒｅｑｕｉｒｅＩＬ－４ｔｏｉｎｄｕｃｅＩＬ－１０ｉｎＦｏｘＰ３Ｔｒｅｇｓａｎｄｔｏｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｍｉｃｅｆｒｏｍｉｎｆｌａｍｍａｔｉｏｎ［Ｊ］．ＰＬｏＳＯｎｅ，２０１９，１４（５）：９３－９８．［１６］ 王海涛，李丽敏，付癑癑，等．复发难治性急性淋巴细胞白血病ＣＤ１９－ＣＡＲ－Ｔ治疗后复发相关因素的研究进展［Ｊ］．中华实用诊断与治疗杂志，２０１８，３２（０３）：９９－１０１．ＷＡＮＧＨＴ，ＬＩＬＭ，ＦＵＹＹ，ｅｔａｌ．Ｒｅｌａｐｓｅｒｅｌａｔｅｄｆａｃｔｏｒｓｆｏｒｒｅ ｌａｐｓｅｄｒｅｆｒａｃｔｏｒｙａｃｕｔｅｌｙｍｐｈｏｃｙｔｉｃｌｅｕｋｅｍｉａａｆｔｅｒＣＤ１９－ＣＡＲ－Ｔｃｅｌｌｔｈｅｒａｐｙ［Ｊ］．ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＪｏｕｒｎａｌｏｆＰｒａｃｔｉｃａｌＤｉａｇｎｏｓｉｓａｎｄＴｈｅｒａｐｙ，２０１８，３２（０３）：９９－１０１．（编校：李祥婷）评价全身ＦＤＧ－ＰＥＴ／ＣＴ在诊断淋巴瘤患者骨髓浸润中的价值黄心悦，王晓雪，张丽君ＷｈｏｌｅｂｏｄｙＦＤＧ－ＰＥＴ／ＣＴｆｏｒｔｈｅａｓｓｅｓｓｍｅｎｔｏｆｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｐａｔｉｅｎｔｓｗｉｔｈｎｅｗｌｙｄｉａｇｎｏｓｅｄｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａＨＵＡＮＧＸｉｎｙｕｅ，ＷＡＮＧＸｉａｏｘｕｅ，ＺＨＡＮＧＬｉｊｕｎＤｅｐａｒｔｍｅｎｔｏｆＨｅｍａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｔｈｅＦｉｒｓｔＨｏｓｐｉｔａｌｏｆＣｈｉｎａＭｅｄｉｃａｌＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ，ＬｉａｏｎｉｎｇＳｈｅｎｙａｎｇ１１０００１，Ｃｈｉｎａ．【Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ】 Ｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅ：ＴｏｅｖａｌｕａｔｅｔｈｅｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｃｙａｎｄｃｏｒｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＰＥＴ－ＣＴａｎｄｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒｓ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙ，ａｎｄｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ．Ｍｅｔｈｏｄｓ：Ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｃｌｉｎｉｃａｌｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐａｔｉｅｎｔｓｗｉｔｈｃｌｉｎｉ ｃａｌｌｙｃｏｎｆｉｒｍｅｄｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｎａｍｅ，ｇｅｎｄｅｒ，ａｇｅ，ｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａｃｅｌｌｏｒｉｇｉｎ，ｐａｔｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｔｙｐｅ，ｃｌｉｎｉｃａｌｓｔａｇｅ，ｂｅｈａｖ ｉｏｒａｌｓｔａｔｕｓ，ｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅｏｒａｂｓｅｎｃｅｏｆＢｓｙｍｐｔｏｍｓ，ｂｌｏｏｄＬＤＨｌｅｖｅｌｓ，ｂｌｏｏｄβ２ｍｉｃｒｏｇｌｏｂｕｌｉｎｌｅｖｅｌｓ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗＳｍｅａｒｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ，ｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ，ａｎｄｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄＰＥＴ－ＣＴｉｍａｇｉｎｇｄｅｓｃｒｉｐｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｃｃｏｒｄ ｉｎｇｔｏｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃｌｉｎｉｃａｌｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅｐａｔｉｅｎｔｓｗｅｒｅｓｔｒａｔｉｆｉｅｄｉｎｄｅｔａｉｌ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｆａｃｔｏｒｓａｆｆｅｃｔｉｎｇｔｈｅｕｐｔａｋｅｏｆｇｌｕｃｏｓｅｉｎｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎＰＥＴ－ＣＴａｎｄｔｈｅｆａｃｔｏｒｓａｆｆｅｃｔｉｎｇｔｈｅｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａｗｅｒｅｅｖａｌｕａｔｅｄ．Ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙａｎｄｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇｗｅｒｅｓｅｔａｓｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｓｔｏｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｔｈｅｖａｌｕｅｏｆＰＥＴ－ＣＴｉｎｔｈｅｄｉａｇｎｏｓｉｓｏｆｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｐａｔｉｅｎｔｓｗｉｔｈｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａ．Ｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｓｏｆｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｐａ ｔｉｅｎｔｓｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｐａｔｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｔｙｐｅｓｏｆｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａｗｅｒｅｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅｄｂｙＰＥＴ－ＣＴ．Ｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ：Ａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｔｒａｔ ｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｇｅｎｄｅｒ，ｐａｔｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｔｙｐｅ，ｃｅｌｌｏｒｉｇｉｎ，ｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅｏｒａｂｓｅｎｃｅｏｆＢｓｙｍｐｔｏｍｓａｎｄｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｏｎ ｌｙｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｗａｓｃｌｏｓｅｌｙｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｇｌｕｃｏｓｅｕｐｔａｋｅｉｎＰＥＴ－ＣＴ（Ｐ＝０．００２）．Ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｗａｓｃｌｏｓｅｌｙｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏａｇｅ（Ｐ＝０．０１７）．Ｓｅｔｔｉｎｇｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙａｎｄｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇａｓｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｓ，ｔｈｅｓｅｎｓｉｔｉｖｉｔｙｏｆＰＥＴ－ＣＴｆｏｒｄｅｔｅｃｔｉｎｇｔｏｔａｌｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａｗａｓ５４．３％，ｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｉｔｙｗａｓ８０．５％，ａｃｃｕｒａｃｙｗａｓ７４．５％，ａｎｄｄｉｆｆｅｒｓｉｎｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｐａｔｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｔｙｐｅｓ．ＰＥＴ－ＣＴｃａｎｇｕｉｄｅｔｈｅｃｌｉｎｉｃａｌｓｔａｇｅｏｆｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａａｌｏｎｇｗｉｔｈｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙａｎｄｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇ．Ｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎ：ＢｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｇｌｕｃｏｓｅｕｐｔａｋｅｉｎＰＥＴ－ＣＴｈａｓａｃｅｒｔａｉｎｇｕｉｄｉｎｇｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｆｏｒｄｅｔｅｃｔｉｎｇｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｉｎｆｉｌｔｒａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｃｌｉｎｉｃａｌｓｔａｇｉｎｇ．Ｉｎｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｐａｔｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｔｙｐｅｓｏｆｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａ，ｔｈｅｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｃｙｏｆＰＥＴ－ＣＴｗｉｔｈｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙ，ａｎｄｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇｉｓｎｏｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅ．ＰＥＴｓｔｉｌｌｃａｎｎｏｔｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｌｙｒｅｐｌａｃｅｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙａｎｄｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇ．【Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ】ｌｙｍｐｈｏｍａ，ＰＥＴ－ＣＴ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｓｍｅａｒ，ｂｏｎｅｍａｒｒｏｗｂｉｏｐｓｙ，ｉｍｍｕｎｏｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｉｎｇＭｏｄｅｒｎＯｎｃｏｌｏｇｙ２０２１，２９（０９）：１５７０－１５７５【摘要】 目的：本研究旨在评价ＰＥＴ－ＣＴ和骨髓涂片、骨髓活检、免疫分型结果诊断淋巴瘤的一致性和相关性。
冲击图（alluvialdiagram）实现！
冲击图（alluvialdiagram）实现！缘起冲积层图可以⽤来可视化随时间或频率表的频率分布，可以包括2个或多个分类变量。
常⽤于分类变量的构成变化⽐较。
该⽅法⽐传统的柱状图更能反映分类变量在不同时间点的变化关系。
⽐如⼊组80例COPD患者，⼊组时患者包括不同证型，在治疗1周，3周，7周再次检测患者的证型，那么如何⽤图进⾏可视化呢，冲击图就是⼀种⾮常好的⽅法！InstallationThe latest stable release can be installed from CRAN:install.packages("ggalluvial")The cran branch will contain the version most recently submitted to CRAN.Development versions can be installed from GitHub:remotes::install_github("corybrunson/ggalluvial", build_vignettes = TRUE)The optimization branch contains a development version with experimental functions to reduce the number or area of alluvial overlaps (see issue #6). Install it as follows:remotes::install_github("corybrunson/ggalluvial", ref = "optimization")UsageExampleHere is how to generate an alluvial diagram representation of the multi-dimensional categorical dataset of passengers on the Titanic:titanic_wide <- data.frame(Titanic)head(titanic_wide)#> Class Sex Age Survived Freq#> 1 1st Male Child No 0#> 2 2nd Male Child No 0#> 3 3rd Male Child No 35#> 4 Crew Male Child No 0#> 5 1st Female Child No 0#> 6 2nd Female Child No 0ggplot(data = titanic_wide, aes(axis1 = Class, axis2 = Sex, axis3 = Age, y = Freq)) + scale_x_discrete(limits = c("Class", "Sex", "Age"), expand = c(.1, .05)) +xlab("Demographic") + geom_alluvium(aes(fill = Survived)) + geom_stratum() + geom_text(stat = "stratum", label.strata = TRUE) + theme_minimal() + ggtitle("passengers on the maiden voyage of the Titanic", "stratified by demographics and survival")he data is in “wide” format, but ggalluvial also recognizes data in “long” format and can convert between the two:titanic_long <- to_lodes_form(data.frame(Titanic), key = "Demographic", axes = 1:3)head(titanic_long)#> Survived Freq alluvium Demographic stratum#> 1 No 0 1 Class 1st#> 2 No 0 2 Class 2nd#> 3 No 35 3 Class 3rd#> 4 No 0 4 Class Crew#> 5 No 0 5 Class 1st#> 6 No 0 6 Class 2ndggplot(data = titanic_long, aes(x = Demographic, stratum = stratum, alluvium = alluvium, y = Freq, label = stratum)) +geom_alluvium(aes(fill = Survived)) + geom_stratum() + geom_text(stat = "stratum") + theme_minimal() + ggtitle("passengers on the maiden voyage of the Titanic", "stratified by demographics and survival")resourcesFor detailed discussion of the data formats recognized by ggalluvial and several examples that illustrate its flexibility and limitations, read the vignette:vignette(topic = "ggalluvial", package = "ggalluvial")The documentation contains several examples; use help() to call forth examples of any layer(stat_* or geom_*).Feedback。
hosmer-lemeshowg...
Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test for Survey data Babubhai V. Shah, Safal Institute, and Beth G. B arnwell, Research Triangle Institute Babubhai Shah, Safal Institute, 22 Autumn Woods Drive, Durham, NC,Keywords: Hosmer-Lemeshow test; Goodness offit test ; Sample surveys.1. IntroductionThe Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test is w ellknown when data are obtained from a simplerandom survey. The procedure involves grouping ofthe observations based on the expected probabilitiesand then testing the hypothesis that the differencebetween observed and expected events issimultaneously zero for all the groups. We considerthe weighted analog of the hypothesis and proposea test that accounts for the sample design. S omesimulation results are also presented.2. Test for simple random sampleMost of the tests for goodness of fit of a model are carriedout by analyzing residuals, however, such an approach isnot feasible for a binary outcome variable. Hosmer andLemeshow (1989) proposed a statistic that they show,through simulation, is distributed as chi-square when thereis no replication in any of the subpopulations. This test isonly available for binary response models.First, the observations are sorted in increasing order oftheir estimated event probability. The observations arethen divided into G groups. The Hosmer-Lemeshowgoodness-of-fit statistic is obtained by calculating thePearson chi-square statistic from the 2×G table ofobserved and expected frequencies, for the G groups. Thestatistic for the case of a simple random sample is definedas(1)whereestimated probability of an event outcome for the g-freedom.3. Test for complex survey dataThe chi-square test proposed by Hosmer-Lemeshow isequivalent to testing the hypothesis that the observednumber of events in each of the groups is equal to theexpected number of events based on the fitted model. Thisvectorand the estimates(2)We propose that the statistic equivalent to the HosmerLemeshow test for complex survey data is an F test withnumerator degrees of freedom equal to (G-2) anddenominator degrees of freedom equal to (Number ofprimary sampling units “PSUs” - number of strata).(3)The variance covariance matrixobtained by using the Taylor deviation method. The F-statistic defined in Equation (3) is the complex samplesurvey equivalent to the Hosmer-Lemeshow test ofEquation (2).4. Taylor deviations(4)and applying the method described in Shah(2002):(5)5.Simulation Results .It is not possible to evaluate the methods analytically, so we have used simulation. The data were derived from large national survey with 48 strata with four PSUs in each stratum. Three independent variables were selected from a large national survey. For each observation, the value for the binary dependent variable was randomlygenerated with probability based on the logistic model:where the linear function f was:For the generated dependent variable, the logistic model is known to be a good fit, that is, the null hypothesis is true. Hence, the percentiles of the computed P=values for the test of goodness of fit should be close to the percentile values. Since, two of the dependent variables had only a few distinct vales, they may be treated as categorical. We fitted the model two ways:•By treating two of the independent variables as categorical in the first model•By treating all independent variables as continuous in the second modelWe drew one hundred thousand samples as simple random samples, and applied the methods for a simple random sample. The results for both models are presented in Tables I and II.We also selected one hundred thousand samples, after selecting two PSU’s from each stratum with probability proportional to size, and then selected a varying number of units with equal probability within a PSU. The results for these samples are presented in T ables III and IV..For each of the generated samples, we computed a P-value by the each of the methods and the rank of the model. The table presents the percentile for the P-values.We also computed P-values using Wald F and the Satterthwaite adjusted F statistic for the stratified clustered samples (Table III and IV).It should be noted that the Wald F and Satterthwaite adjusted F are identical for the case of a simple random sample and hence only one of them is presented in Tables I and II..6. Conclusions.From Table I, For the case of the model with two categorical variables and simple random samples, results obtained by the method based on Taylor deviations is better than those based on the original Hosmer Lemeshow method. The results in Table II for the model with all continuous variables are similar.For the case of a stratified clustered sample with unequal probabilities, the tests based on W ald F and. Satterthwaite adjusted F statistics seem to provide lower and upper bounds for the “true” confidence level. The Homer Lemeshow produces results that are poor in the tail of the distribution, which is critical for a test of hypothesis. The results are preliminary, because they are based on one data set, and only two models. Further simulations are needed to confirm the finding that Taylor linearization based tests are appropriate for a variety of sample designs and different models.ReferencesBinder, D. A. (1983). "On the Variances of Asymptotically Normal Estimators from Complex Surveys," International Statistical Review, 51, 279-292.Hosmer, D. W. and Lemeshow S. (1989). Applied Logistic Regression. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Shah, B. V. (2002) “Calculus of Taylor Deviations” paper presented at the Joint Statistical Meetings.Appendix: Taylor deviations for Logistic RegressionFor logistic regression, the assumptions are:andHenceandare:(6)(7)(8)(9)observation (rtsu) is(10)(11)On substituting the partial derivative of beta fromEquation (8), in Equation (11) the result is:(12)Equation (12) provides the Taylor deviationneeded for calculation of Taylor deviations offor computing variance covariance matrixrequired in Equation (3).Below is given annual work summary, do not need friends can download after editor deleted Welcome to visit againXXXX annual work summaryDear every leader, colleagues:Look back end of XXXX, XXXX years of work, have the joy of success in your work, have a collaboration with colleagues, working hard, also have disappointed when encountered difficulties and setbacks. Imperceptible in tense and orderly to be over a year, a year, under the loving care and guidance of the leadership of the company, under the support and help of colleagues, through their own efforts, various aspects have made certain progress, better to complete the job. For better work, sum up experience and lessons, will now work a brief summary.To continuously strengthen learning, improve their comprehensive quality. With good comprehensive quality is the precondition of completes the labor of duty and conditions. A year always put learning in the important position, trying to improve their comprehensive quality. Continuous learning professional skills, learn from surrounding colleagues with rich work experience, equip themselves with knowledge, the expanded aspect of knowledge, efforts to improve their comprehensive quality.The second Do best, strictly perform their responsibilities. Set up the company, to maximize the customer to the satisfaction of the company's products, do a good job in technical services and product promotion to the company. And collected on the properties of the products of the company, in order to make improvement in time, make the products better meet the using demand of the scene.Three to learn to be good at communication, coordinating assistance. On‐site technical service personnel should not only have strong professional technology, should also have good communication ability, a lot of a product due to improper operation to appear problem, but often not customers reflect the quality of no, so this time we need to find out the crux, and customer communication, standardized operation, to avoid customer's mistrust of the products and even the damage of the company's image. Some experiences in the past work, mentality is very important in the work, work to have passion, keep the smile of sunshine, can close the distance between people, easy to communicate with the customer. Do better in the daily work to communicate with customers and achieve customer satisfaction, excellent technical service every time, on behalf of the customer on our products much a understanding and trust.Fourth, we need to continue to learn professional knowledge, do practical grasp skilled operation. Over the past year, through continuous learning and fumble, studied the gas generation, collection and methods, gradually familiar with and master the company introduced the working principle, operation method of gas machine. With the help of the department leaders and colleagues, familiar with and master the launch of the division principle, debugging method of the control system, and to wuhan Chen Guchong garbage power plant of gas machine control system transformation, learn to debug, accumulated some experience. All in all, over the past year, did some work, have also made some achievements, but the results can only represent the past, there are some problems to work, can't meet the higher requirements. In the future work, I must develop the oneself advantage, lack of correct, foster strengths and circumvent weaknesses, for greater achievements. Looking forward to XXXX years of work, I'll be more efforts, constant progress in their jobs, make greater achievements. Every year I have progress, the growth of believe will get greater returns, I will my biggest contribution to the development of the company, believe inyourself do better next year!I wish you all work study progress in the year to come.。
精益生产工具介绍
Supplier
Pull Production Methodology & Sequence
JIT
Jidoka
eGPS for GPC
Heijunka
Level Loading
Sequencing
Finding a balance between the volume of work that your organization needs to do and your capacityAdjusting a production schedule to meet unexpected changes in customer demand
Ordering the production in such a fashion to achieve the desired TAKT for all items
taken from memory Jogger
Leveled production means
lowering the peaks among
Pull Production Methodology & Sequence
Definition
Ref Material Presentation training for explanation on Supermarket definition and use
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6
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8
9
10
2
Assembly Line
the daily production volumes
as much as possible and
论文写作research method汇编
Research MethodsQualitative vs. Quantitative ApproachWANG Yan UIBE ❝Definition:◦An in-depth study of a social phenomenon or an aspect of educational life.❝Goal:◦to find out an answer to the underlying nature of somethingWhat is qualitative research ❝Research design ❝Fieldwork ❝Collecting data ❝Data analysis ❝Data interpretation Procedures of a qualitative research❝Naturalistic ◦Actual situations as the direct source of data ◦The researcher is the key instrument and goes to the particular setting under study ◦Concerned with the context and process❝Descriptive ◦Everything could be a clue to a more comprehensive understanding of what is under study❝Inductive ◦Start with no hypothesis (no presuppositions about the subject)◦Putting the pieces together to find out the whole◦Let the understanding evolve through the process ◦Bottom up❝Concerned with Meaning ◦Interested in the life as well as the understanding of people ◦How do people negotiate meaning?Features of qualitative study❝Generalizability:◦Qualitative research findings are generalizable to some extent ◦Effecting changes is more important than generalizability ❝Subjectivity:◦As a researcher, you should reduce your opinions, prejudices, and other biases as much as possible.◦Get rid of the assumptions before you start◦Try to minimize and overcome your prejudice which may have effect on the data.❝Process is more important than prediction and verification◦Making adjustments if necessary❝Truthful to the findingsImportant Important issues about issues aboutqualitative research ❝Relationship between the researcher and the researched ◦Full respect for the participants ◦Cooperation ◦Going along with the research and the researched ❝Presence of the researcher:◦The researcher should try to make the subjects forget the existence of the camera, recorder, etc.❝Different researchers:◦They may not come up with exactly the same results, but they surely share some similarities.More about qualitative research❝Definition:◦an inquiry into a social or human problem based on testing a theory composed ofvariables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true❝It is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilized to obtain information about the worldWhat is a quantitative research 8Features of Quantitative Study ❝Quantitative research is about quantifying the relationships between variables.❝The researcher knows in advance what he or she is looking for.❝Goal: Prediction, control, confirmation, test hypotheses.❝All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.❝The researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.❝Deductive --to test theory/hypothesis 1.Terms/phrases associated with the approach 2.Key concepts associated with the approach 3.Theoretical affiliation 4.Academic affiliation 5.Goals 6.Design 7.Data 8.Sample 9.Techniques or methods 10.Relationship with subjects 11.Instruments and tools12.Data analysis13.Written research proposalsComparison between qualitative and quantitative research❝Qualitative ◦Naturalistic◦Fieldwork ◦Soft data ◦Inner perspective ◦Ethnographic ◦Participant observation ◦Life history ◦Case study ◦Narrative◦Inductive◦Descriptive◦Interpretive1. Terms/phrases associated with the approach❝Quantitative ◦Experimental ◦Hard data◦Outer perspective ◦Positivist◦Social facts◦Statistical◦Scientific method 2. Key concepts associated with the approach❝Qualitative ◦Meaning ◦Definition of situation ◦Everyday life ◦Negotiated order ◦Understanding ◦Process ◦For all practical purposes ◦Social construction❝Quantitative ◦Viability◦Reliability◦Hypothesis ◦Validity◦Statistically significant ◦Replication ◦Prediction 3. Theoretical affiliation ❝Qualitative ◦Symbolic interaction ◦Ethnomethodolgy ◦Phenomenology ◦Culture ◦Idealism ❝Quantitative◦Structural functionalism ◦Realism, positivism ◦Behaviorism◦Logical empiricism ◦Systems theory4. Academic affiliation❝Qualitative ◦Sociology ◦History ◦Anthropology ❝Quantitative ◦Sociology◦Psychology◦Economics◦Political science 5. Goals❝Qualitative ◦Develop sensitizing concepts ◦Describe multiple realities ◦Develop understanding ❝Quantitative ◦Theory testing◦Establishing facts◦Show relationship between variables ◦Prediction 6. Design ❝Qualitative ◦Evolving ◦Flexible ◦General hunch as to how you might proceed ❝Quantitative ◦Structured ◦Predetermined ◦Formal, specific ◦Detailed plan of operation7. Data❝Qualitative ◦Descriptive◦Personal documents ◦Fieldnotes ◦Photographs ◦People’s own words ◦Official documents and other artifacts ❝Quantitative ◦Quantitative ◦Quantifiable coding ◦Counts, measures ◦Operationalized variables◦Statistics8. Sample❝Qualitative ◦Small◦Non-representative ◦Theoretical sampling ◦Snow-ball sampling ◦Purposeful ❝Quantitative ◦Large◦Stratified◦Control groups ◦Precise◦Random selection◦Control of extraneous variables 9. Techniques or methods ❝Qualitative ◦Reviewing various documents, etc.◦Observation ◦Open-ended interviewing ◦First person accounts ❝Quantitative ◦Experiments◦Quasi experiments◦Structured observations◦Structuredinterviewing◦Survey research10. Relationship with subjects ❝Qualitative ◦Empathy ◦Emphasis on trust ◦Egalitarian ◦Subject as friend ◦Intense contact ❝Quantitative ◦Detachment ◦Short-term ◦Distant◦Subject-researcher ◦Circumscribed11. Instruments and tools❝Qualitative ◦Tape recorder ◦Transcriber ◦Computer ❝Quantitative ◦Inventories ◦Questionnaires ◦Indexes◦Scales◦Test scores◦Computer 12. Data analysis ❝Qualitative ◦Inductive ◦Ongoing ◦Procedures not standardized ◦Difficult to study large populations ❝Quantitative ◦Deductive ◦Occurs at conclusion of data collection ◦Obtrusiveness ◦Validity13. Written research proposals ❝Qualitative ◦Brief ◦Speculative ◦Suggests areas research may be relevant to ◦Often written after some data have been collected ◦Not extensive in substantive literature review ◦General statement of approach ❝Quantitative ◦Extensive◦Detailed andspecific in focus ◦Detailed andspecific inprocedure◦Written prior to data collection◦Thorough review of substantiveliterature◦Hypothesis❝Can qualitative and quantitative approaches be used together?◦Combination of both qualitative and quantitative research: More convincing❝How does qualitative research differ from quantitative research?◦Qualitative: What is the nature of a problem?◦Quantitative: To what extent the problem is existing?❝Which research approach is better, qualitative or quantitative?◦It depends on the purpose of your research, i.e., what you want to find out.Qualitative vs. Quantitative ❝Is it scientific?◦Quantitative research is supported by statistics; Numbers can tell something, but not everything.◦Sometimes we need to know the nature of a phenomenon, and something that cannot be quantified.◦What is difficult to understand does not necessarily mean it is more scientific.❝What makes it scientific is:◦the consistence in philosophical understanding and procedural methods◦open recognition of researcher’s perspective and subjectivityWhat makes a study scientific and convincing?Summary: Essentials Essentials of qualitativeof qualitativeand quantitative research Qualitative ❝Inductive: bottom-up ❝In-depth ❝Interpretive ❝Meaning ❝Interviews ❝Generates theory Quantitative ❝Deductive: top-down❝Large scale ❝Validity❝Statistics❝Questionnaires ❝Tests hypothesis ❝Questionnaire◦A document containing a set of questions, which has been specially formulated as a means of collecting information and surveying opinions, etc. on a specified subject or theme, etc.❝Interview◦A talk through which the researcher asks the interviewee a series of questions to find out some information about the interviewee.Survey Design Seven usual types of survey questions 1.Demographic questions2.Yes-no questions3.Multiple choice questions4.List questions5.Scale questions6.List-rank questions7.Open-ended questions1.Demographic questions❝Demographical information of target subjects, such as age, gender, nationality, educational background, occupation, etc.❝Be cautious when asking private and sensitive questions, such as marital status, income, religion, political affiliation, etc.2. Yes2. Yes--No Questions❝The formal term of Yes/No questions is“dichotomous questions”❝This type of questions offer the respondent a choice between two options, and instantly divide the opinions into two groups.◦Example:Do you have on-the-job training programs in yourcompany?A. Yes.B. No.3. Multiple Choice questions❝Definition:◦Fixed alternative questions that allow therespondents to choose one answer from a pool of given replies.◦The most important quality:All the choices to a certain question must be fullyexclusive to each other.Only one can be chosen to answer the question fromthe options specified◦Example:Your opinion on present English textbook:A.very pleasedB. pleasedC. neutralD. displeasedE. very displeased4. List questions❝In your specified context or scenario, make a list of answers for the subjects to choose from, usually with no limit on the number of choices❝Put a bracket (for “other” choices) at the end of all choices◦Example:Which of the following have you attended in the pastsix months?A. Art exhibitionB. balletC. cinemaD. ConcertE. dramaF. KaraokeG. Lecture H. musicals I. operaJ. Other performances______________(please specify)5. Scale questions❝Likert scale questions are designed to measure otherwise immeasurable qualities such as approach, outlook, position, attitude, mind-set and ways of thinking◦Example:Read the statement below, then circle the number that best indicates your agreement or disagreement with that statement“The course provided at this university are as good as I’d expected.”Strongly Stronglyagree disagree12345 6. List--Rank questions6. List❝List-rank questions is a combination of multiple-choice and scale questions.❝With this type, you first provide a list of questions, and each is followed by some fixed alternatives◦Example:As you see it, making a phone call while driving a vehicle is: Risky12345SafeCool12345Not coolCute12345Not cuteExpert12345InexpertClosed questions (封闭式问题)❝The previous 6 types of questions are more or less “closed questions”, which provide several answers following each question and require the subjects to select one of the answers.❝You can put marks before answers, e g. 5 for A, 4 for B, 3 for C, 2for D,and 1for E. Then the results of the questionnaire can be quantified.❝Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions ◦Advantages: easy for both the subjects and the designer◦Drawbacks: the subjects may have much more than we can hear.❝Open questions do not require a simple answer and can be answered freely by the subject◦ e.g. What’s your opinion on the present English textbook?❝However, such kind of questions cannot be quantified. It can only be used in qualitative research.❝Advantages and disadvantages:◦Advantages: Respondents have much more space for their opinions. Meanwhile they are provided opportunities to express in their own words.◦Disadvantages: Respondents may digress from the topic, and the data obtained can be miscellaneous, which may make the subsequent analysis more difficult and time-consuming.7. Open 7. Open--ended ended question question (开放式问题)❝The design of a questionnaire can be described in terms of a series of STEPS that include:(1)Selecting the modes of administration(2)Specifying what kind of data you intend to collect(3)Determining the way you process the questionnaire data(4)Deciding on the content of individual items(5)Choosing question structure(6)Determining the order of questions(7)Deciding the format of a questionnaire(8)Conducting a pilot study to test the questionnaireQuestionnaire Design Process❝Questionnaires start with a cover letter◦It often starts by addressing the target respondents with “Dear Sirs and madams” or “Dear Friends”, like a letter.◦It includes a short preface about you as the researcher and a problem statement explaining your research question and your purpose for this survey.◦The problem and its possible solutions are your central points for which you want other people to contribute to, at least to voice their say.Cover letter(1)Having high internal validity◦The items in the questionnaire must be the variablesyou really want to investigate(2)Four cautions in setting achievable questions:◦Reasonable, considerate, concrete, integration(3)Taking a professional outlookContains a cover letter and a problem statement Avoid crowding questions together to make the questionnaire look shorter.Do not print one question across two pages.Using the printing papers of high quality to make reading clear and easy.Criteria for a Good Questionnaire❝What types of interview to adopt depends on the goal of your research ◦Personal interview or Group interview ◦Telephone interview or Face-to-face interview ❝There are three types of interviews depending on the degree of freedom on the part of the interviewer.(1) Unstructured interview (非结构化访谈)(2) Semi-structured interview (半结构化访谈)(3) Structured interview (结构化访谈)Types of InterviewTypes of Interview(1) Unstructured interview (open interviews)◦An informal, friendly conversation, providing interviewerswith a lot of freedom, with questions generatedspontaneously in the natural flow of the interaction.(2)Semi-structured interview◦It is conducted according to an interview schedule preparedin advance, but the order and actual wording of the questions need not be determined before the interview.(3)Structured interview◦It consists of a set of open-ended questions carefully worded and arranged with the intention of taking each intervieweethrough the same sequence and asking each interviewee the same questions with essentially the same words.Process of an interview❝Before the interview◦Appointment: time and place◦Preparation:Facilities: recorder, video camera, batteriesBackground informationInterview guidelines (questions)❝During the interview◦Start with some small talk◦Asking for permission to record◦Explaining your purposes◦Taking notes❝After the interview◦Save the files to your computer◦Write down your journal◦Do the transcription as soon as possible◦Read relevant literature and rethink the issue◦Be objective when analyzing the dataPrinciples❝Listen carefully❝Do not take things for granted❝Ask questions when you are not sure about the meaning❝Probe into the native concepts❝Jump on opportunities for new understanding of something you thought you knew❝Give up your plan when necessary❝Keep an open mind❝Be aware of your assumptions❝The same question can mean very different things to different people❝Stay focused but try not to interrupt❝Try to bring the interviewee back cleverly when he starts todigress❝Using a tape recorder❝Probing : The key to successful interviewing is learning how to probe effectively.◦Silent probe◦Echo probe◦Uh-huh probe ❝Conversational style: ◦in a natural manner;◦keep the conversation on the track;◦flexibility and spontaneity.Interviewing StrategiesWhat do you mean?Could you explain that?Why did you say that?A good interview❝Easy conversation❝Keep the conversation on track❝The interviewer does the probing and the interviewee does the talking❝Avoid reading from your interview guideline ❝Let the flow of the conversation go at its own pace, do not rush Exercise 1: Diagnose the following questions raised by the interviewer.❝Purpose of the study:◦Try to find out whether there is any relationship between language level and students’ thinking abilities in second language writing❝Questions to be asked in the interview (for English majors)◦Do you think English level will influence your thinking ability in writing?◦What do you think of the present English education in relation to the development of thinking abilities?◦Do you think your thinking ability will be improved if you major in another subject?Another Example❝Purpose:◦to investigate the status of people who participated in the graduate entrance examination for at least twice or those who have just failed and want to try again❝Research plan:◦to look for subjects on the internet through carefully browsing some graduate entrance examination forums and get access to them. Interview them through QQ.❝Basic questions like their gender, age, birthplace, family members, economic status, educationalbackground, etc.❝Other questions:1.Do you think an MA degree can guarantee you a better job? Have you seen any counter-truth?2.Do you think it is proper for people above 25 to make efforts to enter the graduate school?3.Which university have you applied? If you fail your first application, are you willing to be adjusted to a less good university or college?4.How many times have you taken part in the graduate entrance examination? At most how many times can you endure?5.If you fail again, will you make another effort? Why? Or why not?6.How did you pass the failure time? How long did it take you to get rid of the shadow of failure? ❝Questionnaires may contain closed questions or open-ended questions. ❝Similarly, interviews may be conducted by open-ended questions or closed questions. ❝Only truly opened-ended questions can lead to qualitative data, and cannot be quantified.Relationship between Questionnaires and InterviewsFieldwork❝The success of qualitative studies depends on the establishment of good human relationship❝The purpose of fieldwork is to maximize the possibility of acquiring quality data❝Getting into the Field◦To establish relationship with the participants◦To build up a rapport with the informants◦To get support from the administrators◦To gaining access to datafieldnotesTaking fieldnotesTaking❝Starting your observation without an assumption❝Finding a focus in your observation❝Keeping yourself focused in your observation❝Taking notes and sharing your experience in observationA sample of an observation reportObservation Report on ________________◆Date:◆Time:◆Place:◆Observer:◆Purpose: To find out …◆Details◦Topic sentence◦First,◦Second,◦…◦Summary◆DiscussionTry it out!❝Interview:◦Work out your interview guidelines based on your research questions◦Interview relevant people who may provide theinformation you need◦Tape it down for transcription❝Questionnaire:◦Design your questionnaire based on yourresearch questions◦Do a pilot study among a small sample ofsubjects◦Summarize the results of the survey。
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2
GvHD and Survival
• The authors would like to describe the association between GvHD and survival, after adjusting for whether or not the patient had CML. What statistical method could be used?
9
Simple Log-rank Test Example
• The simple log-rank statistic:
( 11- 6.44) 2 (7 11.56) 2 6.44 11.56 3.22 1.80 5.02
• Note that the test statistic value differs from the value computed by SPSS because we have used a simplified form of the test statistic.
Cum Survival
1.1 1.0
Survival Functions CML = 1.00
.9
GVHD
1.00
.8
1.00-censored .00
.7 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
.00-censored
TIME
12
Stratified Log-rank Test Calculations
• Conclusion:
– Subjects with GvHD are at significantly increased risk of death relative to subjects without GvHD (p=0.01).
8
Simple Log-rank Test Calculations
– Subjects with GvHD appear to be at increased risk of death – Subjects with GvHD appear to be more likely to have CML, where CML may be associated with decreased risk of death – So, after adjusting for the imbalance in the leukemia type, we will expect to see an even greater survival difference between subjects with and without GvHD
GvHD No Total GvHD No Total GvHD No GvHD GvHD GvHD 8 7 2 2 10 9 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 2 8/10*1 2/10*1 =0.80 =0.20 7/9*1= 2/9*1= 0.78 0.22 1.58 0.42
13
Stratified Log-rank Test Calculations
Cum Survival
.8 .6
GVHD
Statistic Log Rank 21.28
df 1
Significance .0000
.4 1.00 .2 0.0 -.2 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1.00-censored .00 .00-censored
Cum Survival
1.1 1.0 .9 .8 .7
GVHD
.6 Yes .5 .4 .3 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Yes-censored No No-censored
TIME (days)
5
GvHD and Survival
• CML and survival
Survival Functions
1.1
• Conclusion:
– Subjects with CML are at lower risk of death after transplant
Cum Survival
1.0 .9 .8 .7
CML
.6 Yes .5 .4 .3 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Yes-censored No No-censored
11
GvHD and Survival
• Stratified log-rank test summary:
1.2 1.0
Survival Functions CML = .00
Test Statistics for Equality of Survival Distributions for GVHD Adjusted for CML
TIME
• Conclusion:
– Subjects with GvHD are at significantly increased risk of death relative to subjects without GvHD after adjusting for CML leukemia type (p<0.001). – Note that the test statistic has increased from 6.55 to 21.28 after adjusting for CML type
– A stratified log-rank test could be used to compare the survival experience between subjects with GvHD and without GvHD, while adjusting for the type of leukemia.
10
GvHD and Survival
• Based on the association between GvHD and CML type, do you expect the conclusions from the stratified log-rank test to differ from the unadjusted log-rank test?
Detailed Example of Stratified Log-rank Test
BIOS 808 April 8, 2010
1
GvHD and Survival
• Data were collected from 37 patients receiving a non-depleted allogeneic bone marrow transplant • The following data were collected:
7
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
GvHD and Survival
• Log-rank test summary:
Test Statistics for Equality of Survival Distributions for GVHD
Statistic Log Rank 6.55
df 1
Significance .0105
• To calculate the stratified log-rank test statistic, fill in the following table for subjects without CML:
# At Risk Time of Failure 41 45 80 95 100 GvHD 9 8 7 6 6 No GvHD 18 18 18 18 17 Total 27 26 25 24 23 # Observed Deaths GvHD 1 1 1 0 1 9 No GvHD 0 0 0 1 0 7 Total 1 1 1 1 1 # Expected Deaths GvHD 9/27*1= 0.33 8/26*1= 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.26 2.51 No GvHD 18/27*1= 0.67 18/26*1= 0.69 0.72 0.75 0.74 13.49
TIME (days)
6
GvHD and Survival
• Based on the descriptive summary of the survival experiences for subjects with and subjects without GvHD, what result would be expect to see from the simple log-rank test?
3
GvHD and Survival
• Relationship between GvHD and CML:
GVHD No CML No Yes Total Count % within GVHD Count % within GVHD Count % within GVHD 18 90.0% 2 10.0% 20 100.0% Yes 9 52.9% 8 47.1% 17 100.0% Total 27 73.0% 10 27.0% 37 100.0%
– The log-rank test will most likely indicate a significant difference between the survival experiences of subjects with and without GvHD (n=37). The number of events (18) is rather small, so there may be power issues.