微生物英文文献及翻译—翻译
微生物学细菌中英翻译及促生素概论
清酒乳杆菌(Lactobacillus sakei),弯曲乳杆菌(Lactobacillus curvatus),明串珠菌属的肠膜明串珠菌(Leuconostoc mesenteroides)和非培养的明串珠菌(Uncultured Leuconostoc sp.)清酒乳杆菌清酒亚种(Lactobacillus sakei subsp.sakei)弯曲乳杆菌蜜二糖亚种(Lactobacillus curvatus subsp.melibiosus)粪肠球菌（E.faecalis）屎肠球菌（E.faecium)鸟肠球菌(E.avium) 酪黄肠球菌(E.casseliflavus)坚忍肠球菌(E.durans) 鸡肠球菌E.galinarum)芒地肠球菌(E.mundii) 恶臭肠球菌(E.maladoratum)希拉肠球菌(E.hirae) 孤立肠球菌（E.solitarius）棉子糖肠球菌(E.raffinosus) 假鸟肠球菌(E.pseudoavium)粪肠球变异株(E.faecalis var)。
Abiotrophia adjacens 毗邻贫养菌Abiotrophia defectiva 软弱贫养菌Achromobacter spp 无色杆菌属某些种Acinetobacter /Pseudomonas spp 不动杆菌/假单胞菌属某些种Acinetobacter baumannii 鲍氏不动杆菌Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 醋酸钙不动杆菌Acinetobacter haemolyticus 溶血不动杆菌Acinetobacter johnsonii 约氏不动杆菌Acinetobacter junii 琼氏不动杆菌Acinetobacter lwoffii 鲁氏不动杆菌Acinetobacter radioresistens 抗辐射不动杆菌Acinetobacter spp 不动杆菌属某些种Acinetobacter spp/Pseudomonas spp 不动杆菌属某些种/假单胞菌属某些种Acinetobacter/Pseudomonas spp 不动杆菌/假单胞菌属某些种Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans 伴放线放线杆菌Actinomyces israelii 衣氏放线菌Actinomyces meyeri 麦氏放线菌Actinomyces naeslundii 内氏放线菌Actinomyces neuii anitratus 纽氏放线菌无硝亚种Actinomyces neuii neuii 纽氏放线菌纽氏亚种Actinomyces neuii radingae 纽氏放线菌罗亚种Actinomyces neuii turicensis 纽氏放线菌图列茨亚种Actinomyces odontolyticus 龋齿放线菌Actinomyces viscosus 粘放线菌Aeromonas caviae 豚鼠气单胞菌Aeromonas hydrophila 嗜水气单胞菌Aeromonas hydrophila gr．嗜水气单胞菌群Aeromonas salmonicida achromogenes 杀鲑气单胞菌无色亚种Aeromonas salmonicida masoucida 杀鲑气单胞菌杀日本鲑亚种Aeromonas salmonicida salmonicida 杀鲑气单胞菌杀鲑亚种Aeromonas sobria 温和气单胞菌Agrobacterium radiobacter 放射形土壤杆菌Alcaligenes denitrificans 反硝化产碱菌Alcaligenes faecalis 粪产碱菌Alcaligenes spp 产碱菌属某些种Alcaligenes xylosoxidans 木糖氧化产碱菌Alloiococcus otitis 耳炎差异球菌Anaerobiospirllum succiniproducens 产琥珀酸厌氧螺菌Arachnia propionica 丙酸蛛菌Arcanobacterium bernardiae 伯纳德隐秘杆菌Arcanobacterium haemolyticum 溶血隐秘杆菌Arcanobacterium pyogenes 化脓隐秘杆菌Arcobacter cryaerohoilus 嗜低温弓形杆菌Arthrobacter spp 节杆菌属某些种Debaryomyces polymorphus 多形德巴利酵母菌Dermabacter hominis 人皮肤杆菌Dermacoccus nishinomiyaensis 西宫皮肤球菌Dietzia spp 迪茨菌属某些种Edwardsiella hoshinae 保科爱德华菌Edwardsiella tarda 迟钝爱德华菌Eikenella corrodens 啮蚀艾肯菌Enterobacter aerogenes 产气肠杆菌Enterobacter amnigenus 河生肠杆菌Enterobacter asburiae 阿氏肠杆菌Enterobacter cancerogenus 生癌肠杆菌Enterobacter cloacae 阴沟肠杆菌Enterobacter gergoviae 日沟维肠杆菌Enterobacter intermedius 中间肠杆菌Enterobacter sakazakii 阪崎肠杆菌Enterobacter spp 肠杆菌属某些种Enterococcus avium 鸟肠球菌Enterococcus casselifavus 铅黄肠球菌Enterococcus durans 耐久肠球菌Enterococcus faecalis 粪肠球菌Enterococcus faecium 屎肠球菌Enterococcus gallinarum 鹑鸡肠球菌Enterococcus saccharolyticus 解糖肠球菌Erwinia spp 欧文菌属某些种Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 猪红斑丹毒丝菌Escherichia coli 大肠埃希菌Escherichia fergusonii 费格森埃希菌Escherichia hermannii 赫氏埃希菌Escherichia vulneris 伤口埃希菌Eubacterium aerofaciens 产气真杆菌Eubacterium lentum 迟缓真杆菌Eubacterium limosum 粘液真杆菌Ewingella americana 美洲爱文菌促生素：概论简介发酵乳形态的促生素历史要追溯回数千年前，但直到本世纪初期才根据科学原理进行科学性研究。
微生物英文文献及翻译—翻译
A/O法活性污泥中氨氧化菌群落的动态与分布摘要：我们研究了在厌氧—好氧序批式反应器（SBR）中氨氧化菌群落（AOB）和亚硝酸盐氧化菌群落（NOB）的结构活性和分布。
在研究过程中，分子生物技术和微型技术被用于识别和鉴定这些微生物。
污泥微粒中的氨氧化菌群落结构大体上与初始的接种污泥中的结构不同。
与颗粒形成一起，由于过程条件中生物选择的压力，AOB的多样性下降了。
DGGE测序表明，亚硝化菌依然存在，这是因为它们能迅速的适应固定以对抗洗涤行为。
DGGE更进一步的分析揭露了较大的微粒对更多的AOB种类在反应器中的生存有好处。
在SBR反应器中有很多大小不一的微粒共存，颗粒的直径影响这AOB和NOB的分布。
中小微粒（直径<0.6mm）不能限制氧在所有污泥空间的传输。
大颗粒（直径>0.9mm）可以使含氧量降低从而限制NOB的生长。
所有这些研究提供了未来对AOB微粒系统机制可能性研究的支持。
关键词：氨氧化菌（AOB），污泥微粒，菌落发展，微粒大小，硝化菌分布，发育多样性1.简介在浓度足够高的条件下，氨在水环境中对水生生物有毒，并且对富营养化有贡献。
因此，废水中氨的生物降解和去除是废水处理工程的基本功能。
硝化反应，将氨通过硝化转化为硝酸盐，是去除氨的一个重要途径。
这是分两步组成的，由氨氧化和亚硝酸盐氧化细菌完成。
好氧氨氧化一般是第一步，硝化反应的限制步骤：然而，这是废水中氨去除的本质。
对16S rRNA的对比分析显示，大多数活性污泥里的氨氧化菌系统的跟ß-变形菌有关联。
然而，一系列的研究表明，在氨氧化菌的不同代和不同系有生理和生态区别，而且环境因素例如处理常量，溶解氧，盐度，pH，自由氨例子浓度会影响氨氧化菌的种类。
因此，废水处理中氨氧化菌的生理活动和平衡对废水处理系统的设计和运行是至关重要的。
由于这个原因，对氨氧化菌生态和微生物学更深一层的了解对加强处理效果是必须的。
当今，有几个进阶技术在废水生物处理系统中被用作鉴别、刻画微生物种类的有价值的工具。
微生物英文文献及翻译—原文
微生物英文文献及翻译—原文本期为微生物学的第二讲，主要讨论炭疽和蛔虫病这两种既往常见而当今社会较为罕见的疾病。
炭疽是由炭疽杆菌所致的一种人畜共患的急性传染病。
人因接触病畜及其产品及食用病畜的肉类而发生感染。
临床上主要表现为皮肤坏死、溃疡、焦痂和周围组织广泛水肿及毒血症症状；似蚓蛔线虫简称蛔虫，是人体内最常见的寄生虫之一。
成虫寄生于小肠，可引起蛔虫病。
其幼虫能在人体内移行，引起内脏幼虫移行症。
案例分析Case 1：A local craftsman who makes garments from the hides of goats visits his physician because over the past few days he has developed several black lesions on his hands and arms. The lesions are not painful, but he is alarmed by their appearance. He is afebrile and his physical examination is unremarkable.案例1：一名使用鹿皮做皮衣的当地木匠来就医，主诉过去几天中手掌和手臂上出现几个黑色皮肤损害。
皮损无痛，但是外观较为骇人。
患者无发热，体检无异常发现。
1. What is the most likely diagnosis?Cutaneous anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis. The skin lesions are painless and dark or charred ulcerations known as black eschar. It is classically transmitted by contact with thehide of a goat at the site of a minor open wound.皮肤炭疽：由炭疽杆菌引起，皮损通常无痛、黑色或称为焦痂样溃疡。
微生物相关单词中英文对照.doc
微生物相关单词中英文对照actinomycete 放线菌actinomycetes 放线菌(类)actinomyces 放线菌algae 藻,藻膜体anthrax vaccine 炭疽菌苗antibiotic 抗菌素,抗生物质,抗生的Archaebacteria 古(原)细菌azotobacter n. 固氮[细]菌brew vt.①酿造(啤酒等)；vi.①酿酒chemolithotroph 化能无机营养菌chemoorganotroph 化能有机营养菌chromosome 真周环状常染色体,染色体cocci (单Coccus ) 球菌cyanobacteria 蓝细菌[蓝绿藻类原核生物]cytoplasm 细胞质,细胞浆differentiation 分化endosymbiosis 内共生(现象)enrichment culture 增殖培养,增菌培养,富集培养,加富培养enzyme 酶Escherichia coli (拉)大肠埃希杆菌,大肠杆菌,(拉)大肠杆菌eukaryote 真核生物fermentation 发酵fungi (单fungus)真菌,霉菌genome 染色体组,基因组geochemistry n. 地球化学Gram staining 革兰(氏)染色法inoculate 接种,移植(细菌)Lactic Acid 乳酸,α-羟基丙酸lineage 谱系metabolism 新陈代谢,代谢作用microbe 微生物microorganism 微生物morphology 形态学,生态学mycoplasma 支原(质)体,原质菌,类菌质体,支原菌(属) Mycoplasmataceae 支原体科nucleus 核,胞核,神经核,原子核,有机化合物的原子团,细胞核organelle 细胞器,类器官pasteurization 巴斯德(氏)灭菌法,低程杀菌法,低温杀菌法penicillin n.盘尼西林phototroph 光能营养生物,光能利用菌phylogeny 种系发生,系统发育plasmid 质体,质粒prokaryote 原核生物protozoa 原生动物,原虫pseudomonad 假单胞菌pure culture 纯系培养,纯培养物,纯种培养,纯(粹)培养respire 呼吸rhizobium (拉)根瘤菌属ribosome 核蛋白体,核粒体,核糖体,核(糖核)蛋白体acetylglucosamine 乙酰葡萄糖胺,乙酰氨基葡萄糖acetylmuramic acid 乙酰胞壁酸,乙酰基粘糖酸amino acid 氨基酸azalein 品红,复红biomolecule 活质分子carbohydrate 碳水化合物,糖类chemotaxis 趋化性,趋药性,向化性crystal violet-iodine complex 结晶紫和碘的复合物cylindrical 圆筒状的,圆柱状的diaminopimelic acid 二氨基庚二酸endotoxin 内毒素extract 拔出,取出,提取,浸出物,抽提,提取液,提出物,浸膏,萃,萃取,蒸馏出flagellum (复flagella )鞭毛,鞭节,鞭状器(蛹),鞭状体(软体动物) peritrichous 周生鞭毛(的) glycosidic bond 糖苷键halophile 适盐植物,喜盐植物,嗜盐微生物hydrophilic 亲水的hydrophobic 疏水的,狂犬病的insoluble 不(能)溶解的,不能解释的,不溶解的,不能解决的integral membrane protein 膜内在蛋白质isomeric (同分)异构的,同质异能的linkage 键,链合,连接,连锁,联系lipid monolayer 类脂单层,脂单层lipopolysaccharide 脂多糖lipoprotein 脂蛋白质lysis 松解术,溶解,溶化,渐退,消散lysozyme 溶菌酶methanobacteria 甲烷杆菌mordant 媒染剂,饰染剂pathogenic 致病的peptidoglycan 粘肽,肽聚糖peripheral membrane protein 外在膜蛋白periplasm 周质phospholipids 磷脂phospholipid bilayer 磷脂双层photomicrograph 显微照片phototaxis 趋光性polar [=polarization]极化,偏振porin 一类细胞外膜孔道蛋白protoplasm 原生质protoplast 原生质体pseudopeptidoglycan 假肽聚糖(微)rod 杆菌safranine 番红,藏(花)红salmonella (复salmonellae)沙门(氏)菌(Gram-negative)spherical 球的,球体的,球状的,球形的,球面的,天体的spirochete n. 螺旋菌staphylococcus (复staphylococci)葡萄球菌staphylococcus aureus (拉)金黄色酿脓葡萄球菌,金黄色葡萄球菌,金黄色酿脓葡萄球菌sterols 醇teichoic acid 【化】磷壁酸【医】壁酸(为细胞型成分之一)Thermoplasma 热原体属Amphitrichous 两端鞭毛的,两端单毛的Aspergillus (复aspergilli)曲霉bacillus mucilaginosus 胶质芽孢杆菌Bacillus mycoides 蕈状芽胞杆菌,霉状芽孢杆菌bacillus thuringiensis (拉)苏芸金杆菌,苏芸金芽胞杆菌Candida mycoderma 假丝酵母Colony 菌(集)落,菌丛,集落conserved 保守的flagellin 鞭毛蛋白,鞭毛素hook 牵引钩鞭毛钩lophotrichous 具偏端丛毛的,丛鞭毛的monotrichous 单鞭毛的,偏端单毛的motility 活力,活率,活动力polar flagellation 极生鞭毛pseudomonas 假单胞菌(属),假单胞菌属Pseudomonas fluorescens 萤光假单胞菌Rhizopus 酒曲菌属,根霉菌属Rotate 旋转,转动serratia marcescens 粘质赛氏杆菌,粘质沙霉菌(属)Streptomyces coelicolor 天蓝色链霉菌Streptomyces violaceorectus 紫色直丝链霉菌adhere 粘附,粘连conjugation 结合,接合,结合反应,联接,共轭cortex 皮质,皮层dipicolinic acid 吡啶二羧酸,二吡啶羧酸exosporium 外生孢子,(孢子或花粉)外壁,外胞fimbriae (噬菌体)伞毛,菌毛glycocalyx 多糖包被pillus 菌毛（复pilli）spore coat 芽胞膜,芽胞外被sporulation 孢子形成activation 激活,激活作用adhere 粘附,粘连conjugation 结合,接合,结合反应,联接,共轭dipicolinic acid 吡啶二羧酸,二吡啶羧酸endosporulate 内孢子形成exosporium 外生孢子,(孢子或花粉)外壁,外胞fimbriae (噬菌体)伞毛,菌毛germination 萌发,发芽glycocalyx 多糖包被outgrowth 向外生长(放),赘疣pillus 菌毛（复pilli）spore coat 芽胞膜,芽胞外被sporulation 孢子形成activation energy 活化能,激活能aerobe 需氧菌,需氧微生物anabolism n.组成代谢, 合成代谢anarobian 厌氧的,厌氧菌arthrospore 节孢子(微)ascospore 子囊孢子(微),子囊层aseptic 无菌的aseptic technique 无菌技术,无菌操作aspergillus (复aspergilli)曲霉autotroph 自养生物,独立营养物axial 轴的,中轴的,轴式的basidiospore 担子孢子biotin 生物素又称“维生素H”。
有关微生物的英语作文
有关微生物的英语作文英文回答：Microorganisms are a diverse group of organisms that include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. They are found in all environments on Earth, from the deepest oceans to the highest mountains. Microorganisms play a vital role in the cycling of nutrients, the decomposition of organic matter, and the production of oxygen. They are also responsible for a wide range of human diseases, from the common cold to tuberculosis.The study of microorganisms is called microbiology. Microbiologists use a variety of techniques to study microorganisms, including microscopy, culturing, and molecular biology. Microscopy allows microbiologists to visualize microorganisms and study their morphology. Culturing allows microbiologists to grow microorganisms in the laboratory and study their growth and metabolism. Molecular biology allows microbiologists to study thegenetic material of microorganisms and understand how they function.Microorganisms have a wide range of applications in industry, medicine, and agriculture. In industry, microorganisms are used to produce a variety of products, including antibiotics, enzymes, and biofuels. In medicine, microorganisms are used to develop vaccines and antibiotics. In agriculture, microorganisms are used to improve soil fertility and crop yields.The study of microorganisms is essential for understanding the role they play in the environment and for developing new ways to use them to benefit humanity.中文回答：微生物是一个多样化的生物群，包括细菌、病毒、真菌和原生动物。
微生物英文文献
Results
二、分子鉴定
(1) Pca-QS-0-1, Pch-QS-0-3, and Pe-QS-0-1;
Results
二、分子鉴定
(5) Pv-QS-0-1;
Results
Two new ITS-5.8S rDNA sequence types
(1) Cl-QS-0-1 and Cl-QS-0-2 are two new anamorph species in the genus Tulasnella. (2) Pv-QS-0-1 did not show high homology with high Sequence
成 苗
碳 源 种子发芽
Many fungi isolated from mycorrhizal orchid roots have been classified as Rhizoctonia or Rhizoctonia-like
fungi.
Plant materials
B. Why 27种is Rhizoctonia-like Fungi？
Molecular characterization
Homogenizing
PCR Purifing Sequencing
样品均匀 扩增
纯化 基因测序
Sequence analysis
Results
一、形态学
(1) Pca-QS-0-1, Pch-QS-0-3, and Pe-QS-0-1; (2) D1-KT-TC-1 and C3-DT-TC-2; (3) Pv-QS-0-2 and Df-QS-3-1;
Orchids rely on the infection of Rhizoctonia-like fungi
微生物学英文单词材料
Microorganism/Microbe微生物微生物学MicrobiologyPasteur 巴斯德细菌Bacteria古生菌（Archaea)细菌(Bacteria)真核生物(Eukaryotes)真核微生物Eukaryotic microorganisms 病毒（Virus）球菌coccus杆菌bacillus螺旋菌spirilla革兰氏阳性细菌 Gram positive bacteria) 革兰氏阴性细菌 Gram negative bacteria) Actinomycetes(放线菌)Yeast(酵母菌)Molds(霉菌)Culture dish/Petri dish(平皿)Shake Flask （三角瓶）Fermentor（发酵罐）菌落 colony平板plateInoculation （接种）Luise Pasteur（巴斯德）Robert Koch（柯赫）Cell wall(细胞壁)Cytoplasmic membrane细胞质膜Cytoplasm（细胞质）蓝细菌CyanobacteriaNuclear region(核区）Inclusion body(内含物)Glycocalyx(糖被）Flagella (鞭毛)Spore (芽孢)Pili(性毛)Fimbria(菌毛)Gram stain （革兰氏染色）脂多糖 (LPS)球状体（sphaeroplast）原生质体（protoplast）支原体（mycoplasma）Cytoplasmic membrane Cytoplasm贮藏物（Reserve materials）核糖体（Ribosome）质粒（plasmid）芽孢（Spore）鞭毛（Flagella）Fungi（真菌）菌丝体mycelium类病毒（Viroid）朊病毒(prion)噬菌体p h a g e病毒v i r u sNutrition(营养)Nutrient(营养物)Source of carbon （碳源）Source of Nitrogen （氮源）Inorganic salt（无机盐）Growth factor（生长因子）Water（水分）Energy source（能源）Source of carbon （碳源）Source of Nitrogen （氮源)Inorganic salt（无机盐）Growth factor（生长因子)Energy source（能源）Culture medium培养基呼吸respiration无氧呼吸anaerobic respiration发酵fermentation连续培养 continuous culture分批培养batch culture生长曲线growth curve纯培养(Pure culture)灭菌（sterilization）消毒（disinfection）抗生素antibiotics转化transformation转导transduction接合conjugation,mating诱变剂mutagen基因突变 gene mutation营养缺陷型auxotroph原养型prototroph野生型wild type菌种 culture或stock culture菌种保藏 preservation 或conservation或者maintenance疫苗vaccine防腐（antisepsis）化疗(chemotherapy) 艾姆斯试验法Ames test基因工程 Gene Engineering试熟记以下最基本的微生物学名：（1）细菌Bacillus subtilis[枯草芽孢杆菌Bacillus thuringiensis（苏云金芽孢杆菌）E.coli [大肠（埃希氏）杆菌]，Rhizobium（根瘤菌）Staphalococcus aureus（金黄色葡萄球菌）（2）放线菌Actinomyces 放线菌Streptomyces griseus（灰色链霉菌）。
Microbiology微生物学分类相关中英文对照
Microbiology微生物学分类相关中英文对照Microbiology 微生物学分类相关中英文对照微生物学microbiology病毒学virology噬菌体学bacteriophagology细菌学bacteriology鉴定细菌学determinative bacteriology系统细菌学systematic bacteriology真菌学mycology原生生物学protistology原生动物学protozoology普通微生物学general microbilogy微生物分类学microbial taxonomy微生物生理学microbial physiology微生物生物化学microbial biochemistry 微生物遗传学microbial genetics微生物生态学microbial ecology古微生物学paleomicrobiology土壤微生物学soil microbiology水生微生物学aquatic microbiology海洋微生物学marine microbiology悉生生物学gnotobiology医学微生物学medical microbiology兽医微生物学veterinary microbiology农业微生物学agricultural microbiology工业微生物学industrial microbiology石油微生物学petroleum microbiology食品微生物学food microbiology乳品微生物学diary microbiology瘤胃微生物学rumen microbiology诊断微生物学diagnostic microbiology病原学etiology国际微生物学会联合会International Union of Microbiological Societies, IUMS中国微生物学会Chinese Society for Microbiology, CSM世界培养物保藏协会World Federation for Culture Collection, WFCC中国微生物菌种保藏管理委员会China Committee for Culture Collection of Microorganisms,CCCCM美国模式培养物保藏所American Type Culture Collection, ATCC 自然发生说，无生源说spontaneous generation, abiogenesis 原界urkingdom始祖生物progenote古始生物界archetista古细菌archaebacteria原生生物protista原生动物protozoan原生植物protophyte真核生物eukaryote原核生物prokaryote裂殖植物schizophyte微生物microorganism数值分类法numerical taxonomy模式目type order模式科type family模式属type genus模式种type species模式株type strain真菌fungi捕食真菌predacious fungi虫道真菌ambrosia fungi地下真菌hypogeal fungi虫生真菌entomogenous fungi 菌根真菌mycorrhizal fungi 木腐菌wood-decay fungi霉菌mold, mould半知菌imperfect fungi子囊菌ascomycetes粘菌slime mold, slime mould 壶菌chytrid卵菌oomycetes接合菌zygomycetes担子菌basidiomycetes核菌pyrenomycetes盘菌cup fungi块菌truffles锈菌rust fungi蘑菇mushrooms毒蘑菇poisonous mushroom酵母菌yeast无孢子酵母菌asporogenous yeasts 有孢子酵母菌sporogenous yeasts 黑粉菌smut fungi双态性真菌dimorphic fungi毛外癣菌ectothrix毛内癣菌endothrix完全真菌perfect fungi黑粉病smut disease锈病rust disease菌丝hypha菌髓trama假菌丝体pseudomycelium气生菌丝体aerial mycelium基内菌丝体substrate mycelium球拍状菌丝体racquet mycelium结节状菌丝nodular mycelium梳状菌丝pectinafe mycelium螺旋菌丝spiral mycelium匍匐菌丝stolon次生菌丝体secondary mycelium有隔菌丝septate hypha无隔菌丝nonseptate hypha生殖菌丝体reproductive mycelium 营养菌丝体vegetative mycelium不育菌丝体sterile mycelium菌丝体mycelium黄癣菌丝favic chandelier mycelium 产囊丝ascogenous hypha 产囊体ascogonium原植体thallus粘菌体aethalium合胞体syncytium虫菌体hyphal body盾状体clypeus子实体fruiting body产孢体gleba子实层体hymenophore 子实层hymenium子实下层subhymenium 菌丝层subiculum菌丝段hyphal fragment 菌丝束coremium菌丝索funiculus菌核sclerotium器菌核pycnosclerotium 菌环annulus菌裙indusium菌盖pileus顶体apicle藏卵器oogonium雄器antheridium[锈菌]性孢子器pycnium锈子器aecium精子器spermogonium囊状体cystidium粉孢子梗oidiophore小梗sterigma接合孢子柄zygosporophore 孢囊柄sporangiophore 配囊柄suspensor孢子梗sporophore分生孢子梗conidiophore雄器柄androphore帚状枝penicillus瓶梗phialide梗基metulae芽孔germ pore芽管germ tube芽缝germ slit孢丝capillitium周丝periphysis类周丝periphysoid侧丝paraphysis拟侧丝pseudoparaphysis类侧丝paraphysoid[孢子]外壁exosporium外生菌根ectomycorrhiza内生菌根endomycorrhiza内外生菌根ectendomycorrhiza泡囊丛枝菌根vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza刺突spike弹丝elater刚毛seta微体microbody泡囊vesicle隔膜septum假隔膜pseudoseptum分生孢子盘acervulus分生孢子座sporodochium 精子团spermatium囊基膜hypothallus囊层基hypothecium囊层被epithecium囊间丝hamathecium囊托apophysis囊领collarette囊轴columella孔口ostiole菌托volva孢子角cirrus孢子球spore ball孢子印spore print聚簇cluster[菌丝]融合anastomosis [孢子]切落abjunction [孢子]缢断abstriction多态[现象] polymorphism 缢缩[作用] constriction 粉孢子oidium孢子spore厚壁孢子chlamydospore 环痕孢子annellospore节孢子arthrospore卷旋孢子helicospore腊肠形孢子allantospore孔出孢子porospore星形孢子staurospore线形孢子scolecospore砖格孢子dictyospore侧生孢子aleuriospore芽生孢子blastospore瓶梗孢子phialospore无梗孢子thallospore分生孢子conidium大分生孢子macroconidium 小分生孢子microconidium 节分生孢子arthroconidium 芽分生孢子blastoconidium 器孢子pycnidiospore无隔孢子amerospore双胞孢子didymospore多隔孢子phragmospore休眠孢子hypnospore顶生孢子acrospore顶生厚壁孢子fuseau内分生孢子endoconidium担孢子basidiospore双孢担孢子dispore同形孢子isospore柄生孢子stylospore[锈菌]性孢子pycniospore产雄器孢子androspore夏孢子urediniospore, aeciospore 冬孢子teliospore四分孢子tetraspore粘孢子myxospore多核孢子coenospore孢囊孢子sporangiospore子囊孢子ascospore多核细胞coenocyte分生孢子果conidiocarp分生孢子器pycnidium孢[子]囊sporangium柱孢子囊merosporangium四分孢子囊tetrasporangium原孢子囊prosporangium多核孢子囊coenosporangium 休眠孢子囊hypnosporangium 子囊ascus接合孢子zygospore拟接合孢子azygospore原囊壁子囊prototunicate ascus 单囊壁子囊unitunicate ascus 双囊壁子囊bitunicate ascus子囊果ascocarp子囊壳perithecium闭囊壳cleistothecium闭囊果cleistocarp盘状子囊果discocarp孢囊果sporangiocarp [接]合子zygote单性合子azygote多核合子coenozygote异形合子heterozygote合子核zygotonucleus游动合子planozygote担子basidium半担子hemibasidium隔担子heterobasidium无隔担子holobasidium有隔担子phragmobasidium 内生担子endobasidium原担子protobasidium上担子epibasidium下担子hypobasidium同担子homobasidium担子果basidiocarp担子体basidiophore配子gamete原配子progamete雄配子androgamete雄核发育androgenesis同形配子isogamete异形配子heterogamete游动配子zoogamete多核配子coenogamete配子囊gametangium配子母细胞gametocyte同形配子囊isogametangium 原配子囊progametangium 小孢子囊sporangiole微包囊microcyst足细胞foot cell脚胞foot cell固着器holdfast附着枝hyphopodium吸盘sucker锁状细胞clamp cell锁状联合clamp connection 偶核细胞zeugite卵球oosphere卵质ooplasm孢原质sporoplasm卵配子oogamete卵孢子oospore球状胞sphaerocyst子囊腔locule子囊盘apothecium子囊座ascostroma缝裂壳hysterothecium下子座hypostroma包被peridium子座stroma壳心centrum拟包被pseudoperidium无融合生殖apomixis同宗配合homothallism准性生殖parasexuality异宗配合heterothallism同配生殖isogamy异配生殖heterogamy无配生殖apogamy配囊交配gametangial copulation 交配型mating type 全型holomorph夏孢子期uredostage冬孢子堆teleutosorus, telium 夏孢子堆uredinium子囊孢子形成ascosporulation 孢子形成sporulation 细菌bacteria薄壁[细]菌类gracilicutes硬壁[细]菌类fermicutes疵壁[细]菌类mendosicutes无壁[细]菌类tenericutes柔膜细菌mollicutes真细菌eubacteria暗细菌scotobacteria无氧光细菌anoxyphotobacteria 生氧光细菌oxyphotobacteria 放线菌actinomycetes螺[旋]菌spirilla粘细菌slime bacteria。
微生物英文汇总(名解)
微生物英文汇总(名解)microorganism 微生物microbiology 微生物学strains of bacteria 菌株capsule 荚膜spore 芽胞/孢子flagellum 鞭毛pilus 菌毛plasmid 质粒L型菌autotroph 自养菌heterotroph 异养菌pyrogen 热原质endotoxin 内毒素exotoxin 外毒素bactericin 细菌素facultative anaerobe 兼性异养菌generation time 代时antibioltic 抗生素disinfection 消毒sterilization 灭菌asepsis 无菌antisepsis 防菌bacteriostasis 抑菌bacteria 细菌phage 噬菌体virulent phage 毒性噬菌体lysogenic 溶原性lysogenic conversion 溶原性转换prophase 前噬菌体plaque 噬班mutation 突变transformation 转化transduction 转导conjugation 接合protopast fusion 原生质体融合transposon,Tn 转座子hepatitis B e antigen，HBeAg 乙型肝炎e抗原hemorrhagic fever withrenal syndrome virus 肾综合征出血热病毒privirus 前病毒natural focus infection disease 自然疫源性疾病gp120 gp120 human herpes virus type 6，HHV-6 人类疱疹病毒6型Negri Bodies 内基式小体E6protein E6蛋白small spherical particles 小球形颗粒prion 朊粒defective virus 缺陷病毒注：下标”“是试卷中出现过的。
微生物文献翻译
微生物文献翻译张宇生物科学2011031021Ethanol, isopropanol, and 1-butanol are the only naturally produced alcohol biofuels. Isopropanol can be used directly as a fuel supplement to gasoline or as a feedstock for the transesterification of fats into biodiesel [35]. Both isopropanol and 1-butanol are produced in a mixed product fermentation in various strains of Clostridium [36], with maximum production levels reaching 2 g/L and 20 g/L, respectively [37, 38]. With a renewed interest in alternative fuels, the production of isopropanol and 1-butanol has been recently investigated in genetically tractable heterologous organisms. These organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, facilitate the design and optimization of new biofuels processes by combining an increasing synthetic biology toolbox with a well-studied metabolism. Isopropanol production in E. coli has surpassed that of Clostridium by assembling the pathway for acetone production and a secondary alcohol dehydrogenase [8, 12]. The production of 1-butanol, however, has proven to be more difficult. Initial efforts were able to produce ~0.5 g/L using E. coli as a host [7]. Construction of a new strain harboring a single construct resulted in an increase in production to 1.2 g/L [9]. In addition to E. coli, 1-butanol production has been investigated in Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus subtilis, and S. cerevisiae [10, 11], although production in E. coli has thus far shown the most promise. Each ofthese processes, however, is far from industrial feasibility, as yields (~0.05 g/g) and productivities (~0.01 g/L/h) must increase significantly to match the same figures for corn ethanol (~0.5 g/g and 2 g/L/h). The advancement of these processes is thought to be limited by the low activity of pathway enzymes due to poor expression, solubility, or oxygen sensitivity, as well as the metabolic imbalance introduced by these heterologous pathways. While productivity in each of these platforms is low in comparison with Clostridial fermentation, the ability to engineer and manipulate these user-friendly hosts will facilitate the development of these processes.翻译：唯一的自然生产的酒精燃料乙醇、异丙醇、和1-丁醇。
微生物发酵中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献葡萄栽培过程中产生废弃物的侧耳属菇类生物降解：一种微生物和人类食物的来源及其在动物养殖中的潜在用途在通过侧耳属菌（平菇）程序进行葡萄园剪枝和葡萄皮渣的生物转化过程中，使用固态发酵技术受到了高度评价。
我们对水果实体的生产和收获之后被酶作用物的化学变化进行了测量计算，发现生物学效率和生物转化率各自都发生了变化，分别从37.2% 上升至78.7%和16.7%上升至 38.8%。
对于菌丝生长和蘑菇产量提高最有益的基质是与葡萄园剪枝项目相混合操作。
葡萄园修剪产生的枝条与葡萄皮渣相比具有较高的酚类成分、总糖、更好的c/n比值、天然脂肪和总氨。
与之相反，在纯葡萄皮渣的实验中，菌丝生长得非常缓慢甚至是不会生长。
葡萄皮渣比例较高的混合物中水分、蛋白质、脂肪和木质素含量一般较高，然而修剪产生的葡萄枝中，中性洗涤剂纤维、半纤维素、纤维素含量较高。
侧耳菌株的生长可能依赖于基质中纤维成分的可获取情况，而且其消化过程中发生的动态变化可能随着这些纤维在真菌生长过程中的改变而发生。
通过以侧耳属菌为媒介的SSF技术对葡萄栽培残基进行回收利用的潜力巨大，可以生产出人类所需的食物以及在反刍动物饲养中还有限使用的高纤维饲料。
关键词：生物转化酶作用；侧耳属菌；回收利用；固态发酵；葡萄栽培过程的副产品引言：葡萄种植是墨西哥西北部一项重要的生产活动，在墨西哥西北部有33500公顷的土地栽培了数类不同品种的葡萄。
这么大规模的生产活动每年大约产生了大约27万吨的工农业废料，而这其中有大约93%是葡萄园修剪掉的枝条。
这些废料一般直接在田间进行焚烧处理，以防止种植物病原菌的扩散，从而引起环境和生态问题以及危害人类健康的风险。
木质素是工农业废料中所有碳含量的主要组成部分，当它在遇热降解过程中会产生多环芳香烃成分，如苯并芘、邻苯二酚、对苯二酚菲和萘。
所有这些化合物可以抑制DNA 合成，并可能诱发动物和人类的肝脏、肺、喉和子宫颈产生癌变肿瘤。
微生物英文文献Qualitative and quantitative methodologies for determination
REVIEWQualitative and quantitative methodologies for determination of airborne microorganisms at concentrated animal-feeding operationsRobert S.Dungan ÆApril B.LeytemReceived:12August 2008/Accepted:8April 2009/Published online:26April 2009ÓUS Government 2009Abstract The generation of airborne microorganisms from concentrated animal-feeding operations (CAFOs)is a concern from a human and animal health perspective.To better understand the airborne microorganisms found in these environments,a number of collection and analytical techniques have been utilized and will be discussed in this review.The most commonly used bioaerosol collection method is the liquid impingement format,which is suitable with a number of culture-based and non-culture molecular-based approaches,such as polymerase chain reaction.However,the vast majority of airborne microorganism studies conducted at CAFOs utilize culture-based analyses.Because of the limitations often associated with culture-based analyses,we focused our discussion on the applica-tion of molecular-based techniques to identify and/or quantify microorganisms,as they have promising applica-tion in bioaerosol research.The ability to rapidly charac-terize airborne microorganisms will help to ensure protection of public and environmental health.Keywords Airborne microorganisms ÁBioaerosol ÁConcentrated animal-feeding operations ÁImpaction ÁImpingement ÁNucleic acid ÁPolymerase chain reaction ÁReal-time PCRIntroductionModern animal husbandry has changed from one that was low density pasture-based to one that predominately employs confinement of animals at high stocking density.Confined or concentrated animal-feeding operations (CA-FOs)concentrate a large population of single species in one area to increase production and reduce costs.During recent decades,CAFOs have become common in many countries including The Netherlands,Denmark,France,USA,Can-ada,China,Germany,and Poland (Schulze et al.2006).A consequence of high stocking densities combined with enclosed rearing facilities,in some cases,is that the air may contain bioaerosol levels that are sufficiently high to cause adverse health effects in both animals and workers (Thorne et al.1992).Crook and Sherwood-Higham (1997)indicated that inhalation of airborne microorganisms and their constituents can be detrimental to health through infection,allergy,or toxicosis.As the environment within CAFOs can be potentially hazardous to both human and animal health at the facility as well as in surrounding areas,research is being pursued in order to quantify,characterize,and control the release of bioaerosols from CAFOs.Bioaerosols is a term commonly used to describe via-ble and non-viable airborne biological particles,such as fungal spores,bacteria,pollen,and viruses and their fragments and byproducts (Grinshpun et al.2007).Fungal spores,bacteria,and pollen are typically 1–30,0.25–8,and 17–58l m in diameter,respectively,while viruses generally have diameters \0.3l m (Jones and Harrison 2004).Matthais-Maser et al.(2000)suggested that up to 28%(by volume)of the particulate matter suspended over remote land surfaces is comprised of biological particles.Womiloju et al.(2003)concluded that fungal cells and pollen accounted for 4–11%of the total mass of airborneThe use or mention of any commercial products does not imply any endorsement of that product by either the authors or the US Department of Agriculture.R.S.Dungan (&)ÁA.B.LeytemUSDA-Agricultural Research Service,Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research Laboratory,3793North 3600East,Kimberly,ID 83341,USAe-mail:robert.dungan@123World J Microbiol Biotechnol (2009)25:1505–1518DOI 10.1007/s11274-009-0043-1particulate matter\2.5l m(PM2.5).Although microor-ganisms are ubiquitous in the ambient environment,pre-vious studies have shown higher airborne microorganism concentrations in animal houses than in industrial,resi-dential,or ambient settings(Clark et al.1983;Thorne et al.1992;Griffiths et al.1997).Bioaerosols are typically associated with particulate matter or surrounded by a thin layer of water,having an aerodynamic diameter range of0.5–100l m(Lighthart 1994;Cox1995).Bioaerosol particles1–5l m in diameter present the most concern since they are readily transported into the lung,with the greatest retention of the1–2l m particles in the alveoli(Salem and Gardner1994).The microbial component of respirable bioaerosols contributes significantly to the pulmonary diseases associated with inhalation of agricultural dusts(Merchant1987;Lacy and Crook1988).The allergenic,toxic,and inflammatory responses are caused by exposure to not only viable but also non-viable microorganisms present in bioaerosols (Robbins et al.2000;Gorny et al.2002).An estimation of occupational and residential risks from bioaerosol exposure have been addressed by Brooks et al.(2005a,b)and Tanner et al.(2008).As the generation of bioaerosols from CAFOs is a concern from a human and animal health perspective, the sampling and analysis of airborne microorganisms is of great interest.Protection of public and environmental health is dependent upon the ability to efficiently collect bioaerosol samples,then accurately identify and quantify the airborne microorganisms.In this concise review,we focus our discussion on bio-aerosol sampling and sample processing methods that are most suitable to quantitatively and qualitatively determine airborne microorganisms at CAFOs,although their appli-cation to other situations is not limited.The majorfindings of bioaerosol studies conducted at CAFOs are also dis-cussed.While this is not meant to be an exhaustive review of the literature,the reader willfind an excellent array of peer-reviewed articles on aerosol science and molecular biology and their application to studies of air quality.This review will be very useful to those interested in conducting bioaerosol research using both traditional microbiological and molecular techniques.Airborne microorganism samplingThe collection of airborne microorganisms is performed through active air sampling,which results in the efficient removal and collection of biological particles from the air in a manner that maximizes the ability to detect the organisms.Airborne microorganisms can be collected using a number of different techniques(Lundholm1982; Juozaitis et al.1994;Grinshpun et al.1996;Terzieva et al.1996;Duchaine et al.2001),but two inertial techniques,surface impaction and liquid impingement, are used in the majority of outdoor aerosol studies.Fil-tration is a non-inertial technique that separates particles from the airstream when air is passed through a porous medium,such asfibrousfilters,membranefilters,or etched membranes(Crook1995a).For airborne microor-ganisms,however,filtration poses two major disadvan-tages:(a)dehydration of cells and therefore loss of viability and/or culturability due to the large volume of air passing over the particle that is deposited on a dry medium,and(b)inconsistent and poor recovery of the deposited material from certainfilter types.Two addi-tional techniques,gravity sampling and electrostatic precipitation,have been employed for airborne microor-ganism collection but are not routinely used due to cali-bration errors and unknown performance characteristics (Pillai and Ricke2002).The most common bioaerosol sampling techniques uti-lized at cattle,poultry and swine CAFOs are presented in Table1.Direct impaction of airborne microorganisms on filters was used in*40%of the studies,while a combi-nation of liquid impingement and multistage or single stage impaction was used in*33%of the studies.Other sam-pling techniques included use of a personal slide sampler to measure fungi in a cattle shed(Adhikari et al.2004)and drag swab for determination of Salmonella in a poultry house(Endley et al.2001).The target organisms in these studies included Wallemia sebi,total bacteria and fungi, Gram-negative bacteria,heterotrophs,E.coli,enteric bac-teria,Salmonella,yeast,and molds.Impaction samplersThe surface impaction method separates particles from the airstream by utilizing the inertia of the particles to force their deposition onto a collection surface(Grinshpun et al. 2007).The collection surface is usually an agar medium for culture-based analysis or an adhesive-coated surface that can be analyzed microscopically.A commonly used impaction system is the multi-stage Andersen viable sam-pler(Thermo Scientific,Waltham,MA,USA)that con-centrates bioaerosols based on their size characteristics. Two-stage and six-stage Andersen models are available. The six-stage Andersen sampler is capable of concentrating particles in the size range of0.65–7.0l m in diameter (Grinshpun et al.2007).Air enters the sampler through an inlet nozzle and heavier particles are deposited on thefirst stage.Lighter particles not deposited on thefirst stage are carried by the airstream onto the successive stages.Single-stage impactors,which use an agar or adhesive-coated impacting surface,are available from a variety of1506World J Microbiol Biotechnol(2009)25:1505–1518 123T a b l e 1B i o a e r o s o l s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d a t c o n c e n t r a t e d a n i m a l -f e e d i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e t y p e o f o p e r a t i o n ,t h e t a r g e t o r g a n i s m ,s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s u t i l i z e d a n d t h e a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m sO p e r a t i o n T a r g e t o r g a n i s m sS a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e sA n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s R e f e r e n c e sC o w h o u s e W a l l e m i a s e b iD i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r sC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s ,c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d r e a l t i m e P C R Z e n g e t a l .2004D u c k -f a t t e n i n g u n i tT o t a l a n d a e r o b i c G r a m -n e g a t i v e b a c t e r i a ,f u n g i ,e n d o t o x i n sL i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n t ,m u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o n ,a n d d u s t s a m p l i n gC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s ,w h o l e b l o o d a s s a y ,E L I S A ,l i m u l u s a m e b o c y t e l y s a t e a s s a y Z u c k e r e t a l .2006C a t t l e f e e d l o t B a c t e r i a a n d f u n g iM u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sW i l s o n e t a l .2002bC a t t l e s h e d F u n g iM u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o n a n d P e r s o n a l s l i d e s a m p l e rC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d m i c r o s c o p yA d h i k a r i e t a l .2004P i g g e r y s h e d s H e t e r o t r o p h s a n d E .c o l iL i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n t a n d m u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sC h i n i v a s a g a m a n d B l a c k a l l 2005S w i n e b a r n sT o t a l a n d G r a m -n e g a t i v e e n t e r i c b a c t e r i a ,t o t a l f u n g iM u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o n ,l i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n t ,d i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r sC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d flu o r e s c e n c e m i c r o s c o p yT h o r n e e t a l .1992S w i n e b a r n sC u l t u r a l b a c t e r i a ,G r a m -n e g a t i v e b a c t e r i a ,f u n g iL i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n t ,m u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sC h a n g e t a l .2001P o u l t r y H o u s e S a l m o n e l l aD r a g s w a b ,d i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r sC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d P C RE n d l e y e t a l .2001S w i n e b a r n s H e t e r o t r o p h i c b a c t e r i aD i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r sC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sP r e d i c a l a e t a l .2001S w i n e b a r n sT o t a l a n d r e s p i r a b l e m i c r o o r g a n i s m sD i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r s ,m u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sP r e d i c a l a e t a l .2002S w i n e b a r n s T o t a l b a c t e r i a a n d f u n g iS i n g l e s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sK i m e t a l .2006,2007P o u l t r y H o u s e T o t a l b a c t e r i aD i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r s ,l i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n tC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sW o o d w a r d e t a l .2004S w i n e C A F O B a c t e r i aM u l t i -s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sG r e e n e t a l .2006P o u l t r y h o u s e T o t a l a e r o b i c b a c t e r i aS i n g l e s t a g e i m p a c t i o nC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sV e n t e r e t a l .2004P o u l t r y ,c o w ,a n d s w i n e h o u s eA i r b o r n e m i c r o o r g a n i s m sD i r e c t i m p a c t i o n o n fil t e r sE p i flu o r e s c e n c e m i c r o s c o p yH e l d a l e t a l .1996S w i n e b a r n s T o t a l a n d c u l t u r a l b a c t e r i aL i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n t ,i m p a c t i o n o n g e l a t i n m e m b r a n e sC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s ,r e a l t i m e P C R ,d e n a t u r i n g g r a d i e n t g e l e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s ,p h y l o g e n e t i c a n a l y s i sN e h m e e t a l .2008D a i r y b a r n sY e a s t s ,m o l d s ,m e s o p h i l i c b a c t e r i a ,t h e r m o p h i l i c b a c t e r i aL i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n tC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sL a n g e e t a l .1997S w i n e C A F O V i a b l e b a c t e r i aL i q u i d i m p i n g e m e n tC u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e sR u l e e t a l .2005World J Microbiol Biotechnol (2009)25:1505–15181507123manufacturers.Adhesive-coated impacting surfaces are used for the detection of total fungal spores and pollen.In addition to the Andersen impactors,there are other impaction-based devices,such as the rotating impactor,slit sampler,and sieve-type sampler(Crook1995b).Disad-vantages associated with culture-based impactors are:(a) detection of microorganisms relies on their ability to grow after sampling and losses of culturability may occur due to sampling stress,(b)multiple particles each containing one or more organisms passing through a single impaction hole may be inaccurately counted as a single colony,and(c) culturable counts account for only0.0001–10%of the total population within environmental samples,which can severely underestimate the total population of microor-ganisms in the sample(Parkes and Taylor1985).This is also a problem when using culture-based techniques with impingement samplers.Impingement samplersImpingement samplers remove bioaerosols over a wide range of airborne particle concentrations(Grinshpun et al. 2007).The primary difference between impingement and impaction is that the bioaerosols are trapped in a liquid (e.g.,water,mineral oil,buffered solution,or dilute pep-tone solution).In theory,buffered or dilute peptone solu-tions are used to maintain the viability of the microbial cells.Most impingers are constructed from glass with a single collection chamber;though multi-stage glass liquid impinges are available(Crook1995b).The All-Glass Impinger(AGI)-30(Ace Glass,Inc,Vineland,NJ,USA)is a single chamber design that has been widely used to measure bioaerosols under various conditions(Pillai et al. 1996;Chang et al.2001;Rule et al.2005;Tanner et al. 2005;Taha et al.2006).The SKC BioSamplerÒ(SKC Inc, Eighty-Four,PA,USA)is an improved design over the AGI-30and can be operated for up to8h when mineral oil is used as the collectionfluid(Lin et al.1999).Both the SKC BioSamplerÒand AGI-30operate under an airflow rate of12.5l min-1through the use of a vacuum pump. During operation of the impinger,the microorganisms are suspended in the collectionfluid,but the high airflow velocity required for efficient particle collection also cau-ses re-aerosolization of the biological particles(Grinsphun et al.1997;Lin et al.1997)and stress that can lead to viability loss(Lin et al.1999,2000).One of the advantages of impingement samplers is the ability to utilize a variety of analytical methods.In addition to culture techniques, samples can also be analyzed via microscopy,flow cytometry,biochemical assays,immunoassays,and molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR)providing better detection of airborne microorganisms which may be non-culturable due to sampling stresses.High-volume samplersAnother class of bioaerosol samplers that has recently evolved due to bioterrorism and biological warfare con-cerns is high-volume samplers.Some examples of these units are the SASSÒ2300(Research International,Mon-roe,WA),BioCaptureÒ560(MesoSystems Technology, Inc,Albuquerque,NM),and the SpinconÒ(Sceptor Industries,Inc,Kansas City,MO).These samplers operate atflow rates of200–450l min-1and the bioaerosols are captured in a concentrated liquid sample.While the high-volume samplers are very costly when compared to units such as the AGI-30and SKC BioSamplerÒ,they are generally more amenable to PCR-based analyses.The ASAPÒmodel2800(Thermo Electron Corporation, Greenbush,NY,USA)sampler has an operationalflow rate of200l min-1,but collects aerosol particles by impaction on polyurethane foam.While the ASAP unit does not use a liquid impingement format like the other high-volume samples,it is currently being marketed as PCR-compatible. At this time,however,a search of the literature reveals a scarcity of peer-reviewed studies with respect to these or comparable units and their operating efficiencies(Bergman et al.2005).For a comprehensive list of commercially available bioaerosol samplers see Grinshpun et al.(2007). Sample processingOnce samples have been collected,choosing the appro-priate analytical technique is important in order to best answer the question of interest.One of the most popular methods to assess microbial populations in aerosol samples has been the use of culture-based techniques.Culture-based techniques were employed in89%of the studies reported here(Table1).As mentioned above,culture-based tech-niques can drastically underestimate the microbial popu-lations in environmental samples as less than10%of the populations may be culturable.In order to improve microorganism detection,some studies have combined the use of culture techniques with other methods such as PCR (16%),microscopy(16%),denaturing gradient gel elec-trophoresis(DGGE,5%),and immunoassays(5%).Sample preparation is important for all of these techniques,as microorganism populations in bioaerosol samples tend to be small and,therefore,concentration of samples is essential.The most commonly used sample preparation methods compatible with the molecular characterization of bioaerosols can be found below.1508World J Microbiol Biotechnol(2009)25:1505–1518 123Concentration andfilter elutionAfter bioaerosols are collected in a liquid impingement solution,it is necessary to concentrate the microorganisms before molecular methods,such as PCR,can be performed. This is necessary because the impingement solution usually contains a relatively low microbial concentration,which must be maximized to ensure sensitivity and quantification for PCR are achieved.A variety offilter materials have been tested for their compatibility with PCR(Table2)such as polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),polycarbonate,polyvi-nylidene difluoride,nylon,mixed cellulose ester,and nitrocellulose(Bej et al.1991a).Bej et al.(1991a)reported that PCR was not inhibited by the presence of PTFE and polyvinylidene difluoridefilters,with PTFE giving the greatest sensitivity,but was inhibited by polycarbonate, nitrocellulose,and cellulose acetatefilters.Both Nytran (Alvarez et al.1994)and nitrocellulose(Toranzos and Alvarez1992)filters have been successfully used in solid-phase PCR,where cell lysis and PCR amplification are performed on the membrane.Since DNA does bind to somefilters,it is recommended that allfilters be removed before cell lysis and PCR amplification.Filter materials that have been successfully used in PCR-based bioaerosol studies using liquid samples from glass impingers are Nytran(Alvarez et al.1994), polycarbonate(Paez-Rubio et al.2005),nylon(Alvarez et al.1995),and Teflon(Alvarez et al.1995).Aerosol samples can also be directly impinged ontofilters for subsequent PCR analysis;filters used for this purpose are tracked-etched polyester(Wilson et al.2002a),polycar-bonate(Zeng et al.2004),and polyethersulfone(Sta¨rk et al.1998).Thefilters are added to sterile distilled water (Alvarez et al.1995)or buffer solution(Wilson et al. 2002a;Zeng et al.2004;Paez-Rubio et al.2005)and then the microorganisms are eluted via agitation such as vor-texing,shaking,or sonication.Cell lysis and nucleic acid purificationAfter elution,thefilter is removed and the cells are then prepared for lysis,which can be performed either through physical,chemical,or enzymatic methods.Physical meth-ods include bead beating,sonication,microwave heating, and thermal shock(Roose-Amsaleg et al.2001),but bead beating and sonication can cause significant DNA shearing (Picard et al.1992;Miller et al.1999;Bu¨rgmann et al. 2001).Freeze-thaw lysis has been shown to release70–75% of DNA in bacterial cells after one cycle with complete lysis within six cycles(Bej et al.1991b).Chemical lysis,either alone or in combination with enzymatic methods,has been used extensively.The most widely used detergent is sodium dodecyl sulfate(SDS),whose function is to break up and dissolve cell wall lipids.Detergents are used in combination with heat treatments and chelating agents(e.g.,EDTA)and various buffers(Tris and phosphate).In addition to a detergent,many protocols include enzymatic lysis.Lyso-zyme is a commonly used lytic enzyme that breaks the b-1,4-glycosidic bonds between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid in peptidoglycan,thereby weakening the cell wall.Some proteases,like proteinase K,are also used to remove contaminating proteins(e.g.,nucleases)that might otherwise degrade nucleic acids during purification. The protease,achromopeptidase,has been used withTable2Filters utilized for preparation of bioaerosol samples for molecular methods including thefilter type,type of sample,and the methods used for sample preparation and analysisFilter Sample type Methods ReferencesPolytetrafluoroethylene, Polyvinylidenedifluoride Bacterial cells in watercollected onfiltersFreeze thaw lysis of cells fromfiltered samples,PCR DNA amplification withfilters presentBej et al.1991a,bPolycarbonate Direct impingement ofbioaerosols onfilter Filters washed in buffer to remove bacteria,DNAextraction(chemical/enzymatic),RT-PCRZeng et al.2004Polycarbonate Bioaerosols collected in liquidimpingers andfiltered Impinger solutionfiltered,DNA extraction,PCR,cloning,sequencingPaez-Rubio et al.2005Track etched polyester Direct impingement ofbioaerosols onfilter Filters washed in buffer to remove bacteria,DNAextraction(physical/chemical/enzymatic),microarray analysisWilson et al.2002aMixed cellulose nylon Bioaerosols collected in liquidimpingers andfiltered Cell lysis and DNA extraction(chemical/enzymatic)performed onfilters,solid-phasePCR used for amplificationAlvarez et al.1994Nitrocellulose Filtration of bacterial cells inwater Cell lysis and DNA extraction(chemical/enzymatic)performed onfilters,solid-phasePCR used for amplificationToranzos andAlvarez1992Polyethersulfone Direct impingement ofbioaerosols onfilter Filters were dried and dissolved in chloroform,DNA extraction(chemical),nested PCR assaySta¨rk et al.1998World J Microbiol Biotechnol(2009)25:1505–15181509123lysozyme to increase the lysis of anaerobic Gram-positive cocci(Ezaki and Suzuki1982)and extraction efficiency of nucleic acids from Frankia(Simonet et al.1984).Detailed methods on the extraction and purification of nucleic acids can be found in Sambrook and Russell(2001) and Ausubel et al.(2002).Purification of nucleic acids in bacterial lysates is generally accomplished byfirst mixing with equal volumes of phenol and chloroform.Phenol is used because it removes the proteins from the aqueous phase;chloroform is generally not necessary,but it is used to remove residual phenol from the aqueous phase.The nucleic acids are then precipitated from the aqueous phase by additions of ethanol and collected by centrifugation. The nucleic acids can then be dissolved in buffer(e.g., Tris-EDTA)and stored at-20°C.Alternatively,nucleic acids can be purified using the many commercially avail-able spin column formats that utilize silica-nucleic acid binding(Qiagen,Inc.,Fremont,CA,USA;Mo Bio Labo-ratories,Carlsbad,CA,USA;Promega,Inc.,Madison,WI, USA;MP Biomedicals,Solon,OH,USA;Invitrogen,Inc., Carlsbad,CA,USA).As a result,the spin kits require no phenol or chloroform purification or alcohol precipitation. After the silica-based membrane has been loaded with cell lysate,the DNA or RNA is cleaned by rinsing with an ethanol-containing buffer,and then eluted using a small volume of buffer or water.The characterization of airborne microorganisms Culture versus molecular-based approachesMany of the available bioaerosol sampling methods rely on culture-based techniques for the characterization and quantification of airborne microorganisms.Microorgan-isms(fungi and bacteria)that are collected on a nutrient agar surface by impaction can be cultivated directly. However,only those cells which survive,reproduce,and produce visible colonies under the specified culture con-ditions will be enumerated.The disadvantage of culture-based techniques is that not all microorganisms are cul-turable,while they still may be viable(Heidelberg et al. 1997).This could lead to an underestimation of the total microorganism concentration in the aerosol sample.With culture-based techniques,non-culturable microorganisms and their associated byproducts that may cause health effects will go undetected.While liquid samples from impingers are commonly used for culture-based analyses, they can also be analyzed by microscopy to determine total microorganism concentrations or by biochemical,immu-nological,and molecular assays to detect specific micro-organisms,both culturable and non-culturable(Cruz and Buttner2007).As an alternative to culture-based techniques,the detection of microorganisms in aerosols by PCR has become increasingly popular over the last two decades (Alvarez et al.1994;Wakefield1996;Sta¨rk et al.1998; Olsson et al.1998;Williams et al.2001;Wu et al.2003; Zeng et al.2004;Paez-Rubio et al.2005;An et al.2006) allowing for the detection of target nucleic acid sequences, thereby eliminating the need to cultivate microorganisms for their detection and identification.This is particularly useful for microorganisms that are difficult to culture,slow growing or have never been cultured before,providing increased sensitivity over traditional culture-based methods (Josephson et al.1993;Alvarez et al.1994).A limitation of the PCR assay,however,is the inability to distinguish between non-viable and viable microorganisms.While non-viable pathogenic microorganisms do not present an infectious disease risk,the presence of their DNA in a sample will often produce a positive PCR result.Therefore, one cannot truly determine if the positive result represents a potential disease threat if the viability of the microor-ganisms in the original sample was unknown.A positive detect for targeted microorganisms only means that a sample contains viable or non-viable cells or both.Non-quantitative PCRTraditional PCR involves the separation of DNA(usually a specific gene or portion of a gene)into two strands,the annealing of oligonucleotide primers to the template DNA, and then the primer-template is elongated by use of a DNA polymerase enzyme(e.g.,Taq polymerase).During PCR, each of the steps is accomplished by regulating the tem-perature of the reaction and,as a result,multiple copies of the template are produced.Guidance on the optimization of PCR can be found in several laboratory manuals(Weiss-ensteiner et al.2003;Hughes and Moody2007).By using carefully designed primers,the genetic sequence of a specific microorganism or microbial function can be tar-geted and amplified.If ribonucleic acid(RNA)is targeted, then the RNA must be converted into complementary DNA (cDNA)through a reverse transcription process,after which the resultant cDNA is PCR amplified.One advan-tage of targeting RNA(e.g.,mRNA)is that it has a very short half-life and,therefore,it is a good indicator of viable microorganisms(Bej et al.1991b).The amplified DNA is visualized most often by running the samples in an electrophoresis gel(e.g.,agarose or polyacrylamide),staining the DNA within the gel with ethidium bromide,and viewing the separated DNA under UV light.A standard molecular weight marker is run along side the samples so the size of the DNA can be determined. The amplified DNA can also be processed for genetic fingerprinting,clone library analysis,and microarray1510World J Microbiol Biotechnol(2009)25:1505–1518 123。
微生物英文文献阅读
Increase minerals (N, P, K and Mg), and both Chl inhibiting spore biosynthesis and germination the photosynthetic activity ， accumulation of metabolites. 8h S+T > Ex1 +Ex2
Influence of Plant Extracts and Microbioagents on Physiological Traits of Faba Bean Infected with Botrytis fabae(蚕豆葡萄孢盘菌)
CONTENTS
1 2 ABSTRACT BACKGROUND
16h Ex1 +Ex2 > S+T The efficiency test+Ex2 biocontrol agents seemed to be in the 4 days S+T of > Ex1 > T > Ex2 > Ex1 = S
order: T+S > Ex1 +Ex2 > T > S > Ex2 > Ex1.
3.2 Preparation of B. fabae Spore Suspension
Isolated from the infected faba bean leaves—Identified—PDA medium—the spores（4 x 104 CFU m-1）
吴冰月
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Greenhouse experiments Laboratory experiments Reduce the activities of peroxidase(过氧化物酶), catalase
微生物英文文献及翻译—原文
Dynamic and distribution of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria communities during sludge granulation in an anaerobic e aerobic sequencing batch reactorZhang Bin a ,b ,Chen Zhe a ,b ,Qiu Zhigang a ,b ,Jin Min a ,b ,Chen Zhiqiang a ,b ,Chen Zhaoli a ,b ,Li Junwen a ,b ,Wang Xuan c ,*,Wang Jingfeng a ,b ,**aInstitute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine,Academy of Military Medical Sciences,Tianjin 300050,PR China bTianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment and Food Safety,Tianjin 300050,PR China cTianjin Key Laboratory of Hollow Fiber Membrane Material and Membrane Process,Institute of Biological and Chemical Engineering,Tianjin Polytechnical University,Tianjin 300160,PR Chinaa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 30June 2011Received in revised form 10September 2011Accepted 10September 2011Available online xxx Keywords:Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria Granular sludgeCommunity development Granule sizeNitrifying bacteria distribution Phylogenetic diversitya b s t r a c tThe structure dynamic of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB)community and the distribution of AOB and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB)in granular sludge from an anaerobic e aerobic sequencing batch reactor (SBR)were investigated.A combination of process studies,molecular biotechniques and microscale techniques were employed to identify and characterize these organisms.The AOB community structure in granules was substantially different from that of the initial pattern of the inoculants sludge.Along with granules formation,the AOB diversity declined due to the selection pressure imposed by process conditions.Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)and sequencing results demonstrated that most of Nitrosomonas in the inoculating sludge were remained because of their ability to rapidly adapt to the settling e washing out action.Furthermore,DGGE analysis revealed that larger granules benefit more AOB species surviving in the reactor.In the SBR were various size granules coexisted,granule diameter affected the distribution range of AOB and NOB.Small and medium granules (d <0.6mm)cannot restrict oxygen mass transfer in all spaces of the rger granules (d >0.9mm)can result in smaller aerobic volume fraction and inhibition of NOB growth.All these observations provide support to future studies on the mechanisms responsible for the AOB in granules systems.ª2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionAt sufficiently high levels,ammonia in aquatic environments can be toxic to aquatic life and can contribute to eutrophica-tion.Accordingly,biodegradation and elimination of ammonia in wastewater are the primary functions of thewastewater treatment process.Nitrification,the conversion of ammonia to nitrate via nitrite,is an important way to remove ammonia nitrogen.It is a two-step process catalyzed by ammonia-oxidizing and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (AOB and NOB).Aerobic ammonia-oxidation is often the first,rate-limiting step of nitrification;however,it is essential for the*Corresponding author .**Corresponding author.Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine,Academy of Military Medical Sciences,Tianjin 300050,PR China.Tel.:+862284655498;fax:+862223328809.E-mail addresses:wangxuan0116@ (W.Xuan),jingfengwang@ (W.Jingfeng).Available online atjournal homepage:/locate/watresw a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x (2011)1e 100043-1354/$e see front matter ª2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.09.026removal of ammonia from the wastewater(Prosser and Nicol, 2008).Comparative analyses of16S rRNA sequences have revealed that most AOB in activated sludge are phylogeneti-cally closely related to the clade of b-Proteobacteria (Kowalchuk and Stephen,2001).However,a number of studies have suggested that there are physiological and ecological differences between different AOB genera and lineages,and that environmental factors such as process parameter,dis-solved oxygen,salinity,pH,and concentrations of free ammonia can impact certain species of AOB(Erguder et al., 2008;Kim et al.,2006;Koops and Pommerening-Ro¨ser,2001; Kowalchuk and Stephen,2001;Shi et al.,2010).Therefore, the physiological activity and abundance of AOB in waste-water processing is critical in the design and operation of waste treatment systems.For this reason,a better under-standing of the ecology and microbiology of AOB in waste-water treatment systems is necessary to enhance treatment performance.Recently,several developed techniques have served as valuable tools for the characterization of microbial diversity in biological wastewater treatment systems(Li et al., 2008;Yin and Xu,2009).Currently,the application of molec-ular biotechniques can provide clarification of the ammonia-oxidizing community in detail(Haseborg et al.,2010;Tawan et al.,2005;Vlaeminck et al.,2010).In recent years,the aerobic granular sludge process has become an attractive alternative to conventional processes for wastewater treatment mainly due to its cell immobilization strategy(de Bruin et al.,2004;Liu et al.,2009;Schwarzenbeck et al.,2005;Schwarzenbeck et al.,2004a,b;Xavier et al.,2007). Granules have a more tightly compact structure(Li et al.,2008; Liu and Tay,2008;Wang et al.,2004)and rapid settling velocity (Kong et al.,2009;Lemaire et al.,2008).Therefore,granular sludge systems have a higher mixed liquid suspended sludge (MLSS)concentration and longer solid retention times(SRT) than conventional activated sludge systems.Longer SRT can provide enough time for the growth of organisms that require a long generation time(e.g.,AOB).Some studies have indicated that nitrifying granules can be cultivated with ammonia-rich inorganic wastewater and the diameter of granules was small (Shi et al.,2010;Tsuneda et al.,2003).Other researchers reported that larger granules have been developed with the synthetic organic wastewater in sequencing batch reactors(SBRs)(Li et al., 2008;Liu and Tay,2008).The diverse populations of microor-ganisms that coexist in granules remove the chemical oxygen demand(COD),nitrogen and phosphate(de Kreuk et al.,2005). However,for larger granules with a particle diameter greater than0.6mm,an outer aerobic shell and an inner anaerobic zone coexist because of restricted oxygen diffusion to the granule core.These properties of granular sludge suggest that the inner environment of granules is unfavorable to AOB growth.Some research has shown that particle size and density induced the different distribution and dominance of AOB,NOB and anam-mox(Winkler et al.,2011b).Although a number of studies have been conducted to assess the ecology and microbiology of AOB in wastewater treatment systems,the information on the dynamics,distribution,and quantification of AOB communities during sludge granulation is still limited up to now.To address these concerns,the main objective of the present work was to investigate the population dynamics of AOB communities during the development of seedingflocs into granules,and the distribution of AOB and NOB in different size granules from an anaerobic e aerobic SBR.A combination of process studies,molecular biotechniques and microscale techniques were employed to identify and char-acterize these organisms.Based on these approaches,we demonstrate the differences in both AOB community evolu-tion and composition of theflocs and granules co-existing in the SBR and further elucidate the relationship between distribution of nitrifying bacteria and granule size.It is ex-pected that the work would be useful to better understand the mechanisms responsible for the AOB in granules and apply them for optimal control and management strategies of granulation systems.2.Material and methods2.1.Reactor set-up and operationThe granules were cultivated in a lab-scale SBR with an effective volume of4L.The effective diameter and height of the reactor was10cm and51cm,respectively.The hydraulic retention time was set at8h.Activated sludge from a full-scale sewage treat-ment plant(Jizhuangzi Sewage Treatment Works,Tianjin, China)was used as the seed sludge for the reactor at an initial sludge concentration of3876mg LÀ1in MLSS.The reactor was operated on6-h cycles,consisting of2-min influent feeding,90-min anaerobic phase(mixing),240-min aeration phase and5-min effluent discharge periods.The sludge settling time was reduced gradually from10to5min after80SBR cycles in20days, and only particles with a settling velocity higher than4.5m hÀ1 were retained in the reactor.The composition of the influent media were NaAc(450mg LÀ1),NH4Cl(100mg LÀ1),(NH4)2SO4 (10mg LÀ1),KH2PO4(20mg LÀ1),MgSO4$7H2O(50mg LÀ1),KCl (20mg LÀ1),CaCl2(20mg LÀ1),FeSO4$7H2O(1mg LÀ1),pH7.0e7.5, and0.1mL LÀ1trace element solution(Li et al.,2007).Analytical methods-The total organic carbon(TOC),NHþ4e N, NOÀ2e N,NOÀ3e N,total nitrogen(TN),total phosphate(TP) concentration,mixed liquid suspended solids(MLSS) concentration,and sludge volume index at10min(SVI10)were measured regularly according to the standard methods (APHA-AWWA-WEF,2005).Sludge size distribution was determined by the sieving method(Laguna et al.,1999).Screening was performed with four stainless steel sieves of5cm diameter having respective mesh openings of0.9,0.6,0.45,and0.2mm.A100mL volume of sludge from the reactor was sampled with a calibrated cylinder and then deposited on the0.9mm mesh sieve.The sample was subsequently washed with distilled water and particles less than0.9mm in diameter passed through this sieve to the sieves with smaller openings.The washing procedure was repeated several times to separate the gran-ules.The granules collected on the different screens were recovered by backwashing with distilled water.Each fraction was collected in a different beaker andfiltered on quantitative filter paper to determine the total suspended solid(TSS).Once the amount of total suspended solid(TSS)retained on each sieve was acquired,it was reasonable to determine for each class of size(<0.2,[0.2e0.45],[0.45e0.6],[0.6e0.9],>0.9mm) the percentage of the total weight that they represent.w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x(2011)1e10 22.2.DNA extraction and nested PCR e DGGEThe sludge from approximately8mg of MLSS was transferred into a1.5-mL Eppendorf tube and then centrifuged at14,000g for10min.The supernatant was removed,and the pellet was added to1mL of sodium phosphate buffer solution and aseptically mixed with a sterilized pestle in order to detach granules.Genomic DNA was extracted from the pellets using E.Z.N.A.äSoil DNA kit(D5625-01,Omega Bio-tek Inc.,USA).To amplify ammonia-oxidizer specific16S rRNA for dena-turing gradient gel electrophoresis(DGGE),a nested PCR approach was performed as described previously(Zhang et al., 2010).30m l of nested PCR amplicons(with5m l6Âloading buffer)were loaded and separated by DGGE on polyacrylamide gels(8%,37.5:1acrylamide e bisacrylamide)with a linear gradient of35%e55%denaturant(100%denaturant¼7M urea plus40%formamide).The gel was run for6.5h at140V in 1ÂTAE buffer(40mM Tris-acetate,20mM sodium acetate, 1mM Na2EDTA,pH7.4)maintained at60 C(DCodeäUniversal Mutation Detection System,Bio-Rad,Hercules,CA, USA).After electrophoresis,silver-staining and development of the gels were performed as described by Sanguinetti et al. (1994).These were followed by air-drying and scanning with a gel imaging analysis system(Image Quant350,GE Inc.,USA). The gel images were analyzed with the software Quantity One,version4.31(Bio-rad).Dice index(Cs)of pair wise community similarity was calculated to evaluate the similarity of the AOB community among DGGE lanes(LaPara et al.,2002).This index ranges from0%(no common band)to100%(identical band patterns) with the assistance of Quantity One.The Shannon diversity index(H)was used to measure the microbial diversity that takes into account the richness and proportion of each species in a population.H was calculatedusing the following equation:H¼ÀPn iNlogn iN,where n i/Nis the proportion of community made up by species i(bright-ness of the band i/total brightness of all bands in the lane).Dendrograms relating band pattern similarities were automatically calculated without band weighting(consider-ation of band density)by the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean(UPGMA)algorithms in the Quantity One software.Prominent DGGE bands were excised and dissolved in30m L Milli-Q water overnight,at4 C.DNA was recovered from the gel by freeze e thawing thrice.Cloning and sequencing of the target DNA fragments were conducted following the estab-lished method(Zhang et al.,2010).2.3.Distribution of nitrifying bacteriaThree classes of size([0.2e0.45],[0.45e0.6],>0.9mm)were chosen on day180for FISH analysis in order to investigate the spatial distribution characteristics of AOB and NOB in granules.2mg sludge samples werefixed in4%para-formaldehyde solution for16e24h at4 C and then washed twice with sodium phosphate buffer;the samples were dehydrated in50%,80%and100%ethanol for10min each. Ethanol in the granules was then completely replaced by xylene by serial immersion in ethanol-xylene solutions of3:1, 1:1,and1:3by volume andfinally in100%xylene,for10min periods at room temperature.Subsequently,the granules were embedded in paraffin(m.p.56e58 C)by serial immer-sion in1:1xylene-paraffin for30min at60 C,followed by 100%paraffin.After solidification in paraffin,8-m m-thick sections were prepared and placed on gelatin-coated micro-scopic slides.Paraffin was removed by immersing the slide in xylene and ethanol for30min each,followed by air-drying of the slides.The three oligonucleotide probes were used for hybridiza-tion(Downing and Nerenberg,2008):FITC-labeled Nso190, which targets the majority of AOB;TRITC-labeled NIT3,which targets Nitrobacter sp.;TRITC-labeled NSR1156,which targets Nitrospira sp.All probe sequences,their hybridization condi-tions,and washing conditions are given in Table1.Oligonu-cleotides were synthesized andfluorescently labeled with fluorochomes by Takara,Inc.(Dalian,China).Hybridizations were performed at46 C for2h with a hybridization buffer(0.9M NaCl,formamide at the percentage shown in Table1,20mM Tris/HCl,pH8.0,0.01% SDS)containing each labeled probe(5ng m LÀ1).After hybrid-ization,unbound oligonucleotides were removed by a strin-gent washing step at48 C for15min in washing buffer containing the same components as the hybridization buffer except for the probes.For detection of all DNA,4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)was diluted with methanol to afinal concentration of1ng m LÀ1.Cover the slides with DAPI e methanol and incubate for15min at37 C.The slides were subsequently washed once with methanol,rinsed briefly with ddH2O and immediately air-dried.Vectashield(Vector Laboratories)was used to prevent photo bleaching.The hybridization images were captured using a confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM,Zeiss710).A total of10images were captured for each probe at each class of size.The representative images were selected andfinal image evaluation was done in Adobe PhotoShop.w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x(2011)1e1033.Results3.1.SBR performance and granule characteristicsDuring the startup period,the reactor removed TOC and NH 4þ-N efficiently.98%of NH 4þ-N and 100%of TOC were removed from the influent by day 3and day 5respectively (Figs.S2,S3,Supporting information ).Removal of TN and TP were lower during this period (Figs.S3,S4,Supporting information ),though the removal of TP gradually improved to 100%removal by day 33(Fig.S4,Supporting information ).To determine the sludge volume index of granular sludge,a settling time of 10min was chosen instead of 30min,because granular sludge has a similar SVI after 60min and after 5min of settling (Schwarzenbeck et al.,2004b ).The SVI 10of the inoculating sludge was 108.2mL g À1.The changing patterns of MLSS and SVI 10in the continuous operation of the SBR are illustrated in Fig.1.The sludge settleability increased markedly during the set-up period.Fig.2reflects the slow andgradual process of sludge granulation,i.e.,from flocculentsludge to granules.3.2.DGGE analysis:AOB communities structure changes during sludge granulationThe results of nested PCR were shown in Fig.S1.The well-resolved DGGE bands were obtained at the representative points throughout the GSBR operation and the patterns revealed that the structure of the AOB communities was dynamic during sludge granulation and stabilization (Fig.3).The community structure at the end of experiment was different from that of the initial pattern of the seed sludge.The AOB communities on day 1showed 40%similarity only to that at the end of the GSBR operation (Table S1,Supporting information ),indicating the considerable difference of AOB communities structures between inoculated sludge and granular sludge.Biodiversity based on the DGGE patterns was analyzed by calculating the Shannon diversity index H as204060801001201401254159738494104115125135147160172188Time (d)S V I 10 (m L .g -1)10002000300040005000600070008000900010000M L S S (m g .L -1)Fig.1e Change in biomass content and SVI 10during whole operation.SVI,sludge volume index;MLSS,mixed liquid suspendedsolids.Fig.2e Variation in granule size distribution in the sludge during operation.d,particle diameter;TSS,total suspended solids.w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x (2011)1e 104shown in Fig.S5.In the phase of sludge inoculation (before day 38),H decreased remarkably (from 0.94to 0.75)due to the absence of some species in the reactor.Though several dominant species (bands2,7,10,11)in the inoculating sludge were preserved,many bands disappeared or weakened (bands 3,4,6,8,13,14,15).After day 45,the diversity index tended to be stable and showed small fluctuation (from 0.72to 0.82).Banding pattern similarity was analyzed by applying UPGMA (Fig.4)algorithms.The UPGMA analysis showed three groups with intragroup similarity at approximately 67%e 78%and intergroup similarity at 44e 62%.Generally,the clustering followed the time course;and the algorithms showed a closer clustering of groups II and III.In the analysis,group I was associated with sludge inoculation and washout,group IIwithFig.3e DGGE profile of the AOB communities in the SBR during the sludge granulation process (lane labels along the top show the sampling time (days)from startup of the bioreactor).The major bands were labeled with the numbers (bands 1e15).Fig.4e UPGMA analysis dendrograms of AOB community DGGE banding patterns,showing schematics of banding patterns.Roman numerals indicate major clusters.w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x (2011)1e 105startup sludge granulation and decreasing SVI 10,and group III with a stable system and excellent biomass settleability.In Fig.3,the locations of the predominant bands were excised from the gel.DNA in these bands were reamplified,cloned and sequenced.The comparative analysis of these partial 16S rRNA sequences (Table 2and Fig.S6)revealed the phylogenetic affiliation of 13sequences retrieved.The majority of the bacteria in seed sludge grouped with members of Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira .Along with sludge granula-tion,most of Nitrosomonas (Bands 2,5,7,9,10,11)were remained or eventually became dominant in GSBR;however,all of Nitrosospira (Bands 6,13,15)were gradually eliminated from the reactor.3.3.Distribution of AOB and NOB in different sized granulesFISH was performed on the granule sections mainly to deter-mine the location of AOB and NOB within the different size classes of granules,and the images were not further analyzed for quantification of cell counts.As shown in Fig.6,in small granules (0.2mm <d <0.45mm),AOB located mainly in the outer part of granular space,whereas NOB were detected only in the core of granules.In medium granules (0.45mm <d <0.6mm),AOB distributed evenly throughout the whole granular space,whereas NOB still existed in the inner part.In the larger granules (d >0.9mm),AOB and NOB were mostly located in the surface area of the granules,and moreover,NOB became rare.4.Discussion4.1.Relationship between granule formation and reactor performanceAfter day 32,the SVI 10stabilized at 20e 35mL g À1,which is very low compared to the values measured for activated sludge (100e 150mL g À1).However,the size distribution of the granules measured on day 32(Fig.2)indicated that only 22%of the biomass was made of granular sludge with diameter largerthan 0.2mm.These results suggest that sludge settleability increased prior to granule formation and was not affected by different particle sizes in the sludge during the GSBR operation.It was observed,however,that the diameter of the granules fluctuated over longer durations.The large granules tended to destabilize due to endogenous respiration,and broke into smaller granules that could seed the formation of large granules again.Pochana and Keller reported that physically broken sludge flocs contribute to lower denitrification rates,due to their reduced anoxic zone (Pochana and Keller,1999).Therefore,TN removal efficiency raises fluctuantly throughout the experiment.Some previous research had demonstrated that bigger,more dense granules favored the enrichment of PAO (Winkler et al.,2011a ).Hence,after day 77,removal efficiency of TP was higher and relatively stable because the granules mass fraction was over 90%and more larger granules formed.4.2.Relationship between AOB communities dynamic and sludge granulationFor granule formation,a short settling time was set,and only particles with a settling velocity higher than 4.5m h À1were retained in the reactor.Moreover,as shown in Fig.1,the variation in SVI 10was greater before day 41(from 108.2mL g À1e 34.1mL g À1).During this phase,large amounts of biomass could not survive in the reactor.A clear shift in pop-ulations was evident,with 58%similarity between days 8and 18(Table S1).In the SBR system fed with acetate-based synthetic wastewater,heterotrophic bacteria can produce much larger amounts of extracellular polysaccharides than autotrophic bacteria (Tsuneda et al.,2003).Some researchers found that microorganisms in high shear environments adhered by extracellular polymeric substances (EPS)to resist the damage of suspended cells by environmental forces (Trinet et al.,1991).Additionally,it had been proved that the dominant heterotrophic species in the inoculating sludge were preserved throughout the process in our previous research (Zhang et al.,2011).It is well known that AOB are chemoau-totrophic and slow-growing;accordingly,numerous AOBw a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x (2011)1e 106populations that cannot become big and dense enough to settle fast were washed out from the system.As a result,the variation in AOB was remarkable in the period of sludge inoculation,and the diversity index of population decreased rapidly.After day 45,AOB communities’structure became stable due to the improvement of sludge settleability and the retention of more biomass.These results suggest that the short settling time (selection pressure)apparently stressed the biomass,leading to a violent dynamic of AOB communities.Further,these results suggest that certain populations may have been responsible for the operational success of the GSBR and were able to persist despite the large fluctuations in pop-ulation similarity.This bacterial population instability,coupled with a generally acceptable bioreactor performance,is congruent with the results obtained from a membrane biore-actor (MBR)for graywater treatment (Stamper et al.,2003).Nitrosomonas e like and Nitrosospira e like populations are the dominant AOB populations in wastewater treatment systems (Kowalchuk and Stephen,2001).A few previous studies revealed that the predominant populations in AOB communities are different in various wastewater treatment processes (Tawan et al.,2005;Thomas et al.,2010).Some researchers found that the community was dominated by AOB from the genus Nitrosospira in MBRs (Zhang et al.,2010),whereas Nitrosomonas sp.is the predominant population in biofilter sludge (Yin and Xu,2009).In the currentstudy,Fig.5e DGGE profile of the AOB communities in different size of granules (lane labels along the top show the range of particle diameter (d,mm)).Values along the bottom indicate the Shannon diversity index (H ).Bands labeled with the numbers were consistent with the bands in Fig.3.w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x (2011)1e 107sequence analysis revealed that selection pressure evidently effect on the survival of Nitrosospira in granular sludge.Almost all of Nitrosospira were washed out initially and had no chance to evolve with the environmental changes.However,some members of Nitrosomonas sp.have been shown to produce more amounts of EPS than Nitrosospira ,especially under limited ammonia conditions (Stehr et al.,1995);and this feature has also been observed for other members of the same lineage.Accordingly,these EPS are helpful to communicate cells with each other and granulate sludge (Adav et al.,2008).Therefore,most of Nitrosomonas could adapt to this challenge (to become big and dense enough to settle fast)and were retained in the reactor.At the end of reactor operation (day 180),granules with different particle size were sieved.The effects of variation in granules size on the composition of the AOBcommunitiesFig.6e Micrographs of FISH performed on three size classes of granule sections.DAPI stain micrographs (A,D,G);AOB appear as green fluorescence (B,E,H),and NOB appear as red fluorescence (C,F,I).Bar [100m m in (A)e (C)and (G)e (I).d,particle diameter.(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x (2011)1e 108were investigated.As shown in Fig.5,AOB communities structures in different size of granules were varied.Although several predominant bands(bands2,5,11)were present in all samples,only bands3and6appeared in the granules with diameters larger than0.6mm.Additionally,bands7and10 were intense in the granules larger than0.45mm.According to Table2,it can be clearly indicated that Nitrosospira could be retained merely in the granules larger than0.6mm.Therefore, Nitrosospira was not present at a high level in Fig.3due to the lower proportion of larger granules(d>0.6mm)in TSS along with reactor operation.DGGE analysis also revealed that larger granules had a greater microbial diversity than smaller ones. This result also demonstrates that more organisms can survive in larger granules as a result of more space,which can provide the suitable environment for the growth of microbes(Fig.6).4.3.Effect of variance in particle size on the distribution of AOB and NOB in granulesAlthough an influence of granule size has been observed in experiments and simulations for simultaneous N-and P-removal(de Kreuk et al.,2007),the effect of granule size on the distribution of different biomass species need be revealed further with the assistance of visible experimental results, especially in the same granular sludge reactors.Related studies on the diversity of bacterial communities in granular sludge often focus on the distribution of important functional bacteria populations in single-size granules(Matsumoto et al., 2010).In the present study,different size granules were sieved,and the distribution patterns of AOB and NOB were explored.In the nitrification processes considered,AOB and NOB compete for space and oxygen in the granules(Volcke et al.,2010).Since ammonium oxidizers have a higheroxygen affinity(K AOBO2<K NOBO2)and accumulate more rapidly inthe reactor than nitrite oxidizers(Volcke et al.,2010),NOB are located just below the layer of AOB,where still some oxygen is present and allows ready access to the nitrite produced.In smaller granules,the location boundaries of the both biomass species were distinct due to the limited existence space provided by granules for both microorganism’s growth.AOB exist outside of the granules where oxygen and ammonia are present.Medium granules can provide broader space for microbe multiplying;accordingly,AOB spread out in the whole granules.This result also confirms that oxygen could penetrate deep into the granule’s core without restriction when particle diameter is less than0.6mm.Some mathematic model also supposed that NOBs are favored to grow in smaller granules because of the higher fractional aerobic volume (Volcke et al.,2010).As shown in the results of the batch experiments(Zhang et al.,2011),nitrite accumulation temporarily occurred,accompanied by the more large gran-ules(d>0.9mm)forming.This phenomenon can be attrib-uted to the increased ammonium surface load associated with larger granules and smaller aerobic volume fraction,resulting in outcompetes of NOB.It also suggests that the core areas of large granules(d>0.9mm)could provide anoxic environment for the growth of anaerobic denitrificans(such as Tb.deni-trificans or Tb.thioparus in Fig.S7,Supporting information).As shown in Fig.2and Fig.S3,the removal efficiency of total nitrogen increased with formation of larger granules.5.ConclusionsThe variation in AOB communities’structure was remarkable during sludge inoculation,and the diversity index of pop-ulation decreased rapidly.Most of Nitrosomonas in the inocu-lating sludge were retained because of their capability to rapidly adapt to the settling e washing out action.DGGE anal-ysis also revealed that larger granules had greater AOB diversity than that of smaller ones.Oxygen penetration was not restricted in the granules of less than0.6mm particle diameter.However,the larger granules(d>0.9mm)can result in the smaller aerobic volume fraction and inhibition of NOB growth.Henceforth,further studies on controlling and opti-mizing distribution of granule size could be beneficial to the nitrogen removal and expansive application of granular sludge technology.AcknowledgmentsThis work was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.51108456,50908227)and the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China(No.2009AA06Z312).Appendix.Supplementary dataSupplementary data associated with this article can be found in online version at doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.09.026.r e f e r e n c e sAdav,S.S.,Lee, D.J.,Show,K.Y.,2008.Aerobic granular sludge:recent advances.Biotechnology Advances26,411e423.APHA-AWWA-WEF,2005.Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,first ed.American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/WaterEnvironment Federation,Washington,DC.de Bruin,L.M.,de Kreuk,M.,van der Roest,H.F.,Uijterlinde,C., van Loosdrecht,M.C.M.,2004.Aerobic granular sludgetechnology:an alternative to activated sludge?Water Science and Technology49,1e7.de Kreuk,M.,Heijnen,J.J.,van Loosdrecht,M.C.M.,2005.Simultaneous COD,nitrogen,and phosphate removal byaerobic granular sludge.Biotechnology and Bioengineering90, 761e769.de Kreuk,M.,Picioreanu,C.,Hosseini,M.,Xavier,J.B.,van Loosdrecht,M.C.M.,2007.Kinetic model of a granular sludge SBR:influences on nutrient removal.Biotechnology andBioengineering97,801e815.Downing,L.S.,Nerenberg,R.,2008.Total nitrogen removal ina hybrid,membrane-aerated activated sludge process.WaterResearch42,3697e3708.Erguder,T.H.,Boon,N.,Vlaeminck,S.E.,Verstraete,W.,2008.Partial nitrification achieved by pulse sulfide doses ina sequential batch reactor.Environmental Science andTechnology42,8715e8720.w a t e r r e s e a r c h x x x(2011)1e109。
医学常用微生物及寄生虫中英文名称翻译
医学常用微生物及寄生虫中英文名称翻译微生物和寄生虫在医学领域中发挥着重要的作用，对于医疗和研究具有重要意义。
以下是一些常见的微生物和寄生虫的中英文翻译名称：细菌（Bacteria） - 细菌是一类单细胞微生物，具有细胞壁，可以在多种环境中存活和繁殖。
常见的细菌包括：大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli），金黄色葡萄球菌（Staphylococcus aureus），链球菌（Streptococcus）等。
病毒（Virus） - 病毒是一种非细胞性微生物，必须寄生于宿主细胞中才能繁殖。
常见的病毒包括：流感病毒（Influenza virus），艾滋病病毒（HIV），乙肝病毒（Hepatitis B virus）等。
真菌（Fungi） - 真菌是一种多细胞或单细胞微生物，可以通过孢子进行繁殖。
常见的真菌包括：白色念珠菌（Candida albicans），鹅膏菌（Aspergillus）等。
原生动物（Protozoa） - 原生动物是一类单细胞寄生虫，可以寄生于人类或动物的体内。
常见的原生动物包括：疟原虫（Plasmodium），贾第鞭毛虫（Giardia lamblia），阿米巴原虫（Entamoeba histolytica）等。
蠕虫（Helminths） - 蠕虫是一类多细胞寄生虫，分为线虫和扁虫两种，常寄生于人体的消化道或其他组织中。
常见的蠕虫包括：蛔虫（Ascaris lumbricoides），银屑病蠕虫（Schistosoma），肠吸虫（Taenia）等。
疟原虫（Plasmodium）- 疟原虫是一种原生动物，寄生于蚊子体内并通过蚊子叮咬传播给人类。
它是引起疟疾的主要病因之一。
流感病毒（Influenza virus）- 流感病毒属于病毒家族，分为甲、乙、丙三型，是引起流感的主要病原体之一。
艾滋病病毒（HIV） - 艾滋病病毒是一种病毒，感染者会患上艾滋病，该病毒攻击人体免疫系统并逐渐损坏。
关于微生物的英文作文
关于微生物的英文作文Microorganisms: The Hidden World Within.Microorganisms, the tiniest of living organisms,inhabit every conceivable environment on Earth, from the depths of the ocean to the high-altitude atmosphere. Despite their diminutive size, microorganisms play an indispensable role in the functioning of our planet, influencing everything from the cycling of nutrients to the regulation of the climate.Types of Microorganisms.The vast array of microorganisms can be classified into three main types: bacteria, archaea, and protists. Bacteria are single-celled organisms with a simple cell structure, lacking a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Archaea, once classified as bacteria, are now recognized as a distinct group with unique cell structures and genetic makeup. Protists, on the other hand, represent a diversegroup of eukaryotes, characterized by a membrane-bound nucleus and more complex cell structures.Diversity and Distribution.The diversity of microorganisms is staggering, with an estimated 10 million to 1 trillion species existing on Earth. They occupy an incredible range of habitats, from extreme environments like hot springs and acid lakes to the bodies of plants, animals, and humans. Microorganisms are found in soil, water, air, and even on the surface of rocks. Their ubiquitous presence underscores their adaptabilityand resilience.Role in Nutrient Cycling.Microorganisms play a crucial role in the cycling of nutrients, including carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus,within ecosystems. Bacteria and fungi decompose organic matter, breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones that can be taken up by plants. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be usedby plants, a process essential for maintaining soil fertility.Ecological Impact.Microorganisms significantly impact various ecosystems. They are primary producers in many food chains, generating organic matter through photosynthesis or other metabolic processes. Microorganisms also participate in biodegradation, breaking down pollutants and contributing to waste decomposition. Additionally, they influence symbiotic relationships with other organisms, providing nutrients or protection in exchange for shelter or other benefits.Human Health.Microorganisms exert complex effects on human health. Some bacteria, viruses, and protists are pathogenic, causing diseases such as pneumonia, influenza, and malaria. However, many microorganisms also contribute to our well-being. The human microbiome, a vast community ofmicroorganisms residing in and on our bodies, aids in digestion, immune function, and disease resistance.Industrial and Agricultural Applications.Microorganisms have numerous industrial andagricultural applications. Bacteria and fungi are employed in the production of pharmaceuticals, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in the fermentation of food and beverages, such as cheese, yogurt, and beer. In agriculture, microorganisms enhance soil health, improve plant growth through nitrogen fixation, and protect plants from pests and diseases.Environmental Issues.While microorganisms offer many benefits, they can also pose environmental challenges. Harmful algal blooms, caused by excessive growth of algae, can produce toxins that contaminate water supplies and harm aquatic life. Microbial pollution in drinking water systems can lead to waterborne diseases. Furthermore, the release of greenhouse gases bymicroorganisms contributes to climate change.Future Perspectives.Ongoing research continues to illuminate the intricate world of microorganisms. Advancements in sequencing technology have enabled scientists to explore the vast diversity of microorganisms and their role in various environments. Studying microorganisms holds great potential for discovering new antibiotics, developing sustainable agricultural practices, and mitigating the impact of climate change.Conclusion.Microorganisms are the unseen architects of our planet, playing a crucial role in the functioning of ecosystems, influencing human health, and contributing to industrial processes. Their diversity and adaptability have shaped the history of life on Earth and continue to impact our present and future. As we delve deeper into the hidden world of microorganisms, we gain a greater appreciation for theirprofound significance and the interconnectedness of all living organisms.。
【推荐】关于微生物部分英文翻译-范文模板 (2页)
【推荐】关于微生物部分英文翻译-范文模板本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==关于微生物部分英文翻译微生物的英文：microorganism参考例句：microbial insecticide微生物杀虫剂microbial transformation of steroids甾体的微生物转化Microorganisms have a wide taxonomic distribution.微生物在分类学上的分布是很广泛的。
A microorganism,especially a pathogen.一种微生物，尤指病原体Microorganisms have a wide taxonomic distribution.微生物在分类学上的分布是很广泛的。
We can expect to continue hearing of many new advances in work with this organism.我们期待着继续听到有关这种微生物的最新研究进展。
Modern medicine owes a great deal to the discovery of certain tiny disease-carrying organisms.某些传染疾病的微生物的发现，对现代医学的发展作出了巨大的贡献。
A single - celled microorganism,especially a flagellate protozoan of the genus Monas.单胞体单细胞的微生物，尤指单胞虫类的有鞭毛的原生动物A polypeptide antibiotic,produced by the soil microorganism Bacillus brevis,that is a major constituent of tyrothricin.短杆菌酪素一种多肽抗生素，由土壤中的微生物土壤杆菌产生，是混合短杆肽菌的重要组成部分food - borne poisoning microorganism。
微生物翻译
微生物翻译1(总1页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--微生物翻译2919尹炫植SynopsisMicrobiology is the study of microorganisms, which are tiny organisms too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope. The family of microorganisms includes prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and viruses. In general, microorganisms are small, simple, organisms that grow rapidly. Prokaryotes are single-cell organisms, such as bacteria, that have no real nucleus and do not contain membrane-enclosed organelles. Eukaryotes, such as algae, fungi and protozoa, have a real nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Viruses are tiny, complex molecules composed of protein and nucleic acid, that cannot replicate independently off their host cells.The study of microbiology provides an excellent foundation for understanding cell function in higher organisms. Knowledge of microbiology is necessary in problem-solving and dealing with practical issues in medicine, agriculture, industry, and environmental studies.In this chapter we will introduce the study of microbiology as a scientific discipline and review the major historical developments in the field. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the important role that microbiology plays in the life sciences.微生物学是研究不借助显微镜看不到的微小的生物学科。
微生物专题英文文献
班级：生物工程 学生：马春玲 2013年12月13日
LOGO
试验内容
1. Purpose and meaning 2. Introduction 3. Materials and methods
4.5 正交试验结果
Table 5. Results of ortho.1 Trend curve
Fig.2 Relationship between xylanase and time of fermentation in Aspergillus niger N212
通过对出发菌株注入不同剂量的氮离子，低能氮离子 束对菌体细胞均有一定程度的致死和损伤作用，细胞及其 损伤DNA又在其修复系统的作用下得到不同程度的修复， 从而导致黑曲霉孢子的存活率先下降，后上升，然后又下 降，并且菌种的修复出错会使其突变率大大提高，从而提 高了菌株的正突变率，从而确定了氮离子最佳注入参数。 以上试验可以得出最优培养基的组成（即各组分的最 适浓度），而且在以上培养得到了黑曲霉N212（表2），当 它发酵60个小时后酶活达到600IU/ml，比之前未优化的菌 株减少了12个小时，而且相对于原出发菌株酶活增加了100 ％。 试验证明离子注入对微生物进行诱变改良是一种行之 有效的诱变技术。
木聚糖酶是植物细胞壁的主要之一，属 于非淀粉多糖。可作为生物漂白剂用于造纸工 业，也可用于生物转化等等。目前木聚糖酶的 生产主要还依靠真菌。
对于产酶微生物的育种，国外多采用基因工程手段 构建高产菌，而国内多采用传统的诱变方法，如紫外辐 射、化学诱变剂处理等，这些诱变手段获得的突变株一 般稳定性差、容易产生回复突变且负突变较多及诱变选 育的工作量很大，而20世纪80年代末，人们发现离子束 可以引起靶物质原子移位和重排，使细胞表面刻蚀和穿 孔，并能影响和改变细胞电性等现象，提出了离子束可 以用于细胞加工和基因转移的设想，并陆续得到了研究 证实，由此产生了国内外普遍关注的离子束生物技术工 程学，而且离子束育种是一项具有我国自主知识产权且 被国际所承认的定向遗传改良的集物理诱变和化学诱变 于一身的综合诱变方法，具有损伤小、突变谱广、突变 率高的特点。
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A/O法活性污泥中氨氧化菌群落的动态与分布摘要:我们研究了在厌氧—好氧序批式反应器（SBR)中氨氧化菌群落(AOB)和亚硝酸盐氧化菌群落(NOB)的结构活性和分布。
在研究过程中,分子生物技术和微型技术被用于识别和鉴定这些微生物。
污泥微粒中的氨氧化菌群落结构大体上与初始的接种污泥中的结构不同。
与颗粒形成一起，由于过程条件中生物选择的压力,AOＢ的多样性下降了。
DGGE测序表明，亚硝化菌依然存在,这是因为它们能迅速的适应固定以对抗洗涤行为。
DGGE更进一步的分析揭露了较大的微粒对更多的AOB种类在反应器中的生存有好处。
在SＢR反应器中有很多大小不一的微粒共存，颗粒的直径影响这AＯB和NOB的分布。
中小微粒（直径<0．6ｍm）不能限制氧在所有污泥空间的传输。
大颗粒(直径>０．9mm）可以使含氧量降低从而限制NＯB的生长。
所有这些研究提供了未来对ＡOB微粒系统机制可能性研究的支持。
关键词:氨氧化菌(AＯB），污泥微粒,菌落发展，微粒大小,硝化菌分布，发育多样性•简介在浓度足够高的条件下，氨在水环境中对水生生物有毒，并且对富营养化有贡献。
因此,废水中氨的生物降解和去除是废水处理工程的基本功能。
硝化反应,将氨通过硝化转化为硝酸盐,是去除氨的一个重要途径。
这是分两步组成的，由氨氧化和亚硝酸盐氧化细菌完成。
好氧氨氧化一般是第一步,硝化反应的限制步骤:然而,这是废水中氨去除的本质。
对16S ｒRNA的对比分析显示，大多数活性污泥里的氨氧化菌系统的跟ß-变形菌有关联。
然而，一系列的研究表明,在氨氧化菌的不同代和不同系有生理和生态区别,而且环境因素例如处理常量,溶解氧，盐度,pH，自由氨例子浓度会影响氨氧化菌的种类。
因此,废水处理中氨氧化菌的生理活动和平衡对废水处理系统的设计和运行是至关重要的。
由于这个原因,对氨氧化菌生态和微生物学更深一层的了解对加强处理效果是必须的。
当今,有几个进阶技术在废水生物处理系统中被用作鉴别、刻画微生物种类的有价值的工具。
目前,分子生物技术的应用能提供氨氧化菌群落的详细分类说明。
如今，主要由于其细胞固定策略，好氧污泥颗粒处理已经成为传统废水处理的替代工艺。
颗粒有更加彻底的紧密结构和快速适应速率。
因此，颗粒污泥系统比传统活性污泥法有更高的混合悬浮固体浓度浓度（MLSS)和更长的污泥龄（SＲT)。
更长的污泥龄能提供足够长的时间让时代时间长的微生物生长(例如氨氧化菌)。
有些研究表示,硝化颗粒可以在富铵离子废水中培养出来,并且颗粒的直径很小。
其他研究报告说,大直径颗粒已经在序批式反应器（SBR)中人工合成的有机废水里培育出来了。
污泥颗粒里的大量不同微生物共存，并去除COD和氮磷。
然而，对于直径大于0.6ｍm的大颗粒来说，由于氧传递被限制不能到达颗粒核心，外部好氧壳和内部厌氧地带共存。
这些特性表明,大颗粒污泥内部环境不适合氨氧化菌的生长。
有些研究表明，颗粒大小和密度导致了氨氧化菌、亚硝酸氧化菌和反硝化菌的分布和优势种群。
虽然不少研究力求评估废水处理系统中氨氧化菌的生态生理，但是至今仍然被污泥颗粒化过程的水力学、分布、氨氧化菌群落的数量化限制着。
•原理和方法•反应器设置和操作污泥颗粒被接种在有效体积为4Ｌ的实验室规模的SＢR里。
反应器有效直径和高度分别为10cm和51cm。
水力停留时间设为8h。
来自全尺寸污泥处理设置(中国天津污水处理厂)的活性污泥被作为反应器的种污泥,其MLSＳ初始浓度为38７6mg/L。
反应器操作６小时为一循环,由2分钟的进水时间，９0分钟厌氧混合,24０反正抛弃阶段和5分钟出水阶段组成。
在２0天8０个ＳBR循环后,污泥沉降时间逐渐从１0分钟降到5分钟,并且只有沉降速度大禹4.5m/ｈ的颗粒才能在反应器中停留。
入流中的主要化合物包括NaAｃ（４50mg/L)，ＮＨ4Cｌ(1０0mg/L)，(NＨ)2SO4（１0mg/L),ＫH2PO4（2０mg/L),MgSO４·7H2O(５0mg/L），KCｌ（20ｍｇ/L)，４CaＣｌ2(2０ｍg/L)，FeＳO4·7H2O（1mg／L)，pH ７.0-7.５,aｎｄ 0．1 ｍg／L元素示踪剂。
分析方法－TＯＣ、TＮ、ＴP、MLSS、SＶI都根据标准方法定期检测。
污泥大小分布由筛法决定。
4个干净的直径为５cm钢制筛，筛孔直径分别0．9,0.6，0.4５，和０.２mｍ,这4个筛子被全程监控。
用友刻度的圆柱从反应器中取100mL的污泥，然后放到０.9ｍｍ筛孔的筛子上。
随后用蒸馏水冲洗，直径小于0.９mm的颗粒通过这个筛子，到达筛孔更小的筛子上。
冲洗过程要重复几次,以分开污泥团。
不同面上收集到的颗粒恢复用蒸馏水反冲洗。
每一部分都手机在不同的烧杯里，然后用量化的滤纸过滤来测定TSS。
一旦留在各个筛子上TＳS的数量确定了,就可以确定不同大小的颗粒占污泥总重的比例了。
•DNA提取和PCＲ－DGGE来自大约8mg的ＭＬSS种的污泥被转化成１.5mＬ的Ｅｐpendｏｒf管,然后在1400０g条件下离心10分钟。
移除上清液，向其中加入１ｍL磷酸钠缓冲液,然后在无菌条件下研磨以分离颗粒。
使用E.Z．N.A.Sｏｉl DＮA工具，离心物种DN Ａ染色体被分离。
为了放大氨氧化菌特征１6s ｒRNA来进行DGGE，一个巢式PＣR被用为先前描述。
3０µｌ的巢式PCＲ放大剂被加载并被在聚丙烯酰胺凝胶上的加了线性分布为３5%－５5%的变性剂DGGE分开。
这个胶体在维持60度、14０V、1×TＡE缓冲液中(通用突变检测系统)运行 6.5ｈ。
电泳结束后,银染色和胶体的发展表现正如Sanｇuinｅtｔｉ所表述。
接下来是空气干燥和用凝胶成像分析系统扫描。
凝胶扫描图像用Ｑuａntiｔy Oｎｅ分析，版本号4．31。
成对群落相似性的色子指数是计算评估氨氧化菌群落在DGGE中线路相似性的。
这个用Ｑuａntity Ｏne测出的指数范围从0%（无共同频带)到1０0%(频带相同）。
Shannoｎ多样性指数（H）是用来衡量将一个菌群中每个菌种的丰富度和比例加入考虑的微生物多样性。
H用下列等式计算：其中，ｎi／N表示i菌种占总群落的比例(i条带亮度在条带总亮度中的比例)。
微生物系统树图模板相似性使用QuantｉtｙOne不用非加权配对组算术平均数（UPGMA法）算法就能计算出来。
突出的DＧＧE条带被切除并溶解在30mLＭillｉ-Q水中过夜,温度维持4摄氏度。
在冷冻解冻３次后凝胶中的DNA被回收。
目标DNA片段的克隆及测序按照既定的方法(Zhaｎg等，201０)进行。
•硝化细菌的分布为了调查AOＢ和NOB在颗粒中的空间分布,3种大小([0．２-０.45],［0.45-０.6］，>0.9 mm）的颗粒在第180天被选定做FISH分析。
2mｇ的污泥样品被固定在在４摄氏度下的4%多聚甲醛溶液16-２4 h，然后用磷酸钠缓冲液冲洗两次；样本分别在在5０%，80%和1００%的乙醇中脱水10分钟。
在室温下，将颗粒在乙醇—二甲苯体积比分别为3:1，1:1,１:3然后1０0％二甲苯的溶液中连续浸泡,每次10分钟后，颗粒中的乙醇然后完全被二甲苯取代。
随后，将颗粒在二甲苯与石蜡体积比为1：1的６0度溶液中浸泡30分钟，接着再在1０0％石蜡溶液中浸泡30分钟，颗粒被石蜡嵌入。
在石蜡固化后，切为８mm厚的片,放置在涂了明胶的显微镜上。
将切片在二甲苯和乙醇中各浸泡30分钟,石蜡被去除，然后将切片干燥。
三个寡核苷酸探针被用于杂交:FIＴＣ标记为Nso190,指明了大多数AＯB；TR ＩTC标记为NIＴ3，指明了硝化sp。
所有的探针序列,杂交条件，以及洗涤条件都在表1中给出。
寡核苷酸的合成以及荧光标记都来自Tａkaｒa公司。
杂交是在包含了各个标记了的探针(5ng µ/L）的46摄氏度度杂交缓冲液(０.９M NaＣl,甲酰胺的百分比见表1，2０mM Trｉｓ/ＨCl,ｐH值8.0，0.0１%ＳDS)下进行了2小时。
杂交后,未被结合的寡核苷酸由一个严格的洗涤步骤去除:在48度与洗涤液含有相同化合物的缓冲液中洗涤15分钟。
为了所有DNA的探测，ＤAPI被用甲醇最终稀释到浓度为1ngµ／L。
将切片用ＤAＰ-Ｉemethaｎｏl覆盖并保持恒温3７度１5分钟。
然后将切片用甲醇清洗一次，再用蒸馏水简单清洗，完了立刻空气干燥。
使用Ｖectasｈieｌd（媒介实验室)以防止照片变白。
使用激光共聚焦显微镜来抓拍杂交图像（CLSM,Ｚeiss ７10）。
每种颗粒大小的每个探头都各自一共拍了10张图像。
最后使用Adｏbe PhｏtｏSh ｏp选出代表图像和最终图像的评价。
表1:用于不同大小颗粒的寡核苷酸探针图１：生物量和ＳVI10在整个操作过程中的变化•结果•ＳBR性能及颗粒特征在启动阶段,反应器能高效去除TOＣ以及氨氮。
9８％的氨氮和１0０%的TOC 分别在第3天和第5天从入流中被去除(图S2，S3)。
这一期间总氮和总磷的去除率不高，虽然总磷的去除率逐渐提高,在第33天达到10０%（图S4)。
为了确定污泥颗粒的污泥体积指数，沉淀时间由10分钟代替３0分钟,因为颗粒污泥在６０分钟和５分钟后有一个相似的ＳVI数值。
接种污泥的SＶI值是１08．２Ml/g。
在连续操作中MＬSS和ＳVI10的变化如图１所示。
污泥沉降性在设置阶段明显提升。
图2反应了污泥颗粒的慢速形成，从流动态到颗粒状态。
•ＤGＧＥ技术分析:AOＢ的群落结构在污泥颗粒化中的变化巢式PCR的结果在图Ｓ1中显示。
在ＧSBR的操作中，较好显示的DGGE条带被在代表性点上得到，那些条带揭示AOB群落的结构在污泥颗粒化和稳定化过程中是动态的（图3）。
实验结束时的菌群结构与初始接种污泥的菌群结构是不同的。
AOB群落在第一天和GＳBR操作的最后仅有40%的相似度,指明接种污泥和形成的颗粒污泥中AOB群落有重大变化。
通过计算Shanｎon指数Ｈ分析DＧGE模板得出的生物多样性见图5．图2：污泥中颗粒大小分布在操作过程中的变化图3：AOB群落在污泥颗粒化过程中DGGE分析(顶部表示取样时间)。
主要条带已用数字标出(条带1－15)在污泥接种阶段(在第３8天前)，指数H由于反应器中一些菌种的消失明显下降。
虽然几种接种污泥中的优势菌种(条带２,７，1０,11)得以保留，但是许多条带削弱或消失了(条带3，４,6，８,13,14，15）。
在第45天后,多样性指数趋于稳定，并且显示流动性变小(从0.72到０.82)。
模板条带相似性利用UＰGＭA程序分析。
UＰGMA分析显示三个组菌落群相似度约为6７%－78%，群体内部约为4４%－62%。
一般来说,第一组与污泥接种和冲刷有关,第二组与污泥颗粒化及SＶＩ10值下降有关,第三组和稳定系统及优良的生物沉淀性有关。