研究生精读[下册]supplementary reading
supplementary reading unit 3
Unit threeText OneDirection: The following text is about how to define “word” in Chinese. Do you agree with the author? (J.L. Packard. The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001:18-20)In this work, the syntactic definition of “word”will be used as the basis for analyzing Chinese words. We begin with the syntactic definition as a first step in isolating wordlike units for analysis, for several reasons.First, the syntactic definition is the one that mostly closely comports with the intuitive notion of “word” among native speakers of Chinese, as evidenced by the fact that the Chinese technical term for “word” (ci词)is very close to the notion as defined using the syntactic definition. Also, aside from expressions which derive from Classical Chinese and different registers of use (such as literary vs. colloquial, standard vs. local dialect, individual variation, etc.), there is a surprising degree of unanimity among Chinese native speakers as to which entities are able to occupy a syntactic form class slot independently (see, e.g., Hu 1985:69, who cites s study that found over 85 per cent agreement on word boundaries). Where there is less than complete unanimity, it is likely that there are in fact two independent identities that coexist separately on a continuum in transition between, e.g., “bound and free” or “word and phrase”.Second, the syntactic definition of “word” motivates the concept in most other languages. It is the concept that Anderson refers to when speaking of the intuition of “something real about the organization of the sentence” (1985b:150), and saying that sentences seem to be composed of such independent isolable entities. Third, some of the criteria for defining word discusses above—for example, the orthographic and lexical definitions, and the potential pause—are based upon the syntactic word. Finally, it will make sense for us to give a basic characterization of words using the syntactic definition because, as we shall see below, in Chinese the internal components of words are best understood and analysed within a framework that complements the notion of “syntactic word” as a basic defining concept.The assumption of the existence of the syntactic word follows a universalist argument, which assumes that the word is biologically hard-wired and psychologically real, and has a tendency in natural language to “weaken” the status of individual component morphemes, undermining their ability to function as free forms. Since it is generally recognized that sentence syntax contains the rules by which we produce and comprehend meaningful language, we must presume that utterances are segmented into minimal units that the syntax can manipulate. The constituents that are moved about by rules of syntax are nouns, verbs, etc., and the smallest occupant of one of those constituent slots is what we are theoretically defining as a “word”. In the case of Chinese, these constituents cannot be morphemes, because morphemes are in no sense the units that are manipulated by syntactic rules to produce a comprehensible sentence or utterance. The zi or morpheme serves as a subpart of those entities that are the smallest things that can occupy a syntactic slot. Sometimes the zi can occupy that slot by itself. But there are things that can minimally occupy those slots, and we have given them a name: They are called words.To summarize, this work critically assumes that the linguistic construct of the syntactic “word”, rather than being an artifact of western linguistic analysis, is real and fundamental to the nature of language, and therefore exists as a real linguistic construct universally used in producing and understanding utterances. To believe otherwise for Chinese, we would have to assume that theChinese language is not so much “word-based” as based on something else, with the most viable candidate being the morpheme.Text TwoDirection: The following text is about word formation and name-giving. Can you deduce from this passage that word formation and name-giving are arbitrary? Which name, a cellular phone or mobile phone, do you prefer? Why?( R. Dirven and M. Verspoor. Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998:54-56)We have now seen three different ways of forming new expressions for concepts: compounding, derivation, and syntactic grouping. This raises the question: Why is one name and not the other accepted in the language? There are several possibilities available and it can never be predicted which one will eventually be generally accepted. Let us look at a recent example.The engineering in a big electronic firm are sitting around the table to discuss a new type of telephone not fixed to a plug which can be carried around. They might find all sorts of names for it like mobile telephone, cellular telephone, pocket telephone, digital phone, portable phone, etc. Each name reflects a different construal and highlights one salient aspect of the phone. In American English the name which has been accepted is based on the internal cellular system and it is called a cellular phone or just –in its reduced form—a cellular. In British English the emphasis is placed on the movable quality of such a phone and it is called a mobile phone or carphone. In German, the “useful and simple to use” aspect is stressed and the device is named by means of a pseudo-English load-word, ein Handy. In French its movability is stressed and it is called un portable. In Dutch it is either called een gsm (an acronym standing for “global system for mobile communication”) or een draagbare telefooon“a portable phone”. The word portable also exists as an older French loan-word in English, but it is nearly always associated with a television set as illustrated in (1).(1)We swapped our color television, and bought a black and white portable.When a name like portable TV has been around for some time, it becomes entrenched and accepted. Part of it may even be clipped, so that portable stands for the whole concept and is no longer available for a new concept, at least not in English.Acceptability of new composite words does not only differ across languages, but it also differs across varieties of the same language. In both British English (BrE) and American English (AmE), car refers to a vehicle with a fuel engine. However, car is more usual in BrE than in AmE, where the general name automobile or specific names such as sedan or convertible are frequently used. A place to part a car in BrE is a car park, in AmE a parking lot if outside, or a parking garage if it is an enclosed building. Obviously, the choice of a new composite word or expression for the many new things in our cultures is the result of an “onomasiological struggle”, something which is also present in the way British and American English differ in the naming of kitchen gadgets.(2) BrE AmEOven cookerTap faucet (loan from older French)Washing-up liquid dish-washing liquidTin-opener can-opener (from Dutch kan)Cutlery silverwareFish-slice spatula (loan from Spanish)(electric) ring burner (warning lamp on fridge)Bin waste-basketTea-towel dishclothAs the etymological origin of some American English items shows, name-giving in American English reflects to some extent the multicultural composition of the American population and the diverse onomasiological resources of American English. The study of name-giving or onomasiology is therefore closely linked to the culture prevailing within a given variety of a language and this is even more apparent if we look at different languages.。
supplementaryreadingunit2
supplementaryreadingunit2Unit twoText OneDirection: The following text is about how to identify phonemes. Please read aloud the tongue-twisters in the text, and try to see how fast you can read them. (M. Yaguello. Language Through the Looking Glass. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998:52-54)Every human being is born with the same sound-producing (articulatory) ability. Everyone can utter a very wide range of sounds, as its clearly shown by the ―babbling‖of very young children. A baby can produce sounds which seem incredibly strange and outlandish to the people around it. Jakobson (1941) writes:In its babble, a child can articulate an overall number of sounds which never come together ina single language, not even in a whole family of language: consonants with vastly different pointsof articulation, palatal and rounded, sibilant and fricative; then there are clicks, complex vowels,diphthongs, etc.For a child, these sounds are above all expressive, playful. Plunged into a world of meaningless sounds, the child plays with its voice as though the latter were a toy or a musical instrument. The sounds are also phatic –the babble informs the child, as it were, of its presence. At this stage, the sounds do not have communicative value: The child cannot yet organize them into message. But then, as it learns its mother tongue—as it listens to the people around it—the baby gradually identifies some orderwithin this sonic chaos, a system which effectively privileges certain sounds: the distinctive sounds (which convey but do not contain meaning) of the language: a language which the child, as yet, does not even realize it is learning.Strangely enough, the child will progressively lose the ability to articulate the sounds which do not belong in this system, losing a natural ability in favor of a cultural one. What is more surprising still is that the child, in the early stage of language acquisition, loses not only those sounds which are foreign to the language it is acquiring, but also a good number of those which belong to the system. The child recognizes the, but has to re-learn how to articulate them . Learning this distinctive value of the phonemes thus entails a temporary regression. Accordingly, from age 2 to 4, there is a gap between the child’s passive competence (its ability to recognize the distinctive sounds of its language) and its active competence (its ability to reproduce them). If your child, for example, calls a sheep a ―seep‖, it does not mean that the child cannot hear the difference and the worst thing one can do is to start imitating the child and indulging in ―baby talk‖. When the world of sound switches from being phonetic to being phonological, the child has to learn how to identify the often subtle boundaries between sounds inasmuch as they generate differences in meaning. The more two phonemes resemble each other, the more the child will find it difficult to keep them apart; to distinguish, for example, between truck and chuck, or sing and thing: a fact which explains why we resort, partly in a spirit of play, partly for pedagogic purposes, to the classic children’s tongue-twisters.She was a thistle sifter and sifted thistles through a thistle sieveThe sixth sheikh’s sixth sheep’s sickI can think of six thin things and of six thick things tooPeter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppersAround the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ranOr the following ditty:She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore.The shells she sells are sea-shells I am sure,For if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shoreThen I am sure she sells sea-shore shells.These examples bear out the fact that the opposition between neighboring phonemes[?] as in shell and [s] as in sell or [θ]as in thin and [s] as in sin, is acquired with difficulty for young children (they usually pronounce tchuck or twuck for truck) and also for foreigners whose language contains a different kind of [r](the French) or no [r] at all.The young child is extremely sensitive to minimal pairs and loves playing with paronymic sequences which bring together and juxtapose a group of very similar words. This accounts for the success, at nursery school, of ditties such as:A flea and a fly in a flueWere imprisoned, as what could they do?Said the flea, ―let us fly‖Said the fly, ―let us flee‖So, they flew through a flaw in the flue.Or:Did you eever iver ever in your leaf life loafSee the deevil divil devil kiss his weef wife woaf?No, I neever niver never in my leaf life loafSaw the deevil divil devil kiss his weef wife woafWhile still young a child can acquire several foreignlanguages, in addition to its mother tongue, and is able to operate several different, co-existing phonological systems. As time passes, however, the child finds it increasingly difficult to hear and therefore to articulate the sounds which do not have a distinctive value in its own language.Text TwoDirection: The following text is about computers and phonology. Do you think that speech synthesis is possible? Why or why not? (E. Finegan. Language: Its Structure and Use (3rd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999:131-132) Several decades ago researchers thought it would be a matter of only a few years before computers would be able to recognize speech and to synthesize it. (You can think of this simply as being able to turn spoken language into print and print into spoken language.) Although there has been some progress on both fronts, the process has taken longer than most researchers anticipated. The reasons do not lie in any absence of sophistication in computers but rather in the complexity of the phonological processes that characterize human languages and in our inability to model in a computer just what speakers do when they produce spoken utterances and understand the utterances of others. For example, as we saw earlier in this chapter, natural speech occurs in a continuous stream and is not readily segmented without knowledge of the particular language involved. Just how human beings segment a continuous stream of spoken language into distinct words and recognize the sound segments in those words remains unclear.The synthesis of speech by machine has also proved challenging. To understand why, focus on a string of sounds such as would occur in a simple word like sand. It would seem to be astraightforward matter to put together a machine-generated form of [s?nd]:just get the machine to produce first a voiceless alveolar fricative, then the vowel [?], then the alveolar stop [d]. It seemssimple enough, but notice that when pronounce sand, its vowel quality differs markedly from the ―same‖ vowel in a word like hat. If a speech synthesizer produced the vowel of hat in the word sand, it would sound highly artificial. Likewise, if it produced the vowel of sand in the word hat, that too would seem very unnatural. You already know that the vowel of sand gets nasalized before the nasal stop that follows it. What happens in articulatory terms is that in anticipation of the following nasal consonant and as the vocal tract starts to move toward that nasal consonant, the vowel itself takes on nasal characteristics. Therein lies one challenge for speech synthesis—how to blend sounds into one another in the way that people do. Just as there is no separation between words in ordinary human speech, so there is no separation between sounds.But the situation is even more complex. We have seen that a sound is essentially a bundle of phonetic features. Thus, we could think of the phonological form of sand as being not just the four segments [s?nd] but as the (partial list of) features given below to each segment: [s] [?] [n] [d]voiceless voiced voiced voicedalveolar low-front alveolar alveolarfricative unrounded nasal stopThe phonetic characteristics of the segments of sand are more complicated than we have indicated, but the representation above will serve for our purposes. Consider that the articulation of the phonetic features in each segment does not start and endat the same time as the others. In other words, the voicelessness of [s] doesn’t abruptly end and the voicing of [?] starts at exactly the same time as the fricative character of the consonant stops and the vowel character of [?] begins. The mouth and the other features of the vocal tract move continuously in the production of even a simple word like sand (as you can feel by saying the word and concentrating on your tongue movement).If the aim of speech synthesis is to make artificial speech sound as natural as possible, a good deal more about the nature of phonetic realizations of underlying phonological forms will have been achieved.。
Supplementary Reading 3
Supplementary ReadingHarry Truman didn’t think his successor had the right training to be president.“Poor Ike —it won’t be a bit like the Army,” he said. “He’ll sit there all day saying ‘do this, do that,’ and nothing will happen.”Truman was wrong about Ike. Dwight Eisenhower had led a fractious alliance —you didn’t tell Winston Churchill what to do — in a massive, chaotic war. He was used to politic s. But Truman’s insight could well be applied to another, even more venerated Washington figure: the CEO-turned cabinet secretary.A 20-year bull market has convinced us all that CEOs are geniuses, so watch with astonishment the troubles of Donald Rumsfeld and Paul O’Neill. Here are two highly regarded businessmen, obviously intelligent and well-informed, foundering in their jobs.Actually, we shouldn’t be surprised. Rumsfeld and O’Neill are not doing badly despite having been successful CEOs but because of it. The record of senior businessmen in government is one of almost unrelieved disappointment. In fact, with the exception of Robert Rubin, it is difficult to think of a CEO who had a successful career in government.Why is this? Well, first the CEO has to recognize that he is no longer the CEO. He is at best an adviser to the CEO, the president. But even the president is not really the CEO. No one is. Power in a corporation is concentrated and vertically structured. Power in Washington is diffuse and horizontally spread out. The secretary might think he’s in charge of his agency. But the chairman of the congressional committee funding that agency feels the same. In his famous study “Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents,” Richard Neustadt explains how little power the president actually has and concludes that the only lasting presidential power is “the power to persuade. “Take Rumsfeld’s attempt to transform the cold-war military into one geared for the future. It’s innovative but deeply threatening to almost everyone in Washington. The Defense secretary did not try to sell it to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Congress, the budget office or the White House. As a result, the idea is collapsing.Second, what power you have, you must use carefully. “For example, O’Neill’s position as Treasury secretary is one with little formal authority. Unlike Finance ministers around the world, Treasury does not control the budget. But it has symbolic power. The secretary is seen as the chief economic spokesman for the administration and, if he plays it right, the chief economic adviser for the president.O’Neill has been publicly critical of the IMF’s bailout packages for developing countries while at the same time approving such packages for Turkey, Argentina and Brazil. As a result, he has gotten the worst of both worlds. The bailouts continue, but their effect in bolstering investor confidence is limited because the markets are rattled by his skepticism.Perhaps the government doesn’t do bailouts well. But that leads to a third rule: you can’t just quit. Jack Welch’s famous law for re-engineering General Electric was to be first or second in any given product category, or else get out of that business. But if the government isn’t doing a particular job at peak level, it doesn’t always have the option of relieving itself of that function. The Pentagon probably wastes a lot of money. But it can’t get out of the national-security business.The key to former Treasury secretary Rubin’s success may have been that he fully understood that business and government are, in his words, “necessarily and properly very diffe rent.” In a recent speech he explained, “Business functions around one predominate organizing principle, profitability…. Government, on the other hand, deals with a vast number of equally legitimate and often potentially competing objectives —for example, energy production versus environmental protection, or safety regulations versus productivity.”Rubin’s example shows that talented people can do well in government if they are willing to treat it as its own separate, serious endeavor. But having been bathed in a culture of adoration and flattery, it’s difficult for a CEO to believe he needs to listen and learn, particularly from those despised and poorly paid specimens, politicians, bureaucrats and the media. And even if he knows it intellectually, he just can’t live with it.。
研究生英语精读教程（下）课文翻译及答案
研究生英语精读教程（下）课文翻译及答案Unit One Technology vs. Terrorism参考译文应对恐怖主义的技术毒素嗅探器、导弹人为干发射机、放射性核弹探测器：“9〃11”事件后闪电式的保卫行动不仅影响着公共安全——还在改变着科学的进程。
史蒂芬〃汉德曼边境、基础设施[5] 自 2004 年以来，首都华盛顿应用的一种可核对监视名单信息的光扫描器已记录下了约6 000 万访美人员两个食指的指印。
花费了15 亿美元研制成的“访美” 生物统计学程序已识别出 1 100 名企图以假借口入境的人及 2 万多背景可疑的想要入境者。
[6] 随着护照签证申请人的档案急剧增加，对十指全部进行扫描将使身份验证更加万无一失。
扫描系统还可以利用虹膜扫描和声纹。
同时，在100 个港口和边防站，一种由科学应用国际公司设计、名叫“ 车货检查系统” (VACIS) 的车载扫描器给海关检查员提供了一种工具，使他们不用打开卡车与集装箱就能探查内部的真相。
VACIS 采用了甚至能穿透铅衬里箱子的低能伽马射线，射线在6 秒钟这么短的时间内就能显示出有明显颗粒的图像。
如果检查人员发现货物和运货清单上写的不一致，则集装箱就会被转到另一处做进一步检查。
[7] 现在正在开发之中的还有微米大小的传感器——名叫“智能灰尘” 或“尘埃”。
该传感器可撒在管线、无设防的边境和公用设施的周围，用以监测生物浮质、化学物质或放射物的入侵或释放。
依靠传感器仪表的技术进展，这些用电池作能源的计算机形成了一个电子眼、电子耳和电子鼻的网络——它们可用低宽带频率相互通讯，并可将各种示数发送到中心服务器。
专家说，该传感器可能准备到2010 年在全国各地铺开，不过这还要视投资情况而定。
Unit Four The Man Who Discovered Mother Nature参考译文发现大自然的人詹姆斯〃洛夫洛克大胆新颖的理论有可能永远改变我们看待我们这个行星上生物的方式洛厄尔〃庞特[5] 不过就在寻找火星上是否有生命迹象的同时，洛夫洛克对“ 金发小姑娘问题” 着了迷，这是一个早就令科学家们感兴趣的谜：为什么金星太热，火星太冷，不适于生物生存，而地球却恰好适合于生物生存呢 ?[6] 研究人员过去曾假设地球不过是很走运，与太阳的距离不远不近正合适，这样水始终处于液态，水温保持在沸点与冰点之间。
研究生英语课程简介
研究生英语课程简介研究生英语是针对非英语专业硕士研究生开设的一门公共英语必修课，该课程的宗旨是贯彻执行国家教委所制定的《非英语专业研究生英语（第一外语）教学大纲》，重点在于培养学生的阅读能力，听说能力，并兼顾培养学生的写译能力。
本课程使用的教材为《研究生英语精读教程（上、下册）》，《研究生英语听说教程》，供非英语专业硕士研究生在一年两个学期内使用。
《研究生英语精读教程》（上、下册修订版）每册各12个单元。
每一单元由课文（Text）、生词(New Words and Expressions)、注释(Notes)、练习（Exercises）和副课文（Supplementary Reading）五部分组成。
单单元配有练习A、B、C；双单元配有练习A、B每课安排6～8学时，视课文的长度和具体情况而定。
两次Mini-Test 各安排2.5小时。
课文全部选自原文材料。
每篇正课文长度均在1,000词以上（个别课文除外）。
正课文主要用来训练学生的理解能力，要求学生课前预习，课后复习，在教师帮助下达到完全理解。
副课文的长度和正课文差不多，也有一定难度，主要用来扩大阅读量，提高阅读速度，对内容只要求掌握中心思想和主要内容，不要求100%理解。
练习A（Exercise A）是为巩固本课所学单词和短语而编写的练习，形式紧扣原国家教委所颁发的《非英语专业硕士研究生英语学位课程考试大纲》，所以Exercise A 又俨然是一份模拟试卷。
练习B (Exercise B) 是专门设计的覆盖原国家教委颁布的《研究生英语词汇表》、《研究生英语词组表》的练习，主要是弥补课文中由于多种限制，不可能全部出现《词汇表》中所规定的词汇这一缺陷。
练习C (Exercise C) 也是专门设计的覆盖《研究生英语词根、词缀表》的练习。
通过这一练习要求学生熟练掌握一些常用的词根、前缀、后缀，借以扩大词汇量。
以上三部分练习相互联系，又各自成体系。
全部练习量大，形式式样，内容丰富，难易搭配适当。
Supplementary Reading
Unit Two Smart CarsSupplementary Reading:Passage OneSome pessimistic experts feel that the automobile is bound to fall into disuse. They see a day in the not-too-distant future when all autos will be abandoned and allowed to rust. Other authorities, however, think the auto is here to stay. They hold that the car will remain a leading means of urban travel in the foreseeable future.The motorcar will undoubtedly change significantly over the next 30 years. It should become smaller, safer, and more economical, and should not be powered by the gasoline engine. The car of the future should be far more pollution-free than present types.Regardless of its power source, the auto in the future will still be the main problem in urban traffic congestion (拥挤). One proposed solution to this problem is the automated highways system.When the auto enters the highway system, retractable (可伸缩的) arm will drop from the auto and make contact with a rail, which is similar to those powering subway trains electrically. Once attached to the rail, the car will become electrically powered from the system, and control of the vehicle will pass to a central computer. The computer will then monitor all of the car’s movements.The driver will use a telephone to dial instructions about his destination into the system. The computer will calculate the best route, and reserve space for the car all the way to the correct exit from the highway. The driver will then be free to relax and wait for the buzzer (蜂鸣器) that will warn him of his coming exit. It is estimated that an automated highway will be able to handle 10,000 vehicles per hour, compared with the 1,500 to 2,000 vehicles that can be carried by a present-day highway.1.One significant improvement in the future car will probably be __________.A) its power source B) its driving systemC) its monitoring system D) its seating capacity2.What is the author’s main concern?A) How to render automobiles pollution-free.B) How to make smaller and safer automobiles.C) How to solve the problem of traffic jams.D) How to develop an automated subway system.3.What provides autos with electric power in an automated highway system?A) A rail B) An engine C) A retractable arm D) A computer controller4.In an automated highway system, all the driver needs to do is ___________.A) keep in the right laneB) wait to arrive at his destinationC) keep in constant touch with the computer centerD) inform the system of his destination by phone5.What is the author’s attitude toward the future of autos?A) Enthusiastic B) Pessimistic C) Optimistic D) CautiousPassage TwoWhat might driving on an automated highway be like? The answer depends on what kind of system is ultimately adopted. Two distinct types are on the drawing board. The first is a special-purpose lane system, in which certain lanes are reserved for automated vehicles. The second is a mixed traffic system: fully automated vehicles would share the road with partially automated or manually driven cars. A special-purpose lane system would require more extensive physical modifications to existing highways, but it promises the greatest gains in freeway (高速公路) capacity.Under either scheme, the driver would specify the desired destination, furnishing this information to a computer in the car at the beginning of the trip or perhaps just before reaching the automated highway. If a mixed traffic system was in place, automated driving could begin whenever the driver was on suitably equipped roads. If special-purpose lanes were available. The car could enter them and join existing traffic in two different ways. One method would use a special onramp (入口引道). As the driver approached the point of entry for the highway, devices installed on the roadside would electronically check the vehicle to determine its destination and to ascertain that it had the proper automation equipment in good working order. Assuming it passed such tests, the driver would then be guided through a gate and toward an automated lane. In this case, the transition from manual to automated control would take place on the entrance ramp. An alternative technique could employ conventional lanes, which would be shared by automated and regular vehicles. The driver would steer onto the highway and move in normal fashion to a “transition”lane. The vehicle would then shift under computer control onto a lane reserved for automated traffic. (The limitation of these lanes to automated traffic would, presumably, be well respected, because all trespassers (非法进入者) could be swiftly identified by authorities.) Either approach to joining a lane of automated traffic would harmonize the movement of newly entering vehicles with those already traveling. Automatic control here should allow for smooth merging, without the usual uncertainties and potential for accidents. And once a vehicle had settled into automated travel, the driver would be free to release the wheel, open the morning paper or just relax.6.We learn from the first paragraph that two systems of automated highways ________.A) are being modified B) are now in wide useC) are under construction D) are being planned7. A special-purpose lane system is probably advantageous in that ________.A)it offers more Lanes for automated vehiclesB)it would require only minor changes to existing highwaysC)it would achieve the greatest highway traffic efficiencyD)it has a lane for both automated and partially automated vehicles8.Which of the following is true about driving on an automated highway?A)Vehicles traveling on it are assigned different lanes according to their destinations.B)The driver should inform his car computer of his destination before driving onto it.C)The driver should share the automated lane with those of regular vehicles.D) A car can join existing traffic any time in a mixed lane system.9.We know from the passage that a car can enter a special-purpose lane ________.A)by way of a ramp with electronic control devicesB)through a specially guarded gateC)after all trespassers are identified and removedD)by smoothly merging with cars on the conventional lane10.When driving in an automated lane, the driver ________.A)doesn’t have to rely on his computer systemB)doesn’t have to hold on to the steering wheelC)should watch out for potential accidentsD)should harmonize with newly entering carsKey to Reading Passages:1. C2. C3. A4. D5. C;6. D7. C8. B9. A 10. B。
1-02-Supplementary Reading
Supplementary ReadingDirection:There are 2 passages, and each passage is followed by some questions orunfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B) C)and D). You should decide on the best choice.Passage 1Britain almost more than any other country in the world must seriously face the problem of building upwards, that is to say of accommodating a considerable proportion of its population in high blocks of flats. It is said that the Englishman objects to this type of existence, but if the case is such, he does in fact differ from the inhabitants of most countries of the world today. In the past our own blocks of flats have been associated with the lower-income groups and they have lacked the obvious provisions, such as central heating, constant hot water supply, electrically operated lifts from top to bottom, and so on, as well as such details, important notwithstanding（然而）, as easy facilities for disposal of dust and rubbish and storage places for baby carriages on the ground floor, playgrounds for children on the top of the buildings, and drying rounds for washing. It is likely that the dispute regarding flats versus（对，对抗）individual houses will continue to rage on for a long time as far as Britain is concerned. And it is unfortunate that there should be hot feelings on both sides whenever this subject is raised. Those who oppose the building of flats base their case primarily on the assumption（设想）that everyone prefers an individual home and garden and on the high cost per unit of accommodation. The latter ignores the higher cost of providing full services to a scattered community and the cost in both money and time of the journeys to work for the suburban resident.1. We can infer from the passage that ________.A) English people, like most people in other countries, dislike living in flatsB) people in most countries of the world today are not opposed to living in flatsC) people in Britain are forced to move into high blocks of flatsD) modern flats still fail to provide the necessary facilities for living2. What is said about the blocks of flats built in the past in Britain?A)They were mostly inhabited by people who did not earn much.B) They were usually not large enough to accommodate big families.C) They were sold to people before necessary facilities were installed.D) They provided playgrounds for children on the top of the buildings.3. The word “rage” (Line 10) means “_________”A) be ignored B) develop with great forceC) encourage people greatly D) be in fashion4. Some people oppose the building of flats because ______.A) the living expenses for each individual family are higherB) it involves higher cost compared with the building of housesC) they believe people like to live in houses with gardensD) the disposal of rubbish remains a problem for those living in flats5. The author mentions that people who live in suburban houses ______.A) do not have access to easy facilities because they live away from the cityB) have to pay a lot of money to employ people to do service workC) take longer time to know each other because they are a scattered communityD) have to spend more money and time travelling to work every dayPassage 2"There is a senseless notion that children grow up and leave home when they' re 18, and the truth is far from that, "says sociologist Larry Bumpass of the University of Wisconsin. Today, unexpected numbers of young adults are living with their parents. "There is a major shift in the middle class, "declares sociologist Allan Schnaiberg of Northwestern University, whose son, 19, moved back in after an absence of eight months.Analysts cite a variety of reasons for this return to the next. The marriage age is rising, a condition that makes home and its pleasantness particularly attractive to young people. A high divorce rate and a declining remarriage rate are sending economically pressed and emotionally hurt survivors back to parental shelters. For some, the expense of an away - from - home college education has become so excessively great that many students now attend local schools. Even after graduation, young people find their wings clipped by skyrocketing housing costs.Living at home, says Knighton, a school teacher, continues to give her security and moral support. Her mother agreed, "It' s ridiculous for the kids to pay all that money for rent. It makes sense for kids to stay at home. " But sharing the family home requires adjustments for all. There are the hassles over bathrooms, telephones and privacy. Some families, however, manage the delicate balancing act. But for others, it proves too difficult. Michelle Del Turco, 24, has been home three times- and left three times. "What I considered a social drink, my dad considered an alcohol problem," she explains. "He never liked anyone I dated, so I either had to hide away or meet them at friends' houses."Just how long should adult children live with their parents before moving on? Most psychologists feel lengthy homecomings are a mistake. Children, struggling to establish separate identities, can end up with "a sense of inadequacy, defeat and failure." And aging parents, who should be enjoying some financial and personal freedom, find themselves stuck with responsibilities. Many agree that brief visits, however, can work beneficially.6. There was apparently a trend in the U. S.A) for young adults to leave their parents and live independentlyB) for middle class young adults to stay with their parentsC) for married young adults to move back home after a lengthy absenceD) for young adults to get jobs nearby in order to live with their parents7. Which of the following does not account for young adults returning to the nest?A) Young adults find housing costs too high.B) Young adults are psychologically and intellectually immature.C) Young adults seek parental comfort and moral support.D) Quite a number of young adults attend local schools.8. One of the disadvantages of young adults returning to stay with their parents is thatA) there will inevitably be inconveniences in everyday lifeB) the parents have to spend more money keeping a bigger family goingC) the young adults tend to be overprotected by their parentsD) public opinion is against young adults staying with their parents9. The word "hassles" in the passage (Line 4, Para. 3) probably meansA) agreements B) worries C) disadvantages D) quarrels10. According to the passage what is the best for both parents and children?A) They should adjust themselves to sharing the family expenses.B) Children should leave their parents when they are grown- up.C) Adult children should visit their parents from time to time.D) Parents should support their adult children when they are in trouble.Translate the following sentences taken from the reading passages into Chinese.1. The latter ignores the higher cost of providing full services to a scattered community and thecost in both money and time of the journeys to work for the suburban resident. (Passage 1)2. And aging parents, who should be enjoying some financial and personal freedom, findthemselves stuck with responsibilities. (Passage 2)Reference KeyPassage 1(CET-4, 1995-6)1. B2. A3. B4.C5. DPassage 2 (CET6, 1993-6)6. A7. B8. A9. D 10. CTranslation1.后者忽视了向分散居住的社区提供充分服务需要较高的花费，以及近郊居民上下班既费钱又费时间。
supplementary reading
Chapter One Human ResourceQuestion: What is the Definition of Human Resources?Answer: The number one glossary suggestion and question that people request is: “What is the definition of human resources?” William R. Tracey, in The Human Resources Glossar y defines Human Resources as: “The people that staff and operate an organization … as contrasted with the financial and material resources of an organization. The organizational function that deals with the people ...” Long a term used sarcastically by individuals in the line organization, because it relegates humans to the same category as financial and material resources, human resources will be replaced by more customer-friendly terms in the future.Chapter Two Market ResearchMarket research is the process of systematically gathering, recording and analyzing data and information about customers, competitors and the market. Its uses include to help create a business plan, launch a new product or service, fine tune existing products and services, and expand into new markets. Market research can be used to determine which portion of the population will purchase a product/service, based on variables like age, gender, location and income level.Chapter Three Product Life CycleProduct lifecycle management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service and disposal.[1] PLM integrates people, data, processes and business systems and provides a product information backbone for companies and their extended enterprise Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is more to do with managing descriptions and properties of a product through its development and useful life, mainly from a business/engineering point of view; whereas Product life cycle management (PLCM)is to do with the life of a product in the market with respect to business/commercial costs and sales measures.Chapter Four Electronic CommerceElectronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily since the spread of the Internet. A wide variety of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well.Chapter Five International Trade IEye contactIn the US, UK and much of northern Europe, strong, direct eye contact conveys confidence and sincerity. In South America it is a sign of trustworthiness. However, in some cultures such as the Japanese, prolonged eye contact is considered rude and is generally avoided.Personal space and touchIn Europe and North America, business people will usually leave a certain amount of distance between themselves when interacting. Touching only takes place between friends.In South America or the Middle East, business people are tactile and like to get up close.In Japan or China, it is not uncommon for people to leave a gap of four feet when conversing. Touching only takes place between close friends and family members. TimeWestern societies are very clock conscious.. Time is money and punctuality is crucial. This is also the case in countries such as Japan or China where being late would be taken as an insult.However, in South America, southern Europe and the Middle East, being on time fora meeting does not carry the same sense of urgency.Meeting and greetingMost international business people meet with a handshake.In some countries, this is not appropriate between genders. Some may view a weak handshake as sign of weakness whereas others would perceive a firm handshake as aggressive.How should people be addressed? Is it by first name, surname or title? Is small talk part of the proceedings or not?Gift givingIn Japan and China gift-giving is an integral part of business protocol. However in the US or UK, it has negative connotations.Where gifts are exchanged, should one give lavish gifts? Are they always reciprocated? Should they be wrapped? Are there numbers or colours that should be avoided?All the above in one way or another will impact cross cultural negotiation and can only be learnt through cross cultural training. Doing or saying the wrong thing at the wrong time, poor communication and cross cultural misunderstandings can all have harmful consequences.Cross cultural negotiation training builds its foundations upon understanding etiquettes and approaches to business abroad before focusing on cross cultural differences in negotiation styles and techniques.Chapter Six International Trade IIThe Chinese mainland registered a trade deficit of 77.56 billion U.S. dollars with Taiwan last year, according to the Ministry of Commerce (MOC) on Friday.Trade volume between the mainland and Taiwan reached 124.48 billion U.S. dollars, up 15.4 percent year on year, MOC statistics show.In 2007, the mainland's exports to Taiwan reached 23.46 billion U.S. dollars and imports from the island reached 101.02 billion U.S. dollars, up 13.1 percent and 16 percent respectively.During the same period, the mainland approved 3,299 projects with Taiwan investment and the actual use of Taiwan investment reached 1.77 billion U.S. dollars, down 12.1 percent and 20.4 percent respectively year on year.By the end of 2007, direct investment from Taiwan in the mainland , totaled 45.76 billion U.S. dollars since figures first began in 1988 with the opening up of trade between the mainland and Taiwan. The actual use of Taiwan's direct investment in the mainland accounted for six percent of all actually used direct investment from outside the Chinese mainland.Taiwan is the mainland's seventh largest trade partner, ninth largest export market and fifth largest import market.Chapter Seven Types of BusinessWhile buying a franchise affords numerous advantages over opening a solo business, the benefits to franchisors are even greater. Some things to expect are lessened risk when expanding your business. This is because you have no capital invested in your franchisee's units. You also have increased growth, stronger brand building, and limited contingent liability because as a franchisor you are not signing leases or taking out financing. In addition, you have less liability for the actions of franchisees' employees and events that take place in franchisees' units.Franchisees often contribute to an advertising fund, which is used to promote the company at the franchisor's discretion. Keep in mind that you will have to hold up to promises you make to franchisees about advertising. Because franchisees are vested inthe success of their business, you can expect better performance and structure, as well as count on long-term management instead of high turnover of non-owner managers. In addition to the advantages, there are legal obligations now required of you. Franchisors are required by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to present material information about their company to potential franchisees. This information includes your company's and all of its officers' litigation histories, financial information, and anything material about the company.Franchisors need to train franchisees how to operate the business and provide very detailed operating manuals. Franchisors generally provide some kind of support as well, from ongoing training to administrative and technical support. Franchisees rely on the franchisor for guidance based on the franchisor's proven system. Franchising is a mutually satisfying and lucrative arrangement if both parties meet their obligations.Chapter Eight TechnologyThe Internet can be a wonderful resource for kids. They can use it to research school reports, communicate with teachers and other kids, and play interactive games. Kids who are old enough to punch in a few letters on the keyboard can literally access the world.But that access can also pose hazards. For example, an 8-year-old might do an online search for "Lego." But with just one missed keystroke, the word "Legs" is entered instead, and the child may be directed to a slew of websites with a focus on legs — some of which may contain pornographic material.That's why it's important to be aware of what your kids see and hear on the Internet, who they meet, and what they share about themselves online.Just like any safety issue, it's wise to talk with your kids about your concerns, take advantage of resources to protect them, and keep a close eye on their activities.Chapter Nine PricingA well chosen price should do three things:•achieve the financial goals of the company (e.g., profitability)•fit the realities of the marketplace (Will customers buy at that price?)•support a product's positioning and be consistent with the other variables in the marketing mixo price is influenced by the type of distribution channel used, the type of promotions used, and the quality of the product▪price will usually need to be relatively high if manufacturing isexpensive, distribution is exclusive, and the product issupported by extensive advertising and promotional campaigns ▪ a low price can be a viable substitute for product quality,effective promotions, or an energetic selling effort bydistributorsFrom the marketer’s point of view, an efficient price is a price th at is very close to the maximum that customers are prepared to pay. In economic terms, it is a price that shifts most of the consumer surplus to the producer. A good pricing strategy would be the one which could balance between the price floor (the price below which the organization ends up in losses) and the price ceiling(the price beyond which the organization experiences a no demand situation).Chapter Ten LogisticsLogistics is the management of the flow of goods, information and other resources, including energy and people, between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet the requirements of consumers (frequently, and originally, military organizations). Logistics involve the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material-handling, and packaging. Logistics is a channel of the supply chain which adds the value of time and place utility.Chapter Eleven InsuranceGlobal insurance premiums grew by 8.0% in 2006 (or 5% in real terms) to reach $3.7 trillion due to improved profitability and a benign economic environment characterised by solid economic growth, moderate inflation and strong equity markets. Profitability improved in both life and non-life insurance in 2006 compared to the previous year. Life insurance premiums grew by 10.2% in 2006 as demand for annuity and pension products rose. Non-life insurance premiums grew by 5.0% due to growth in premium rates. Over the past decade, global insurance premiums rose by more than a half as annual growth fluctuated between 2% and 11%.Advanced economies account for the bulk of global insurance. With premium income of $1,485bn, Europe was the most important region, followed by North America ($1,258bn) and Asia ($801bn). The top four countries accounted for nearly two-thirds of premiums in 2006. The U.S. and Japan alone accounted for 43% of world insurance, much higher than their 7% share of the global population. Emerging markets accounted for over 85% of the world’s population but generated only around 10% of premiums. The volume of UK insurance business totalled $418bn in 2006 or 11.2% of global premiums.Chapter Twelve AdvertisementWith the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner, Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now commonplace.The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiV o) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor.Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them.Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.In freelance advertising, companies hold public competitions to create ads for their product, the best one of which is chosen for widespread distribution with a prize given to the winner(s). During the 2007 Super Bowl, PepsiCo held such a contest for the creation of a 30-second television ad for the Doritos brand of chips, offering a cash prize to the winner. Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs. This type of advertising, however, is still in its infancy. It may ultimately decrease the importance of advertising agencies by creating a niche for independent freelancers.Chapter Thirteen Marketing MixThe Marketing mix is generally accepted as the use and specification of the four p's describing the strategic position of a product in the marketplace. One version of theorigins of the marketing mix starts in 1948 when James Culliton said that a marketing decision should be a result of something similar to a recipe. This version continued in 1953 when Neil Borden, in his American Marketing Association presidential address, took the recipe idea one step further and coined the term 'Marketing-Mix'. A prominent marketer, E. Jerome McCarthy, proposed a 4 P classification in 1960, which would see wide popularity. The four Ps concept is explained in most marketing textbooks and classes.Chapter Fourteen BrandingWith the emergence of strong retailers the "own brand", a retailer's own branded product (or service), also emerged as a major factor in the marketplace. Where the retailer has a particularly strong identity (such as Marks & Spencer in the UK clothing sector) this "own brand" may be able to compete against even the strongest brand leaders, and may outperform those products that are not otherwise strongly branded. Concerns were raised that such "own brands" might displace all other brands (as they have done in Marks & Spencer outlets), but the evidence is that —at least in supermarkets and department stores — consumers generally expect to see on display something over 50 per cent (and preferably over 60 per cent) of brands other than those of the retailer. Indeed, even the strongest own brands in the UK rarely achieve better than third place in the overall market.This means that strong independent brands (such as Kellogg's and Heinz), which have maintained their marketing investments, are likely to continue their strong performance. More than 50 per cent of UK FMCG brand leaders have held their position for more than two decades, although it is arguable that those which have switched their budgets to "buy space" in the retailers may be more exposed.The strength of the retailers has, perhaps, been seen more in the pressure they have been able to exert on the owners of even the strongest brands (and in particular on the owners of the weaker third and fourth brands). Relationship marketing has been applied most often to meet the wishes of such large customers (and indeed has beendemanded by them as recognition of their buying power). Some of the more active marketers have now also switched to 'category marketing' - in which they take into account all the needs of a retailer in a product category rather than more narrowly focusing on their own brand.At the same time, probably as an outgrowth of consumerism, "generic" (that is, effectively unbranded) goods have also emerged. These made a positive virtue of saving the cost of almost all marketing activities; emphasizing the lack of advertising and, especially, the plain packaging (which was, however, often simply a vehicle for a different kind of image). It would appear that the penetration of such generic products peaked in the early 1980s, and most consumers still appear to be looking for the qualities that the conventional brand provides.Chapter Fifteen Customer ServiceCustomer service (also known as Client Service) is the provision of service to customers before, during and after a purchase.According to Turban et al. (2002), “Customer service is a series of activities designed to enhance the level of customer satisfaction –that is, the feeling that a product or service has met the customer expectation.”Its importance varies by product, industry and customer. As an example, an expert customer might require less pre-purchase service (i.e., advice) than a novice. In many cases, c ustomer service is more important if the purchase relates to a “service” as opposed to a “product".Customer service may be provided by a person (e.g., sales and service representative), or by automated means called self-service. Examples of self service are Internet sites. Customer service is normally an integral part of a company’s customer value proposition.Some have argued that the quality and level of customer service has decreased in recent years, and that this can be attributed to a lack of support or understanding at the executive and middle management levels of a corporation and/or a customer servicepolicy.。
supplementary reading unit 4
Unit fourText OneDirection: The following text is about the grammars of English. What’s your opinion of Grammar 1, Grammar 2 and Grammar 3? (M.E. Heatherington. How Language Works. Winthrop Publishers, 1980)The definitions of the word “grammar” take up three columns in the O.E.D., so it is clear that the word is used to indicate several different concepts. Probably the three most applicable usages for our purpose are what W. Nelson Francis calls “Grammar 1”, “Grammar 2”, and “Grammar 3”. Grammar 1 Francis describes as “the set of formal patterns in which the words of a language are arranged in order to convey larger meanings”; Grammar 2 refers to “the branch of linguistic science… concerned with description, analysis, and formulization of formal language patterns”; and Grammar 3 means “linguistic etiquette”. Since these three very different meanings of the word “grammar”are often used interchangeably and therefore confusingly, we shall here substitute different words for the separate meanings.To make the distinctions clear, we will say that Grammar 1 can usefully be called syntax, meaning the actual speech behavior by which people arrange words into sentences, and the resulting arrangement of words. Syntax, then, is what p0eople do to produce linguistic strings. Part of a linguist’s task is to describe and analyze this syntax. Francis speaks of such study and analysis as Grammar 2; we will identify it simply as grammar. Grammar for us, then, means the study of syntax. Finally, what Francis terms Grammar 3, linguistic etiquette –or the judgment about what is correct or incorrect, good or bad, syntactic behavior according to whether or not it follows “rules”—we shall call prescriptivism. Syntax (behavior) really is not the same as prescriptivism (judgment), nor is either of those identical with grammar (analysis). In this article, we shall be concerned with behavior—syntax—and its study, grammar.Grammars as ModelsLanguage changes constantly on at least three levels: sound, form, and lexical meaning. These changes may occur synchronically or diachronically or in both ways. In addition, the ways of analyzing those changes in the actual language have altered over the years. Linguists and grammarians have shifted from one method to another in their attempt to investigate, describe, and evaluate what is going on in language. Thus, it is no longer accurate to speak of “English grammar” (singular), for in fact, there now exist several analytical approaches and models. That is why the title of this article uses the plural form “grammars”, for three such systems of analysis are in wide use today: the Traditional model, the Structuralist model, and the Transformational-Generative model.Before we begin our survey of the most important principles in each of these analytic systems, however, it is important that we clarify what is required of a satisfactory grammar. Like any scientific theory or model that purports to explain a system (such as syntax), a grammar must meet five criteria or requirements: simplicity, completeness, mutual exclusion, consistency, and predictability.(i) A grammar must be simple, not so elaborate that the model begins to take over what it intends to represent. The so-called Law of Parsimony, also known as Occam’s Razor, is the principle here: The simplest explanation that takes account of all the data is the best one. We must beware of unnecessary elaboration.(ii) The categories within the model, the basic definitions, should be complete. Nothing thatacturally functions as part of the syntax should be omitted from the grammar, for a complete model or theory must matchup with the real-world behaviors that the model describes.(iii) The categories within the system should be mutually exclusive. One definition should not include two referents, and two definitions should not be applicable to the same referent. As much as possible, the aim should be one-to-one correlation of category and referent. In phonology, for example, the IPA and Trager-Smith symbols are mutually exclusively, for one symbol represents only one phoneme or one phonetic sound.(iv) The model must be internally consistent in its applications of categories and principles. Just as the same definition should not be made to apply to two different syntactic units, so also should a principle not be applied one way at one time and another at another time—at least, not without good and consistent reasons for the exceptions. For example, the plural morphophoneme [z] produces consistent morphophonetic variation according to the phonetic environment in which [z] occurs.(v) Finally, the model or theory must be usable when we need to predict how new data, such as sentences we have not heard before, are likely to fit into the system. A workable theory cannot just descrive what we already know; it must also be able to give reliable assessments of what we do not yet know. Without this feature of predictability, a grammatical model would have to be radically reorganized whenever the syntax changed, as it always does, however slowly.Each of the three4 grammatical models we will briefly describe here should be tested against these five criteria. The better each model meets the test, the better a grammar it will be. But language is intimately tied with the human brain, about which we do not know nearly as much as we would like. So all three of the theories are likely to be deficient in some respects, until we have more information about psycholinguistics and syntax.Text TwoDirection: The following text is about ambiguity and hierarchical structure in syntax. Do you think whether syntactical rules can be broken or not? Why? (V. Fromkin, R. Rodman and N. Hyams. An Introduction to Language(7th ed.). Mass: Thomson, 2003:121-123)Syntactic knowledge goes beyond being able to decide which strings are grammatical and which are not. It accounts for the multiple meanings, or ambiguity, of expressions like the one illustrated in the cartoon above. The humor of the cartoon depends on the ambiguity of the phrase synthetic buffalo hides, which can mean “buffalo hides that are synthetic”, or “hides of synthetic buffalo”.This example illustrates that within a phrase, certain words are grouped together. Sentences have hierarchical structure as well as word order. The words in the phrase synthetic buffalo hides can be grouped in two ways. When we group like this:Synthetic (buffalo hides)We get the first meaning. When we group like this:(synthetic buffalo)hidesWe get the second meaning.The rules of syntax allow both these groupings, which is why the expression is ambiguous. The following diagrams illustrate the two structure:Many sentences exhibit such ambiguities, often leading to humorous results. Consider the following two sentences, which appeared in classified ads:For sale: an antique desk suitable for lady with thick legs and large drawers.We will oil your sewing machine and adjust tension in your home for $10.00.In the first ad, the humorous reading comes from the grouping …(for lady with thick legs and large drawers ) as opposed to the intended …(for lady ) (with thick legs and large drawers ) where the legs and drawers belong to the desk. The second case is similar.Because these ambiguities are a result of different structures, they are instances of structural ambiguity .Contrast these sentences withThis will make you smart.The two interpretations of this sentence are due to the two meanings of smart —“clever ” or “burning sensation ”. Such lexical or word-meaning ambiguities, as opposed to structural ambiguities, will be discussed in Chapter 5.Syntactic knowledge also enables us to determine the grammatical relations in a sentence, such as subject and direct object , and how they are to be understood. Consider the following sentences:(1) Mary hired Bill.(2) Bill hired Mary.(3) Bill was hired by Mary.In (1) Mary is the subject and is understood to be the employer that did the hiring. Bill is the direct object and is understood to be the employee. In (2) Bill is the subject and Mary is the direct object, and as we would expect, the meaning changes so that we understand Bill to be Mary ’s employer. In (3) the grammatical relationships are the same as in (2), but we understand it to have the same meaning as (1), despite the structure differences between (1) and (3).Syntactic rules reveal the grammatical relations among the words of a sentence and tell us when structural differences result in meaning differences and then they do not. Moreover, the syntactic rules permit speakers to produce and understand a limitless number of sentences never produced or heard before –the creative aspect of language use.Thus, the syntactic rules in a grammar account for at least:(i) The grammaticality of sentence(ii) Word order(iii) Hierarchical organization of sentences(iv) Grammatical relations such as subject and object(v) Whether different structures have differing meanings or the same meaning(vi)The creative aspect of languageA major goal of linguistics is to show clearly and explicitly how syntactic rules account for this knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of what speakersimplicitly know about their language.。
研究生英语精读教程答案(下)分章节
研究生英语精读教程（下）答案Unit 2Exercise AI．Comprehension1．The distinction between active and passive euthanasia is clear．In the former case，some direct action is taken(for example，lethal injection is given．) to help finishing the patient’s unbearable pain for good，while in the latter，no direct action is taken，merely letting the patient die．2．The attitude of AMA is somewhat contradictory．First，it states that mercy killing is contrary to what the medical profession stands and also to its own policy．But then it goes on to say that the advice and judgment of the doctor should be available to the patient and／or his family．3．A lethal injection is one which can“kill”the patient immediately．The author thinks that once the decision not to prolong the patient's agony is made，to give him a lethal injection is the best choice．Otherwise the patient will suffer more rather than less．4．The most painful thing to do for a surgeon is to stand by and watch a savable baby die because his very duty is to use the scalpel to fight off death．5．Some people are opposed to all kinds of euthanasia because they believe that all people have the right to live．6．The author believes that the reason to let the baby die is only an excuse．And the real reason is that the child has Down's syndrome because the operation is very simple．7．No，killing someone is not morally worse than letting someone die．(An example is omitted．) 8．What the doctor does in active euthanasia is only for humane reasons．In a civil case of killing，however，the person acts from the motive of personal gain．That's the main difference．9．Mercy killing and conventional euthanasia are the same thing，because in both cases the passive part the doctor plays is emphasized．10．The attitude of AMA in its statement is contradictory．First，it forbids mercy killing, but then it goes on to deny that the cessation of treatment is the intentional termination of life．This is where the mistake is made, for the former is none other than the 1atter．Ⅱ．V ocabulary1．C 2．A 3．A 4．B 5．A6．C 7．C 8．D 9．A 10．D11．B 12．B 13：D 14．D 15．B16．C 17．A 18．D 19．A 20．DⅢ．Cloze1．B 2．A 3．C 4．D 5．C6．A 7．B 8．A 9．C 10．B11．D 12．A 13．B 14．B 15．CⅣ．TranslationA．没有一个年轻人相信他是要死的。
研究生英语精读教程教师参考书(第三版上)一至八单元课件
donate
v.: To present as a gift to a fund or cause; contribute
---
He donated all his savings to the Project Hope. donation n. --- He made a donation of $1,000 to Project Hope. donator
Para. 2
body:
A number of persons, concepts, or things regarded as a group视作一组的人、 事、物 ---He has a large body of facts to prove his statements.
when used as a noun, it means ―anything causing harm, trouble, wrong, unhappiness, etc., specifically: a) an evil or misfortune; b) a disease. Synonyms : disease, ailment, illness, sickness…
研究生英语精读教程 Eight
1. 2. 3. 4.
explicit※ adj. clear and fully expressed明确的 implicit△ adj. meant though not plainly expressed含蓄的 refinement※ n. the quality of being refined优雅，文雅 crudity n. the state or quality of being crude粗鲁, 粗野
1. pharisaic(al) adj. making a show of being good and religious(贬义)伪装虔诚的, 伪善的
1. proverb△ n. a short well-known saying in popular language格言, 谚语
［5］But more than mere taste is at stake; and, realizing this, the supporters of either party have rationalized* their preferences in terms of arguments that involve an appeal to more objective standards than those of a simple personal preference.
［2］Conversely, I am not a lowbrow*, because I do not enjoy lowbrow processes and experiences. Thus I derive a great deal less pleasure from jazz and thrillers* than from the music, let us say, of Beethoven or the novels, for example, of Dostoevsky①;
supplementary reading for unit3.doc
Passage OneUnplugging Your Life 你的生活不插电Are you a media addict who would go mad after two hours without TV, friend requests, exciting online games and your mobile – or would you easily survive? Recently, univers ity students around the world were asked to volunteer in a global experiment called Unplugged. It was designed to see how young people would react if they were asked to observe a total media ban by unplugging all forms of media devices for 24 hours.Unplugged is being run by Dr Roman Gerodimos, a lecturer in Communication and Journalism at Bournemouth University. The experiment is now over but he doesn't yet know the full findings.However, during the experiment, Dr Gerodimos said there were already signs of how much the exercise affected volunteers. He said: "They're reporting withdrawal symptoms, overeating, feeling nervous, isolated and disconnected."During their 24-hour ordeal, three of the experiment's guinea pigs had to endure one intrusion from the media: a BBC reporter plus cameraman who followed them around for the day. They were asked to write down 100 lines about their day offline, but of course, they all waited until the next day when they had access to their laptops.Elliot Day wrote: "Today, my whole morning routine was thrown up into the air. Despite being aware of the social importance of the media, I was surprised by how empty my life felt without the radio or newspapers."From Caroline Scott, we read: "I didn't expect it, but being deprived of the media for 24 hours resulted in my day-to-day activities becoming so much harder to carry out than usual… I didn't break out in a cold sweat like our lecturer expected us all to, but it's not something I would like to do again!" And Charlotte Gay wrote: "I have to say the most difficult item for me to be without has been my mobile; not only is it a social gadget, it's my main access point of communication."Earlier in the year, a UK government study found that in the UK we spend about half our waking hours using the media, often plugged into several things at once. And a recent study by Nielson found that on average, US teenagers send and receive over 3,000 texts per month –that's about six texts per waking hour. So, with technology continuing to develop at an alarming rate, how much time will you set aside for sleep in the future?Glossary 词汇∙addict 有…瘾的人∙friend request 好友请求∙to observe尝试去做某事∙unplugging停止（原意指拔掉插头）∙the full findings 完整的调查结果∙withdrawal symptom 脱瘾症状(戒除某习惯时所引起的痛苦和不适)∙overeating过度饱食∙isolated 与世隔绝的∙to be disconnected （与现实）分离的∙ordeal煎熬∙guinea pig 参加试验的人∙to endure 忍受∙intrusion入侵∙offline脱机的∙to be thrown up into the air 被打乱∙to be deprived of 不能使用∙to break out into a cold sweat 吓得浑身冒冷汗∙gadget 小工具∙waking hours 醒着的时间∙to set aside 留出来Exercise1. Unplugged only used students in the UK. True / False2. Dr Gerodimos's findings following the Unplugged experiment are conclusive. True / False3. Media devices help people to organise their day-to-day lives. True / False4. The 24-hour media ban affected Caroline Scott's temperature. True / False5. People in the UK spend about half the time while they are awake using the Media. True / FalsePassage TwoExercise Put the underlined sentences into Chinese. 划线句子英译汉Dear you,Are you wearing 1)pajamas（睡衣）? I do not mean to begin this letter by getting personal. I was just wondering if you people leave the house anymore---something that seems to be increasingly unnecessary these days, a hundred years ago.Are you six-feet-six? Are you fly-fishing on Mars? Are you talking on a cell phone? We are, usually.As lovers leaving lovers say, By the time you read this, I'll be gone. Or possibly I won't. Given the way life is being prolonged these days, I - with my pig's liver（肝）, 2)titanium（钛）hips and knees, artificial（人工的）heart, transplanted kidney（肾脏）and reconstructed DNA - could write this letter in my century and pick it up in yours.I write you in the dead of winter from a summer village by the Atlantic Ocean. The last of the houseflies beats its body against the window, through which I watch the 3)tremors（震动）of a 4)berry（浆果）bush and the shorn（修剪过的）stoic trees（忍冬树）. Afternoon lowers onevening; the sky is the color of 5)unpolished silver. A Cole Porter song, In the Still of the Night, goes through my head. I do not know why.We are generally content, generally at peace, generally optimistic, and with good reason. We are generally rich; more people have homes of their own. We are generally healthy,thanks largely to remarkable advances in medicine. People who died of certain diseases even 30 years ago are routinely saved today.In short, we are generally OK in spite of notable low spots and areas of significant concern. Our movies are mostly silly. Our books? Mostly small. The quality of our cultural criticism is generally so low that one cannot tell how good or bad any artist is, but in literature, at least, it is highly unlikely that any writer touted(吹捧) as a heavyweight in our era will make it to the ring in yours. Movies that once were judged by normal artistic criteria are now valued by the amount of money they make over a weekend. For your horrified amusement, see if you can dig up a print of something called 6)Scream or The Blair Witch Project.We enlarge and expand. We have recently found out that the entire universe is expanding more than we had 7)initially believed. We build, invent and discover at a pace that is 8)dizzying for us, perhaps turtle footed for you.I wonder how far you have progressed. I wonder if you have figured out how to make the best use of the past. I see you looking back at us. Y ou see us looking out at you. Because we can imagine one another, we constitute each other's dreams.Outside, the air is cold and deep. The moon hangs in a fingernail of light. The clouds conspire（勾结，共谋）and retreat（撤退）to reveal your stars and ours. Come. Walk with me in the 9)chill（寒冷的）still（寂静）of the night.Y ours,Roger Rosenblat一封致2100年的信亲爱的你：你已经穿上睡衣了吗？……你们是否身高六尺六？是否在火星上钓鱼？是否用手机谈话？我们通常如此。
研究生英语精读教程拓展阅读翻译(Supplementary Reading)(第三版下)
研究生英语精读教程拓展阅读翻译（Supplementary Reading）（第三版下）概述《研究生英语精读教程拓展阅读翻译（Supplementary Reading）（第三版下）》是研究生英语精读教程的拓展部分。
本教程旨在帮助研究生提高英语阅读和翻译能力，扩展他们的知识面和语言运用能力。
课程设置本教程包括多个单元，每个单元涵盖一个主题，并提供相关的阅读材料和翻译练习。
每个单元的内容都经过精心挑选，具有一定的难度和挑战性，以帮助学生巩固和扩展他们的英语学习成果。
每个单元的内容由以下几个部分组成：预习在开始阅读和翻译之前，学生需要完成预习。
预习部分包括对主题的介绍、相关词汇的学习和阅读技巧的讲解。
通过预习，学生可以提前了解课文的背景和内容，有助于他们更好地理解和应用课文中的知识。
阅读阅读部分提供了相关的阅读材料，包括但不限于科技、文化、教育、社会等领域的文章。
这些文章既有经典文献，也有当代热点话题。
通过阅读这些文章，学生可以拓宽自己的知识面，学习新的表达方式和句子结构，并培养批判性思维能力。
翻译翻译部分是本教程的重点内容。
通过对阅读材料的翻译练习，学生可以提高自己的翻译能力。
翻译练习包括中译英和英译中两种形式，旨在培养学生在不同语境下的翻译技巧和思维方式。
讨论讨论部分提供了一系列问题，旨在引导学生对课文内容进行思考和讨论。
通过与同学的交流和互动，学生可以更深入地理解课文，发现不同的观点和思维方式，并提高自己的表达能力。
扩展阅读扩展阅读部分提供了相关的推荐阅读材料，供学生自主阅读和拓展。
这些材料既可以是与主题相关的经典著作，也可以是最新的研究成果。
通过扩展阅读，学生可以进一步扩大自己的阅读广度和深度。
课后练习每个单元结束时，都会提供一些课后练习，旨在巩固学生对课文的理解和应用能力。
这些练习包括选择题、填空题、翻译练习等，可以帮助学生检验自己的学习成果，并发现不足之处。
教学方法本教程采用多种教学方法和手段，旨在激发学生的学习兴趣和主动性。
研究生英语精读教程（下）课文翻译及答案
Unit One Techno logyvs. Terror ism参考译文应对恐怖主义的技术毒素嗅探器、导弹人为干发射机、放射性核弹探测器：‚9〃11‛事件后闪电式的保卫行动不仅影响着公共安全——还在改变着科学的进程。
史蒂芬〃汉德曼[1] 在防止未来的“9·11” 事件式攻击—或更恶劣的攻击—的竞赛中，华盛顿以前苏联发射人造地球卫星以来所未有的规模对美国的科学机构做了安排。
自2003年以来，联邦政府对国土防卫研究的投资猛增到近 40 亿美元，而这只不过是安全总开支的沧海一粟。
更重要的是，加快的开支把以前截然不同的科学项目结合了起来：软件工程师、流行病学家和生物学家合作开发保护空气与食物不遭受生物恐怖手段破坏的技术。
核物理学家和生物恐怖活动专家如今与行为科学最好的智囊人物合作，设计减少核走私与自杀式炸弹威胁的方法。
[2] 然而有些专家认为，这么大的开支实际上只能提供一种安全上的错觉。
《超脱恐惧：明智地考虑变幻莫测世界的安全问题》的作者布鲁斯· 施奈尔说：“这当中有许多都是做表面文章的保安技术，目的是让你感到更安全。
” 他指出，高技术防护措施大量涌入了从白宫到各地市政厅等标志性建筑内，他声称这就会将恐怖分子的注意力引向地铁与体育场等“ 较软性” 目标。
但政府似乎也赞同此观点。
不断扩大的国土保安措施不仅包括了大目标，而且也包括了国家广大易受攻击的区域。
下面是 5 个风险最高的领域以及今后几年会出现的一些保卫它们的技术。
空气、水、食品[3] 这个领域里最大的难题之一是研制一系列传感器，它们能觉察出对从田地里的庄稼到公共场所的空调系统等各样事物所发动的攻击。
环保局和疾病控制预防中心及联邦调查局协作，在美国 30 个城市部署了一个微型毒素检测器的网络，作为叫做“ 生物警卫” 的 3 亿美元项目的一部分。
[下册]研究生英语精读教程 Seven
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［11］Ehrlich‘s is such an obvious proposition* in a finite world: things run out. A slogan used by environmentalists puts it nicely: "We do not inherit the earth from our parents. We borrow it from our children." The idea shapes our actions when we bundle newspapers to avoid running out of wood for paper. The counter argument is not nearly as intuitively convincing. It has generally consisted of a simple question: why haven't things run out yet?
1. depletion△ n. lessening markedly in quantity, content or power空虚；干枯, 干涸
［5］The economist, Julian L. Simon①, 59, is a professor at the University of Maryland. His views have helped shape policy in Washington for the past decade, but he has never enjoyed Ehrlich‘s academic success or popular appeal*. He is the optimist.
Supplementary Reading 法律英语 读物
Supplementary ReadingPart OneThe framers of the Constitution had several clear-cut objectives in mind. They set these down with remarkable clarity（清楚明晣）in a 52-word, six-point preamble（序，绪言，前言）to the principal document.“We the people of the United States , in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice（正义）, insure domestic tranquility（平静，安静，安宁）, provided for（为。
提供生活费，为。
作准备，规定，养）the common defense (国防）, promote（促进，推进）the general welfare （公共福利）, and secure（安全的，牢固的，安心的）the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity（后代，后世子孙）,do ordain（任命，授予，命令，判定）and establish this Constitution for the United States of American”The problem of building a “more perfect Union”was the obvious issue facing the 13 states in 1787. It was quite clear that almost any union would be more nearly perfect than that which exited under the Articles of Confederation.（结盟，联盟）But devising（想出，设计，遗赠给，图谋，遗赠的财产，）another structure to replace it involved（复杂难懂的，与他人有密切关系的。
[下册]研究生英语精读教程 Six
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1. fit n. outburst一阵；一次发作 2. eruption n. (the sudden appearance of) an unhealthy spot or area on the skin皮疹
［5］Individuals differ greatly in the degree in which culture shock affects them. Although not common, there are individuals who cannot live in foreign countries. However, those who have seen people go through culture shock and on to a satisfactory adjustment can discern* steps in the process.
1. norm※ n. standard of proper behavior or principle of right and wrong规范, 准则 2. cue n. signal that guides behavior; information that indicates what to do行动的方向(方针)；(应如何行动的)暗 示；准则
1. orient※ v. adjust or adapt to a particular situation使适应 (环境)；定向, 采取方向
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Supplementary Reading
[4] The construction of hypotheses and theories reflects the scientist’s interpretation of what he or she has observed even more clearly than observation. At this stage of the scientific method, an element of subjectivity is inevitably present. This can most easily be seen in the extreme case of scientists of truly creative genius. Galileo, for instance, challenged the scientists (and the church) of his day with his hypothesis that the earth revolved around the sun. A twentieth century example is Watson and Crick’s discovery of the molecular structure of DNA. Clearly, science may involve not only careful observation but also a willingness to be creative; this may entail looking beyond existing paradigms governing research in a given area of study.
Supplementary Reading
[6] Partly as a response to criticisms such as these, alternative approaches to investigating human behavior have become increasingly popular in the twentieth century. They include the production of ethnographies, or eyewitness accounts of life in groups and communities written from notes taken by individuals who often took part in the events they describe. Thus, anthropologists, such as the late Margaret Mead, have studied primitive societies in this way. Ethnographic procedures have also been applied in urban settings in the study of educational institutions, professions and informal groups, like street gangs and drug addicts.
Supplementary Reading
This is due fundamentally to the fact that human beings are different; each is unique and, therefore, by definition, unpredictable. The “average” person, after all, does not exist. Unlike chemicals, light rays or plants, people have feelings and free will. Their experiences are different, too. Thus, the results of an experiment with a “sample” of human beings can never safely be generalized to the “population” from which the sample was drawn, however similar the other individuals in it may appear.
Supplementary Reading
[3] While this process still underlies most scientific activity, the classic “scientific method” has been criticized from a variety of perspectives. To begin with, it is apparent that the “objectivity” of science and scientists strictly characterizes only the lowest order of scientific activity—observation. Even here it is doubtful whether anyone can be a truly impartial observer of events. What someone chooses to observe and the way one observes it must, after all, in part be a reflection of experience and of ideas as to what is significant. Consider, for example, the different ways in which an artist and a layman look at a painting and the different reactions they have to the same work.
Supplementary Reading
[2] Human beings have distinguished themselves from other animals, and in doing so ensured their survival, by the ability to observe and understand their environment and then either to adapt to that environment or to control and adapt it to their own needs. The process of careful observation, perception of a pattern in the phenomena observed, followed by exploitation of this knowledge, has largely inspired the area of human activity known as “science.” It has also provided the bases for the traditional methodology of science: objective observation and description of some phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis or hypotheses about the events observed and possible relationships among them, the use of these to predict future events, the verification of the hypotheses and, on this basis, the construction of a theory of some area of natural activity.
Supplementary Reading
[5] A further criticism of the scientific method involves the subject matter to which it is applied. The method was largely developed by physicists, chemists and biologists; it was later adopted by people working in such areas as education, psychology and sociology, where the subjects of research were often people. Although largely successful while used to study the properties of inanimate objects or plants, the traditional approach to doing science is arguably less appropriate for use with human beings.
Supplementary Reading
Ⅰ . Supplementary Reading Ⅱ .Doing Science [1] We all know that science plays an important role in the societies in which we live. Many people believe, however, that our progress depends on two aspects of science. The first of which is the application of the machines, products and systems of applied knowledge that scientists and technologists develop. Through technology, science improves the structure of society and helps man to gain increasing control over his environment. The second aspect is the application by all members of society from the government official to the ordinary citizen, of the special methods of thought and action that scientists use in their work.