1.7 Chapter 6 Memory Language and writing 每课一练(上海牛津九年级上)

合集下载

计算机英语教程第六版

计算机英语教程第六版

计算机英语教程第六版Computer English Tutorial, 6th EditionComputer English Tutorial, 6th Edition, provides a comprehensive guide to learning English in the context of computers and technology. This edition covers the fundamentals of computer terminology, programming, networking, and cybersecurity, making it suitable for both beginners and intermediate learners. With a practical approach and engaging exercises, this tutorial is designed to enhance the English language skills of computer enthusiasts and professionals alike.The tutorial begins with an introduction to basic computer terminology. It covers essential terms such as hardware, software, operating systems, peripherals, and input/output devices. Each term is explained in clear and concise language, accompanied by relevant examples, making it easier for learners to grasp the concepts. The tutorial also includes exercises to reinforce understanding and aid in memorization.Moving on, the tutorial delves into the world of programming. It provides a step-by-step guide to understanding programming concepts, including variables, data types, conditionals, loops, and functions. Learners are introduced to popular programming languages such as Python and Java, and are encouraged to practice writing their own code. The tutorial also includes coding exercises and quizzes to assess the learners' progress.The networking section of the tutorial is dedicated to familiarizing learners with the basics of computer networks. Topics coveredinclude local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), routers, switches, and protocols. Learners will also gain an understanding of IP addresses, subnetting, and network troubleshooting. Real-world examples and case studies are used to illustrate networking concepts and enhance comprehension.In today's digital age, cybersecurity is of paramount importance. The tutorial covers essential cybersecurity principles, including threat identification, risk assessment, and vulnerability management. Learners will gain knowledge in areas such as encryption, authentication, firewalls, and intrusion detection systems. The tutorial also provides guidance on security best practices and emphasizes the importance of ethical hacking and responsible online behavior.At the end of each chapter, the tutorial offers a comprehensive review to reinforce the learned material. These reviews include multiple-choice questions, fill-in-the-blanks exercises, and practical scenarios, allowing learners to assess their progress and identify areas for improvement.In addition to the main content, the tutorial includes a glossary of computer terms and a list of recommended resources for further learning. Learners can refer to the glossary for quick reference and use the recommended resources to deepen their understanding of specific topics.Computer English Tutorial, 6th Edition, is an invaluable resource for anyone seeking to enhance their English language skills in the domain of computers and technology. Whether you are a student, aprofessional, or simply an enthusiast, this tutorial provides a solid foundation in both English language and computer concepts. With its practical approach and comprehensive coverage, it is an essential guide for mastering computer English.。

English Book6 课文翻译

English Book6 课文翻译

Philosophers Among the Carrots几天前,当我在擦冰箱时,我深思熟虑地想着有关妇女解放运动,我问我自己,是否可能以家庭主妇为乐趣,同时又不是妇女解放运动事业的背叛者。

我的大学教育是否真正有用呢?大一A系的哲学导论对我来说有什么帮助呢?我想到Socrates的一句话,“那些混混噩噩的生活不值得过”,是该决定我生活的时候了。

当我站着吃苹果、桔子以及皮发褐色的香蕉,凝望着冰箱的深处的同时,脑中想到了大学教育的家庭主妇之间的关系,我看到了一个伟大、形而上学的真理的出现。

“就像能量一样,物质是按比例下降的——从烤到炖到烧汤再到成为猫食”。

当我停下吃东西,往猫碗里盛了点汤,我很博学的对猫咕哝了一句,“昨天的菜豆哪去了?”当然,今天已把它们做成菜汤了。

如果我没上过大学,我就不会看出这有意义的类推,当我做完色拉后,我自鸣得意地把一个桔子放在水槽中(也许我这是在中学学过的?)。

我沉思地打量着一碗烧好的胡萝卜,是把它做成胡萝卜蛋糕呢还是泡菜色拉?我知道如果选择做胡萝卜蛋糕的话就会得到我丈夫和三个儿子的支持。

我沿着我的思路,即我思想的火车轰隆隆地开进了阿基米德所领导的哲学领域,他曾说过“任何物体放入液体中,就会转移它的重量;一个被浸泡的物体就会转移它的体积”,这个原则指导我,我按食谱上的把块状的胡萝卜浸入牛奶中,发现这正好成为一杯。

重复爱默生的一句话“愚蠢的一致性是人类思想的妖怪”(即墨守成规的做法是愚蠢的)。

我加了几勺苹果酱使之更加好。

蛋糕在炉上烤着,我带着我新发现的关于家庭主妇与哲学之间关系的启迪(释加牟尼有他的菩提树,我有我的冰箱)走进了洗漱室,在这里,我面对着一条由脏的T-恤、汗淋淋的短袜、睡衣裤、和内衣组成的一条永无止境的河流,引用Heraclitus的一句话“你不能两次踏进同一条河流(世界是不断变化的,你再次踏进同一条河流,水已不是原来的水了)”,我自言自语着,我捡起一条牛仔裤,把其口袋中的泡泡糖纸、铅笔和硬币拿出来,我似乎看到了美术教授提到的变化中的统一和统一中的变化。

语言学精读书目(英文)

语言学精读书目(英文)

语言学精读书目1.历史语言学1.1 通论类Campbell, Lyle. 1999. Historical Linguistics: An Introduction.Cambridge, Massachusetts:The MIT Press.Anttila, Raimo. 1972. An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics.New York: MacmillanCroft, William. 2000. Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach.London: Longman.Lass,Roger. 1997. Historical linguistics and language change.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.William Labov.1994 Principles of Linguistic Change. V olume 1: Internal Factors.Oxford: Basil Blackwell.William Labov.2000. Principles of Linguistic change. V olume II: Social Factors.Oxford: Blackwll.Winfred Lehmann.1992. Historical linguistics(3rd edn.). Routledge.Aoril M.S.McMahon.1994. Understanding language change.Cambridge University Press,R.L. Trask. 1996. Historical linguistics. Edward Arnold.1.2 历史句法学Harris, Alice.C. & Campbell Lyle. 1995. Historical Syntax in Cross-linguistic Perspective.Cambridge: Cambridge University PressLightfoot ,David. 1979. Principles of diachronic syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lord, Carol. 1993. Historical change in serial verb constructions. Amsterdam ; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Faarlund,J.T. 1990. Syntactic change: Toward a theory of historical syntax. Berlin; New York;Mouton de Gruyter.Bernd Heine &Tania Kuteva. 2005. Language contact and grammatical change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1.3 历史语义学Traugott, Elizabeth C. and Dasher, Richard B. 2002. Regularity in semantic change .Cambridge University Press.Geeraerts,Dirk. 1997. Diachronic Prototype Semantic:A contribution to historical lexicology.Oxford: Clarendon.Sweetser, Eve E.1990. From etymology to pragmatics: Metaphorical and cultural aspects of semantic structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 19901.4 历史语用学Arnovick,Lesliek. 1999. Diachronic Pragmatics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Brinton, Laurel J. 1996. Pragmatic markers in English: Grammaticalization and discourse function. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.2.语法化研究Givo n, Talmy. 1979. On Understanding Grammar. New York: Academic Press.Heine, Bernd & Kuteva ,Tania. 2002 .World lexicon of grammaticalization.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Heine , Bernd, Ulrike Claudi & Friederike Hu nnemeyer. 1991. Grammaticalization : Aconceptual Framework. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Bybee, Joan. , Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hopper, Paul J .&Traugott, Elizabeth C. 2003. Grammaticalization, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Lehmann, Christian. 1995[1982]. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. Munich: Lincom Europa.Xiu-Zhi Zoe WU.2004. Grammaticalization and Language Change in Chinese : A formal view London and New York: RoutledgeCurzonElly van Gelderen. 2004.Grammaticalization as Economy. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing CompanyBernd Heine and Tania Kuteva. 2005 Language Contact and Grammatical Change. Cambridge University Press.Ian Roberts and Anna Roussou.2003. SyntacticChange: A minimalist approach to grammaticaliza- tion. Canbridge:Cambridge University Press.Regine Eckardt. 2006. Meaning change in grammaticalization: an enquiry into semantic reanalysis New York : Oxford University Press.3.认知语言学Taylor, John R. 2005. Cognitive grammar.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Croft,William and D. A. Cruse.2004. Cognitive linguistics. (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Langacker,Ronald W. 1987/1991. Foundations of cognitive grammar,vol.1-2, Stanford: Stanford University Press.Lakoff, George.1987. Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Talmy, L. 2000, Toward a Cognitive Semantics. V ol.1& 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.4.语言类型学Croft, William. 2003. Typology and Universals, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Song, Jae Jung. 2001. Linguistic Typology: Morphology and syntax. Longman.Whaley, Linndsay J. 1997. Introduction to Typology: the unity and diversity of language. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.L.J.Whaley. 1997. Introduction to typology: The unity and diversity of language. Sage. Bernard Comrie. 1989. Languge universals and linguistic typology(2nd edition), University of Chicago Press.J.A.Hawkins. 1983. Word order universals. Academic Press.5.语用学、句法学与语义学5.1 句法学:Payne,Thomas E. 1997. Describing Morphosyntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thomas E. Payne.2006. Exploring language Structure: A student’s guide. Cambridge University Press.Timothy Shopen. 1985. Language typology and syntactic Description. Cambridge University Press.Givo n, Talmy. 1984/1991. Syntax: A functional-typological introduction, V ol.I.II, Amsterdam: Benjamins,1984.5.2 语义学:Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Saeed,John. 1997. Sementics. Blackwell Publishers.5.3 语用学:Levinson,Stephen C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Green,Georgia M. 1989. Pragmatics and natural language understanding .Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum Associates.5.4 其他:Schiffrin, Deborah. 1987. Discourse markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Karin Aijmer. 2002. English Discourse Particles: Evidence from a corpus. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia : John Benjamins Publishing Company.Verhagen, Arie. 2005. Constructions of intersubjectivity: Discourse, syntax,and cognition. Oxford:Oxford University Press.Dahl, Osten. 1985.Tense and aspect systems. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Kemmer,Suzanne. 1993. The middle voice: A typological and diachronic study.Amsterdam: Benjamins.Bybee, Joan. 1985. Morphology: A study of the relation between meaning and form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Newmeyer, Fredrick J. Language form and language function. Cambridge;MA: MIT Press,1998 Croft,William. Syntactic categories and grammatical relations.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991Haiman, John. Natural syntax: Iconicity and erosion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.Comrie, Bernard. 1976. Aspect: An introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Comrie ,Bernard. 1985.Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Palmer,F.R.2001. Mood and Modality. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith,Carlotta S.1991. The Parameter of Aspect. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Goldberg, A. E. 1995,Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure.Chicago: Chicago University Press.6.接触语言学:Thomason, Sarah G. 2001. Language contact: An introduction. Edinburgh University Press. Thomason, Sarah G. & Kaufman,Terrence.1988. Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.Dixon, R.M.W. 1997. The rise and fall of languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Holm, J. 2004. Languages in contact. The partial restructuring of vernaculars. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Myers-Scotton, C. 2003. Contact linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Winford,Donald. 2003. An introduction to contact linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2002. Language contact in Amazonia. New York: Oxford University Press.Enfield, N. J. 2003. Linguistic epidemiology: semantics and grammar of language contact in mainland Southeast Asia. London: Routledge Curzon.。

语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件

语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件
and written production.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
• 1). Serial models…… • 2). Parallel models…… • Structural factors in comprehension of sentences • 1). minimal attachment which defines “structural simpler” • 2).“Garden path” • Lexical factors in comprehension • Information about specific words is stored in the lexicon.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.3 language production
• Language production involves…… • 1. generation of single words • 2. generation of simple utterances • Different mappings in language comprehension and in language production • Discussions: • A. production of words orally, • B. production of longer utterances, • C. the different representations and processes involved in spoken production

Chapter 7 Language

Chapter 7 Language

Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and culture1. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesisWhat the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.2. Context of situation(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:a. The verbal action of the participantsb. The non-verbal action of the participants(2) The relevant objects(3) The effects of the verbal action3. Speech community: Speech community refers to a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.4. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech between men and women.5. Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity: Linguistic determinism is one of the two points in S-W hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought. Linguistic relativity is the other point: there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.6. Ethnography of communication: The study of place of language in culture and society. Language is not studied in isolation but within a social or cultural setting. Ethnography of communication studies, e.g. how people in a particular group or community communicate with each other and how the social relationships between these people affect the type of language they use.7. Cross-cultural communication: An exchange of ideas, information, etc. between persons from different cultural backgrounds.8. What are the aims of teaching culture in language class?There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our class:(1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;(2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the membersof the target culture will;(3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and culture through various classroom practices.All this lead to a belief that a good understanding of structural things in some cases has much to do with a conscious understanding of the cultural background of the target language from language learners. In other words, a successful master of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture, because language and culture are correlated with each other at different levels of linguistic structure.7.2 Language and society1. How many social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors in a social context?The following social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors ina social context:(1) Class;(2) Gender;(3) Age;(4) Ethnic identity;(5) Education background;(6) Occupation;(7) Religious belief.2. What are the sociolinguistic study of society and the sociolinguistic study of language>If we want to know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of society. That is to say, we are doing sociolinguistics at a macro level of investigation. At this level of discussion things that we are interested in include bilingualism or multilingualism, language attitude, language choice, language maintenance and shift, language planning and standardization, vernacular language education, etc.On the other hand, if we want to know more about some linguistic variations in language use by turning to potential socio-cultural factors for a description and explanation, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of language. Consequently, we are more interested in examining micro linguistic phenomena such as structural variants, address forms, gender differences, discourse analysis, Pidgin and Creole languages, and other more language-related issues.3. What are vernacular, Pidgin and Creole?Vernacular refers to the native language of a country, not of a foreign origin or learned formation; or the indigenous language or dialect of a region.Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgins arose as a result of mixing two languages such as a Chinese dialect and English, an African dialect and French, etc. Creole is a pidgin that has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that community as their native language.4. What is discourse analysis?Discourse analysis refers to the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversation, interviews, etc. Analysis of spoken discourse is sometimes called conversational analysis. Some linguistics use the term text linguistics for the study of written discourse. Recent analyses have been carried out on discourse in the classroom. Such analyses can be useful in finding out bout the effectiveness of teaching methods and the types of teacher-student relationships.5. What are bilingualism, diglossia, and multilingualism?Bilingualism refers to the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Bilingualism is common in the province of Quebec in Canada where both English and French are spoken, and parts of Wales, where both Welsh and English are spoken. When two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia. Usually, one is a more standard variety called the high variety, which is sued in government, the media, education, and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety called the low variety, which is used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.Multilingualism refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in Malaysia, Singapore, Israel, etc.。

语言学教程 chapter6 PPT

语言学教程 chapter6 PPT
University of Chicago Press.
含义: An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental
representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience. 意象图式是在对事物之间基本关系的认知的基 础上所构成的认知结构
Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:
A starting point A progression through successive events
without backtracking A return to the initial state
Cognition is the way we think.
Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.
It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
类型:
Involves
a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and
degrees of distance from the core.

The Science of Memory

The Science of Memory

The Science of MemoryMemory is a fascinating and complex aspect of human cognition, and it has been the subject of extensive scientific study. The science of memory encompasses various disciplines such as psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science, and it seeks to understand the processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Memory plays a crucial role in shaping our identities, guiding our decision-making, and allowing us to learn from past experiences. However, it is also prone to errors and distortions, which can have significant implications for our daily lives. In this response, we will delve into the science of memory from multiple perspectives, exploring its mechanisms, functions, and potential limitations. From a psychological perspective, memory can be categorized into different types based on the duration of retention and the nature of the information being stored. Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of information, typically lasting for a few seconds to a minute. This type of memory is essential for tasks such as remembering a phone number long enough to dial it or recalling a person's name in a conversation. On the other hand, long-term memory involves the storage of information over an extended period, ranging from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory can be further divided into explicit (or declarative) memory, which involves conscious recollection of facts and events, and implicit (or procedural) memory, which pertains to the retention of skills and habits without conscious awareness. Understanding these distinctions is crucialfor comprehending the intricacies of memory and how it influences our behavior and cognition. Neuroscience offers valuable insights into the biological underpinnings of memory, shedding light on the neural circuits and mechanisms involved in memory formation and retrieval. The hippocampus, a seahorse-shaped structure located in the brain's temporal lobe, is widely recognized as a key player in the formation of new memories. It acts as a sort of "gateway" for incoming information, facilitating its consolidation into long-term memory. Additionally, various neurotransmitters and synaptic connections within the brain contribute to the encoding and storage of memories. For example, the neurotransmitter dopamine has been implicated in the formation of reward-related memories, highlighting the intricate interplay between brain chemistry and memoryprocesses. By unraveling the neural basis of memory, neuroscientists strive to develop a deeper understanding of conditions such as amnesia and dementia, as well as potential interventions to enhance memory function. Cognitive science approaches memory from a broader perspective, examining how memory interacts with other cognitive processes such as attention, perception, and language. One influential model in this field is the multi-store model of memory, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. This model posits the existence of three memory stores – sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory – and outlines the flow of information between these stores. While the multi-store model has been refined and expanded upon over the years, it laid the groundwork for subsequent research on memory and provided a framework for understanding memory processes ina holistic manner. Cognitive scientists also investigate the factors thatinfluence memory performance, such as mnemonic techniques, context-dependent retrieval, and the role of schemas in organizing and interpreting information. By integrating insights from various disciplines, cognitive science contributes to a comprehensive understanding of memory and its implications for human cognition.In addition to its cognitive and neurological dimensions, memory holds significant emotional and personal significance for individuals. Memories shape ourperceptions of the world, inform our sense of self, and influence our emotional responses to past events. The recollection of cherished memories can evokefeelings of joy, nostalgia, and gratitude, while traumatic memories may trigger anxiety, grief, or distress. Moreover, memory plays a pivotal role in maintaining social bonds and relationships, as it enables us to remember significant events shared with loved ones and to empathize with others by recalling similar experiences. The emotional impact of memory is evident in phenomena such as flashbulb memories, which are vivid and enduring recollections of emotionally charged events, such as the assassination of a public figure or a natural disaster. These memories are often characterized by their clarity and emotional salience, underscoring the profound intertwining of memory and emotion in human experience. Despite its many virtues, memory is not immune to imperfections and fallibility. Human memory is susceptible to various forms of distortion, including forgetting, misattribution, and false memories. For instance, the misinformation effect, asdemonstrated in studies by Loftus and Palmer, illustrates how the introduction of misleading information can alter one's memory of an event. This phenomenon has significant implications for eyewitness testimony in legal contexts, as it underscores the potential for memory malleability and suggestibility. Moreover, memory biases and heuristics, such as the availability heuristic and confirmation bias, can influence our perceptions and decision-making by shaping the way we retrieve and interpret information. These cognitive pitfalls highlight the needfor critical reflection on the reliability and accuracy of our memories, as well as the importance of corroborating evidence in situations where memory is the primary source of information. In conclusion, the science of memory encompasses a rich tapestry of psychological, neurological, cognitive, and emotional dimensions. It is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, shaping our identities, informing our decisions, and connecting us to the past. By examining memory from multiple perspectives, we gain a deeper appreciation of its mechanisms, functions, and potential limitations. From the intricate neural processes underlying memory formation to the emotional resonance of cherished recollections, memory permeates every facet of human experience. While memory is susceptible to errors and distortions, it remains a cornerstone of our cognitive architecture, enabling us to navigate the complexities of the world and construct meaningful narratives of our lives. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of memory, we are poised to gain new insights into the human mind and the intricate interplay between memory, cognition, and emotion.。

高级英语1 lesson7 课文原文---精品管理资料

高级英语1 lesson7 课文原文---精品管理资料

Mark Twain --- Mirror of AmericaBy Noel Grove 1. Most Americans remember Mark Twain as the father of Huck Finn's idylliccruise through eternal boyhood and Tom Sawyer’s endless summer of freedom and adventure. Indeed,this nation’s best—loved author was every bit as adventurous, patriotic, romantic, and humorous as anyone has ever imagined。

I found another Twain —-- one who grew cynical, bitter, saddened by the profound personal tragedies life dealt him, a man who became obsessed with frailties of the human race, who saw clearly aheada black wall of night。

2. Tramp printer, river pilot, Confederate guerrilla, prospector,starry-eyedoptimist,acid-tongued cynic: the man who became Mark Twain was born Samuel Langhorne Clemens and he ranged across the nation for more than a third of his life, digesting the new American experience before sharing it with the world as writer and lecturer。

语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature

语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature

The term “foregrounding”


Definition Deviation of language involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology,etc. Repetition is also a kind of deviation. Alliteration, parallism, and many figures of speech are the examples of foregrounding in literary language.
9.2 some general features of the literary language


Features of literary language are displayed in the following three aspects: 1. phonology 2. grammar 3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary language in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.
9.2.3 the analysis of literay language




Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

新编英语词汇学教程第二版Chapter6Major ApproachestoWord Meaning

新编英语词汇学教程第二版Chapter6Major ApproachestoWord Meaning

6.1 The naming theory
Problems
• This theory seems to apply to nouns only. • Even within the category of nouns, this theory cannot account
for the meaning of some fictional, mythical, or abstract entities, let alone the meanings of polysemous words. • This theory cannot be used to account for the phenomenon that the same object in the real world can be referred to by different expressions which are both meaningful.
6.2 Componential analysis
Componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components. This analysis is based on semantic contrast. These minimal components can be symbolized in terms of binarity or binary opposition, i.e. they can be X or not X (indicated by +/–) such as [+ADULT] for “adult”, [–ADULT] for “young”.

Principles-of-Language-Learning-and-Teaching

Principles-of-Language-Learning-and-Teaching

Terminology: Discourse/Text
Distictions Between Discourse and Text
First, people often talk of spoken discourse versus written text. Discourse often is naturally occuring spoken language, as found in such discourses as conversations, interviews, commentaries, and speeches, which implies interactive discourse; whereas text is wriiten language, as found in such texts as essays, notices, newspaper articles and chapters, which implies noninteractive monologue, whether intended to be spoken aloud or not. For example people can speak of an academic paper, meaning what is delivered or read to an audience, or its printed version. For instance, a lecture may refer to a whole social event, or only to the main spoken text or its written version. One talk of a written text of a speech. So such ambiguities arise in the previous examples.

语言学教案Chapter7Language

语言学教案Chapter7Language

语言学教案Chapter7LanguageChapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Language and culture7.1.1 How does language relate to culture?AN ANTHROPOLIGICAL ORIENTATION(人类学转向) in the early 20th century ●England: Bronislaw Malinowski, John. P. Firth●North America: Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Benjamin Lee Whorf1920sa school of ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS, England Representatives:●MalinowskiIn the primitive culture the meaning of a word greatly depended upon a real language situation.“In its primitive uses, language functions a s a link in concerted human activity….It is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection.” (1923: 312)●Firth (a leading figure in the London School)CONTEXT OF SITUATION (情景语境理论)A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:(i) The verbal action of the participants.(ii)The non-verbal action of the participants.B. The relevant objects.C. The effects of the verbal action. (Firth 1950: 43-44)He seems to suggest the creativity and diversity of linguistic idiosyncrasy in language use.——Sapir“Who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end.”——HallidayEarly 1920sNorth American linguistics, the relations between language and culture (the American Indian culture)1920s—1940sBoas, Sapir, and Whorf: to reconstruct American Native languageThe culture is significant in the study of language.●SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESISThe language helps mould the way of thinking and, consequently, different language may probably express the unique ways of understanding the world.Language may determine the thinking patterns.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM (语言决定论)Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY (语言相对论)●Eugene NidaFive types of sub-culture in CROSS-CULTURALCOMMUNICATION1) ecological culture; 2) linguistic culture; 3) religious culture;4) material culture; 5) social culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesisThe language helps mould the view of the world.A strong version(强式说)and a weak version(弱式说)The strong version: the claim that the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizingthe decisive role of language as the shaper of the thinking patternsThe weak version: a modified type of its original theory,suggesting that there is acorrelation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in the ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.Example 1: to prove that languages may differ from each otherHopi in Arizona: timeless language (Pp229)Question : Is it possible to compare different linguistic representations?Criticism : The hypothesis is based on establishing European languages as a model against which all comparisons are made. Similarities are more important than differences when LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALITY(语言的普遍性) is concerned. ? Example 2:to prove that the assumption that language is culturally determinedand hence absolutely different from one another is wrong Dugum DaniColor terms are not culturally determined and hence absolutely different from one another. Different language might undergo a universal evolutionary process of development which, in turn, made the basic color system in one language different from that in another only in terms of the stages of their evolution.< [red] < < [blue]<[brown]< Evolutionary Stages of Basic Color Words(Berlin & Kay 1969: 4)7.1.3 Case Study (See Pp 232-233)7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study?Watergate, Billy gate , Debate gate , Cattle gate , Rice gate1) Watergate as a word taking on a pejorative implicature torefer to any political scandal at the high rank, will stay in English for quite a long time;2) Its structural status in the language becomes rather stable through the rich derivational process it has undergone in word-formation.3) The semantic implicature it has will say with the word for quite a long time.7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target language;3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.7.2 Language and society7.2.1 How does language relate to society?the whole 20th centuryWhite black green yellow purple pink orange graya MONSTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent language1960sDUALISTIC VIEW7.2.2 A situationally and socially variationist perspective“You are what you say”(Lakoff 1991).Factors influencing the language behaviors1) class; 2) gender; 3) age; 4) ethnic identity;5) education background; 6) occupation; 7) religious beliefExample 1: Class factorThe middle of 1960s, William Labov, phonological variants Example 2: Gender factor (1970s Robin Lakoff)1) Women use more “fancy ” color terms such as mauve and beige;2) Women use less powerful curse words;3) Women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful;4) Women use more tag questions;5) Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready at seveno’clock?”(with a rising i ntonation at the end);6) Women’s linguistic behaviour is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men. LINGUISTIC SEXISM (语言性别歧视): It is the not the language itself but women’s place in society that influences linguistically behave.7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What implications we can get from sociolinguistics?Classroom teaching: grammarians or active language users? COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (Hyme 1970s)Law courts; clinical settings7.3 Summary。

小王子前六章读英文读书笔记

小王子前六章读英文读书笔记

小王子前六章读英文读书笔记The Little Prince is a timeless novella that has captured the hearts of readers across generations. As I delved into the first six chapters of this enchanting tale, I was transported to a world of innocence and wisdom, where the story unfolds through the eyes of a young boy from another planet.Chapter One introduces us to the narrator, a pilot, who recounts his childhood fascination with drawing and his first encounter with a snake digesting an elephant. This whimsical illustration sets the tone for the rest of the book, hinting at the surreal and philosophical nature of the narrative.In Chapter Two, we learn about the narrator's adult life and his pursuit of a career in aviation. The pilot's disconnection with the adult world is evident as he struggles to find someone who understands his childhood drawings, which foreshadow the arrival of the Little Prince.Chapter Three marks the beginning of the pilot's journey with the Little Prince. The mysterious boy appears in the Sahara Desert, and the pilot is immediately drawn to his otherworldly presence. The Little Prince's curiosity about life and his poignant questions about the snake and the stars set the stage for the deeper exploration of themes such as loneliness and the search for meaning.Chapter Four delves into the Little Prince's origins, as he describes his small home planet, Asteroid B-612. Thereader is introduced to the prince's rose, a symbol of love and attachment, which becomes a central motif in the story. The rose's vanity and the Little Prince's struggle to understand her reflect the complexities of humanrelationships.Chapter Five reveals the Little Prince's travels to other planets, each inhabited by an adult with a unique obsession, such as the king who wants to control everyone and everything, or the businessman who is fixated on counting stars. These encounters serve as a critique of adult society and its often misguided priorities.The sixth chapter continues the Little Prince'sinterstellar journey, where he meets a lamplighter who is bound by a rigid schedule. The lamplighter's dedication tohis task, despite its apparent futility, underscores thetheme of duty and the human tendency to adhere to routines without questioning their purpose.Through these initial chapters, the Little Prince's narrative is rich with symbolism and allegory, inviting readers to reflect on the nature of adulthood, the importance of relationships, and the quest for understanding in auniverse that is both vast and intimately connected. TheLittle Prince's adventures are a poignant reminder of the beauty and the tragedy of human existence, and the importance of maintaining a childlike sense of wonder in a world that often seems too complex for simple answers.。

数据库英文版第六版课后答案

数据库英文版第六版课后答案

数据库英文版第六版课后答案Chapter 1: IntroductionQuestions1.What is a database?A database is a collection of organized and structured data stored electronically in a computer system. It allows users to efficiently store, retrieve, and manipulate large amounts of data.2.What are the advantages of using a database system?–Data sharing and integration: A database system allows multiple users to access and share data simultaneously.–Data consistency and integrity: A database system enforces rules and constraints to maintain the accuracy and integrity of the data.–Data security: A database system provides access control mechanisms to ensure that data is accessed by authorized users only.–Data independence: A database system separates the data from the application programs that use it, allowing for easier applicationdevelopment and maintenance.Exercises1.Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a database system.Advantages:–Data sharing and integration–Data consistency and integrity–Data security–Data independenceDisadvantages:–Cost: Database systems can be expensive to set up and maintain.–Complexity: Database systems require a certain level of expertise to design, implement, and manage.–Performance overhead: Database systems may introduce some overhead in terms of storage and processing.Overall, the advantages of using a database system outweigh the disadvantages in most cases, especially for large-scale applications with multiple users and complex data requirements.Chapter 2: Relational Model and Relational Algebra Questions1.What is a relation? How is it represented in the relational model?A relation is a table-like structure that represents a set of related data. It is represented as a two-dimensional table with rows and columns, where each row corresponds to a record and each column corresponds to a attribute or field.2.What is the primary key of a relation?The primary key of a relation is a unique identifier for each record in the relation. It is used to ensure the uniqueness and integrity of the data.Exercises1.Consider the following relation:Employees (EmpID, Name, Age, Salary)–EmpID is the primary key of the Employees relation.–Name, Age, and Salary are attributes of the Employees relation.2.Write a relational algebra expression to retrieve the names of all employees whose age is greater than 30.π Name (σ Age > 30 (Employees))Chapter 3: SQLQuestions1.What is SQL?SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language designed for managing and manipulating relational databases. It provides a set of commands and statements that allow users to create, modify, and query databases.2.What are the main components of an SQL statement?An SQL statement consists of the following main components:–Keywords: SQL commands and instructions.–Clauses: Criteria and conditions that specify what data to retrieve or modify.–Expressions: Values, variables, or calculations used in SQL statements.–Operators: Symbols used to perform operations on data. Exercises1.Write an SQL statement to create a table called。

《哈利波特与秘室》第7章《泥巴种和细语》中英文对照学习版

《哈利波特与秘室》第7章《泥巴种和细语》中英文对照学习版

中英文对照学习版Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets《哈利˙波特与密室》Chapter SevenMudbloods and Murmurs第七章泥巴种和细语Harry spent a l ot of time over the next few days d odging out of sight whenever he saw Gild eroy Lockhart coming d own a corridor. Hard er to avoid was Colin Creevey, who seemed to have memorised Harry's timetabl e. Nothing seemed to give Colin a bigger thrill than to say, ‘All right, Harry?’six or seven times a day and hear, ‘Hull o, Colin,’back, however exasperated Harry sound ed when he said it.在以后的几天里,哈利一看见吉德罗﹒洛哈特从走廊那头走来,就赶紧躲着走。

但更难躲开的是科林﹒克里维,他似乎把哈利的课程表背了下来。

对科林来说,好像世界上最激动人心的事,就是每天说六七次“你好吗,哈利”并听到“你好,科林”的回答,不管哈利回答的语气有多么无奈和恼怒。

Hedwig was still angry with Harry about the disastrous car journey and Ron's wand was still malfunctioning, surpassing itself on Friday morning by shooting out of Ron's hand in Charms and hitting tiny ol d Professor Flitwick squarely between the eyes, creating a large, throbbing green boil where it had struck. So, with one thing and another, Harry was quite glad to reach the weekend. He, Ron and Hermione were planning to visit Hagrid on Saturday morning. Harry, however, was shaken awake several hours earlier than he woul d have liked by Oliver Wood, captain of the Gryffind or Quidditch team.海德薇还在为灾难性的汽车之旅而生哈利的气,罗恩的魔杖依然不正常,星期五上午更加出格。

简明英语语言学教程第二版第6章第7章练习题参考答案

简明英语语言学教程第二版第6章第7章练习题参考答案

语言学教材第6章、第7章、第8章练习题参考答案Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答:Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答: A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose,then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utte rance “My bag is heavy”. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答:a) A father entered his son‟s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him o utside. So when the father said, “Oh, it‟s raining”,he meant they couldn‟t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person said, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so when the other person said, “The music of the movie is good”, he meant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes back, so when he said, “you have been keeping my notes for awhole week now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答:According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‟s intention; it is the act perf ormed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答:(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答:When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答:Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答:The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker‟s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)Chapter 7 Language Change1. The vocabulary of English consists of native and also thousands of borrowed words. Look up the following words in a dictionary which provides the etymologies (history) of words. In each case speculate as to how the particular word came to be borrowed from a particular language.a. sizeb. skillc. royald. ranche. robotf. potatog. astronaut h. emerald i. pagodaj. khaki k. bulldoze 1. hoodlum答:a. size (< old French)b. skill (< old Norse)c. royal (< old French < Latin)d. ranch (< Spanish < French)e. robot (< Czech < old Church Slavonic)f. potato (< Spanish < Taino)g. astronaut (< French)h. emerald (< Middle English & old French)i. pagoda (< Persian < Sanskrit)j. khaki (< Hindi <Persian)k. bulldoze (< bull(Botany Bay Slang) < old English)l. hoodlum (< German)2. The Encyclopedia Britannica Yearbook has usually published a new word list, which is, in the Britannica’s editor's view, a list of those words that had entered the language during the year. Would you expect a yearbook to publish a “lost-word list” recording the words dropped from the language during the year? Defend your answer.答:(略)3. Below is a passage from Shakespeare's Hamlet,King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send thither to see.If your messenger find him not there, seek him i' theother place yourself. But indeed, if you find him notwithin this month, you shall nose him as you go up thestairs into the lobby.Act IV, scene iiiStudy these lines and identify every difference in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.答:In modern English, these lines are more likely written as:King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send to see there. If your messenger cannot find him there, yourself seek him at the other place. But indeed, if you cannot find him within this month, you shallnotice him as you go up the stairs into the lobby.4. Comment with examples on the following statement “Words and expressions will be forced into use in spite of all the exertions of all the writers in the world.”答:The statement means that when necessary, people will make use of available uses even if there is no writers' efforts. For example, there are more and more new words and expressions which are introduced into language not by writers, e.g., email, hacker, IBM (international big mouth, means a person who acts like a gossip.)5. Suppose you are outside a government office where doors still bear the notice, “This door must not be left in an open position.” Now try to explain the notice in simple and plain English.答:“Keep the door dote. ” or “The door must be kept close.”6. Give at least two examples showing the influence of American English on British English. 答:(略)7. Find in any books, newspapers, or journals newly coined words in association with social and political needs, internet or computer language.答:For example: SARS, Golden week, euro, e-mail, bi-media(双媒体的), cybernaut计算机(网络)漫游者, DVD, eyephone(视像耳机), etc.8. With examples, give some plausible explanations for linguistic change.答:(略)Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society?答:There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How's your family?”, “Nice day today, isn't it?”.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 答:The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determineidiolect?答:The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?答:First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agency writes grammar books and dictionaries to …fix‟ this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen to learn to use the correct language and to avoid …incorrect‟ language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own.答:According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified asField: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher — students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答:(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is pronounced [pa:s], mend [men], desk [des], and told [təʋl].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is the deletion of the link verb “be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without the copula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fact, copula verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, e.g.(8 — 2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 — 3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of the earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答:Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified” variety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答:Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。

EIM Book 1 Unit 7 Learning languages 单元知识要点

EIM Book 1 Unit 7 Learning languages 单元知识要点

Unit 7 Learning languagesPart 1 (p54-55)New Wordfluently ['flu:əntlɪ] adv. 流利地,流畅地accent [ˈæksent] n. 口音,重音tongue [tʌŋ] n. 舌头,方言mother tongue 母语amazed [əˈmeɪzd] adj. 感到惊讶的native [ˈneɪtɪv] adj. 本国的,本土的legend [ˈledʒənd] n. 传说,传奇人物perhaps [pəˈhæps] adv. 可能,大概,也许To be understand:Greek [gri:k] n. 希腊语Latin [ˈlætɪn] n. 拉丁文Arabic [ˈærəbɪk] n. 阿拉伯语Russian [ˈrʌʃn] n. 俄语Hindi [ˈhɪndi] n. 印地语Old English 古英语(公元450至1150年)Maltese [ˈmɔ:lti:z] n. 马耳他语Tibetan [tɪ'betn] n. 藏文Icelandic [aɪs'lændɪk] n. 冰岛语Cardinal [ˈkɑ:dɪnl] n. 红衣主教,大红色Word Form1.pronunciation [prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃn] n. 发音, 读音---pronounce [prəˈnaʊns] v. 发音,读(音)2.amazed [əˈmeɪzd] adj. 感到惊讶的---amazing adj. 令人惊讶的---amazement n. 惊讶3.fluently ['flu:əntlɪ] adv. 流利地,流畅地---fluent adj. 流利的,流畅的---fluency [ˈflu:ənsi] n. 流利,流畅4.foreign [ˈfɒrən] adj. ---外国的,外来的---foreigner [ˈfɒrənə(r)] n. 外国人5.certain [ˈsɜːtn] adj. 肯定的---certainly[ˈsɜːtnli] adv. 肯定,当然,行6.legend [ˈledʒənd] n. 传说,传奇人物---legendary [ˈledʒəndri] adj. 传奇的Phrases and Sentences1.over=more than 超过He could speak more than /over 38 languages.2.by amazed/surprised at/by... 对......感到惊讶to one’s amazement=to one’s surprise 令人惊讶的是To everyone’s amazement, Tom won the match.3.as well as... 和......一样()His parents, as well as him, were able to swim. =His parents and he were able to swim.4.if的用法①是否(根据实际情况用时态)It’s hard to know if all the stories are true.We are not sure if she will come tomorrow.①如果(条件状语从句,主将从现)If he comes tomorrow, he will get the chance to show himself.5.for sure =for certain =surely =certainly 当然,确定6.20 other +n. pl. =another n.pl. 另外20个7.without sth. /without doing sth. 没有......without an accent 没有口音8.mother tongue =first/native language 母语9.at least 至少Grammar:1.形容词副词的比较级规则变化①tall ---taller(普通变化)①nice ---nicer(不发音的e结尾)①heavy ---heavier(辅音字母加y结尾)①big ---bigger(重读闭音结尾)①slowly ---more slowly; beautiful ---more beautiful(部分双音节和所有多音节)2.常见不规则变化good/well ---better ---best ill/bad/badly ---worse ---worstmany/much ---more ---most little ---less ---leastfar ---farther/further ---farthest/furthest old ---older/elder ---oldest/eldest3.最高级表示三者或三者以上的人或者物进行比较时,用最高级。

消费者行为06.Consumer learning

消费者行为06.Consumer learning

6-5
Classical Conditioning
A behavioral learning theory according to which a stimulus is paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response that serves to produce the same response when used alone.
6 - 15
Observational Learning
A process by which individuals observe how others behave in response to certain stimuli and reinforcements. Also known as modeling or vicarious learning.
• Cognitive Theories
– Learning based on mental information processing – Focus on “change in knowledge”
6-4
Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning • Instrumental Conditioning • Modeling or Observational Learning
6-3
Learning Theories
• Behavioral Theories
– Based on observable behaviors (responses) that occur as the result of exposure to stimuli – Focus on “change in behavior”

英专综合教程6册课文翻译及课后答案Answer to unit2

英专综合教程6册课文翻译及课后答案Answer to unit2

Chinese Translation of Paragraphs1. 电话的发明,产生了一个始料不及的后果,书写过时了。

诚然,全职的写字工仍然存在,包括记者、学者以及职业写手。

大型商业中心仍然很有必要保留一些能草拟备忘录、会议纪要、新闻稿或者合同的人。

但是在举笔和拿起话筒之间选择的话,大多数人都会走便道,让手指——有时还有大脑——休息片刻。

2. 与之相比,当前计算机网络上发生的现象就更为惊人了。

每个夜晚,当人们本应该看电视的时候,成千上万的计算机用户坐在键盘前,点击进入“电脑服务”、“奇才”、“美国在线”或互联网,并开始打字——发电子邮件、发布信息、聊天、夸夸其谈、谩骂,甚至创作短篇小说和诗歌。

当麦克卢汉所说的媒介正在淘汰莎士比亚时代的媒介时,网络世界正经历着18世纪以来信件书写最为迅猛的发展。

3. “我确信电子邮件和网上会议正在教会整整一代人写文章是多么有用,可以灵活到何种程度,”《旧金山纪事报》的专栏作家乔恩·卡洛尔这样写道。

石山图书出版社的编辑帕特里克·尼尔森·海顿把当今的电子公告板比作18世纪末19世纪初的“文字盒”:这是个小盒子,盒内的文章在多人间传递,每人经手时都会增加一些句子。

来自亚利桑那大学的副主编大卫·塞维尔则将网络写作喻为马克·吐温在19世纪60年代在旧金山所发现的文学景象,“当时人们将新闻报道嫁接到夸张的民俗传统故事之中,创造了新的新闻报道方式”。

更有甚者,有人想起了汤姆·潘恩和美国革命时期政治小册子作家,甚至还想起了伊丽莎白一世时期,古腾堡活字印刷术的发明,令一代英国作家沉迷在语言之中。

4. 可是这种比较又引出一个问题:如果说当今的网络写作代表了某种复兴,但为何这么多网络作品又如此糟糕呢?网络写作可能会低劣不堪:文体拖沓、漫无边际、愚蠢幼稚、不合语法、拼写糟糕、结构不当,有时甚至毫无内容可言,正如网络上典型的短信息所示:“嗨!!!1!我觉得金属乐队酷毙了!1 !!!”5. 当然,原因之一就是电子邮件不同于常规写作。

AP psychology总结Unit7

AP psychology总结Unit7

Chapter 7 cognitionModels of memory Neither model is perfectNeither model describes physical structures in the brain. Memories are distributed around the cortex.Three-box/information-processingmodelExternal events are fir st processed by our sensory memory. Then some information is encoded intoshort-term (working) memory. Some of that information is then encoded into long-term memory.1)Sensory memory感觉记忆All the information your senses are processing right now is held in the sensory memory for a veryshort period of time(less than a second)George Sperling (iconic memory图片: a split-second perfect photograph of a sense)Other experiments(echoic memory声音: an equally brief, 3-4second, memory for sounds)Events are encoded as:Visual codes/ acoustic codes(sounds)/semantic codes(meaning of the event)Selective attention选择性注意: determines which sensory messages get encoded. We encodewhat we are attending to or what is important to us.-->cocktail party effect2)Short-term/working memory短期记忆everything you are thinking at the current moment is held in your short-term or working memory.They are temporary and usually fade in 10 to 30 sLimitation: 7! Plus or minus 2This limitation can be expanded through “chunking”(group)/ or rehearse(repeat)3)Long-term memory长期记忆unlimited yet not truly permanent(will decay/ fade)long-term memory can be stored in 3 different formats:a)Episodic memory( specific events, stored in a sequential series of events, eg: last time youwent on a date)情节b)Semantic memory(general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories,eg: the difference between the terms effect and affect)语义c)Procedural memory(skills and how to perform them, eg: how to throw a curveball)程序Memory can also be divided into 2 kinds:a)Implicit memory(also called nondeclarative memories) are unintentional memories that wemight not even realize we have.内隐记忆b)Explicit memory(also called declarative memories) are what we usually think of first. They areconscious memories of facts or events we actively try to remember.外显记忆Eidetic/photographic memory: to use very powerful and enduring visual images to remember information. Alexandra Linda studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and even recall it up to 15 years later.摄影式记忆,即过目不忘Levels of processing model Levels of processing model: explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the memory was processed or thought about.Memories are neither short- nor long- term. They are deeply/elaboratively or shallowly/maintenance processed.记忆不分长短期记忆,分为精细加工或粗浅加工According to the levels of processing theory, we remember things we spend more cognitive time and energy processing. Eg: we remember stories better than simple recitation of events, we remember questions better than statements.retrieval The last step in any memory model is retrieval提取: getting information our of memory so we can use it.2 kinds of retrieval:1)Recognition: the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory.Eg: have I smelled this smell before? 选择题,是非题2)Recall更难: to retrieve memory with external cue.Eg: What does my Aunt Beki’s perfume smell like? 简答题Several factors that influence retrieval:1)Order:Serial position effect/curve by Hermann Ebbinghaus艾宾浩斯:a)Primacy effect首因效应: we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a listb)Recency effect近因效应: recall the items at the end of a listc)Items in the middle are most often forgotten.2)Contexta)Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenonthe temporary inability to remember information→why? →semantic network theory explains: our brain might form new memories by connectingtheir meaning and context with meanings already in memory.b)Flash bulb memoriespowerful because the importance of the event caused us to encode the context surrounding theevent. However, they can be inaccurat e. Perhaps we tend to construct part of the memory to fill inthe gaps in our stories.c)State-dependent memorythe phenomenon of recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness.。

  1. 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性,平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
  2. 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
  3. 3、如文档侵犯您的权益,请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间:9:00-18:30)。

Chapter 6 Memory
Language and writing
一、用横线划出下列句子中的状语从句,并指出是哪种状语从句
1. Child as she is, she knows a lot of things.
2. The more I can do for the class, the happier I’ll be.
3. He talks as if (as though) he knew all about it.
4. He is such a good teacher that the students love and respect him.
5. I shall go to the park unless it rains.
6. No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.
7. Where there is water, there is life.
8. He studied hard so that he could catch up with his classmates.
9. Since you are v ery busy, I won’t trouble you.
10. Even if (though) I fail. I’ll never lose heart.
11. Once you begin the work, you must continue.
12. I will find her wherever she may be.
13. Now that you’ve come, you’d better have dinner with us.
14. He was so excited t hat he couldn’t fall asleep.
15. We must do everything as he tells us.
16. India is much bigger than Japan.
17. No matter when you come, you are warmly welcome.
18. As (So) long as you work hard, you can catch up with the other classmates.
二、用适当的连词填空
1. Dr. Bethune (白求恩) came to China __________ he was fifty.
2. He began to work __________ he got there.
3. Let’s begin our meeting __________everyone is here.
4. I like the English people, __________ I don’t like their food.
5. __________ you go in China, you can see smiling faces.
6. He didn’t come to the party, __________ he was very busy.
7. __________we had enough time, we walked to the cinema.
8. They will help you __________ you meet with difficulty.
9. We came to the university, __________ we have learnt quite a lot.
10.I didn’t join them yesterday evening __________ I had to go to an important meeting.
11. We would try to get a car __________we could all travel together more easily.
12. We’re doing everything we can to make things as easy for you ___________we can.
13. He was angrier __________ ever before.
14. __________ you lock all the doors, he can still manage to get in.
15. The boy was so tired __________ he fell asleep on the bus.
三、选择填空
1. I’ll let you know ____ he comes back.
A. before
B. because
C. as soon as
D. although
2. She will sing a song ____ she is asked.
A. if
B. unless
C. for
D. since
3. We will work ____ we are needed.
A. whenever
B. because
C. since
D. wherever
4. Read it aloud _____ the class can hear you.
A. so that
B. if
C. when
D. although
5. _____ you go, don’t forget your people.
A. Whenever
B. However
C. Wherever
D. Whichever
6. It is about ten years _____ I met you last.
A. since
B. for
C. when
D. as
7. They will never succeed _____ hard they try.
A. because
B. however
C. when
D. since
8. _____ still half drunk, he made his way home.
A. When
B. Because
C. Though
D. As
9. _____ she was very tired, she went on working.
A. As
B. Although
C. Even
D. In spite of
10. I learned a little Russian _____ I was at middle school.
A. though
B. although
C. as if
D. when
11. _____ we got to the station, the train had left already.
A. If
B. Unless
C. Since
D. When
12. _____ the rain stops, we’ll set off for the station.
A. Before
B. Unless
C. As soon as
D. Though
13. She was _____ tired _____ she could not move an inch.
A. so, that
B. such, that
C. very, that
D. so, as
14. We didn’t go home _____ we finished the work.
A. since
B. until
C. because
D. though
15. I’ll stay here _____ everyone else comes back.
A. even if
B. as though
C. because
D. until
【试题答案】
一、略
二、用适当的连词填空
1. when
2. when / as soon as
3. when
4. although
5. When
6. because
7. Because/ As
8. if
9. because 10. because
11. so that 12.as 13. than 14. Even though 15. that
三、选择填空
1~5 CAAAC
6~10 ABCDD
11~15 DCABD。

相关文档
最新文档