建筑外文翻译--建筑类型和设计
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献On the other hand, there is a significant amount ofliterature in the field of architecture design that is writtenin foreign languages. While it may not be as readily accessible for non-native speakers, there are many benefits to exploring literature in other languages. For example, architects who are fluent in multiple languages can have a broader understanding of different cultural approaches to architecture. By reading literature in foreign languages, architects can gain insights into design concepts and practices that may not be covered in English-language sources. This can lead to a more diverse and innovative approach to design.However, one challenge with accessing literature in foreign languages is the accuracy of translations. Architecture is a technical field with specific terminology, and it is important to ensure that translations accurately convey the intended meaning. In some cases, the translation of technical terms and concepts may not accurately convey their full meaning, which can lead to misunderstandings or confusion. Architects who rely on translated literature should be cautious and ensure they verify the accuracy of the translations with experts in the field.Despite these challenges, it is essential for architects to explore literature in multiple languages to stay informed and to gain a global perspective on architecture design. By consideringboth English and foreign language translated literature, architects can access a wider range of resources and insights. Additionally, architects should consider collaborating with colleagues who are fluent in different languages to ensure accurate translation and interpretation of foreign language sources.In conclusion, architecture design is a field that benefits from accessing literature in multiple languages. English provides a wealth of resources and is the global language of academia. However, architects who can access and read literature in foreign languages can gain new perspectives and insights into different cultural approaches to design. While caution should be taken to verify the accuracy of translations, architects should explore literature in multiple languages to broaden their understanding and enhance their creative problem-solving skills.。
建筑结构设计及材料中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structure in Design of ArchitectureAnd Structural MaterialWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic,preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic ofhis or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasiswill be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specificform of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile forcewhich, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting.A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel materialbetween them under high heat.Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
外文翻译---建筑风格设计与特殊创意
On special architectural design and creative Abstract: The design "the most poor and unhelpful, is to confuse the struggle of the modern, and deliberately forget history. Ancient civilization in the vast legacy handed down to us is most worthy of the construction and design of one of the places that will shine through, which is between the ancient and modern A lively dialogue, but we want to convey the message should not be tracing the history of design development, but a far more profound understanding: as long as we can think of things, not the construction of what is not out. "Modern architectural styles unique and rich modern style of work, it seems the city has been a trademark; Looking at the past years of urban renewal projects, in the types and styles are diverse, whether it is classical, traditional or modern show , with designers keen insight and wealth of creativity, the mold after they made, every premises, distributed a unique charm.In the development of the cause of the initial design, designers Although the target on urban residential design, but the design of the business has never ignored the market, with the development of the times, whether it is offices, hotels, restaurants, shopping malls, or homes, etc. in the design of various projects are yearning for freedom, go its own way of creative space. With the vigorous development of the design industry, designers of each new project is a new challenge, and they will go all out to create their own new works. Design is by personal subjective feeling of, in particular, a strong human subjectivity into the site, one will be able to know the pros and cons of its know its proper handling, we will have to have their keen insight of the surrounding areas, and things are subjective awareness. Furthermore, the observation of the surrounding things continue to be training their own analytical capacity, with the points of view of the changes of the broadening of horizons, but also further stimulate creativity and inspiration, and often others Appreciation of the design is done very Zhiyizhibi important.Many designers think it is the design of the mainstream in the 1980s, minimalism to the recovery of many designers with the pandemic, it works out the design style is very close, is no personality, I am an advocate continuously inject new elements to replace the old, allow procrastination or copied, the only way to create masterpieces. But if too rigidly adhere to this, the entire design will be full enough. Therefore, it must learn from decorative arts and modern art decorative patterns. Architectural Design paid great attention to highlight different regions of the personality, at the same time, in order to create a continuous visual, not because of the style is too strong and a jump flu, the design is also very careful to abide by the principles of coherence, which is on the scale quite delicate. Designers of the greatest sentiment is that "the most poor and unhelpful, is to confuse the struggle of the modern, and deliberately forget history. Ancient civilization in the vast legacy handed down to us is most worthy of the construction and design of one of the places that will shine through. This is a vivid between the ancient and modern dialogue, but we want to convey themessage should not be tracing the history of design development, but a far more profound understanding: as long as we can think of things, not the construction of what is not out 's. "Interior Design in the residential area often encountered some small, personal possession of small space, thus, in the use of space, it favors a simple approach to deal with, customs to the effect of space doubled. The so-called simple, generally refers to a simple style, and do not advocate the use Qiao spent lines, complex materials, and create a comfortable natural scenes, in order to increase the sense of space visually. Similarly, the relatively shallow color easy to give a feeling of comfort Moreover, the short-color help light refraction, can enhance the indoor brightness in the context of a Su Jing, whether it is strong contrast, or harmony The costume can accentuate every indoor design. Lighting in the interior design is the one element that can not be overlooked, lighting control to create a climate of increased levels flu Therefore, whenever a project, the designers will be in the lighting effects spend a lot of time and thought to to perfect. As a professional designer, the cumulative experience is very very important, like a treasure, whether it is good or good experiences to both spur themselves on the role gladly accept criticism from others, the courage to admit their errors , and has also constantly looking for reflection and can break their own across barriers and move towards the front.Address small residential area of design skills. Space and the furniture is more complex use, in order to extend the original narrow pattern. Poor use of the ground level to address the use of tables and chairs in furniture demand, but also added the level and depth. To the more pure color, can increase the visual extension. And by creating the false impression that the sense of the mirror, cleverly not practical to fight for the space, and other times. Staggered do is not the original meaning of compressed space, but the practical considerations of home after. Make full use of available 3D. Staggered and stacked with the conversion from top to bottom and the vertical connections, the more the level of the expansion.Small residential area of the design must be haggling so hard, Zizhubijiao, but it must have a completed impressive bearing. Photoglottography design is not good-looking, exciting carving. But for people with space. Allows users to facilitate their living by - the value of design in this. Of course, the lighting is operating. Let there be light indoor performance, rather than isolated lighting display. He is the customary form of reduced light, light to see the effect of the most important. Light and shadow on the wall (or other objects) are drawn shades and aesthetic changes. Restaurants with chandeliers to light because on the desktop illuminate, chandeliers can be made uniform light. Home office does not need another Tongliang, but to the level of warmth to create a personalized atmosphere. Lighting should be playing in the bright areas. Not brightest parts of it go dark. This is what we-efficiency design principles. Simple, nostalgia, arts tastes tap millennium, the choice of furniture and furnishings space will return to the concept of natural Returning to Simplicity Meaningful style, both in shape, color or ATG is the line arrangements, home style of the show, more different, simplicity no longer just simplified lines and monotonous shapes by adding more design elements of the "people" and the respect of human warmth design. Newresidential planning, the new proposal. ─ ─ new thinking and new humanistic values speed ─ ─ correct and accurate and efficient method for the rapid ─ ─ it is really material seized materials and practicality ─ ─ create long-term maintenance convenience and flexibility of the design method seized JieIs a simple pursuit of the US-style against exaggerated, luxury and impulsive. Architecture modeling, a reasonable proportion to my pursuit of the perfect goal, this is a higher realm of design. Design should be long-lasting. In other words, after a long period of time after a Nengkan texture. Living in the city, people. A living has become increasingly sophisticated. Everyone is in the design of their own life. Indeed, it is necessary hygiene design. When we were more numerous and located in the fashionable things of the mind, the design will be found that the direction is increasingly blurred.Some designers like simple crisper, less inclined to antique designs. He said, "is the quintessence of traditional unable to imitate so simple can be attained perfect. Old style because of the prevailing aesthetic will and personality created by the times, the history that the United States is serving a one-time, we can not easily catch up later, If mechanically copying the easy work will be lost beauty, loss of contemporary flavor. "Of course, as a designer, you can not be too extreme style, or only in a limited level. Design is the work of serving the people, it is often too specific and you need to grasp the reality and the aesthetic sense of propriety. Pai space cloth there is a sensitive occupation. Grasp the overall space, the decision of the design direction of the formation of styles, techniques transform were determined by the outcome of the deployment of space. Proportion, scale, cutting…… that space needs are the skills. And the use of penetration, surrounded level, by King, a space can be recycled. But do not do virtual personal utopian space conversion, residential design to help users achieve the dream of space. Designers should always be a very professional look and attitude in dealing with the design of the hands of cases.Purely functional solution is only a prototype design. The so-called "rational engineering" and the design should be involved in the highest state of the art flu level. Is the beginning of the function to consider and rely on the actual residential space to address the needs of repudiation to the final while artistic expression, people feel the United States and feel comfortable. Such a hard balance the needs of professional spirit of living apply professional knowledge, keen art Synaesthesia, and the accumulation of various practices. Done over 1,000 cases, and only after countless experience can be easily formed their own artificial maturity practices.Simple, rustic style of the design is the favorite of many people living in the complex and varied world of annoyance is endless, and simple, natural living space for the enjoyment able people feel calm and comfort; through the interior space of Deconstruction and reorganization, and will meet people on the slow life of the yearning and the pursuit of life, to allow them to the realities of life in the turbulence find a balance, creating a fascinating is the heart inside space itself. This concept of the integration of design, the carping abandon the formal beauty, and negate excessive cumulatively and exaggeration, and through the clear, concise lines cut and Sucheng rustic furniture portfolio, build a comfortable, natural, crisper style home.However, as a professional designer, should not be confined to a particular their direction, we should not Moshou static design style, it should follow the trend of the times and the pace of the progress, to broaden their horizons and Through study and practice self-constantly updated and breakthroughs, only in this way can induce a more rich design ideas, and create more of the work. The design should be gradually moving to diversify and not designed to focus on individual subjective feelings of the project, from the nature of that love, nature has produced a trend of the home style, with the development and future trends of the modern trend, and now a preference for modern Western ideas, likes the simplicity of the way to deal with it. Design is not just the arts. A pure art works, just to meet a single individual, of the acts of individuals, not care about other people's guidance, but not design worship of individualism, because end-users are still customers, which in the design process, it is necessary to take into account customer needs, but also meet user needs, can not disregard one has been to the creation of self-satisfaction, while completely ignoring the views and demands of customers, because the customer is room users, only they know best their own need, the designer only communicate with customers after the imaginary space through its professional approach and the implementation of down. Thus, it appears that a successful design should be attractive to both the reality. Only the lack of practical and aesthetic design, the designer, it may have made the Heart, will meet the pursuit of the goal of the design, can meet the designers have created a desire But for the ultimate users, only STYLOMMATOPHORA bring flattering effect, because it was not fully taken into account so as to practicality caused a lot of inconvenience, the results of a failure to.Design attributes is formed by past experience. Design more than once in the company, and many teachers consider that a lot of environmental impact, from the early classical style to foreign designers led to the design work, is a style of their own design today The reason, and from that early homeowners should raise the standard of living, and today the diagnosis and design of fully-dwellers living together, designers found that the owner has done for the design should be extended to after so many years of living . Building is the major reason not to adjust for individual needs, but also because the lives of the people for change, resulting in interior design so vigorous development, but how to make their own designer from the "decoration" and lead to "design." First on the external environment to foster strong-Min, from their own experience can be classified as a class of its own, followed by the space-hwan into the merits of their own advantages, but also said that, can be three times asthree-dimensional space design , will be able to fully grasp the coordination of the completion of the last to the ideal and the owner needs to strike a balance in the points, and the owner will do good groove, visual beauty and life will be perfect combination. Life in the exploration, design is also in the progress of exploration, design and meditation the same time, a decade in interior design architect, it has been asked, inall these years, he encountered a good landlord? For this question, he said: The focus is not met good landlord, but encountered a landlord, the heart would like to hear the "good things" play, the key lies in the "heart to" what is? Designers in the life of the concept is not open, otherwise, there is no significance. For this, he can view a proofexample said: try to make clear to see that the brain of every ideas ups and downs, like stripping clothes, first took off his jacket, from the more layers to be more in delinking not continue, because to be showing naked, but if not, respectively, they do not have any of the concerns. And also because not understand their own can really appreciate a certain space, "creation" out of space to do naturally; first self-deep dialogue, the only real space of the output."Simplification" of the design essence. From the complexity of classical, modern stress modeling to streamline the present, and would like to find a reasonable need for the owner to complete the space, "simplify" is the key, because that modeling is usually more expensive items, only to the visual effects , and "streamline" it allows designers design restore the essence of the true surface material through to performance. Thorough understanding of material design to implementation. After the completion of the plane, followed is the material selection, material judge the suitability of the use of space, the first from the "function" of other words, the design concept of the structure to the right, when can Yue, the appropriate use of material. To achieve able to cope with the most solid way is to get a clear understanding of material, a clear understanding of the subject characteristics, can fully play material advantages.When the designers of a lack of understanding of material characteristics, it will be easy for the construction units Qianzhaozou, construction units may be due to complex construction method, and for various reasons overthrow designers design, resulting in the entire space to fulfill variable low, If they fully understand the advantages of material, the designers themselves more easily produce creative design.1 to the glasshouse was popular as an example, Taiwan's glasshouse technology incomplete, resulting in a glasshouse become hot glass box, and moreenergy-consuming, and difficult to clean up, easy leakage of customers speaking, the use of the difficulties Finally they bargain on the material that is not enough understanding of the environment and therefore, contrary abroad glasshouse design, taking into account the automatic cleaning system, the design of anti-ultraviolet, and even rolling shutters can be combined and a glasshouse. Only after the advantages and disadvantages of a clear material, designers can avoid the inappropriate use of products. And the launching of glass as an example. After years of design career, Mrs. Jingzhong designers to use a lot of glass and metal from the external walls, partition to smallpox, these two types of material in his hands almost omnipotent. That design is the proudest, in the limited space to create the conditions for the infinite value only to be applauded. Because of the use of the most basic material for the completion of the greatest sense of accomplishment.At the same time designers in the design of good to look at the design of their own attitude. Only in this way can their own unique style and design. Most people think that the responsibility lies designers found, and then to solve the problem, however, space and the hearts of the people, or do not affect the transformation found that only the issue of reunification, return to one of the most deep-seated. That the designer is to guide the party, and regardless of space or who have unlimited potential can be excavated, when the lives of people in the Yongliu after Muran look back to thebeginning, both in the journey, the journey half-way or Streams In conclusion, the pursuit of profound deep in the hearts of the home is a starting point. Do with clothing analogy, how trustworthy are wearing texture better make, the ultimate state of instability texture if it is necessary to wear a certain kind of a feature of a certain kind of pattern formation, as well highlighted, unwilling personal nature . If a simple external clothing, not messy state space, but its inner world, and how? Space is simply not the dull, frightened "of the creation of" performance simple, but heart is monotonous and work-style of a means to cover up their hearts empty. But if the content of deep, it can be very forces. So many things are just in the "color" of the changes, the pursuit of sound textures, to be returned because of the nature of life.Is designed to create a better living space, this space is ultimately for human habitation, in the design, practical and aesthetic is equally important, and often take into account practical consideration will be given to modeling. Design is not only played the role of landscaping, the ultimate goal is a reasonable use of space. Landscaping design is a part of but not all. We are from the users point of view, the environment, space, and other aspects of the integrity of distribution, distribution. In this landscape before entering the stage. According to the concept of landscaping customers to adjust to different cases. For example, the hotel is Geserendeng coexistence place in the design will adopt the doctrine of the mean, so that every person entering here will not create a feeling of comfort, it is necessary to make full use of every space, so that it can rationalize divided, and then click different functions and costume on the appropriate equipment and installations, and to beautify and modified to create the atmosphere for them to reconcile. Of course, the extent of landscaping deeply shallow, more different styles, done well or not depends on the skill of the designer. Design has no fixed formula. Space is the handling of the variety. The same space, there are different elements affecting each other. Co-ordination. That is to be considered practical. Further research modeling. A worry-designers must be able to find the balance between the two, to play.建筑风格设计与特殊创意摘要：设计风格“最贫乏而无益的，莫过于被现代性蛊惑纠缠，并且刻意忘记历史。
一般建筑术语英文翻译之一
常见的建筑术语的英文翻译集之一以下是一些常见的建筑术语的英文翻译集合之一：1. 建筑设计- Architectural Design2. 建筑结构- Building Structure3. 建筑材料- Building Materials4. 建筑施工- Building Construction5. 建筑成本- Construction Cost6. 建筑风格- Architectural Style7. 建筑师- Architect8. 建筑规划- Building Planning9. 建筑模型- Architectural Model10. 建筑面积- Building Area11. 建筑高度- Building Height12. 建筑容积率- Plot Ratio13. 建筑法规- Building Codes and Regulations14. 建筑节能- Energy Efficiency in Buildings15. 建筑智能化- Intelligent Buildings16. 绿色建筑- Green Buildings17. 可持续建筑- Sustainable Buildings18. 建筑声学- Architectural Acoustics19. 建筑光学- Architectural Optics20. 室内设计- Interior Design21. 景观设计- Landscape Design22. 结构设计- Structural Design23. 给排水设计- Water Supply and Drainage Design24. 暖通空调设计- HVAC Design25. 电气设计- Electrical Design26. 消防设计- Fire Protection Design27. 智能化系统设计- Intelligent System Design28. 施工组织设计- Construction Organization Design29. 施工图设计- Construction Drawing Design30. 装饰装修设计- Decoration and Finishing Design31. 建筑声学设计- Architectural Acoustics Design32. 建筑光学设计- Architectural Optics Design33. 建筑热工设计- Architectural Thermal Design34. 建筑美学设计- Architectural Aesthetic Design35. 建筑环境设计- Architectural Environment Design36. 建筑风水学- Feng Shui37. 建筑日照分析- Solar Analysis for Buildings38. 建筑通风分析- Ventilation Analysis for Buildings39. 建筑声环境分析- Acoustic Environment Analysis for Buildings40. 建筑光环境分析- Daylighting Environment Analysis for Buildings41. 建筑热环境分析- Thermal Environment Analysis for Buildings42. 建筑面积计算- Building Area Calculation43. 建筑楼层高度- Storey Height44. 建筑消防设计- Fire Protection Design for Buildings45. 建筑结构安全评估- Structural Safety Evaluation for Buildings46. 建筑抗震设计- Seismic Design for Buildings47. 建筑防洪设计- Flood-resistant Design for Buildings48. 建筑工程招标- Building Engineering Tendering49. 建筑工程施工许可- Construction Permission for Building Projects50. 建筑工程造价咨询- Engineering Cost Consulting for Building Projects51. 建筑工程监理- Project Supervision for Building Projects52. 建筑工程验收- Acceptance of Building Projects53. 建筑工程质量检测- Quality Detection of Building Projects54. 建筑工程质量评估- Quality Evaluation of Building Projects55. 建筑工程质量保修- Quality Guarantee of Building Projects56. 建筑工程档案- Construction Project Archives57. 建筑工程安全- Construction Safety58. 建筑工程管理- Construction Project Management59. 建筑工程合同- Construction Contract60. 建筑工程保险- Construction Insurance61. 建筑工程材料- Construction Materials62. 建筑工程机械- Construction Machinery63. 建筑工程劳务- Construction Labor64. 建筑工程施工组织设计- Construction Organization Design for Building Projects65. 建筑工程施工图设计- Construction Drawing Design for Building Projects66. 建筑工程施工进度计划- Construction Progress Plan for Building Projects67. 建筑工程施工质量控制- Construction Quality Control for Building Projects68. 建筑工程施工安全管理- Construction Safety Management for Building Projects69. 建筑工程施工现场管理- Construction Site Management for Building Projects70. 建筑工程施工成本管理- Construction Cost Management for Building Projects71. 建筑工程施工环境保护- Environmental Protection in Building Construction72. 建筑工程施工节能管理- Energy-saving Management in Building Construction73. 建筑工程施工水土保持- Soil and Water Conservation in Building Construction74. 建筑工程施工质量控制要点- Key Points of Construction Quality Control for Building Projects75. 建筑工程施工安全控制要点- Key Points of Construction Safety Control for Building Projects76. 建筑工程施工质量验收规范- Acceptance Specification for Construction Quality ofBuilding Projects77. 建筑立面设计- Façade Design78. 建筑剖面设计- Section Design79. 建筑立面分析图- Façade Analysis Diagram80. 建筑剖面分析图- Section Analysis Diagram81. 建筑结构分析图- Structural Analysis Diagram82. 建筑平面图- Floor Plan83. 建筑立面图- Façade Drawing84. 建筑剖面图- Section Drawing85. 建筑轴测图- Axonometric Drawing86. 建筑渲染图- Architectural Rendering87. 建筑模型制作- Model Making88. 建筑绘画- Architectural Drawing89. 建筑表现图- Architectural Representation90. 建筑动画- Architectural Animation91. 建筑摄影- Architectural Photography92. 建筑信息模型- Building Information Modeling (BIM)93. 建筑环境评估- Building Environmental Assessment94. 建筑节能评估- Building Energy Efficiency Assessment95. 建筑可持续性评估- Building Sustainability Assessment96. 建筑健康评估- Building Health Assessment97. 建筑设备系统设计- Building Equipment System Design98. 建筑电气系统设计- Electrical System Design for Buildings99. 建筑给排水系统设计- Water Supply and Drainage System Design for Buildings 100. 建筑暖通空调系统设计- HVAC System Design for Buildings。
建筑学Modern-Architecture现代建筑大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
建筑学Modern-Architecture现代建筑⼤学毕业论⽂外⽂⽂献翻译及原⽂毕业设计（论⽂）外⽂⽂献翻译⽂献、资料中⽂题⽬：现代建筑⽂献、资料英⽂题⽬：Modern Architecture⽂献、资料来源：⽂献、资料发表（出版）⽇期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译⽇期： 2017.02.14建筑学毕业设计的外⽂⽂献及译⽂⽂献、资料题⽬：《Advanced Encryption Standard》⽂献、资料发表（出版）⽇期：2004.10.25外⽂⽂献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中⽂译⽂：现代建筑现代建筑,不被混淆与'当代建筑' , 是⼀个词给了⼀些建筑风格有类似的特点, 主要的简化形式,消除装饰等. 虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并⼤量造就了⼀些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品,很少有现代的建筑物,建于20世纪上半叶. 第⼆次⼤战后的三⼗年, 但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源⼀些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为⼀个社会问题, 息息相关的⼯程中的现代性,从⽽影响了启蒙运动,导致社会和政治⾰命.另⼀些⼈认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和⼯程学的发展, 那就是获得新的建筑材料,如钢铁, 混凝⼟和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术,它作为⼯业⾰命的⼀部分. 1796年, shrewsbury查尔斯bage⾸先⽤他的'⽕'的设计, 后者则依靠铸铁及砖与⽯材地板. 这些建设⼤⼤加强了结构,使它们能够容纳更⼤的机器. 由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,⼀些早期建筑失败. 直到1830年初,伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁, 导致⼴泛使⽤钢架建设，⼯业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的⾯貌,英国北部领导的描述, "⿊暗魔⿁作坊"的地⽅如曼彻斯特和西约克郡. ⽔晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重⼤展览, 1851年,是⼀个早期的例⼦,钢铁及玻璃施⼯; 可能是⼀个最好的例⼦,就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利⽂在芝加哥附近发展的⾼层钢结构摩天楼. 早期结构采⽤混凝⼟作为⾏政⼿段的建筑表达(⽽⾮纯粹功利结构) ,包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近,劳埃德赖特的统⼀宫, 建于1926年瑞⼠巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第⼆哥特堂,.但⽆论原因为何, 约有1900多位建筑师,在世界各地开始制定新的建筑⽅法,将传统的先例(⽐如哥特式)与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利⽂和赖特在芝加哥⼯作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔,安东尼⾼迪在巴塞罗那, 奥托⽡格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳,其中之⼀可以看作是⼀个新与旧的共同⽃争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要⼈物,在现代建筑⾥确⽴了⾃⼰的名声. 三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国, 密斯范德尔德罗和⽡尔特格罗⽪乌斯在德国. 密斯范德尔德罗和格罗⽪乌斯为董事的包豪斯, 其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和⼯艺和传统⼯业技术.赖特的建筑⽣涯中,也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过⽡斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们. 赖特与格罗⽪乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重⼤的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览,艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势, 内容相似,有⼀个共同的⽬的,巩固了他们融⼊国际化风格这是⼀个重要的转折点. 在⼆战的时间包豪斯的代表⼈物逃到美国,芝加哥，到哈佛⼤学设计⿊⼭书院. 当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单⼀的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑, 是学校(专业领导)的唯⼀可接受的, 设计解决⽅案,从约1932年⾄约1984年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
建筑外文翻译2
多层住宅楼结构设计的故事引言设计和建造在塞勒姆，泰米尔纳德邦州，印度是本文描述。
设计是交由证明第二次检查的作者。
该建筑是一幢公寓的泰米尔纳德邦房屋委员会给的建议。
这是一个钢筋混凝土框架建设。
这样做是在技术，哥印拜陀，印度，巴黎圣日尔曼学院作为高级论文设计的世平的一部分，在马萨诸塞州伍斯特，01609巴黎圣日耳曼技术，哥印拜陀，印度，学院在印度项目中心的7周内学生作为一个住宅项目。
学生姓名弗雷德里克嘉莉，亚伯拉罕松柏目和安东尼。
这是他们完成在巴黎圣日尔曼学院项目的技术，哥印拜陀，印度，中心在1998年。
这是对BSCE在土木与环境工程学士学位世平要求的一部分。
世平派出20名学生到印度计划在PSG技术学校，哥印拜陀，学院计划在美国拉惹博士，主席，中欧和东欧处圣日耳曼技术学院赞助。
拉惹古玛教授担任顾问的校园，而体育Jayachandran教授，担任过外的世平校园顾问。
学生们做了文献调查，问题的定义，没有一个完整的结构分析和4层住宅大楼在设计钢筋混凝土。
他们遵循国际清算银行在印度的代码456 - 1978和使用脑梗死- 1999和风能/加拿大代码使用1995年的地震荷载和ANSI标准检查1995。
分析和设计的地砖，梁，梁，柱和基脚已完成利用钢筋混凝土结构设计与分析理论，STAAD 进行第三软件，它使用有限元。
对板设计，梁，柱和基脚外出使用该软件进行钢筋混凝土设计套件。
图纸完成使用自动加元。
为了防止这些软件被滥用，极限状态设计是专门用来作为手工计算方法来验证从STAAD进行输出，三和RC设计套件。
估计和工料测量做是为了计算数量和建筑和制造规范移仍维持在H/500，在理论设计的改编，由 C.K. Wang和 C.G. Salmon的教科书钢筋混凝土设计和JGMcGrager，钢筋混凝土设计和S.Rajasekaran，有限元方法。
学生已完成结构设计和图纸和技术报告，并提出了结果的陈述，之前的资深教授和其他教师和大学生的心理服务技术的观众，以及在世平。
外文翻译.建筑学
NATURE AND MODERNISM IN CONTEMPORARY FINNISH ARCHITECTURE 当代芬兰建筑中的自然和现代主义Juhana Lahti(尤哈得·拉赫蒂)Fin nish architecture is renowned primarily for two things: pragmatic and no-nonsense modernism and a mythical relationship with nature. This has been the case ever since Alvar Aalto and his contemporaries, including Erik Bryggman and Pauli E. Blomstedt, designed the first masterpieces of Finnish modern architecture some 80 years ago. Aalto's 1930s designs, especially the Paimio Sanatorium completed in 1933, Bryggman's private houses and blocks of flats in the city of Turku, and Blomstedt's church designs, most importantly the Kannonkoski Church completed in 1938, mark the early stage of Finnish modern architecture.Modernism has subsequently been the movement that the mainstream, and often also the alternative, Finnish architecture has learned on. The commitment to modernism is related to Finland's social development since it gained independence in 1917 and the Nordic approach to architecture and design.Northern Location and CultureIn the Nordic variety of modernism, the architecture is interwoven with many Northern European cultural traits. The determining factors at play are climate and natural surroundings, but also a communal spirit, drawing on Lutheranism, which has been embodied by the Nordic welfare state. A key characteristic in the formation of the local people's relationship with nature, which is worth mentioning here, is the idea of "freedom to roam", which, in a nutshell, means that everyone has the right to access the natural environment and what it offers, within certain limits. This tradition, which is known globally by people who live in close connection with nature, has stood its ground in the Nordic countries.The natural environment in the Baltic Sea region is very rich, varied and small in scale. The inland, again, features an endless number of lakes that form vast waterways. Finland is known as the land of a thousand lakes. In fact, you can say that Finnish nature is filled with unique places. We do not have endless sandy beaches by oceans or particularly great differences in height. Instead, we have rivers, lakes and archipelagos. This varied and omnipresent alternation of land and water provides arhythm to the Finnish natural landscape. This rhythm is both visual and spatial. In addition, the changing of the four seasons, with warm and light summers and dark, snowy and cold winters when the waterways freeze, accentuates the variability of he landscape and has a considerable effect on the use of natural space.On Finnish ArchitectureI see that all the above is closely associated with what people perceive as good architecture in Finland. Being tied to a site or place and spatial experience are key issues here.Firstly, what is considered good architecture is linked with having respect for a site and its history, whether in a natural or an urban setting. The leading Finnish architects from the 1930s to the 1960s, most importantly Alvar Aalto, consistently insisted that the trees on building sites were to be protected against damage throughout the projects. This was a way to allow nature to be a concrete part of the buildings’ yard areas. During this era, zone thinking became part of urban planning, and the link between residential areas and natural green zones assumed particular prominence in suburban planning. In urban planning, having an appreciation for historic building stock is a phenomenon of recent decades. As a flip side to the development of modernisation, the 1970s still saw numerous historic wooden buildings pulled down in practically all Finnish cities. The demolition frenzy has since subsided, although things have not changed completely. Over the decades, modern architecture, too, has been accepted as part of our built heritage. Similarly, historic urban environments are now considered worth preserving. In Finland, there are no cases of vertical expansion of historic buildings, as, for example, in Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, Finland's southern neighbour. A revealing example of the situation is the controversy over the Cloud City design by ALA Architects, which is presented in this magazine.Secondly, it is linked with viewing a building's immediate surroundings as its expansion and an integral part of the overall architectural design. The entry into a building and the views from inside are a particularly important part of the architecture and the way it is experienced. Allowing natural light into a building, an idea prevalent in modern architecture, was enthusiastically welcomed at our northern latitudes, where there are precious few hours of sunlight in the wintertime. Placing special emphasis on a site or place, which I mentioned above, is closely related to architectural character. The carefully thought-out views that open onto the building's surroundings tie it to the site andthe surrounding nature to the architectural design. A well-known example of this is the Otaniemi Chapel by Heikki Siren and Kaija Siren, completed in 1957. The approach to and exit from a building play an important role in creating a spatial experience. A case in point is the Chapel of St. Lawrence designed by Avanto Architects. Located in a historical setting, the essence of the chapel design is the movement towards the building, into it and back out of it into the churchyard.Thirdly, it includes the ideal of low-density living, which is related to the fact that Finland is a very sparsely populated country. In this respect, the Finnish architectural culture in urban planning differs considerably from the situation in international metropolises or other densely populated areas. How this ideal is realised in today's .increasingly dense urban environment is arguable, but Finns still value natural environments as part of their cities and remain sceptical about high-rise buildings. The appreciation of natural environments shows, for example, in the“ forest suburbs” built in the 1950s in the Helsinki region. One of these is Tapiola, in which fairly low blocks of flats sit amidst trees, laid out according to the contours of the terrain and without fences separating the plots. High-rise construction is presently a topic of lively discussion in the Helsinki region, and the Cloud City project is one example of this. The arguments against high-rises include the preservation of historic urban spaces and the importance of natural light: people do not want tall buildings to rise above the current skyline for fear of changing the cityscape and overshadowing the rest of the city, especially in the winter, when the sun barely rises above the horizon.The Significance of Public BuildingsVarious public buildings are importantly linked to the welfare state services, which encompass public health care, public libraries, the education system and the state church. Most Finns are members of the Lutheran church. In the Lutheran tradition of Christianity, church buildings feature little ornamentation and hey are mostly used for silent worship. Chapels are smaller buildings that are designed for funeral ceremonies. The more recent religious buildings highlight communality, nature as a visual element, and traditional building methods. The Chapel of St. Lawrence by Avanto Architects is a fine example of how the heritage of modern architecture has been updated to meet contemporary needs. The elegant and unique material choices and lighting solutions perfect this Hirvilammiarchitectural work of art, which at the same time takes its place in the chain of modern Finnish chapel buildings, including the Resurrection Chapel by ErikBryggman (1941) and the Chapel of the Holy Cross by Pekka Pitkänen (1967), which form a pair on the same cemetery site in the city of Turku.The heritage of modern architecture is also shown in the St. Henry's Ecumenical Art Chapel in Hirvensalo by Sanaksenaho Architects (2005) and the Kuokkala Church in Jyväskyläby Lassila Hirvilammi Architects (2009). The interior solutions of these projects demonstrate the architects' familiarity with the designs of the Salla Church by Eero Eerikäinen and Osmo Sipari (1950) and the Vatiala Chapel in Kangasala by Viljo Revell (1960).Schools and nurseries are another example of architecture designed for communities. The current Finnish education system is among the best in the world and is perhaps the greatest achievement of the Finnish welfare state. Everyone is given equal opportunities in education, starting from the nursery. The education system also plays a role in maintaining cultural cohesion in Finland. The design of comfortable facilities that support teaching has a strong tradition. School playgrounds are considered to be part of the overall design, which is especially important with nurseries, as playing games outside is a significant part of the childdren's day. Safe playgrounds should therefore an integral part of buildings for children. Fine examples of designs in this category are the Kirkkojärvi School by Verstas Architects (2010) and the Saunalahti Children's House by JKMM Architects (2011), both located in Helsinki's neighbouring city of Espoo.The Ideal of Modest LivingHaving a long-lasting tradition of a democratic society shows in housing forms and ideals. Making high-quality housing available for everyone has been at the core of the Nordic welfare state ideology. A case in point is the small and low-rent student flats. Often, some of the best architects are hired for the design of student housing, and projects are subject to architectural competition. This was the case with the HOAS student housing unit in Viikki by Playa architects (2010), which was inspired by the 1950s Nordic residential architecture, and the HOAS student housing unit at Intiankatu 20 in Kumpula by Brunow & Maunula (2007), which is designed to function as a quiet pocket in a noisy urban setting.From another angle, the democratic tradition and the, as yet, natural relationship between people and their environment is linked to the tradition of summer residences, with which most Finns are familiar. The tradition is also closely related to our natural landscape, which, as I mentioned above,is seen to contain countless places. A noteworthy example of summer residences designed to beavailable to all are the summer cottages that are located on rented plots in public recreation areas and that were originally designed for the underprivileged. This is an interesting extension to the right of freedom to roam, and there are thousands of summer cottages like these in Helsinki alone. At the start of the 21st century, this tradition is enjoying a revival, as new generations of city residents have discovered it. The City Cottage in Lauttasaari by Verstas Architects (2010) is a superb update of the traditional concept. The summer cottages are sought after and new areas to accommodate them are being planned. As an example, summer cottage areas are included in the plan of Kruunuvuorenranta, a forthcoming new residential area in eastern Helsinki Many of the projects presented in this magazine reflect the characteristics mentioned above. A large number of them have been realised as a result of architectural competitions. The practice of architectural competitions has a long tradition that goes back to the late 19th century. Competitions are an effective way of finding the best possible solution but they also serve as a manifestation of our democratic culture, as everyone gets an opportunity to showcase their skills. In this article, I have highlighted specific projects to illustrate in more detail the issues discussed. The projects relate to the forms of housing and the design of communal spaces, in which traditions and exciting contemporary solutions meet in a way that is characteristic of Finnish architecture. Moreover, they all, to a greater or lesser extent, exhibit an awareness of the tradition o f Nordic modern architecture, and they do so with pride and respect. □1 内容1.1内容芬兰建筑主要因两点而闻名：实用而直接的现代主义和一种同自然之间的虚构的关系。
建筑类外文翻译+译文
Architecture in a Climate of ChangePage52-Page62Low energy techniques for housingIt would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buildings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs generated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid change without pain.In fact,upgrading buildings, especially the lower end of the housing stock,creates a cluster of interlocking virtuous circles. Construction systemsHaving considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.In the UK housing has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it has been common practice to introduce insulation into the cavity.For a long time it was mandatory to preserve a space within the cavity and a long rearguard battle was fought by the traditionalists to preserve this‘sacred space’.Defeat was finally conceded when some extensive research by the Building Research Establishment found that there was no greater risk of damp penetration with filled cavities and in fact damp through condensation was reduced.Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.The advantages of masonry construction are:● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago the entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise considerably if it receives a rendered finish.● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonryinternal walls and concrete floors.Framed constructionVolume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appear identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With timber framing it is difficult to avoid piercing the barrier.There can also be problems achieving internal fixings.For the purist,the ultimate criticism is that it is illogical to have a framed building clad in masonry when it cries out for a panel,boarded,slate or tile hung external finish.Pressed steel frames for homes are now being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.Innovative techniquesPermanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an insulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/m2K.Above three storeys the addition of steel reinforcement is necessary. The advantages of this system are:● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possible.● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and placement of concrete.● The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.Solar designPassive solar designSince the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic response is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.Access to solar radiation is determined by a number of conditions:● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);● site orientation and slope;● existing obstructions on the site;● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the use of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to be plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and the solar trajectories indicate times of transition between sunlight and shade. Normally a different chart is constructed for use at different latitudes (at about two degree intervals).Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physical models with a heliodon.Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly program which should be well within normal undergraduate competence. The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50 N,rows of houses on a 10 north-facing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.Passive solar design can be divided into three broad categories:● direct gain;● indirect gain;● attached sunspace or conservatory.Each of the three categories relies in a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is of a much longer wavelength than the incoming radiation.This is because the re-emission is from surfaces at a much lower temperature and the glazing reflects back such radiation to the interior.Direct gainDirect gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Solar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s housein Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design characteristics are:● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.● Windows facing west may pose a summer overheating risk.● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.● The main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building.● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involved in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.● In the case of solid floors,insulation should be beneath the slab.● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing portion of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone. During the day and into the evening the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended: ● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the year when it is beneficial. ● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and position of the absorbing surfaces.In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.Indirect gainIn this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the space to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirectway.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The main elements● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall are 20–30 cm.● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air can be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as in the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.At times of excess heat gain the system can provide alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.Indirect gain options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.Attached sunspace/conservatoryThis has become a popular feature in both new housing and as an addition to existing homes.It can function as an extension of living space,a solar heat store,a preheater for ventilation air or simply an adjunct greenhouse for plants.On balance it is considered that conservatories are a net contributor to global warming since they are often heated.Ideally the sunspace should be capable of being isolated from the main building to reduce heat loss in winter and excessive gain in summer.The area of glazing in the sunspace should be 20–30 per cent of the area of the room to which it is attached.The most adventurous sunspace so far encountered is in the Hockerton housing development which will feature later.Ideally the summer heat gain should be used to charge a seasonal thermal storage element to provide background warmth in winter.At the very least,air flow paths between the conservatory and the main building should be carefully controlled.Active solar thermal systemsA distinction must be drawn between passive means of utilising the thermal heat of the sun, discussed earlier,and those of a more‘active’nature Active systems take solar gain a step further than passive solar.They convert direct solar radiation into another form of energy.Solar collectors preheat water using a closed circuit calorifier.The emergence of Legionella has highlighted the need to store hot water at a temperature above 60 C which means that for most of the year in temperate climes active solar heating must be supplemented by some form of heating.Active systems are able to deliver high quality energy.However,a penalty is incurred since energy is required to control and operate the system known as the ‘parasitic energy requirement’.A further distinction is the difference between systems using the thermal heat of the sun,and systems,such as photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy directly into electrical power.For solar energy to realise its full potential it needs to be installed on a district basis and coupled with seasonal storage.One of the largest projects is at Friedrichshafen.The heat from 5600 m2 of solar collectors on the roofs of eight housing blocks containing 570 apartments is transported to a central heating unit or substation.It is then distributed to the apartments as required.The heated living area amounts to 39 500 m2.Surplus summer heat is directed to the seasonal heat store which,in this case, is of the hot water variety capable of storing 12 000 m3.The scale of this storage facility is indicated by Figure 5.9.The heat delivery of the system amounts to 1915 MWh/year and the solar fraction is 47 per cent.The month by month ratio between solar and fossil-based energy indicates that from April to November inclusive,solar energy accounts for almost total demand,being principally domestic hot water.In places with high average temperatures and generous sunlight,active solar has considerable potential not just for heating water but also for electricity generation.This has particular relevance to less and least developed countries.环境变化影响下的建筑学房屋设计中的低能耗技术显而易见，在工业化国家，最好的营救机会依赖于建筑环境，因为不论是在使用的建筑或者是在建设的建筑，都是最大的、单一的、间接地由化石燃料的燃烧所引起的碳排放的源头，而这些站了所有排放的50%。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。
Generally。
a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。
while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。
While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。
medium-。
or high-rise buildings。
the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。
walls。
XXX。
XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。
One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。
XXX。
braced frames。
or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。
建筑学外文文献
Introduction of a Panelized Brick Veneer Wall System and ItsBuilding Science EvaluationJianhai Liang1and Ali M. Memari21 Project Engineer, Thornton Tomasetti, 51 Madison Ave., Floor 17, New York, NY 10010.2 Professor, Dept. of Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State Univ., 104 Engineering Unit A, UniversityPark, PA 16802.(Accepted 17 June 2010; published online 15 February 2011) Introduction topThe use of steel stud backup wall for brick veneer systems has been on the rise during the previous three decades. The reasons for the increased popularity of steel stud backup wall systems include reduced weight, cost savings, and shorter construction time. However, there are some problems with the brick veneer over steel stud (BV/SS) backup wall system. Unlike concrete masonry unit (CMU) backup walls, light-gauge steel studs used in backup systems are very flexible. Therefore, they can have a large deflection under a strong wind load leading to the cracking of the brick veneer (BV). Wind-driven rain can potentially penetrate the cracked BV and corrode the metal ties and steel studs (SS). Because, in most systems, ties are the only connections between the BV and the steel stud backup (SSB), corroded ties can lead to a hazardous failure of the BV under high wind load or other out-of-plane loading situations. Conventional BV over both CMU backup walls and SSB systems may also have potential problems during earthquakes. In both systems, gaps under the shelf angles serve as horizontal movement joints and are supposed to prevent the BV from participating in the in-plane seismic load resistance. However, during recent earthquakes, some walls failed or cracked as a result of in-plane seismic forces. One major reason for this poor performance is attributable to the closure of the gaps as a result of the differential movement of the BV and the backup. This movement joint, acting as an isolation mechanism, can malfunction, and as a result, BV walls may crack or fail because of the in-plane seismic forces.These failures, together with a slow rate of construction caused by the extra time needed to lay bricks and erect scaffolding at the job site, are considered the shortcomings of a conventional BV/SS system. To improve these issues, the concept of a prefabricated and panelized BV with a steel framework backup wall system was developed at the Pennsylvania State University. For brevity, the system will be referred to as a panelized brick veneer over steel stud (PBVSS) backup wall system in this paper. The pilot research program consisted of the design and development of the system that included the consideration of the building science-related issues, a three-dimensional (3D)finite-element modeling and analysis, a full-scale simulated wind-loading test, and a full-scale seismic racking test to evaluate the performance of the proposed PBVSS design. Details of the entire research program were described in Liang (200632); this paper discusses the building science-related research results after introducing the design features of the proposed PBVSS system.Literature Review of Major Issues with Conventional System and Overview of Panelized Systems top Anchored BV over backup wall systems can be designed more efficiently than single-wythe masonry barrier walls to keep wind-driven rainwater out of the building and to allow the placement of insulation boards inside the wall cavity (Drysdale and Suter 199115). The BV with backup wall systems mainly serve three functions in buildings: structural functions, screen functions, and comfort functions (Drysdale and Suter 199115; Kroger 200529; Straube and Burnett 200546). To provide these functions, the following components are included in most designs of BV with backup wall systems [Brick Industry Association (BIA) 19998; Devalapura et al. 199613; Drysdale and Hamid 200814; Drysdale and Sutter 199115; Grimm 199322; Hatzinikolas et al. 198525; KPFF Consulting Engineers 199828; The Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) 200235]: veneer, backup wall and frame, sheathing, ties, air cavity, shelf angle, movement joints, thermal insulation, vapor retarder, air barrier, flashing, and weep holes.The failure of unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings and of some BV walls in earthquakes and tornados withlife-safety hazards; as well as problems related to rainwater penetration, corrosion of masonry ties and anchor bolts, visible cracking of the brick veneer, and bowing of the wall; have been reported [Brock 19969; Cowie 199012; Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) 199016, 199517, 200118; Hagel et al. 200723; Hamid et al. 198524; Jalil et al. 199326; LaBelle 200430; McGinley and Ernest 200438; Peterson and Shelton 200942; Schulatz et al. 199945]. One of the primary reasons for the poor performance of BV wall systems is that they are generally considered as “nonstructural” walls that are not designed to participate in resisting gravity and lateral loads, whereas in reality, they participate to some degree unless property isolated. A misunderstanding of the structural function and the importance of the load-bearing role of BV walls has led to the failure of these systems. According to Schindler (200444), inadequate attention to the nonstructural intent of the construction details for isolation purposes has been a common source of problems. Moreover, a simple serviceability problem such as water leakage through a BV wall can lead to the corrosion of ties and anchor bolts and result in a life-safety hazard during high wind or even during a moderate earthquake situation.Current earthquake design details for anchored BV walls call for horizontal movement joints under shelf angles to accommodate interstory lateral drifts. The small gap under the shelf angle is provided to accommodate the differential vertical deformation attributable to temperature, creep, and moisture between the clay BV and the structural frame. If constructed properly, this gap can also function as a horizontal isolation joint allowing story drifts without restraining the BV walls. However, in some existing buildings, this movement joint was poorly constructed, and a recent study (Memari et al. 2002a39, b40) has described the potential damage during earthquakes because of the absence of the gap or because of the closure of the gap by mortar.A design assumption for out-of-plane wind-loading on BV/SS is that the BV will crack because the SSB wall is more flexible than the BV (Chen and Trestain 200410). When ties are corroded, the out-of-plane resistance of the BV under high wind loads or earthquake events will likely be jeopardized with potential fallout consequences. On the basis of Grimm’s literature review (199221), the recommendation by some designers is to use a heavy concrete masonry backup wall to avoid the problems associated with a conventional BV/SS system. However, such a design will lose the advantages that lightweight SSB walls can offer. Therefore, to take advantage of the weight savings of BV/SS wall systems in seismic regions, an innovative design of BV wall systems should address the potential problems under both high wind and seismic loading conditions.BV problems are not limited to performance-related issues under environmental and other loading conditions. One can still see masons on scaffolding several stories high laying bricks one-by-one. Reports of scaffolding failures attributable to various causes including excessive brick weight and scaffolding connection failures that result in casualties are not scarce (Gonchar 200120). The construction method for BV also has room for improvement.The built-on-site character of brickwork makes its construction highly dependent on the weather and its quality control relatively difficult. One solution to such problems is to panelize and prefabricate the brick wall construction (Tawresey 200448). Concrete wall panels with embedded thin bricks and precast concrete cladding with a face that looks like a brick wall have been commercially prefabricated (Anderson 19966). Although some wall manufacturers can cast concrete panels with a variety of face shell textures including bricklike patterns, many owners and architects would still like to use real exterior clay BV walls because of their aesthetically pleasing appearance. Lindow and Jasinski (200333) described a panelized BV wall system for which the backup wall, insulation, and shelf angle were assembled as a panel at the factory, and the BV wythe was constructed at the job site. Moreover, it is possible to develop a prefabricated clay BV without a backup wall system by using vertical steel reinforcement (Palmer 199941) or by employing posttensioning (Laursen and Ingham 200031). Louis (199934) described many of the issues that should be considered in the development of prefabricated brick wall panels including veneer wall panels. Although in panelized BV walls the brick still has to be laid one-by-one, the process can always be done on the ground in the controlled environment of a fabrication plant. Workers will not have to lay bricks at a high elevation. The manufacturing process is not influenced by harsh weather like rain, snow, or extremely low temperature. Continuous production is guaranteed, and the total erection time can be decreased by up to 75% (Lindow and Jasinski 200333).The panelization of walls also makes it possible to adopt better seismic isolation connections. Conventional BV are supposed to be isolated from the seismic movements of the main frame through horizontal movement joints under the shelf angles. However, the movement joints may be closed by differential movements or construction error causing the BV to be involved during in-plane seismic force resistance. To reduce the potential for such problems in conventional systems, perhaps the design professional should require a close inspection of all horizontal movement joints as part of the approval process. For panelized BV with backup walls, a special seismic isolation mechanism can be included in the connections between the wall panels and the main structural frame. The connections may also be used to isolate the panels from in-plane wind load transferred from the rest of the building and from movements of the main structural frame.Some other advantages of panelized BV systems include the omission of scaffolding or swing stage, better brickwork quality, uniformity, and less site space required for construction (Palmer 199941). Issues with the performance of the panelized products currently available, as well as limitations on the usage of the panels, have also been discussed by Louis (199934). Some of the problems are typical for all precast members; others are just for the BV panels. The major issues discussed include the relative difficulty of transportation, the limit on the minimum size of a project, the design of the joints between panels, and the limited research and design guidelines currently available.Conceptual Design of the Proposed PBVSS topGiven the background of the potential deficiencies of conventional BV/SS wall systems, it is desirable to minimize both the BV cracking possibility and the crack width under high wind loads and to have an in-plane seismic isolation of the BV wall from the primary structural system. One can add to this the desirability of avoiding the use of scaffolding and its related potential hazards. To address these issues, a PBVSS system was recently developed at the Pennsylvania State University by prefabricating the wall system as a panel. Regarding the cracking of BV under high wind loads, itshould be noted that, according to the commentary in Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (MSJC 200235), the design of BV wall systems asserts and supposes the following guidelines and assumptions: (1) the veneer may crack in flexure under service load; (2) the deflection of the backup should be limited to control crack width in the veneer and to provide veneer stability; and (3) water penetration through the BV is expected and the wall system should be designed, detailed, and constructed to prevent water penetration into the building. The proposed PBVSS is expected to better control the number and width of cracks compared to conventional BV/SS walls so that a desirable performance of the BV walls can be achieved. Cracks may still form in the BV component, but the overall performance will be improved in terms of moisture penetration.The panelized BV wall system is enhanced by means of a structural steel framework that will support the weight of the BV and SSB wall during transportation and erection. Fig. 1 shows the detail of a vertical section of the entire wall panel as installed. The structural steel frame consists of a lower beam, an upper beam, and two vertical load carrying members. The lower member, which performs the function of a conventional shelf angle, consists of a channel and an angle bolted together at three points—at the two ends of the member and at midspan. However, whereas shelf angles in conventional designs support only the BV, the lower member supports both the BV and the SSB wall. The angle supports the BV; the channel sitting on the floor slab supports the SS. The upper member consists of a channel and a steel plate bolted together, where the channel is positioned under the floor above (i.e., the bottom of the slab or the spandrel beam of the floor above) separated by movement joints. The steel plate attached to the channel needs to be extended all the way to near the top of the slab to provide the out-of-plane support for the BV. The two vertical members are constructed of steel channels sitting between the top and bottom channels and are designed for the gravity loads of the wall panel when lifted by a crane. The vertical channels are orientated so that the webs of the channels will face the interior of the panel. Fig. 2 shows several photos of the PBVSS mock-up taken during construction.Fig 1.Elevation of the PBVSSView first occurrence of Fig. 1 in article.Fig 2.PBVSS mock-up during constructionView first occurrence of Fig. 2 in article.Typically, 18 gauge studs at 400–600 mm center-to-center spacing (more often at 400 mm) are used for the SSB in conventional walls (BIA 19998; Suter et al. 199047). To increase the flexural out-of-plane stiffness, heavier gauge SS (e.g., 12 gauge) framing or structural steel channels can also be used (McGinley 200037). For the proposed PBVSS system, because a larger out-of-plane stiffness was desired, 12 gauge studs were used in the SSB frame. The more commonly used stud spacing of 400 mm was chosen for the PBVSS so that only the gauge of the studs were different from the conventional BV/SS. The studs could normally be connected to the BV with various types of ties such asV-Tie ties, Z-Tie ties, corrugated metal ties, or ladder shape ties (Drysdale and Hamid 200814). Choi and LeFave (200411) have recently evaluated the behavior of corrugated metal ties. For the proposed PBVSS system, a new tie system, Stud Shear Connector ties, was used in the experiments so that its performance could be evaluated. According to the manufacturer (FERO Corporation 200919), “The Stud Shear Connector was developed to transfer shear between the brick veneer and the backup wall. With the use of this shear resisting connector, composite load carrying action is achieved between the brick veneer and backup wall, resulting in a wall system with a changed and improved load resistance capacity.” Therefore, the light-gauge Stud Shear Connector ties (shown in Fig. 3) were attached to the webs of the studs to more effectively engage them in an out-of-plane lateral load resistance.Fig 3.Schematic use of Stud Shear Connector tieView first occurrence of Fig. 3 in article.To prevent the lateral buckling of the studs and to further increase the out-of-plane stiffness of the studs, in the proposed design shown here, two 12 gauge SS back-to-back were used at the center. Typical vertical spacing between ties is 400 mm. Research (Kelly et al. 199027) has shown that ties at the top will have larger forces than the forces on other ties if they are uniformly spaced in the vertical direction. Therefore, a smaller tie spacing (200 mm) was used at the top in the proposed PBVSS design. The actual spacing to be used varies with the actual height of the panel and construction details. Both the heavy gauge SS and the Stud Shear Connector ties, if used in conventional BV/SS wall systems, can enhance the out-of-plane performance of the walls. However, because of the use of a structural steel support framework and the resulting two-way bending of the walls, the beneficial effects of the heavy gauge SS and the Stud Shear Connector ties are more pronounced in the PBVSS system. A detailed discussion of the individual and the combined effects of these aspects can be found in Liang (200632).The in-plane performance of conventional BV/SS wall systems can be complicated because the backup wall is supported directly by the floor slab, and the brick veneer is supported by a shelf angle. For cases in which the horizontal movement joint under the shelf angle was closed by mortar or by the vertical thermal and moisture expansion of the brickwork, the BV can actually experience in-plane vertical compression and can crack or even fail (Hamid et al. 198524; Memari et al. 2002a39, b40). Therefore, instead of solely relying on the horizontal joints, in the proposed PBVSS system, a seismic isolation system was used to allow an in-plane movement of the panel with respect to the main structure system. The connection of the proposed prefabricated panel to the structure can be made through bearing and lateral (i.e., tieback) connections as a swaying system or through slotted-hole connections for a rocking response to the lateral interstory drift, as is common in precast concrete panels (McCann 199536). The former is the conventional type of connection used in the United States and is the type shown in Fig. 1. The bearing connection consists of placing the bottom channel over the floor slab through threaded rods embedded in the slab. Once the threaded rods are through the predrilled holes in the channel, nuts are used to fasten the channel to the floor. The lateral (i.e., tieback) connection consists of a rod attached to the floor system at three points as shown in Fig. 1.The threaded rods can restrain the out-of-plane movement of the panels. For in-plane movements, however, the rods will bend and allow the wall panel to move with the supporting slab. These lateral connections can be used on the vertical members of the support steel frame or on the top channel as construction details allow. A more detailed discussion of the in-plane loading performance of the PBVSS system was presented in Liang (200632).Building Science-Related Design top Enclosure design considers the following four main functions: support, control, finish, and distribution. The support function has been discussed in the structural design of the system, and the finish and distribution functions will not be covered in this paper. In the design of the proposed PBVSS, three control functions; heat flow control, water vapor diffusion control, and air leakage control; have been considered. As shown in Fig. 1, the space between steel studs is filled with a fiberglass batt insulation. However, if only a batt insulation is used, there can still be excessive heat transfer through the uninsulated steel members, which can bypass the insulation. This will decrease the thermal insulation efficiency of the walls and increase the potential for condensation. To avoid these problems, two layers of 25 mm thick Thermax insulation boards should be placed on the exterior face of the studs to provide thermal insulation. Two layers of 25 mm thick Thermax boards should be used instead of one layer of 50 mm thick board to minimize the potential deficiency in the event that a single thick insulation board is damaged during construction. In addition to the thermal insulation functions of the Thermax boards, the aluminum foil surface of the core foam will face the air cavity to reduce radiative heat transfer. This surface can also serve as a vapor retarder and a drainage surface for water. Moreover, if properly attached, the aluminum foil surface can also prevent air leakage through the panels. However, to minimize air leakage through the system, a layer of an air barrier such as Tyvek housewrap should be installed.The two layers of Thermax insulation boards and the Tyvek housewrap, together, should be held against the stud space by the insulation board supports of the same Stud Shear Connector ties shown in Fig. 3. The housewrap should be overlapped at the joints, which should be taped. In addition to the insulation boards, a 10 mm thick gypsum board should be attached to the interior face of the studs as interior sheathing. The gypsum boards should be attached to the interior surface on-site after the panels are installed. A 12 mm thick plywood board should be attached to the exterior face of the studs as exterior sheathing. These sheathings not only provide stiff surfaces for the application of insulations and paints, but they can also provide lateral support to the studs to help them resist in-plane loading and buckling. Finally, although the system is designed to allow minimum water leakage, in the event that there is still a small amount of water leaking through the exterior layers, the exterior sheathing can serve as temporary water storage so that water cannot get into the building interior.Thermal and Hygrothermal Analysis topIn BV/SS walls, because of the thermal bridging, the thermal efficiency of steel stud frames with insulation installed only in the stud cavities is 41–66% [American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 20044]. To meet the code required thermal resistance value (R-value), exterior insulation must be used (Bombino 19997). Theoretically, having all the insulation on the exterior side of the stud cavity is the most efficient for both thermal insulation and condensation concerns. However, this will increase the thickness of the wall and will also cost more because an exterior rigid insulation is more expensive than the fiberglass batt insulation normally used in a stud cavity. Accordingly, combined cavity insulation and exterior insulation are suggested for use in the proposed PBVSS system. Another advantage of using exterior insulation in addition to the fiberglass batt insulation is that, byincreasing the thermal resistance at the stud locations, the exterior insulation can also moderate the thermal bridging effect. Therefore, the actual thermal resistance of the system will be increased by more than the nominal R-value of the exterior insulation material when adding exterior insulation in addition to using fiberglass batt insulation.A thermal analysis was carried out on the PBVSS system with four different SS configurations as follows:Case 1: All seven studs were 18 gauge studs;Case 2: All seven studs were 12 gauge studs;Case 3: All studs were 12 gauge studs with double back-to-back studs at the center; andCase 4: Double back-to-back 12 gauge studs were at the center, rolled steel channel sections (MC8×16) were on the ends, and the remaining vertical members were 12 gauge single steel studs.Case 4 represents the proposed PBVSS system. The spacing between SS in all four cases was assumed to be400 mm. For this comparison study, only the thermal resistance of the panels themselves was considered as is normally used by design professionals; the performance of the joints between adjacent panels was not considered because only one panel was used for the study. The results were checked with the code requirement for the thermal resistance of the wall. Because of the thermal bridging effect of the steel frame, the thermal analysis of the wall section was more complicated than that for a normal wall construction. On the basis of previous research results, the modified zone method is the most accurate method, and the discrepancy between the analytical results and the test results was within 2% (ASHRAE 20055). Therefore, the modified zone method introduced by the ASHRAE Handbook with some minor adjustments was used. In the adjusted method, the convective heat transfer of the airflow in the air cavity was not considered and therefore may slightly overestimate the thermal resistance of the systems.For brevity in this paper, only the results of the calculations for Case 4, which represents that of the proposed PBVSS system, are shown in Table 1. In addition, the overall thermal resistances of all four configurations are summarized in Table 2. The thermal insulation shown in Table 1 for the stud space was back-calculated by subtracting the thermal resistance of the interior sheathing, the exterior sheathing, and the rigid board insulation from the effective thermal resistance of the combined section. The summary in Table 2 shows that both the thickness and the width of the flange affected the thermal resistance of the walls. The width of the flange seemed to have the larger effect, which is consistent with the results of research done by others (Bombino 19997). The difference in the thermal resistance between the system with the least steel (i.e., Case 1) and the one with the most steel (i.e., Case 4) was about0.55 K·m2/W. The results also showed that because of the existence of thick thermal insulation boards, the effect of thermal bridging was largely mitigated. More importantly, the results showed that the thermal resistance of all four systems exceeded the code required value, which is either R19 or R21 (3.35 or 3.70 K·m2/W), depending on the location. When considering these results, however, two issues should be noted: (1) the convective heat exchange in the air cavity was omitted, and (2) the local conductance between metal components (e.g., between the bottom channel and vertical members) was also omitted. If better thermal performance is desired for a certain project, extra thermal insulation should be added to block the heat exchange between the metal components. For example, thermal insulation can be inserted between the bottom steel angle and the bottom steel channel.For vapor diffusion, the largest concern is condensation. Figs. 4,5 show the partial pressure attributable to the water vapor of the wall in extreme winter and summer conditions, respectively. In the analysis, the indoor temperature and the relative humidity were assumed to be 20°C and 30%, respectively. The outdoor temperature was assumed to be 52.22°C in summer and -20°C in winter, which corresponds to the extreme summer and winter temperatures in central Pennsylvania considering the solar effect. The outdoor relative humidity was assumed to be 80%. In the figures, Ps is the saturated water vapor pressure of a layer in the walls corresponding to the temperature at that layer; Pc is the calculated water vapor pressure at that layer by using the water vapor resistance of the materials; and Pa is the adjusted water vapor pressure calculated for saturation.Fig 4.Water vapor pressure under extreme winter conditionView first occurrence of Fig. 4 in article.Fig 5.Water vapor pressure under extreme summer conditionView first occurrence of Fig. 5 in article.The analysis showed that if the vapor resistance of the aluminum foils of the Thermax board was assumed to be the manufacturer’s recommend ation, condensation will not be a problem for either winter or summer. However, it was not the design intention to limit the board insulation to a single product. Also, damage to the aluminum foil during manufacturing and joint sealing can affect the vapor resistance of the aluminum foils. Therefore, to be conservative, the contribution of the aluminum foil to the vapor resistance of the wall assembly was ignored in this example. Fig. 4 shows that in winter, the partial pressure because the water vapor at any location of the wall was lower than the saturation pressure at the same location, which indicates that no condensation attributable to vapor diffusion would occur. Also in winter, the condensation attributable to air leakage can be 2 to 6 times the condensation attributable to vapor diffusion. The condensation attributable to air leakage is also likely to occur before condensation attributable to vapor diffusion takes place (Bombino 19997). Therefore, vapor diffusion was not a concern for brick veneer with steel stud walls in winter.For extreme summer conditions, Fig. 5 shows that the water vapor pressure on the plywood sheathing can reach the saturation pressure, which indicates that condensation can occur. If a vapor retarder is used on the exterior side of the interior sheathing, and there is air conditioning inside, moisture carried by the warm infiltrating air can condense on the exterior surface of the cold interior sheathing. To decrease the amount of condensation and the potential water accumulation for the proposed PBVSS system, the vapor retarder on the exterior side of the interior sheathing was removed, and a material with a relatively high vapor resistance (i.e., the surface of the Thermax insulation board) was used on the exterior face of the thermal insulation.In the proposed PBVSS system, to prevent condensation in the stud cavity because of excessive air leakage, the perimeter of the stud cavity and the joints were sealed to make the system as airtight as possible. The combination of cavity insulation and exterior rigid insulation was chosen to keep the temperature on the interior surface of the exterior sheathing above the dew point of the exfiltrating air in most weather conditions. Fig. 6 shows the temperature gradients for the PBVSS system under extreme winter conditions together with dew temperature of the exfiltration air for typical indoor relative humidity with three levels of relative humidity -30, 40, and 50%. The temperature gradient of the PBVSS system under extreme summer condition is also shown here. However, only the extreme winter condition is used for the discussion; the summer condition is shown just for reference.。
展览馆建筑介绍(外文翻译)
2010世博会博览馆，上海，中国THE POLISH EXPO 2010 EXPOSITION PA VILION ,SHANGHAI,CHINA建筑设计：WWA建筑师事务所ARCHITECTS:WWA Architects参观者所选择的路线会影响他们对建筑物结构和内部装潢的审视。
这条路线符合建筑的逻辑。
入口是在建筑室内和室外相间的地方，从各展览厅规划的广场很容易到达。
部分屋顶是叠合起来的，这样可以允许放一个露天餐厅，并为排队等候的参观者提供了这样工具。
正对入口的大厅包括了信息中心、餐厅和商店。
之后参观者就会达到最高的展厅。
这是个充满了透过墙面镂空花纹而照射进来的阳光的地方，形成了“亮度对比”的效果，展馆的内部墙壁也可以用来作为播放体现波兰城市生活影片的屏幕。
因此，建筑的内部将会创造一个背景供表演使用，比如直接描绘波兰经典的城市生活。
表演大厅的入口之上就是这个区域的入口。
辅助功能被设置在建筑的最底层，由坡道可以直通屋顶。
沿着路线继续前行，参观者进入了一个城市未来主题展览区。
底层的木制地板缓缓上升，呈阶梯状变成了可以观看表演的观众席。
阶梯还将观众引导至展览坡道。
坡道悬浮在展馆空中通向建筑夹层中设置的波兰设计和当地酒吧。
最后的坡道通往屋顶的观景点。
从这里开始参观者开始向下的台阶，沿着有绿色植物或建筑构成的路线，到达了他们的起点展馆的入口。
反方向的参观路线也经过精心的设计。
倾斜的屋面为安排露天电影、戏剧或音乐会提供了可能。
外文：The outside structure of the pavilion and its reflection in the proposed arrangement of its inside functions impose on the visitors taking and following a route which is consistent withthe logic of the building. The entranceway ——an interlude betweenan inside and outside body of the construction, is accesible from the square marked out between the pavilions . The partial roof created by the fold in the building ,allows for arranging an open-air restaurant as well as for providing the queues of visitors a shelter from the elements . The entrance opens onto the hall containing the information centre , a restaurant , and a shop . Next the visitos proceed to the main ,full-height exhibition area of the pavilion . It is the space painted with the light filtering through the cut-out patterns of the elevation creating a〝chiarocuro〞effect, but also the place where thr inner ,solid wallsof the pavilion can function as screenson which the screens of polish city life are projected . consequently ,the inner of the building will creat a background for scheduled performances and presentations,e.g.directly connected with depicting the life of a typical Polish marked place . The concert hall which is located above the entranceway roof can be accessed from this area . auxiliaryfunctions have been designed in the lowest part of the building, under the ramp leading onto the rooftop.Continuing the route the visitors enter the area of the exhibition proper ,devoted to the future of the citise . The wooden, ground-level floor is gradually rising , acquiring the form of terraced stairs and becoming an auditorium for performance taking place below. The stairs take the visiters onto the exhibition ramp, suspended in the pavilion space and leading to the mezzanine where the exhibition of Polish design and an additional bar are to be located. The last strech of the ramp leads onto the roof level——the viewing spot . From here ,the visitors can begin their descent on the rooftop, following the line of greenery elements or small architectural forms until they reach their starting point ——the entrance to the pavilion. The opposite direction of sightseeing may be considered as well. The sloping rooftop creats the possibility of arranging an open-air film shows ,theatical performances or concerts.出自《世界建筑》11/2009 机遇之地：波兰P80-P83 出版社：世界建筑杂志社波士顿会议和展览中心Boston Convention and Exhibition Center建筑设计师：拉斐尔•维诺里位于南波士顿中心的临水地区，新的BECE代表了城市进入会议设施市场的顶端。
建筑设计论文外文翻译-(2)
实用文档设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial Buildings学生姓名：XXX学号：09******83专业：建筑学所在学院：XX学院指导教师： XX职称：副教授201X年XX月XX日实用文档原文：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial BuildingsAbstract: the commercial building in residential buildings has become, most attract sb.'s attention, the largest building is influenced by the type of energy and landscape of the city planning, design of commercial buildings will face more problems. This paper discusses how to carry on planning and design of commercial buildings, the construction of a rational, reasonable, appropriate business building, so as to create a good social and economic benefits. Keywords: construction planning; commercial buildings; architectural designPrefaceComprehensive is the development trend of modern commercial buildings, architects in the design of commercial buildings and functions are changing, different positioning of planning, business characteristics and local cultural influence commercial building mode, which requires us to continuously improve our project products, create more in line with the business needs of the best plan and design works, and finally let investors and consumers feel a constant value, so that they feel superior combination of spatial continuous operation, let the customer feel shopping pleasure, feel the beauty of life and the world.mercial architectural schemeCommercial buildings are generally large investment, high risk, long cycle, the successful operation of returns, different commercial patterns determine different commercial building form, and commercial pattern is determined and market positioning, the positioning accuracy of the architect, to commercial building various functions, property, facilities should have full understanding and effective organization, and different commercial construction planning ideas to produce commercial architectural design works are different, economic benefits of investment has great difference. Good architectural planning has decided the success or failure of architectural design.1.Market survey of commercial building design must be based on the market survey results. Based on the characteristics and trend of foreign consumption, economic conditions, traffic conditions, the surrounding commercial pattern, city infrastructure, city development planning, full market research business situation, on the project itself, choose format, format portfolio, the distribution of industrial chain and area proportion, industry selection, distribution and area ratio to the shops, division, architectural form, area and the floor function, people oriented system, project environment and supporting facilities are set in advance. Provide design basis for the architect to design.2.Mode demand regardless of commercial building is rental, sale or rental run combination, the most important is to determine the main format, for commercial buildings,different types of decision model is different, its business scale, function flow, and so on are designed by itself to determine, different formats have different functional requirements, and design the use is required by the business decisions rather than the developer to advocate. The lack of directional design basis, the design appears to be universal, but shoot at random. Once the function with the shop owner conflict, the design must be from the beginning. Language planning can increase the early unnecessary cost and later investment difficulty. Therefore, architects should design according to different formats of different architectural space mode analysis and recommendations.3.In commercial buildings in the process of planning, commercial real estate is the key to grasp the global experts and architects. Commercial real estate planner requires multidisciplinary personnel coordination ability of organization, according to the project of regional history and culture characteristic, according to local consumer preferences, in particular, the design project of the overall concept, culture orientation and market orientation is determined. At present, the commercial real estate projects generally organized by developers to overall planning, the investment in the project needs and business management experts, business format store managers and retail marketing planner, planner, communication landscape planners, architects, etc. In the implementation of construction plan, still need to urban planner, computer talented person to participate, to form a complete construction plans. Neither side may be arranged to replace, the architectural design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete architectural planning and design.4.Sustainable development and the characteristics of commercial building is a public place, with the development of business, commercial buildings in 5-6 years will be to do a decoration, simple and durable quality, less as far as possible need to repair and maintenance, and at the same time, according to the different project environment and commercial content is flexible to adapt and ultimately the value of investors and consumers are continuous. Complete function, rich forms, and space is varied, characteristic, design must be the contemporary tendency of time again at the same time, in all sorts of culture and the differences between s resonate.mercial building designCommercial building design is for the purpose of the construction project to produce a good and lasting economic benefits, the architect in commercial building design is to realize project to achieve a dynamic model of investment return, is to complete a final acceptance by consumers and continuous use of building products. Prophase planning orientation, investment, operation and management, each situation is very complex, has brought great influence, architecture design is an important link. And architects for commercial architecture design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete works of architectural design.(1)Formats combination designThe composition of commercial complex is decided by the business itself industry value chain, what kind of business combination is better for business. Architects should accordingto the preliminary planning and positioning, the first investment, operation and management of the planning scheme, starting from the basic function and practical application of building, clear the relationship between the function, space, environment, in line with The Times to design not only requires a new breath, also requires a reasonable and clear arrangement of the whole space functional requirements, and actively guide the passenger flow, manufacturing flow, different articles require different forms of space and location, reasonable distribution area, the partition of floor paving segmentation and supporting facilities design can avoid all kinds of goods mixed Chen, mixed traffic situation, the architect should create rich, flexible, comply with the appropriate space to contain different aspects of business combination technology needs. Must do to make it a complex, the industrial chain, industrial chain out after the value chain came out, can produce all kinds of benefits.(2)Pattern designPlanning, design of commercial building in different commercial real estate development mode, have completely different results. Rent is not only sales, emphasizing on management and value-added shops, if considering concurrently, also consider the preferences and requirements of the buyer shops. Commercial buildings due to the different requirements for merchants function layout is different, also different brands to the layout of the same forms are different. By the limit of commercial buildings, or different development cycle, or running effect is different. Those who do not conform to the business law of commercial building design, although space modeling is rich, has implied the bad management of hidden trouble. Therefore, meet the demand of merchants, digest the negative influence of all kinds of changes, architects in the design of the flexible space combination, providing different pattern design, to the use of a variety of forms do fully consider function of balance and coordination. Commercial building itself the function of the combination is very complex, for commercial, residential, office each mixed complex project, the process will be more difficult. Commercial and apartment part often deployed in a low-end, office and hotel in the high-end. The advantages of this design can facilitate the building line layout; Low-end flat layer in the core tube location is advantageous to the toilet set up; High-end part of the landscape advantage is more advantageous to project high value products. But in the concrete project, but should also fully consider building itself the vertical transportation efficiency of the impact on business. In the design of architectural plane layout, space efficiency will approach combined with architectural form and structure. For example, many senior project adopted the practice of Angle, when the design according to the economy, it can increase economic returns of about 30%, but in the specific project be careful not to damage to the corner form.(3)The guidance system designStream of people, logistics, decision function layout reasonable guidance system is the key to the success of commercial building design. Make sure people line, logistics, inward and outward, channel form, to make the layout of the commercial function, consumer groups have a wide range of interest and today free time, thus providing rich architectural space, integrating shopping, entertainment, leisure and so on need comprehensive shopping mall is their needs. Rich function as much as possible to meet the requirements of the customers, but also satisfy the buyers (pavement investors, business investors) needs to provide convenient logistics channel. And express more interest in the construction details. And then to createnew business environment. Let the consumer feel the pleasure shopping consumption, feel the beauty of life and the world at the same time, create more economic benefits for store operators.(4)Green building and characteristicGreen building on the one hand can save energy, on the other hand the sustainable of benefits will far outweigh the prophase investment so as to achieve the value of overall implementation, green buildings gives the possibility of ability of sustainable development and alteration, when architects in the design of commercial buildings so there is no need to do best, do it right, and not have to do much more luxurious style reflected is the commercial buildings, stronger in proper. Commercial buildings tend to be the center of the city commercial culture, different cities have different style, therefore, the architects in the use of his style and technique, need deep understanding urban commercial culture characteristics, extract the essence of the regional culture, architectural design make commercial buildings should have cultural features, local feature, more want to highlight the characteristics of the formats, spatial characteristics, cultural characteristics used in commercial buildings, not only can sense the material shell, are showing strong commercial buildings.3.ConclusionModern commercial architecture planning and design major programs, including the investment purpose and the understanding of the business environment for investors, commercial content on the project, the location of the business environment of consumer behavior, commercial buildings, the understanding of the business concept research, commercial building project planning, design process and method of design, for project construction total plane design and auxiliary space design professional design, space form and form design, the project design space and form of management main body,property requirements,facilities and equipment requirements,architectural engineering and construction of the professional requirement.中文译文：浅谈商业建筑规划设计摘要：商业建筑现已成为除居住建筑以外，最引人注目的，对城市活力和景观影响最大的建筑类型，商业建筑规划设计将面临更广泛的问题。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土构造中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，伴随国民经济旳迅速、持久发展，多种钢筋混凝土建筑构造大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大旳发展。
建筑英语翻译
建筑英语翻译篇一：建筑类英文及翻译外文原文出处：Geotechnical, Geological, and Earthquake Engineering, 1, Volume 10, Seismic Risk Assessment and Retrofitting, Pages 329-342补充垂直支撑对建筑物抗震加固摘要：大量的钢筋混凝土建筑物在整个世界地震活跃地区有共同的缺陷。
弱柱，在一个或多个事故中，由于横向变形而失去垂直承载力。
这篇文章提出一个策略关于补充安装垂直支撑来防止房子的倒塌。
这个策略是使用在一个风险的角度上来研究最近实际可行的性能。
混凝土柱、动力失稳的影响、多样循环冗余的影响降低了建筑系统和组件的强度。
比如用建筑物来说明这个策略的可行性。
1、背景的介绍：建筑受地震震动，有可能达到一定程度上的动力失稳，因为从理论上说侧面上有无限的位移。
许多建筑物，然而，在较低的震动强度下就失去竖向荷载的支撑，这就是横向力不稳定的原因(见图16.1)。
提出了这策略的目的是为了确定建筑物很可能马上在竖向荷载作用下而倒塌，通过补充一些垂直支撑来提高建筑物的安全。
维护竖向荷载支撑的能力，来改变水平力稳定临界失稳的机理，重视可能出现微小的侧向位移(见图16.2)。
在过去的经验表明，世界各地的地震最容易受到破坏的是一些无筋的混凝土框架结构建筑物。
这经常是由于一些无关紧要的漏洞，引起的全部或一大块地方发生破坏，比如整根梁、柱子和板。
去填实上表面来抑制框架的内力，易受影响的底层去吸收大部分的内力和冲力。
这有几种过去被用过的方法可供选择来实施:1、加密上层结构，可以拆卸和更换一些硬度不够强的材料。
2、加密上层结构，可以隔离一些安装接头上的裂缝，从而阻止对框架结构的影响。
3、底楼，或者地板，可以增加结构新墙。
这些措施(项目1、2和3)能有效降低自重，这韧性能满足于一层或多层。
然而，所有这些都有困难和干扰。
在美国，这些不寻常的代价换来的是超过一半更有价值的建筑。
建筑外文翻译---建筑师的培养
本科毕业设计外文资料翻译1．英文题目：The Edycation Of The ArchItect 2．中文题目：建筑师的培养学院（部）：土木建筑学院专业班级：外文资料The Edycation Of The ArchItectThe architect should be equipped with knowledge of many branches of study and varied kinds of learning, for it is by his judgement that all work done by the other arts is put to test. This knowledge is the child of practice and theory. Practice is the continuous and regular exercise of employment where manual work is done with any necessary material according to the design of a drawing. Theory, on the other hand, is the ability to demonstrate and explain the productions of dexterity on the principles of proportion.2. It follows, therefore, that architects who have aimed at acquiring manual skill without scholarship have never been able to reach a position of authority to correspond to their pains, while those who relied only upon theories and scholarship were obviously hunting the shadow, not the substance. But those who have a thorough knowledge of both, like men armed at all points, have the sooner attained their object and carried authority with them.3. In all matters, but particularly in architecture, there are these two points:--the thing signified, and that which gives it its significance. That which is signified is the subject of which we may be speaking; and that which gives significance is a demonstration on scientific principles. It appears, then, that one who professes himself an architect should be well versed in both directions. He ought, therefore, to be both naturally gifted and amenable to instruction. Neither natural ability without instruction nor instruction without natural ability can make the perfect artist. Let him be educated, skilful with the pencil, instructed in geometry, know much history, have followed the philosophers with attention, understand music, have some knowledge of medicine, know the opinions of the jurists, and be acquainted with astronomy and the theory of the heavens.4. The reasons for all this are as follows. An architect ought to be an educated man so as to leave a more lasting remembrance in his treatises. Secondly, he must have a knowledge of drawing so that he can readily make sketches to show the appearance of the work which he proposes. Geometry, also, is of much assistance in architecture, and in particular it teaches us the use of the rule and compasses, by which especially we acquire readiness in making plans for buildings in their grounds, and rightly apply the square, thelevel, and the plummet. By means of optics, again, the light in buildings can be drawn from fixed quarters of the sky. It is true that it is by arithmetic that the total cost of buildings is calculated and measurements are computed, but difficult questions involving symmetry are solved by means of geometrical theories and methods.5. A wide knowledge of history is requisite because, among the ornamental parts of an architect's design for a work, there are many the underlying idea of whose employment he should be able to explain to inquirers. For instance, suppose him to set up the marble statues of women in long robes, called Caryatides, to take the place of columns, with the mutules and coronas placed directly above their heads, he will give the following explanation to his questioners. Caryae, a state in Peloponnesus, sided with the Persian enemies against Greece; later the Greeks, having gloriously won their freedom by victory in the war, made common cause and declared war against the people of Caryae. They took the town, killed the men, abandoned the State to desolation, and carried off their wives into slavery, without permitting them, however, to lay aside the long robes and other marks of their rank as married women, so that they might be obliged not only to march in the triumph but to appear forever after as a type of slavery, burdened with the weight of their shame and so making atonement for their State. Hence, the architects of the time designed for public buildings statues of these women, placed so as to carry a load, in order that the sin and the punishment of the people of Caryae might be known and handed down even to posterity.6. Likewise the Lacedaemonians under the leadership of Pausanias, son of Agesipolis, after conquering the Persianarmies, infinite in number, with a small force at the battle of Plataea, celebrated a glorious triumph with the spoils and booty, and with the money obtained from the sale thereof built the Persian Porch, to be a monument to the renown and valour of the people and a trophy of victory for posterity. And there they set effigies of the prisoners arrayed in barbarian costume and holding up the roof, their pride punished by this deserved affront, that enemies might tremble for fear of the effects of their courage, and that their own people, looking upon this ensample of their valour and encouraged by the glory of it, might be ready to defend their independence. So from that time on, many have put up statues of Persians supporting entablatures and their ornaments, and thus from that motive have greatly enriched the diversity of their works. There are other stories of thesame kind which architects ought to know.7. As for philosophy, it makes an architect high-minded and not self-assuming, but rather renders him courteous, just, and honest without avariciousness. This is very important, for no work can be rightly done without honesty and incorruptibility. Let him not be grasping nor have his mind preoccupied with the idea of receiving perquisites, but let him with dignity keep up his position by cherishing a good reputation. These are among the precepts of philosophy. Furthermore philosophy treats of physics (in Greek phusiologia) where a more careful knowledge is required because the problems which come under this head are numerous and of very different kinds; as, for example, in the case of the conducting of water. For at points of intake and at curves, and at places where it is raised to a level, currents of air naturally form in one way or another; and nobody who has not learned the fundamental principles of physics from philosophy will be able to provide against the damage which they do. So the reader of Ctesibius or Archimedes and the other writers of treatises of the same class will not be able to appreciate them unless he has been trained in these subjects by the philosophers.8. Music, also, the architect ought to understand so that he may have knowledge of the canonical and mathematical theory, and besides be able to tune ballistae, catapultae, and scorpiones to the proper key. For to the right and left in the beams are the holes in the frames through which the strings of twisted sinew are stretched by means of windlasses and bars, and these strings must not be clamped and made fast until they give the same correct note to the ear of the skilled workman. For the arms thrust through those stretched strings must, on being let go, strike their blow together at the same moment; but if they are not in unison, they will prevent the course of projectiles from being straight.9. In theatres, likewise, there are the bronze vessels (in Greek êcheia) which are placed in niches under the seats in accordance with the musical intervals on mathematical principles. These vessels are arranged with a view to musical concords or harmony, and apportioned in the compass of the fourth, the fifth, and the octave, and so on up to the double octave, in such a way that when the voice of an actor falls in unison with any of them its power is increased, and it reaches the ears of the audience with greater clearness and sweetness. Water organs, too, and the other instruments which resemble them cannot be made by one who is without the principles of music.10. The architect should also have a knowledge of the study of medicine on account of the questions of climates (in Greek klimata), air, the healthiness and unhealthiness of sites, and the use of different waters. For without these considerations, the healthiness of a dwelling cannot be assured. And as for principles of law, he should know those which are necessary in the case of buildings having party walls, with regard to water dripping from the eaves, and also the laws about drains, windows, and water supply. And other things of this sort should be known to architects, so that, before they begin upon buildings, they may be careful not to leave disputed points for the householders to settle after the works are finished, and so that in drawing up contracts the interests of both employer and contractor may be wisely safe-guarded. For if a contract is skilfully drawn, each may obtain a release from the other without disadvantage. From astronomy we find the east, west, south, and north, as well as the theory of the heavens, the equinox, solstice, and courses of the stars. If one has no knowledge of these matters, he will not be able to have any comprehension of the theory of sundials.11. Consequently, since this study is so vast in extent, embellished and enriched as it is with many different kinds of learning, I think that men have no right to profess themselves architects hastily, without having climbed from boyhood the steps of these studies and thus, nursed by the knowledge of many arts and sciences, having reached the heights of the holy ground of architecture.12. But perhaps to the inexperienced it will seem a marvel that human nature can comprehend such a great number of studies and keep them in the memory. Still, the observation that all studies have a common bond of union and intercourse with one another, will lead to the belief that this can easily be realized. For a liberal education forms, as it were, a single body made up of these members. Those, therefore, who from tender years receive instruction in the various forms of learning, recognize the same stamp on all the arts, and an intercourse between all studies, and so they more readily comprehend them all. This is what led one of the ancient architects, Pytheos, the celebrated builder of the temple of Minerva at Priene, to say in his Commentaries that an architect ought to be able to accomplish much more in all the arts and sciences than the men who, by their own particular kinds of work and the practice of it, have brought each a single subject to the highest perfection. But this is in point of fact not realized.13. For an architect ought not to be and cannot be such a philologian as was Aristarchus, although not illiterate; nor a musician like Aristoxenus, though not absolutely ignorant of music; nor a painter like Apelles, though not unskilful in drawing; nor a sculptor such as was Myron or Polyclitus, though not unacquainted with the plastic art; nor again a physician like Hippocrates, though not ignorant of medicine; nor in the other sciences need he excel in each, though he should not be unskilful in them. For, in the midst of all this great variety of subjects, an individual cannot attain to perfection in each, because it is scarcely in his power to take in and comprehend the general theories of them.14. Still, it is not architects alone that cannot in all matters each perfection, but even men who individually practise specialties in the arts do not all attain to the highest point of merit. Therefore, if among artists working each in a single field not all, only a few in an entire generation acquire fame, and that with difficulty, how can an architect, who has to be skilful in many accomplish not merely the feat--in itself a great marvel--of being deficient in none of them, but also that of surpassing all those artists who have devoted themselves with unremitting industry to single fields?15. It appears, then, that Pytheos made a mistake by not observing that the arts are each composed of two things, the actual and the theory of it. One of these, the doing of the work, is proper to men trained in the individual subject, while the other, the theory, is common to all scholars: for example, to physicians and musicians the rhythmical beat of the pulse and its metrical movement. But if there is a wound to be healed or a sick man to be saved from danger, the musician will not call, for the business will be appropriate to the physician. So in the case of a musical instrument, not the physician but the musician will be the man to tune it so that the ears may find their due pleasure in its strains.16. Astronomers likewise have a common ground for discussion with musicians in the harmony of the stars and musical concords in tetrads and triads of the fourth and the fifth, and with geometricians in the subject of vision (in Greek logos optikos); and in all other sciences many points, perhaps all, are common so far as the discussion of them is concerned. But the actual undertaking of works which are brought to perfection by the hand and its manipulation is the function of those who have been specially trained to deal with a single art. It appears, therefore, that he has done enough and to spare who in eachsubject possesses a fairly good knowledge of those parts, with their principles, which are indispensable for architecture, so that if he is required to pass judgement and to express approval in the case of those things or arts, he may not be found wanting. As for men upon whom nature has bestowed so much ingenuity, acuteness, and memory that they are able to have a thorough knowledge of geometry, astronomy, music, and the other arts, they go beyond the functions of architects and become pure mathematicians. Hence they can readily take up positions against those arts because many are the artistic weapons with which they are armed. Such men, however, are rarely found, but there have been such at times; for example, Aristarchus of Samos, Philolaus and Archytas of Tarentum, Apollonius of Perga, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, and among Syracusans Archimedes and Scopinas, who through mathematics and natural philosophy discovered, expounded, and left to posterity many things in connexion with mechanics and with sundials.17. Since, therefore, the possession of such talents due to natural capacity is not vouchsafed at random to entire nations, but only to a few great men; since, moreover, the function of the architect requires a training in all the departments of learning; and finally, since reason, on account of the wide extent of the subject, concedes that he may possess not the highest but not even necessarily a moderate knowledge of the subjects of study, I request, Caesar, both of you and of those who may read the said books, that if anything is set forth with too little regard for grammatical rule, it may be pardoned. For it is not as a very great philosopher, nor as an eloquent rhetorician, nor as a grammarian trained in the highest principles of his art, that I have striven to write this work, but as an architect who has had only a dip into those studies. Still, as regards the efficacy of the art and the theories of it, I promise and expect that in these volumes I shall undoubtedly show myself of very considerable importance not only to builders but also to all scholars.中文翻译建筑师的培养1.建筑师要具备多学科的知识和种种技艺。
建筑类外文翻译范例
土木工程概论摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。
整个世界每天都在改变，而建筑也随科学的进步而发展。
力学的发现，材料的更新，不断有更多的科学技术引入建筑中。
以前只求一间有瓦盖顶的房屋，现在追求舒适，不同的思想，不同的科学，推动了土木工程的发展，使其更加完美。
关键词：土木工程；建筑；力学；材料土木工程是建造各种工程的统称。
它的原意是与“军事工程”相对应的。
在英语中，历史上土木工程、机械工程、电气工程、化工工程都属于Civil Engineering，因为它们都具有民用性。
后来，随着工程科学技术的发展，机械、电气、化工都已逐渐形成独立的科学，Civil Engineering就成为土木工程的专门名词。
至今，在英语中，Civil Engineering还包括水利工程、港口工程；而在我国，水利工程和港口工程也成为与土木工程十分密切的相对独立分支。
土木工程既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。
土木工程是一种与人们的衣、食、住、行有着密切关系的工程。
其中与“住”的关系是直接的。
因为，要解决“住”的问题必须建造各种类型的建筑物。
而解决“行、食衣”的问题既有直接的一面，也有间接的一面。
要“行”，必须建造铁路、道路、桥梁；要“食”，必须打井取水、兴修水利、进行农田灌溉、城市供水排水等，这是直接关系。
而间接关系则不论做什么，制造汽车、轮船也好，纺纱、织布、制衣也好，乃至生产钢铁、发射卫星、开展科学研究活动都离不开建造各种建筑物、构筑物和修建各种工程设施。
土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。
土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。
土木工程毕业设计外文翻译---建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术
Create and comprehensive technology in the structure globaldesign of the buildingThe 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together.The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity and reduce whole expenses of project.The comprehensive new technology is to give full play to the technological specialty of every discipline , create and use the new technology, and with outside space , dimension of the building , working in coordination with in an all-round way the building component, thus reduce equipment investment and operate the expenses.Each success , building of engineering construction condense collective intelligence and strength; It is intelligence and expectation that an architect pays that the building is created; The engineering design of the building is that architecture , structure , equipment speciality compose hardships and strength happenning; It is the diligent and sweat paid in design and operation , installation , management that the construction work is built up .The initial stage of the 1990s, our understanding that the concept of global design is a bit elementary , conscientious to with making some jobs in engineeringdesign unconsciously , make some harvest. This text Hangzhou city industrial and commercial bank financial comprehensive building and Hangzhou city Bank of Communications financial building two building , group of " scientific and technological progress second prize " speak of from person who obtain emphatically, expound the fact global design - comprehensive technology that building create its , for reach global design outstanding architect in two engineering design, have served as the creator and persons who cooperate while every stage design and even building are built completely.Two projects come into operation for more than 4 years formally , run and coordinate , good wholly , reach the anticipated result, accepted and appreciated by the masses, obtain various kinds of honor .outstanding to design award , progress prize in science and technology , project quality bonus , local top ten view , best model image award ,etc., the ones that do not give to the architect and engineers without one are gratified and proud. The building is created Emphasizing the era for global design of the building, the architects' creation idea and design method should be broken through to some extent, creation inspirations is it set up in analysis , building of global design , synthesize more to burst out and at the foundation that appraise, learn and improve the integration capability exactly designed in building , possess the new knowledge system and thinking method , merge multi-disciplinary technology. We have used the new design idea in above-mentioned projects, have emphasized the globality created in building .Is it is it act as so as to explain to conceive to create two design overview and building of construction work these now.1) The financial comprehensive building of industrial and commercial bank of HangZhou, belong to the comprehensive building, with the whole construction area of 39,000 square meters, main building total height 84, 22, skirt 4 of room, some 6 storeys, 2 storeys of basements.Design overall thinking break through of our country bank building traditional design mode - seal , deep and serious , stern , form first-class function, create of multi-functional type , the style of opening , architecture integrated with the mode of the international commercial bank.The model of the building is free and easy, opened, physique was made up by the hyperboloid, the main building presented " the curved surface surrounded southwards ", skirt room presents " the curved surface surrounded northwards ", the two surround but become intension of " gathering the treasure ".Building flourishing upwards, elevation is it adopt large area solid granite wall to design, the belt aluminium alloy curtain wall of the large area and some glass curtain walls, and interweave the three into powerful and vigorous whole , chase through model and entity wall layer bring together , form concise , tall and straight , upward tendency of working up successively, have distinct and unique distinctions.Building level and indoor space are designed into a multi-functional type and style of opening, opening, negotiate , the official working , meeting , receiving , be healthy and blissful , visit combining together. Spacious and bright two storeys open in the hall unifiedly in the Italian marble pale yellow tone , in addition, the escalator , fountain , light set off, make the space seem very magnificent , graceful and sincere. Intelligent computer network center, getting open and intelligent to handle official business space and all related house distribute in all floor reasonably. Top floor round visit layer, lift all of Room visit layer , can have a panoramic view of the scenery of the West Lake , fully enjoy the warmth of the nature. 2) The financial building of Bank of Communications of Hangzhou, belong to the purely financial office block, with the whole construction area of 19,000 square meters, the total height of the building is 39.9 meters, 13 storeys on the ground, the 2nd Floor. Live in building degree high than it around location , designer have unique architectural appearance of style architectural design this specially, its elevation is designed into a new classical form , the building base adopts the rough granite, show rich capability , top is it burn granite and verticality bar and some form aluminum windows make up as the veneer to adopt, represent the building noble and refined , serious personality of the bank.While creating in above-mentioned two items, besides portraying the shape of the building and indoor space and outside environment minister and blending meticulously, in order to achieve the outstanding purpose of global design of the building , the architect , still according to the region and project characteristic, putforward the following requirement to every speciality:(1) Control the total height of the building strictly;(2) It favorable to the intelligent comfortable height of clearances to create;(3) Meet the floor area of owner's demand;(4)Protect the environment , save the energy , reduce and make the investment;(5) Design meticulously, use and popularize the new technology;(6) Cooperate closely in every speciality, optimization design. Comprehensive technologyThe building should have strong vitality, there must be sustainable development space, there should be abundant intension and comprehensive new technology. Among above-mentioned construction work , have popularized and used the intelligent technology of the building , has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology, baseplate temperature mix hole , technology of muscle and base of basement enclose new technology of protecting, computer control STL ice hold cold air conditioner technology, compounding type keeps warm and insulates against heat the technology of the wall , such new technologies as the sectional electricity distribution room ,etc., give architecture global design to add the new vitality of note undoubtedly.1, the intelligent technology of the buildingIn initial stage of the 1990s, the intelligent building was introduced from foreign countries to China only as a kind of concept , computer network standard is it soon , make information communication skeleton of intelligent building to pursue in the world- comprehensive wiring system becomes a kind of trend because of 10BASE-T. In order to make the bank building adapt to the development of the times, the designer does one's utmost to recommend and design the comprehensive wiring system with the leading eyes , this may well be termed the first modernized building which adopted this technical design at that time.(1) Comprehensive wiring system one communication transmission network, it make between speech and data communication apparatus , exchange equipment andother administrative systems link to each other, make the equipment and outside communication network link to each other too. It include external telecommunication connection piece and inside information speech all cable and relevant wiring position of data terminal of workspace of network. The comprehensive wiring system adopts the products of American AT&T Corp.. Connected up the subsystem among the subsystem , management subsystem , arterial subsystem and equipment to make up by workspace subsystem , level.(2) Automated systems of security personnel The monitoring systems of security personnel of the building divide into the public place and control and control two pieces of system equipment with the national treasury special-purposly synthetically.The special-purpose monitoring systems of security personnel of national treasury are in the national treasury , manage the storehouse on behalf of another , transporting the paper money garage to control strictly, the track record that personnel come in and go out, have and shake the warning sensor to every wall of national treasury , the camera, infrared microwave detector in every relevant rooms, set up the automation of controlling to control.In order to realize building intellectuality, the architect has finished complete indoor environment design, has created the comfortable , high-efficient working environment , having opened up the room internal and external recreation space not of uniform size, namely the green one hits the front yard and roofing, have offered the world had a rest and regulated to people working before automation is equipped all day , hang a design adopt the special building to construct the node in concrete ground , wall at the same time.2, has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force- dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology In order to meet the requirement with high assurance that the architect puts forward , try to reduce the height of structure component in structure speciality, did not glue and form the flat roof beam of prestressing force concrete - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology after adopting.(1) Adopt prestressing force concrete roof beam board structure save than ordinary roof beam board concrete consumption 15%, steel consumption saves 27%, the roof beam reduces 300mm high.(2) Adopt flat roof beam structure save concrete about 10% consumption than ordinary roof beam board, steel consumption saves 6.6%, the roof beam reduces 200mm high.Under building total situation that height does not change , adopt above-mentioned structure can make the whole building increase floor area of a layer , have good economic benefits and social benefit.3, the temperature of the baseplate matches muscle technologyIn basement design , is it is it is it after calculating , take the perimeter to keep the construction technology measure warm to split to resist to go on to baseplate, arrange temperature stress reinforcing bar the middle cancelling , dispose 2 row receives the strength reinforcing bar up and down only, this has not only save the fabrication cost of the project but also met the basement baseplate impervious and resisting the requirement that splits.4, the foundation of the basement encloses and protects the new technology of design and operationAdopt two technological measures in enclosing and protecting a design:(1) Cantilever is it is it hole strength is it adopt form strengthen and mix muscle technology to design to protect to enclose, save the steel and invite 60t, it invests about 280,000 to save.(2) Is it is it protect of of elevation and keep roof beam technology to enclose , is it protect long to reduce 1.5m to enclose all to reduce, keep roof beam mark level on natural ground 1.5m , is it is it protect of lateral pressure receive strength some height to enclose to change, saving 137.9 cubic meters of concrete, steel 16.08t, reduces and invests 304,000 yuan directly through calculating.5, ice hold cold air conditioner technologyIce hold cold air conditioner technology belong to new technology still in our country , it heavy advantage that the electricity moves the peak and operates theexpenses sparingly most. In design, is it ice mode adopt some (weight ) hold mode of icing , is it ice refrigeration to be plane utilization ratio high to hold partly to hold, hold cold capacity little , refrigeration plane capacity 30%-45% little than routine air conditioner equipment, one economic effective operational mode.Hold the implementation of the technology of the cold air conditioner in order to cooperate with the ice , has used intelligent technology, having adopted the computer to control in holding and icing the air conditioner system, the main task has five following respects:(1) According to the demand for user's cold load , according to the characteristic of the structure of the electric rate , set up the ice and hold the best operation way of the cold system automatically, reduce the operation expenses of the whole system;(2) Fully utilize and hold the capacity of the cold device, should try one's best to use up all the cold quantity held basically on the same day;(3) Automatic operation state of detection system, ensure ice hold cold system capital equipment normal , safe operation;(4) Automatic record parameter that system operate, display system operate flow chart and type systematic operation parameter report form;(5) Predict future cooling load, confirm the future optimization operation scheme.Ice hold cold air conditioner system test run for some time, indicate control system to be steady , reliable , easy to operate, the system operates the energy-conserving result remarkably.6, the compounding type keeps in the wall warm and insulates against heat To the area of Hangzhou , want heating , climate characteristic of lowering the temperature in summer in winter, is it protect building this structural design person who compound is it insulate against heat the wall to keep warm to enclose specially, namely: Fit up , keep warm , insulate against heat the three not to equal to the body , realize building energy-conservation better.Person who compound is it insulate against heat wall to combine elevation model characteristic , design aluminium board elevation renovation material to keepwarm, its structure is: Fill out and build hollow brick in the frame structure, do to hang the American Fluorine carbon coating inferior mere aluminium board outside the hollow brick wall.Aluminium board spoke hot to have high-efficient adiabatic performance to the sun, under the same hot function of solar radiation, because the nature , color of the surface material are different from coarse degree, whether can absorb heat have great difference very , between surface and solar radiation hot absorption system (α ) and material radiation system (Cλ ) is it say to come beyond the difference this. Adopt α and Cλ value little surface material have remarkable result , board α、Cλ value little aluminium have, its α =0.26, Cλ =0.4, light gray face brick α =0.56, Cλ =4.3.Aluminium board for is it hang with having layer under air by hollow brick to do, because aluminium board is it have better radiation transfer to hot terms to put in layer among the atmosphere and air, this structure is playing high-efficient adiabatic function on indoor heating too in winter, so, no matter or can well realize building energy-conservation in winter in summer.7, popularize the technology of sectional electricity distribution roomConsider one layer paves Taxi " gold " value , the total distribution of the building locates the east, set up voltage transformer and low-voltage distribution in the same room in first try in the design, make up sectional electricity distribution room , save transformer substation area greatly , adopt layer assign up and down, mixing the switchyard system entirely after building up and putting into operation, the function is clear , the overall arrangement compactness is rational , the systematic dispatcher is flexible . The technology have to go to to use and already become the model extensively of the design afterwards.ConclusionThe whole mode designed of the building synthetically can raise the adaptability of the building , it will be the inevitable trend , environmental consciousness and awareness of saving energy especially after strengthening are even more important. Developing with the economy , science and technology constantly in our country, more advanced technology and scientific and technical result will be applied to thebuilding , believe firmly that in the near future , more outstanding building global design will appear on the building stage of our country. We will be summarizing, progressing constantly constantly, this is that history gives the great responsibility of architect and engineer.汉语翻译建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术21世纪将是多种学科技术并存的时代，它必将形成推动建筑发展的巨大动力，建筑结构整体设计也就越来越重要，建筑师必须把握时机，充分发挥建筑师的主导作用，主持好各项建筑工程设计。
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building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people fordwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings,parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to theirwork .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy commun ication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include adining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise thekitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towardslight ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。