The causes of language change
教案7ChapterVIILanguageChange
Chapter VII Language ChangeI Teaching contentsIn this chapter, we will cover the following two things:1)Discuss language changes concerning sound, morphology andsyntax, vocabulary, etc.2)3)Try to find out the causes for language change.II. Teaching procedure1. General introductionLanguage change is universal, continuous, and to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects ---- phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, and semantics.Language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, yet the truth of the matter is that it is never an overnight occurrence. It may be viewed as linguistic evolution from one stage to another.2. Detailed study by asking and answering questions1. What are the major periods in the history of English?English has undergone dramatic changes throughout the three major periods ofOld English ( 450---1150)Middle English (1150--- 1500)Modern English (1500--- up to now)Old English ( 450---1150): Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. Many of the basic terms in the English language originate from Old English.Middle English (1150--- 1500): Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William the Conqueror in 1066.Modern English (1500--- up to now): What separated the period of Middle English from that of Modern English was not European military invasion, but European renaissance movement, a period of humanisticrevival of classical art , literature and learning whose influence reached England in the late 15th century.2). What changes can be find through the development of language? Changes in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic system and grammar can be found.1)Sound change--- the systematic and regular change in the vowelsoundMiddle English Modern EnglishFive fi:v faivMouse mu:s mausFeet fe:t fi:tMood mo:d mu:dBreak brε:ken breikBroke brοken brəukName na:məneim2)Morphological changeThe case marking system in Old English was very complex. Take the word stãn (stone) for exampleCase(格) OE case suffixes OE case suffixes(singular form) (plural form)Nominative(主格) stãn stãn-asGenitive (所有格) stãn-es stãn-aDative (与格) stãn-e stãn-umAccusative(宾格) stãn stãn-as3)Syntactic change:a. Change in negation ruleI deny it not.Forbid him not.I love thee not.He saw you not.b. Process of simplificationlust( pleasure ) + baere →lustbaere (agreeable)mund (protection) +bora →mundbora (protector)4). Vocabulary changea. Addition of new words:1) coinage(创新词)2) clipped words(缩略词)3) blending(紧缩法)4) acronyms (词首字母缩略词)5) back-formation (逆构词法)6) function shift( 功能转换)7) borrowing or loan word (借用词)b. Loss of wordsc. Changes in the meaning of words1) widening of meaning 词义的扩大2) narrowing of meaning词义的缩小.3) meaning shift 意义的转换a. Addition of new words:1) coinage(创新词) : word often coined from the brand-name or trade –mark of a product or in association with social and political needs, internet or computer language. E.g.Walkman Kodak Xerox Ford e-mail DVDtaikonaut Golden week euro2) clipped words(缩略词): the abbreviation of longer words or phrases. E.g.prof--- professor sci fi---science fictionhi-fi---high fidelity zoo---zoological garden3) blending(紧缩法): word formed by combining parts of other words. E.g. flurry---flutter+hurrysmog---smoke + fogmotel--- motor+ hotelbrunch---breakfast+lunchcomsat---communication+satellitevideophone---video+telephonegrumble---growl+rumble (抱怨,嘀咕)dumfounded---dumb+confoundedflaunt---fly+vaunt (夸耀)Bakerloo---Baker street+Waterloo (伦敦地铁)4) acronyms (词首字母缩略词): words derived from the initials of several words.E.g.SARS---severe acute respiratory syndromeradar---radio detecting & rangingUFO--- unidentified flying objectWHO--- World Health OrganizationWTO--- World Trade OrganizationIT---information technology5) back-formation(逆构词法): words coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. E.g.edit---editor beg--- beggarhawk---hawker butch---butcherburgle----burglarcobble----cobbler(修鞋匠)housekeep---housekeepingglobe-trot ---globe-trotter(环球旅行者)6) function shift( 功能转换): words shifting from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.noun-verb: Get some paper to paper the room.noun-adv. He reads the People’s Daily daily.7) Borrowing or loan word (借用词): words borrowed from one language from another. E.g. (P. 100)About the loan words from Chinese into Englishb. Loss of wordssoap flakes wash board rumblec. Changes in the meaning of words1) widening of meaning+ specific +generalHoliday: holy day any rest dayTail: horse any animalBribery: 给乞丐的残羹剩饭行贿Economy: 家庭料理经济Orientation:向东方向2) narrowing of meaninga. …mice and rats and such small dear--- King Learb. gear--- habits(习惯)/manners(风俗)→equipment (设备)→apparel(服饰)→armor(盔甲)→harness(马具)→or any kind of tool or apparatus →automobile gears(汽车排档)原义缩小后的意义Garage 安全地方车库Liquor 液体酒Poison 饮料毒药Stink 任何一种气味臭气Hospital 供旅游者休息娱乐场所医院3) meaning shiftelevation意义提升原来意义提升意义Shrewd wicked, malicious keen-witted Inn pub /hotel Holiday Inn Nice ignorant good degradation意义降格原来意义降格意义Silly happy; naïve foolishLust pleasure evil desire Immoral not customary not good /right3. Some recent trendsa. Moving towards greater informality;b. The influence of American English;c. The influence of science and technology:1). Space travel;2). Computer and internet language;3). Ecology4. Causes of language change:a. development of science & technologyb. social & political needsc. more neutral job titlesd. economy of memorye. theory of least effortfactors contributing to the change:a. lexical addition;b. borrowing;c. simplification of grammar;d. elaboration( to maintain intelligibility )Supplementary examples:Network Language:偶---稀饭---果酱---片片---灌水---抓狂---如花---恐龙---青蛙---我倒---我闪---干色摸---烘培鸡---温98---BT-----GF----BF----PK----CU----DL----btw---PF---PM---SJB---ing---zzZZz---4242---7456---748---886/88---847---55555---1414---3166---9494---8错---3H学生---me2---Exercise 1.Identify its semantic change as an instance of narrowing, broadening, or shift.Word Earlier meaning Type of change1.accident an event2.aunt father’s sister3.baggage a worthless person4.box a small container made of boxwood5.butcher one who slaughters goats6.carry transport by cart7.moody brave8.seduce persuade someone todesert the duty9.sell give10.shrewd wickedExercise 2. For each word ,look up its origin in a dictionary that provides etymological information ( The American Heritage dictionary) and decide fromwhat language they are borrowed into English?1.alarm2.check3.giraffe4.blouse5.cabin6.algebra7.denim 8.dinosaur 9.fact10.ginger 11.astronaut 12.karate13.ketchup 14.leviathan 15.pagoda16.shampoo 17.size 18.sphere19.sugar 20.whiskyAnswers to Exercise 11. Identify its semantic change as an instance of narrowing, broadening, or shift. Word Earlier meaning Type of change1.accident an event narrowing2.aunt father’s sister broadening3.baggage a worthless person shift4.box a small container broadeningmade of boxwood5.butcher one who slaughters goats broadening6.carry transport by cart broadening7.moody brave shift8.seduce persuade someone to shiftdesert the duty9.sell give narrowing10.shrewd wicked shiftExercise 2. For each word , look up its origin in a dictionary that provides etymological information( The American Heritage dictionary) and decide from what language they are borrowed into English?1.alarm Latin2.check Persian3.giraffe Arabic4.blouse French5.cabin Latin6.algebra Arabic7.denim French 8.dinosaur Greek9.fact Latin 10.ginger Greek11.astronaut Greek 12.karate Japanese13.ketchup Chinese 14.leviathan Hebrew15.pagoda Portuguese 16.shampoo Hindi17.size French 18.sphere Greek19.sugar Sanskrit 20.whisky Scottish。
unit 7 Language change
Back-formation
----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. • edit editor • hawk hawker • beg beggar • baby-sit baby-sitter
• Yes, and so is every other human language. Language is always changing, evolving, and adapting to the needs of its users. If English hadn't changed since, say, 1950, we wouldn't have words to refer to modems, fax machines, or cable TV. As long as the needs of language users continue to change, so will the language. But reading Shakespeare's writings from the sixteenth century can be difficult. If you go back a couple more centuries, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales are very tough sledding, and if you went back another 500 years to try to read Beowulf, it would be like reading a different language.
新编简明英语语言学Chapter7Languagechange语言变化分析解析
新编简明英语语⾔学Chapter7Languagechange语⾔变化分析解析Chapter 7 Language change语⾔变化知识点：1.*Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation2.Morphological and syntactic change3.*Vocabulary change4.Some recent trends in language change5.Causes of language change考核⽬标：识记：Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation领会：Morphological and syntactic change; Vocabulary change简单应⽤：Some recent trends in language change; Causes of language change⼀、定义1. Clipping略写词：A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.指⽐较长的词或短语的缩写2. Blending 混合法：A process of forming a new word by combining parts oftwo other words.3. Acronym⾸字母缩略词：words derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的⾸位字母构成新词4. Back-formation 逆向构词法：new words are formed by taking away thesuffix of an existing word. 新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀⽽被创造出来⼆、知识点7.2 Phonological changes元⾳变化One of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in theAround the death of Chaucer in 1400，元⾳开始了进⼀步的转变。
英语语言学概论第七章笔记
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
Language change
14Байду номын сангаас
Fusion refers to this type of grammatialization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.
fusion Word word (suffixation) > base + affix
3
The nature of language change
As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. 语言变化是普遍的， 持续的， 在一定的程度范 围内规则的， 系统的变化。
16
hād -hood (childhood) -dom (freedom) dōm
(ge-)līc ly(fatherl y)
7.3.2 Loss of affixes
◆As affixes can be added to the grammar,they can also get lost,some affixes simply fade out of use for no apparent reason.some loss can be explained via sound changes.For example, Old English had a complex system of affixes marking case and gender. （最显著的形态消失涉及格和性的标记的消 失）
Word word (prefixation)
What are the causes of the lexical change in English 词汇变化的原因
What are the causes of the lexical change in English Language is the tool of carrying historical information and reflecting the social life of humans, in which case it developed in a relevant stability with the step of the society. Taking English as an example, during the renaissances, the vocabulary recorded were reported to be about 140 000. However, it spiraled up to more than 500 000. There are several causes that lead to the lexical change.At the beginning, the sharp development of science technology in nearing 300 years takes place a vital position. The rapid updating of it demands large quantities of words to express, thus, on one hand, new words came into being constantly. Some of them were created by compounding, such as software, referring to the stuff in computers, and multimedia, a technique of making audio and video. While on the other hand, some old words were given proper meanings to match with the change. For instance, some new words came up owing to the realizing of space technology. Lander, means the module of spaceflight; phrase like space station is also an old word with new meaning.In addition, the difference between different cultures also gives rise to the changing of lexis. It is almost impossible to find the apt target words to match with the source words, for those words orphrases are often related with historical background or religious factors. Such as “土地庙”, “旗袍” and so on. The former one is a word from the Chinese myth, and the latter one is a kind of Chinese costume called cheongsam in English.Last point, both the politics and the economic have made influence on it. Under some circumstances, political affairs can be regarded as a signature, and it will be widely used gradually. Taking the Dove as an example, it stands for a group of politicians in American asserting the view of peace.We can make a bold prediction that with a change of society and the progress of the science, the English vocabulary will further expand; moreover, the internationalism and colloquialism will contributes a lot to the change of English。
The causes of language change
邓美琦、沈卓尔
1. The advent of new things
2. Theory of least effort
3. Language contact
4. Children’s approximation towards the adult’s grammar
Language contact is the borrowing of words from foreign languages. “loan word”: English has borrowed a very large number of words from many different languages throughout its history. (Latin/Greek/Scandinavian/Dutch/French/Spanish/Italian/ German/…)
Old English words “ciese”, “cinn”, and “cild” to their modern counterparts
“ cheese”、“chin”、“child”.
(2) Simplification of grammar
a. Analogy
Reducing word forms by likening different forms of the word to the root.
(2) Social and political changes
A. shuttle diplomacy、mini-summit、Euro、 Scientific Outlook on Development B. chairman foreman fireman chairperson supervisor fire fighter
英语语言学 第七章 语言变化
Blending 混合法
----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words,
▪ Holiday: [+specific] holy day [+general] any rest day
▪ Tail:
[+specific] tail of a horse [+general] tail of any animal
Semantic Narrowing
▪ hound: any dog a special kind of dog
▪ Beseem to be suitable
▪ Wot
to know
▪ Gyve
a fetter
▪ Wherefore why
Semantic changes
▪ Semantic Widening ▪ Semantic Narrowing ▪ Semantic shift
Semantic Widening
Semantic shift
▪ inn: a small, old hotel or pub well-known, nice hotel
▪ nice: ignorant (1000 years ago) good, fine
▪ lust: pleasure with negative and sexual overtones
Chapter 7 Language change
Chapter 7 Language change
unit 6 language change
+
=
(/sites/elementary/palmasola/co mpoundwords.htm) More examples: newspaper, pigtail, sandstorm, ladybug, thumbnail, handbag
I. Vocabulary change 1. Addition of new words A. Compounding (复合词 复合词) 复合词 Example 1: butter + fly = butterfly! + =
Example 2: Dog + House = Doghouse!
Original meaning silly mistress wench Cunning blessed and happy The hostess young woman Knowing,skillful
Present Meaning foolish The lover hooker
crafty
II. Some recent trends 1. Becoming more informal This trend is welcomed by people. 2. Influence coming from American English 3. Influence from science and technology Space travel Computer and internet language Ecology
C. Degeneration (pejoration) of meaning (词义的贬降 词义的贬降) 词义的贬降
A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬低) sense.
The causes of language change
Sound assimilation
• It refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another.
• Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.
• Language change is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change. Linguistic change occurs in all components of the grammar, including changes in the sound, morphological, syntactic, lexical and semantic systems. • 语言变化实质上是语法变化。我们把一种语言的 语法变化称为语言变化。语言变化包括语音系统、 形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部 分的变化。
2) assimilation of places of articulation （发音部位）
Physiologically, vowels tend to be nasalized before nasal consonants because it is difficult to time the lowering of the velum to produce nasality with the consonant articulation. /a/in/an/----/a~/
Language change
4. Abbreviation (Clipping) 1) cutting the final part Math---mathematics Math---mathematics Telly---television Telly---television Bike---bicycle Bike---bicycle 2) cutting the initial part Van---caravan Van---caravan Bus---omnibus Bus---omnibus Copter---helicopter Copter---helicopter
Lexical Change There is a constant change in the vocabulary of the language. New words may be added. Some words may become obsolete. And a new dimension in meaning may be attached to an existing word. All this is achieved mostly in the following processes.
Morphological and syntactic change
Morphological change 1. derivation Didst--------------did Didst--------------did Hath---------------has Hath---------------has Sayd--------------said Sayd--------------said Saith--------------says Saith--------------says 2. plural forms of nouns Eg. thou, ye, yee---------you yee---------you thy------------------your thy------------------your seedes, wayes--------seeds, ways wayes--------seeds,
人类语言有变化吗英语作文
人类语言有变化吗英语作文Has Human Language Changed?Language is a remarkable tool that has evolved and transformed over time. The answer to the question of whether human language has changed is a definite yes.One of the most obvious signs of language change is the vocabulary. New words are constantly being added to our language to describe new concepts, technologies, and experiences. For example, words like "internet", "smartphone", and "selfie" have bee mon in recent decades. At the same time, some old words may fall out of use or change their meanings.Grammar and sentence structure also undergo changes. Language rules are not fixed and immutable. They adapt and evolve to meet the munication needs of speakers. Changes can occur gradually, and sometimes different regions may develop their own unique grammar patterns.Language also changes in pronunciation. The way words are pronounced can vary over time and across different geographical areas. This can lead to the development of different accents and dialects.Another factor contributing to language change is cultural and social influences. Historical events, migrations, and interactions between different cultures can all have an impact on language. For instance, when different languages e into contact, they may borrow words and expressions from each other.In conclusion, human language is not static but a dynamic and evolving entity. It reflects the changes in our society, technology, and way of life. Understanding and accepting these changes is essential for effective munication and the continued development of language.。
18 the causes of language change
Introduction
No language change happens instantaneously. A linguistic change is motivated either by the inherent nature of language, or by external contacts of speakers of one language with the speakers of other languages. 1) assimilation through haplology The OE word "Engla-land" (the langd of Angles) came to be pronounced as "England" through assimilation of "la-la" sounds.
2. Rule Simplification and Regularization
They are a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns, e.g., ModE has a small class of exceptional nouns in which the final voiceless fricative must be voiced in the plural form, such as "leaf" / "leaves". (1) foe-s, dog-s ---- "cow-s" instead of "kine"; (2) reap-ed, seem-ed, ignite-d ---- "sweeped", "dream-ed", "light-ed" instead of "swept", "dreamt", "lit"
The causes of language change
(1) Sound assimilation
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another
(2)Rule simplification
Language users tend to facilitate verbal communication by simplifying and regularizing elements of language. It involves plural forms of nouns and borrowed words
(7)Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar
Children tend to simplify grammar and are more ready to take less formal style. This results in change in grammar
(6)Cultural transmission 文化传播
language is culturally transmitted. That is, language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning rather than by instinct. Vocabulary and structure change across generations all the time.
The causes of language change
1. Sound assimilation 语音的同化 2. Rule simplification 规则的简化 3. Internal borrowing 内部借用 4. Rule Elaboration 规则细化 5. Sociological triggers 社会因素 6. Cultural transmission 文化传播 7. Children’s approximation to the adult grammar 儿童语法接近成年人语法
安徽大学本科教学课程教案
安徽大学本科教学课程教案
课程名称：英语语言学
代码：zh45006
开课单位：外语学院
授课教师：朱跃
职称/学位：教授/硕士
开课时间： 2008至2009学年第1学期
课程基本情况
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英语语言学期末复习题
英语语言学期末复习题Chapter5 Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2. Lexical meaning:Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumn fallflat apartment(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning （情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）Amaze VS Astound2.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.Ball: 1. an round object used in game.2. a large formal social event at which people dance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form. E.g. tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling.E.g. tear v. /tear n.4.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Superordinate: animalSubordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,5.反义词AntonymyIt is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:等级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4. Sentence sense relations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）E.g. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）E.g. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）E.g. John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）E.g. The table has bad intensions.5. Analysis of meaning1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.E.g. Man=Adult +Male+ Animate+ Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British LinguistG.Leech提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc. (通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1. speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。
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(4)Rule Elaboration 规则细化
If a particular grammatical feature is lost, some other feature may be added in another component of the grammar
1.deletion of certain final syllables by phonological rules
It’s I.” at certain times, and “It’s me.” at other times when the occasion is less formal. (adults’ speech) “It’s me.” (children’s speech)
hank
you!!
2. The loss of morphological rule creates causative verbs from adjectives e.g. blacken--black
(5) Sociological triggers 社会因素
Norman Conquest brought large French vocabulary into English; European renaissance marked the beginning of modern English. Globalization is producing effect on all languages in the world. Language varieties are results.
(1) Sound assimilation
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another
(2)Rule simplification
Language users tend to facilitate verbal communication by simplifying and regularizing elements of language. It involves plural forms of nouns and borrowed words
(7)Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar
Children tend to simplify grammar and are more ready to take less formal style. This results in change in grammar
The causes of language change
1. Sound assimilation 语音的同化 2. Rule simplification 规则的简化 3. Internal borrowing 内部借用 4. Rule Elaboration 规则细化 5. Sociological triggers 社会因素 6. Cultural transmission 文化传播 7. Children’s approximation to the adult grammar 儿童语法接近成年人语法
(6)Cultural transmission 文化传播
language is culturally transmitted. That is, language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning rather than by instinct. Vocabulary and structure change across generations all the time.
(3)Internal borrowing
In order to lessen the burden on memory, users have been trying to reduce irregular forms.
e.g. foe-s, dog-s ---- “cow-s” instead of “kine” reap-ed, seem-ed, ignite-d ----“sweeped”, ”dream-ed”, ”light-ed” instead of “swept”. “dreamt”, “lit”. agendum----agenda, curriculum----curricula