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业务分析与需求指南-BABOK

业务分析与需求
周金根
zhoujingen@
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2010-2-24
目录
业务分析与需求...............................................................................................................................1 前言 ..................................................................................................................................................5 BABOK - 业务分析知识体系介绍 ...................................................................................................6
任务：确认需求（Verify Requirements）....................................................................25 任务：验证需求（Validate Requirements） ................................................................25 BABOK －方案评估和验证概述 ..........................................................26 描述.................................................................

知识竞赛决赛抢答题.11.7翟峻颉BINGO

知识竞赛决赛抢答题.11.7翟峻颉BINGO西北师范⼤学外国语学院翻译系第⼆届英语社会⽂化百科知识竞赛决赛试题抢答题第⼀组：1. The second largest city in England, _____, is a metropolitan district and an industrial and manufacturing city.A. EdinburghB. BelfastC. GlasgowD. Birmingham2. The Great Gatsby is a novel by the American author, _________.A. Mark HaddonB. Audrey NiffeneggerC. Scott FitzgeraldD. Ross King3.Where was the home of the Lake Poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor, Coleridge and Robert Southey of 19th century Britain?A. Lough NeaghB. WindermereC. Lake DistrictD. Coniston Water4. The English Civil War is also called ______.A. the Puritan RevolutionB. the second Magna CartaC. the Long ParliamentD. the Anglican War5.Who and his followers translated the entire Bible into English?A. Martin LutherB. John CalvinC. John BallD. John Wycliffe6. Edinburgh International Festival of Music and Drama takes place for a period of 3 to 4 weeks between_____ when Edinburgh becomes a center of cultural activity.A. July and AugustB. August and SeptemberC. September and OctoberD. October and November7. ____ birthday is a great event in Britain since it marks the beginning of full manhood or womanhood.A The twenty-firstB The eighteenthC The nineteenthD The twentieth8. Who is the writer of David Coperfiel?9. Who is the writer of Pride and Prejudice?10. Who is the writer of Wuthering Heights?11. Who is the writer of Sons and Lovers?12. Who is the writer of Pygmalion?13. Which of the following person didn’t use to be the British Prime Minister?A. Margaret ThatcherB. Winston ChurchillC. Horatio NelsonD. John Major14. What is the key to Industrial Revolution?A. IronB. Cotton TextileC. Coal miningD. Steam engine15. In which work can the character Angel Clare be found?16. Which of the following pictures is The Lincoln Memorial ?A. B.C. D.17. What architecture is this?name of this sculpture?19.What you are going to listen to now is one of the most popular songs by Elvis Presley, please tell the name of the song.20.1-7 DCCADBA 8. Charles Dickens 9. Jane Austen 10. Emily Bront?11. David Herbert Laurence 12. Bernard Shaw 13. C 14. D15. Tess of the D'Urbervilles 16. A 17. British Museum 18. Laocoon 19. Hound dog 20.第⼆组：1. Which of the following tribes first came to Britain?A. RomanB. Anglo-SaxonsC. JutesD. Celts2. I don’t like going after the dog. The phrase in italics means that ______.A. 背后议⼈B. ⽆事⽣⾮C. 滔滔不绝D. 当着她⾯3. The House of Lords is presided over by _____.A. the Lord ChancellorB.the QueenC. the Archbishop of CanterburyD. the Prime Minister4. The real power of the British government lies in _____.A. the House of CommonsB. the cabinet headed by the Prime MinisterC. the Prime MinisterD. the Queen5. What is (are) the nickname(s) of the U.S.A.?A Uncle SamB Brother JonathanC YankeeD All of the above6. The most famous leader of black movement in the U.S. was _________.A. DouglasB. Martin Luther KingC. Malcolm XD. Garrison7. Britain became a world leader in _______ during the middle of the 19th century.A. iron and steel industryB. textile industryC. shipbuildingD. farming8. Who is the author of The Pilgrim's Progress ?9. Who is the author of King Lear?10. What is smallest country in the world?11. William Shakespeare is considered the greatest master of English language. When did he die?A. 1626B. 1616C. 1636D. 164612. What is English equivalent of 国际奥委会?A. IOCB. NOC D. FIFA D. AOC13. In which day is Halloween celebrated? ________14. Where was the first world expo held . ( )A. In New York.B. In Berlin.C. In London.D. In Tokyo.15. "I love my teacher, I love wisdom more." quoted from whom ?( )A. SocratesB. Alex AristotleC. NietzscheD. Anaheim Texas16. Where is it?17. Please tell the names of the Big Three at Teheran Conference in 1943?18. A Polish astronomer who is regarded as Father of modern astronomy believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the center of the universe. What is the name of this great astronomer?19. What you are going to listen to now is a song from the musical play "Cats", please tell the name of the song.20.1-7 DAABDBC 8. John Bunyan 9. Shakespeare 10. Vatican11-12BA 13. October 31st14. C 15. A 16. Royal Greenwich Observatory 17. Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill 18. Copernicus 19. Memory 20.第三组：1. Who was called the "piano poet" ?A. BeethovenD. Chopin2. What became a literary current during the period of the successful Industrial Revolution?A. CriticismB. ModernismC. RomanticismD. Renaissance3. Which of the following philosophers ever said ― “ I think therefore I am.” ?A. Francis BaconB. Pierre GassendiC. DescartesD. John Locke4 Who is the leader of the British government?A. Prime MinisterB. QueenC. PresidentD. Governor5. The District of Manhattan is in the city of_____.A Washington D.C.B San FranciscoC New York D.Chicago6. From which movie“TOMOROOW IS ANOTHER DAY ” quoted?A."Gone with the wind"B. "The sound of music"C. The TitanicD. Waterloo Bridge7. “Proper words in proper places, makes the true definition of a style.” This sentence is said by ____, one of the greatest masters of English prose.A. Alexander PopeB. Henry FieldingC. Jonathan SwiftD. Daniel Defoe8. _______ has been called the “cradle of American liberty”.A. PhiladelphiaB. Plymouth9. Who is the author of Hard Times?10. In which work can the character Elizabeth Bennet be found?11. Which battle was the turning point of the American Civil War.A. Bull RunB. GettysburgC. RichmondD. Saratoga12. What is English equivalent of 世界卫⽣组织？A. WTOB. WHOC. WDOD. WMD13. Who is the author of A Modest Proposal ?14. In which work can the character Portia be found?15. What is the capital of Massachusetts?16. What story in the Bible is presented in this picture ?17. What architectural style is this cathedral in the picture?18. Doric, Ionic and Corinthian are three typical styles of Roman columns, which of the following Roman columns is Ionic style?A BＣ19.What is the name of the movie?20.1-8 DCCA CACA 9. Charles Dickens 10. Pride and Prejudice 11-12BB13. Jonathan Swift 14. The Merchant of V enice 15.Boston 16. Noah’s Ark17. Gothic 18. B 19. Pride and Prejudice20.选择题（替换15）1.2.Capitol Hill is the official location for _________, which is the largest historic residential neighborhood in Was hington D.C.A. White HouseB. the British Embassy in USC. the PentagonD. US Congress4. Gone with the Wind, first published in May 1936, is a romantic novel written by _______.A. Herbert GrafB. Hoch ConservatoryC. Margaret MitchellD. Mario Rossi5. _______is the nickname of Britain.A. Uncle SamB. John ArbuthnotC. Robin HoodD. John Bull7.Which one of the following works is not belong to Leonardo da Vinci ? (B)A. The Virgin of the RocksB. Madonna of the meadowC. The Last SupperD. The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne12.13. _____ is Washington’s largest cityA.BoiseB.DenverC.TacomaD.Seattle15.18.19.Where is the headquarters of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) located.( )A.GenevaB. Washington, DCC.BrusselsD.Jakarta20. The literature of the Enlightenment in England mainly appealed to the ____ readers.A. aristocraticB. middle classC. low classD. intellectual21.22.图形题（替换和增加9）1.The symbol belongs to the ___________. (EU\European Union)2.What kind of sport it is ?3.Which of the following pictures is the Golden Gate Bridge ? AA B.C. D.4.”The car city” Detroit in America belongs to which state? Michigan5.6.Shakespeare’s four great tragedies are? ___________________________________________ (Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth).7.British prime minister normally serves a ________term. (five-year )8.The “Big Three Names” of the High Renaissance are _______________________________(Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti ,Raphael (Raffaello Sancio) )9.What do the letters “WHO” mean in Chinese? __________________ 世界卫⽣组织10._________is the capital of New Zealand.( Wellington)11.The symbol of the Republicans is an __________while that of the Democrats is a _______.(elephant, donkey)12.36.________ is the present Secretary of state of USA.( J ohn Forbes Kerry )13.37.The largest national park in America is ____________.(Yellowstone National Park)66. The seat of the British Houses of Parliament is _______________. （Westminster Palace）14.67. Charles Robert Darwin Developed the theory of _________. (evolution)。

CBAP国际业务分析考试和认证2016年9月正式升级到V3

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新CBAP 3.0考试的开始日期
●新的基于胜任力模型和BABOK3知识域的考试自2016年9月30日起开考。
现CBAP 2.0考试的终止日期
●基于BABOK2的考试截止日期为2016年9月22日，也就是说9月22日是基于BABOK2.0考试的最后一天。如果需要首次参加BABOK2的考试，或者BABOK2的补考，都必须安排在2016年9月22日及之前。
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Level 3 5年BA相关工作经验，对应BABOK® Guide v3 知识点分布:
Domain Business Analysis Planning and Monitoring Elicitation and Collaboration Requirements Life Cycle Management Strategy Analysis Requirements Analysis and Design Definition Solution Evaluation

Role of the cag-pathogenicity island encoded type IV 幽门螺杆菌四型分泌系统致病机理

MINIREVIEWRole of the cag-pathogenicity island encoded type IV secretion system in Helicobacter pylori pathogenesis Nicole Tegtmeyer1,Silja Wessler2and Steffen Backert1,31School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences,Science Center West,Belﬁeld Campus,University College Dublin,Ireland 2Department of Molecular Biology,Division of Microbiology,Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg,Austria3Institute for Medical Microbiology,Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg,GermanyIntroductionHelicobacter pylori colonizes the surface area of the gastric mucosa in the human stomach and is one of the most adapted microbial pathogens. 50%of the world’s population carries this bacterium,causing chronic,often asymptomatic,gastritis in all infected humans,and more severe gastric diseases in up to10–15%of infected people depending on the geographical region[1–3].Infections commonly occur in early child-hood and,if not treated by antimicrobial therapy, H.pylori can persist lifelong.Although H.pylori infec-tions are often diagnosed with a pronounced cellular inﬂammation status,which is triggered by the host innate and adaptive immune systems,the bacteria are commonly not eliminated.Numerous mechanisms ofKeywordsHelicobacter pylori;signalling;type IV secretion;VirB5;VirB10CorrespondenceS.Backert,University College Dublin,Belﬁeld Campus,School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science,Science Center West,Dublin-4,IrelandFax:+35317161183Tel:+35317162155E-mail:steffen.backert@ucd.ie(Received14November2010,revised11 January2011,accepted27January2011)doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08035.x Helicobacter pylori is a very successful human-speciﬁc bacterium world-wide.Infections of the stomach with this pathogen can induce pathologies, including chronic gastritis,peptic ulcers and even gastric cancer.Highly vir-ulent H.pylori strains encode the cytotoxin-associated gene(cag)-pathoge-nicity island,which expresses a type IV secretion system(T4SS).This T4SS forms a syringe-like pilus structure for the injection of virulence factors such as the CagA effector protein into host target cells.This is achieved by a number of T4SS proteins,including CagI,CagL,CagY and CagA,which by itself binds the host cell integrin member b1followed by delivery of CagA across the host cell membrane.A role of CagA interaction with phosphatidylserine has also been shown to be important for the injection process.After delivery,CagA becomes phosphorylated by oncogenic tyro-sine kinases and mimics a host cell factor for the activation or inactivation of some speciﬁc intracellular signalling pathways.We review recent pro-gress aiming to characterize the CagA-dependent and CagA-independent signalling capabilities of the T4SS,which include the induction of mem-brane dynamics,disruption of cell–cell junctions and actin-cytoskeletal rearrangements,as well as pro-inﬂammatory,cell cycle-related and anti-apoptotic transcriptional responses.The contribution of these signalling pathways to pathogenesis during H.pylori infections is discussed.AbbreviationsAP,activator protein;cag PAI,cytotoxin-associated gene-pathogenicity island;EGFR,epidermal growth factor receptor;IL,interleukin;NF, nuclear factor;Nod,nucleotide oligomerization domain;RTK,receptor tyrosine kinase;T4SS,type IV secretion system;VacA,vacuolating cytotoxin.immune evasion have been reported and H.pylori became a paradigm for chronic infections.Studies of H.pylori have revealed not only its ability to colonize individual hosts for many decades,but also that this bacterium has co-existed with humans for a very long period through history.Genetic studies indicate that H.pylori spread during human migrations from east Africa more than60000years ago[4].On the basis of this long period of co-evolution,there are some indica-tions that colonization by H.pylori could have been beneﬁcial for their human carriers and this probably provided selective advantages[3].In the modern world, however,H.pylori infections can cause a heavy burden of morbidity and mortality as a consequence of peptic ulcer disease,mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lym-phoma and,the most dangerous complication,gastric adenocarcinoma[1–3].Gastric adenocarcinoma is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in the world and 649000people die from this malignancy each year[1].The clinical outcome of H.pylori infections is deter-mined by highly complex host–pathogen interactions. Disease progression is constrained by various parame-ters,such as the bacterial genotype,environmental determinants and genetic predisposition of the host. For example,speciﬁc polymorphisms in human genes with crucial functions in immunoregulatory and pro-inﬂammatory signalling such as interleukin(IL)-1b, nucleotide oligomerization domain(Nod),tumour necrosis factor-a or IL-8,have been associated with an increased risk of developing disease,including gastric cancer,as summarized in excellent review articles [1–3,5](more details are also provided in Doc.S1). During the last two decades,the cellular and molecular mechanisms acquired by H.pylori to undermine host defences have been investigated intensively(Fig.1).H.pylori isolates are surprisingly diverse both in their genome sequences and pathogenicity.Dozens of bacte-rial factors have been identiﬁed to inﬂuence the patho-genesis of H.pylori.There are two classical secreted virulence factors present in H.pylori:the vacuolating cytotoxin(VacA)and the CagA protein encoded by the cytotoxin-associated gene-pathogenicity island (cag PAI).VacA interacts with numerous host surface receptor molecules and can trigger various responses, including pore insertion into the cell membrane,modi-ﬁcation of endolysosomal functions,cell vacuolation, apoptosis and immune inhibition[1–3].Much research interest worldwide is also focused on CagA,which is encoded by more virulent strains but is typically miss-ing in less virulent H.pylori isolates.Thus,the protein has been recognized as a marker for the cag PAI locus[6,7].Other well-known pathogenicity-associated processes includeﬂagella-driven H.pylori motility, urease-triggered neutralization of pH,several adhesins (BabA⁄B,SabA,AlpA⁄B,HopZ,OipA and others) mediating binding of H.pylori to gastric epithelial cells,glycosylation of cholesterol by HP0421,cleavage of E-Cadherin-triggered opening of cell–cell junctions by the protease HtrA,down-regulation of antimicro-bial nitric oxide production by arginase RocF,as well as c-glutamyl transpeptidase,which inhibits T-cell pro-liferation and others as summarized in Fig.1[1–3,5,8]. In addition,H.pylori induces a pronounced pro-inﬂammatory phenotype in infected gastric epithelial cells by multiple signalling activities that stimulate the transcription factors nuclear factor(NF)-j B and⁄or activator protein(AP)-1[5,9].There are also numerous other reported marker genes for H.pylori-induced dis-ease development(e.g.iceA and dupA),although their biological function is widely unclear.We review the various cag PAI functions and multiple host cell signal-ling pathways with an emphasis on their potential role in the pathogenesis of H.pylori.The cag PAI encodes a type IV secretion system(T4SS):two pilus assembly modelsIntensive research in recent years has demonstrated that the cag PAI encodes functional components of a T4SS.This T4SS represents a needle-like structure (also called T4SS pilus)protruding from the bacterial surface and is induced by host cell contact to inject vir-ulence factors[10,11].T4SS transporters are commonly found in many Gram-negative bacteria and are evolu-tionary related to DNA conjugation machines[6].The group of T4SS is diverse both with respect to delivered substrates(DNA–protein complexes or proteins)and recipients,which can either be a bacterium of the same or other species or organisms from a different kingdom(e.g.plants,fungi or mammalian cells).In addition to H.pylori,T4SS have been found in Agrobacterium,Bordetella,Bartonella,Legionella, Anaplasma and other pathogens.T4SS transporters typically consist of11VirB proteins(encoded by virB1–virB11genes)and the so-called coupling protein (the NTPase VirD4).The prototypic and best charac-terized T4SS is the VirB or T-DNA transfer system of Agrobacterium tumefaciens.The agrobacterial VirB proteins can be grouped into three categories:(a)the core components or putative channel(VirB6-10);(b) the pilus-associated components(VirB2,and possibly VirB3and VirB5);and(c)the energetic components (the NTPases:VirB4and VirB11).VirB1is an enzyme with muraminidase activity possibly enabling localizedN.Tegtmeyer et al.Type IV secretion in H.pylori pathogenesislysis of murein to achieve T4SS assembly at a given location [6].In Agrobacterium ,signal peptidase-I removes signal peptides from precursors of the main pilus component VirB2and the minor pilus componentVirB5,followed by cyclization of VirB2by an unknown factor.Processed VirB2and VirB5subse-quently associate with the membranes as stabilized by VirB4and VirB8.Stabilized and properlyorientedFig.1.Model of Helicobacter pylori -induced epithelial-barrier disruption and pathogenesis.The interplay between polarized gastric epithelial cells and a variety of bacterial pathogenicity factors modulates multiple host responses during the course of infection,as indicated.H.pylori expresses several adhesins such as BabA,BabB,SabA,AlpA and AlpB,as well as OipA,which mediate apical binding of the bacteria (1).Attached H.pylori or those in the mucus secrete virulence factors into the medium (HtrA protease,VacA cytotoxin and others),(2)which could trigger mild opening of tight junctions (TJs)and adherens junctions (AJs)at early time points of infection (3).Although internalized VacA causes cellular vacuolization,a hallmark of the ulceration process,HtrA cleaves the junctional protein E-cadherin [8].Another intriguing possibility of junction disruption could be the transcytosis of basal integrins to the apical surface by early,but unknown,cag PAI-independent signalling (4).Apical exposure of some integrin molecules such as integrin a 5b 1could stimulate the T4SS pilus to inject CagA and peptidogly-can into cells (5).Injected CagA can then be targeted to TJs and AJs followed by further disruption of these junctions (6).Injected CagA and peptidoglycan (5),in addition to OipA (1),can trigger NF-j B activation (7)and the release of pro-inﬂammatory cytokines such as IL-8(8).These cytokines can alter the secretion of mucus and induce changes in gastric acid secretion and homeostasis.They also attract immune cells to inﬁltrate from the bloodstream into the gastric mucosa (9),where they cause substantial tissue damage at the site of infection (10).H.pylori also express numerous factors to suppress immune cell functions as indicated.The result of the above described processes is local epithelial disruption,enabling some H.pylori to enter the intercellular space between adjacent cells and reach the basal membranes (11).In this manner,the bacteria could access integrins and inject CagA (12).Injected CagA can then induce the massive disruption of cell junctions (13)and a loss of cell polarity (14).The induction of metalloproteases (MMPs)might enhance this effect in addition to HtrA.Finally,CagA can induce multiple pathways to trigger host-cell motility and elongation (15)and the onset of mitogenic genes and cell proliferation (16),as well as inhibit apoptosis (17).The interplay of each of these pathways could result in substantial deregulation and oncogenic transformation of gastric epithelial cells in vivo and,thus,they are are important for H.pylori pathogenesis.Speciﬁc steps labelled with question marks are untested or speculative aspects of the model.a 5b 1,chains of the integrin receptor;ECM,extracellular matrix;HP0421,cholesterol-a -gluco-syltransferase;M F ,macrophage;NapA,neutrophil-activating protein A;PG,peptidoglycan;RocF,arginase enzyme.For more details,see the text and Doc.S1.This model was updated with permission from Wessler and Backert [15].Type IV secretion in H.pylori pathogenesis N.Tegtmeyer et al.VirB5then forms a complex with VirB2,which is a key step in the formation of the T4SS pilus assembly subcomplex.A model for individual steps in the assem-bly of the agrobacterial T4SS is summarized in Fig.2A.When looking at the H.pylori T4SS,all or-thologues of the11VirB proteins and VirD4have been identiﬁed as being encoded in the cag PAI,as well as some accessory factors[4,6],leading to a T4SS model similar to that of Agrobacterium(Fig.2B).In line with these conclusions,immunogold-labelling stud-ies indicate that the tips of the T4SS pilus are deco-rated with CagL[11],a proposed VirB5orthologue[6]. In a second model(Fig.2C),it was proposed that the T4SS appendages in H.pylori are covered locally or completely by CagY(VirB10)[10]and the model includes all identiﬁed VirB components,except VirB5 [12].Interestingly,CagY is a very large protein ( 250kDa)that contains two transmembrane domains with the mid domain(also called the repeat domain)exposed to the extracellular space[10].Thus, it is still not fully clear whether the H.pylori T4SS pilus is more similar to that of Agrobacterium,which is mainly composed of VirB2subunits and VirB5,or whether it is composed of CagY as major pilus sub-unit,or whether it is a mix of both(Fig.2B,C). However,the only reported effector molecules injected by the H.pylori T4SS are peptidoglycan and CagA.Immunogold-stainings indicated the presence of CagA at the tips of T4SS pili,thus providing theﬁrst direct evidence that CagA might be delivered through these surface appendages,an observation that has not yet been reported for any other known T4SS effector protein in the bacterial world[11].Investigation of the injection mechanism has shown that delivery of CagA requires a host cell receptor,the integrin member b1 [11,13]and phosphatidylserine[14].Numerous struc-tural T4SS components have been demonstrated to bind to integrin b1,including CagL[11],or CagA,CagI and CagY,but excluding CagL[13].However,although very little is known about CagA and CagI in the above context,CagL has been investigated in more detail. Similar to the human extracellular matrix proteinﬁbro-nectin,CagL carries a RGD-motif shown to be impor-tant for interaction with integrin b1in vitro and on host cells,as well as downstream signalling to activate the kinases FAK and Src[11],although mutation of the RGD-motif in CagL had no defect in T4SS functions such as phosphorylation of injected CagA during infec-tion in another study[13].These studies indicate that there is a controversy in the literature about the impor-tance of the CagL RGD-motif in T4SS functions and host cell signalling.Another unsolved question is the proposed structure of CagY with respect to which domain is exposed to the extracellular space.The repeat domain in the middle of CagY has been shown to be accessible to labelling by antibodies made speciﬁcally against this subdomain[10];however,yeast-two hybrid screens and other in vitro binding studies indicated that the very carboxy-terminus interacted with integrin b1 [13],which has been proposed to be cytoplasmic[10] (Fig.2C).Thus,the role of the CagL RGD-motif and CagY topology for injection of CagA is not yet resolved.It is also unclear why the effector protein CagA itself can bind to the extracellular domain of inte-grin b1because such high binding afﬁnity would be expected to inhibit the injection process.However,these studies clearly showed that H.pylori targets integrin b1 as a receptor for the T4SS,and the deletion of cagI, cagL and cagY genes disrupt T4SS functions almost completely[11,13].Thus,each of these factors exhibits important functional roles,although their concerted interaction activities are unknown.However,because a receptor is involved in host rec-ognition by the T4SS,it can be proposed that CagA is not injected into target cells at random positions but rather in a tightly controlled manner[15].Importantly, integrins are normally not found at the apical mem-brane but at the basal membrane of polarized gastric epithelial cells(Fig.1).This suggests the existence of a sophisticated control mechanism by which H.pylori injects CagA[11].Essentially,there are two major injection models that can be considered.First, H.pylori could inject its T4SS effectors across the basolateral membrane(Fig.1).A possible scenario is that early exposed cag PAI-independent factors such as the H.pylori adhesins,as well as HtrA,VacA,OipA and others,may loosen intercellular epithelial junctions at locally restricted areas before a limited number of bacteria gain access to integrins and inject CagA.The basal injection model of CagA can also explain why H.pylori does not cause more gastric damage in infected individuals and may only inject virulence pro-teins into target cells under speciﬁc conditions in vivo. Second,cag PAI-independent signalling events might stimulate the transcytosis of integrin molecules from the basal to the apical side of the cells,a process that has been suggested for integrin b1[15].Indeed,disrup-tion of host-cell polarity by another pathogen(entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli)enabled basal membrane proteins to migrate apically.Transcytosis of integrins would therefore enable H.pylori with the intriguing possibility of targeting the integrin b1receptor at api-cal membranes(Fig.1).The latter scenario would explain how H.pylori T4SS substrates might be injected apically,possibly in part,to further disrupt intercellular junctions or activate early signallingN.Tegtmeyer et al.Type IV secretion in H.pylori pathogenesisType IV secretion in H.pylori pathogenesis N.Tegtmeyer et al.events leading to the induction of pro-inﬂammatory genes,respectively.Functional studies of H.pylori using animal infection models and transgenic miceRecent functional studies in animal models have pro-vided compelling evidence for the importance of CagA and cag PAI in H.pylori pathogenesis.Mongolian ger-bils(Meriones unguiculatus),several knockout and other mice(e.g.INS-GAS mice)and rhesus monkeys have been shown to serve as useful in vivo models to study H.pylori-induced pathology.However,each ani-mal model has distinct advantages and disadvantages, and therefore only can be considered as complemen-tary systems.The most extensively studied model with respect to host inﬂammatory and physiological responses to H.pylori is the Mongolian gerbil[1,16–18].Mongolian gerbils have been shown to develop a similar H.pylori-induced pathology as that in humans.H.pylori reproducibly induces gastric inﬂammation in this system and cag PAI-positive as well as various H.pylori mutants colonize gerbils sufﬁciently well, which allows an examination of the role of bacterial virulence determinants in gastric injury.For example, gerbils were challenged by the cag PAI-positive strain TN2and its isogenic mutants of cagE(virB4)or vacA for62weeks[16].The wild-type and vacA mutants induced severe gastritis,whereas cagE mutants induced far milder changes.Gastric ulceration was induced at the highest rate(22of23)by wild-type H.pylori,fol-lowed by the vacA mutant(19of28).No ulcers were found in gerbils infected with the cagE mutant(0of 27)or in controls(0of27).Intestinal metaplasia was also found in gerbils infected with the wild-type(14of 23)or vacA mutant(15of28).Gastric cancer devel-oped in one gerbil with wild-type infection and in one with vacA mutant infection[16].These early data sug-gested that cag PAI-positive H.pylori can induce gastri-tis and gastric ulcer in gerbils,with an important role for the T4SS.Further studies indicated that H.pylori strain B128(also harbouring a functional cag PAI) increased plasma gastrin,a factor known to promote gastric epithelial hyperproliferation,but not infection with isogenic mutants lacking either cagA or cagY[17]. Enhanced corpus colonization with the parental wild-type strain was also evident.Virulence factors such as the cag PAI are therefore likely to impact on gastric physiological changes observed with H.pylori infection either directly,via permitting colonization of the corpus mucosa as a consequence of increased acid tol-erance,or indirectly,via promoting enhanced inﬂam-mation.Interestingly,infection of gerbils by H.pylori led to the development of inﬂammation-induced gastric adenocarcinoma in some but not all studies,highlight-ing the possible importance of different gerbil lines, diet,genetic differences between H.pylori strains and probably other parameters[1,17,18].For example,ger-bils infected with the cag PAI-positive strain7.13,a gerbil-adapted derivative of B128,developed gastric dysplasia within4weeks in88%of gerbils,which was accompanied by adenocarcinoma in25%of animals [18].By8weeks,gastric adenocarcinomas were present in75%of infected gerbils that were sacriﬁced at this time-point and gastric adenocarcinomas were accom-panied by severe lymphofollicular gastritis.Impor-tantly,CagA and the T4SS played a crucial role in gastric cancer development of gerbils[18].Conse-quently,further efforts have been made to identify the mechanism of H.pylori-associated carcinogenesis. Aﬁrst direct causal link between CagA and oncogenesisFig.2.Models for the assembly and assembled structure of T4SS in A.tumefaciens and Helicobacter pylori.(A)The proposed assembly of the prototypical Agrobacterium VirB⁄VirD4T4SS machinery is shown.The T4SS is a multicomponent protein complex spanning the inner and outer membranes of Agrobacterium and other Gram-negative bacteria.Current knowledge of T4SS assembly and cellular localization of its components is shown in a simpliﬁed manner.The coupling protein VirD4and structural components(VirB1–VirB11)are typically required for secretion and are depicted according to their proposed functions.A model for T-pilus assembly in Agrobacterium shows the proposed VirB4-VirB8-VirB5-VirB2interaction sequence leading to the formation of VirB2-VirB5complexes followed by T-pilus assembly.The assem-bled T4SS then triggers the secretion of substrates from the bacterial cytoplasm directly into the cytoplasm of infected host cells or into the extracellular milieu.(B)Model-1for the assembled T4SS machinery in H.pylori assuming that all VirB1–11proteins are encoded by the cag-PAI and assemble in a similar fashion as proposed for A.tumefaciens[6].The reported substrates for this T4SS are CagA and peptidoglycan.(C)Model-2proposes that the T4SS requires essentially the same VirB proteins as in(B),with one major difference.The pilus surface is pro-posed to be covered with CagY molecules.By contrast to VirB10in many T4SS,H.pylori VirB10(CagY)is a very large protein( 250kDa, domain structure and amino acid positions shown for CagY of strain26695,accession number NP_207323.1)carrying two transmembrane domains(TM1and TM2)to form a hairpin-loop structure in the membranes as depicted[10].Immunogold labelling against the loop region in CagY indicated that this part of the protein is exposed to the extracellular space and is transported to the pilus surface by a yet unknown mechanism[10].However,recent data demonstrated that the very carboxy-terminus of CagY can bind to the host receptor integrin b1[13]. How the latter domain can be exposed to the extracellular space to make contact with integrin b1is not yet clear and needs to be clariﬁed in future studies.N.Tegtmeyer et al.Type IV secretion in H.pylori pathogenesisin vivo was identiﬁed by the generation of transgenic C57BL⁄6J mice expressing CagA in the absence of H.pylori[19].CagA transgenic mice showed gastric epithelial hyperplasia and some mice developed gastric polyps and adenocarcinomas of the stomach and small intestine.Systemic expression of CagA further induced leukocytosis with IL-3⁄granulocyte macrophage col-ony-stimulating factor hypersensitivity and some mice developed myeloid leukaemias and B cell lymphomas [19].These results indicate that H.pylori can rapidly induce gastric adenocarcinoma in gerbils in a T4SS-dependent manner and that the expression of CagA alone in transgenic mice is sufﬁcient to induce severe malignant lesions.Therefore,it is clear that CagA and the T4SS play a central role in the pathogenesis of H.pylori in vivo.H.pylori in vitro infection models:T4SS-dependent but CagA-independent cellular signallingIn addition to the above discussed in vivo models,the use of several in vitro cell culture systems has been very efﬁcient for studying signalling cascades that are of relevance to H.pylori disease development.In par-ticular,gastric epithelial and colonic cell lines(e.g. AGS,AZ-521,Caco2,HEp-2,KATO-III,MKN-28, MKN-45,NCI-N87and others),primary gastric epi-thelial cells and professional phagocytes,including human polymorphonuclear leucocytes and human or murine macrophage cell lines(e.g.J774A.1,JoskM, RAW264.7,THP-1,U937and others),have been utilized.Below,we highlight some of these in vitro studies and begin with the T4SS-dependent but CagA-independent signalling pathways as summarized in Fig.3A.Very early experiments have shown that H.pylori can actively block its own uptake by professional phagocytes[20].Vital H.pylori are necessary to block the phagocytic uptake,and H.pylori also abrogated the ability of phagocytes to engulf latex beads or adherent Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria as control. This antiphagocytic phenotype was dependent on a functional T4SS because isogenic virB7and virB11 mutants abrogated this effect[20].Interestingly,the factor involved was not CagA because isogenic cagA mutants also blocked phagocytosis.These data indicate that H.pylori expresses a yet unknown T4SS factor exhibiting antiphagocytic activity,which may play an essential role in the immune escape of this persistent pathogen(Fig.3A).However,the majority of studies were performed on the interaction of H.pylori with cultured gastric epithelial cells.For example,H.pylori was reported to change histone H3phosphorylation by a T4SS-dependent but CagA-independent process (Fig.3A).Infection with cag PAI-poitive H.pylori strains decreases H3phosphorylation levels both at serine residue10and threonine residue3[21].These observations were based on mitotic histone H3kinases such as vaccinia-related kinase1and Aurora B,which were not fully activated in infected cells,resulting in a transient H.pylori-induced pre-mitotic arrest[21]. Taken together,these results show that H.pylori sub-verts key cellular processes such as cell cycle progres-sion by a yet unknown T4SS factor.In addition,the results obtained in numerous studies indicate that structural components of the T4SS but not CagA itself were required for the induction of pro-inﬂammatory signalling,including the activation of NF-j B and AP-1 (Fig.3A).This suggested that the T4SS might inject factors in addition to CagA or that the T4SS itself triggers the effect.Despite intensive efforts,including a systematic mutagenesis of all cag PAI genes,the hypo-thetical additional effector remained unknown for many years.Another possible candidate was H.pylori peptidoglycan,which can be recognized by Nod1,an intracellular pathogen-recognition molecule[5].These observations suggested that T4SS-dependent deliveryFig.3.Model for the role of Helicobacter pylori T4SS in host cell signalling processes that may effect pathogenesis.(A)The H.pylori T4SS pili are induced upon contact with host cells and can inject effector molecules such as the CagA protein and peptidoglycan in a manner dependent on integrin b1.Injected CagA can then induce cascades as depicted in the panels below.(A)Highlighting a multitude of known T4SS-dependent but CagA-independent pathways involved in the activation of receptor and non-RTKs,pro-inﬂammatory signalling,Rho GTPase activation,scattering and motility of gastric epithelial cells,as well as the suppression of histone phosphorylation and H.pylori phagocytosis by immune cells.Two particular T4SS factors have been reported to be involved in some but not all of these responses.The known signalling functions for injected peptidoglycan,as well as pilus-exposed or recombinant CagL,are shown.For numerous other path-ways,the actual T4SS factor is yet unknown,as also indicated.(B)CagA phosphorylation-dependent and(C)phosphorylation-independent signal transduction events.CagA is injected into the host cell membrane of infected gastric epithelial cells,which also requires phosphatidyl-serine.The tyrosine kinases Src and Abl phosphorylate injected CagA.CagA can then modulate various signalling cascades associated with cell polarity,cell proliferation,actin-cytoskeletal rearrangements,cell elongation,disruption of tight and adherens junctions,pro-inﬂammatory responses and the suppression of apoptosis,as depicted.Black arrows indicate activated sigalling pathways and red arrows correspond to inactivated cascades.(B)and(C)are updated with permission from Backert et al.[26].The speciﬁc abbreviations and terms used here are provided in the text and Doc.S1.Type IV secretion in H.pylori pathogenesis N.Tegtmeyer et al.。

山东省潍坊市大联考2024-2025学年高三上学期10月月考英语试题

山东省潍坊市大联考2024-2025学年高三上学期10月月考英语试题一、阅读理解Mathematics for Computer ScienceThis subject offers an introduction to discrete mathematics(离散数学)oriented toward computer science and engineering.Course Meeting TimesLectures:3 sessions/week, 1. 5 hour/session Problem Sets (psets)Problem sets account for 20% of the final grade. Making a reasonable effort on the problem sets is, for most students, crucial for mastering the course material. Problem sets are designed to be completed in at most 3 hours; the time is monitored through student reports. Online Feedback ProblemsOnline problems to be completed before most class meetings are posted on the class website. These consist of straightforward questions that provide useful feedback about the assigned material. Some students prefer to try the online problems before reading the text or watching videos as an advance guide to going over the material; that’s fine. Watching designated videos, or at least looking at the lecture-slide handouts, is generally helpful but optional.Like team problem-solving in class, online problems are graded only on participation: Students receive full credit as long as they try the problem, even if their answer is wrong. Online feedback problems account for 10% of the final grade. Midterm ExamsThree 80-minute midterm exams will be given. The midterm exams each account for 15%of the final grade.Midterm questions will typically be variations of prior problems from class and psets, and the best way to prepare is to review on the published solutions to these problems. The first exam covers all previous weeks’ material;subsequent exams focus on the material after the previous exam. Final ExamThere will be a three-hour final exam. This exam is worth 25% of the final class grade. The final exam will cover the entire subject with somewhat greater emphasis on material from after Midterm 3. Most exam questions will be variants of problems assigned during the term(psets,class, midterm, and online). It may include a few questions which combine topics that were originally covered separately.1．What determines students’ grade in Online Feedback Problems?A．Active involvement.B．Submission time.C．Accuracy of answers.D．Completion of assignments2．What is the main focus of the final exam?A．Variants of problem sets.B．Combined topics in class.C．The content after midterm exams.D．The whole-term course materials. 3．Which of the following weighs the most in the final grade?A．Final Exam.B．Midterm Exams.C．Problem Sets.D．Online Feedback ProblemsIt all started with a simple question;“Can I paint your portrait (肖像)?”In the summer of 2015, Brian Peterson was reading the book Love Does, about the power of love in action, when his quiet was disturbed by a homeless man. Inspired by the book, Peterson made an unexpected decision: He was going to introduce himself. In that first conversation, Peterson learned that the man’s name was Matt Faris who failed to pursue a career in music and ended up being homeless.“I saw beauty on the face of a man who hadn’t shaved in probably a year, had overgrown fingernails, and probably hadn’t had a shower in close to a year. ”Even though Peterson hadn’t pioked up a paintbrush in about eight years, he asked if he could paint Faris’s portrait. Faris said yes.Peterson’s connection with Faris led him to form Faces of Santa Ana, a nonprofit organization focused on befriending and painting portraits of members of the community who are unhoused. Working from a black-and-white photo of the subject, Peterson chooses colors inspired by the subject’s personality and life story, creating an impressive portrait.Peterson sells the striking artwork, signed by both subject and artist, dividing the proceeds and putting half into what he calls a“love account”for his model. He then helps people use the money to get back on their feet. Many of Peterson’s new friends use the donations to secure immediate necessities. But Peterson has learned not to make assumptions about what a personneeds most. “I’ve made a mistake thinking I knew what people wanted, ” he says, “but why don’t we just ask them?”Peterson has discovered that there’s more to the finished products than the money they bring to someone who’s down and out. The buyers tend to connect to the story of the person in the painting, finding similarities and often friendship with someone they might have otherwise overlooked. “People often tell me, ‘I was the one that would cross the street. But I see homeless people differently now, ’ ”Peterson says.4．What brought Peterson and Faris together?A．Beauty on Faris’ face.B．Inspiration from a book.C．Peterson’s passion for art.D．Faris’ suffering in his life.5．What does the underlined word “mistake” in paragraph 5 refer to?A．Selling the homeless’ portraits for profits.B．Giving instant necessities to the homeless.C．Asking the homeless for their needs directly.D．Taking what the homeless want for granted.6．What does Peterson imply in the last paragraph?A．The homeless are gaining more concern.B．The life of the homeless is different now.C．Buyers value friendship with the homeless.D．Figures in Peterson’s paintings are popular.7．What can we learn from this text?A．A good model is key to a fine artwork.B．An expected decision makes a great artist.C．A picture really is worth a thousand words.D．Each unfortunate person has his own misfortune.The Malagasy baobab tree, whose thick trunks and tiny branches dot Madagascar’s landscape, should not, by rights, have survived to the present day. Scientists believe that its large seeds were once spread by the giant tortoises and lemur monkeys that wandered the island. When these species went extinct over one thousand years ago owing to human activity, the baobab treeshould have disappeared too. It did not. Seheno Andriantsaralaza at the University of Antananarivo and Onja Razafindratsima at the University of California, now think they may know the reason why.Together with their colleagues, the scientists monitored 15 tree canopies (树冠) in a western region of Madagascar, to identify any animals that might have claimed the role of baobab-seed spread. The researchers also set up camera traps around seed-containing fruits lying on the ground, and searched any faeces (粪便) that they encountered along the way for the presence of seeds.They report in the journal Biotropica that a native rodent (啮齿动物) known as the western bunch-tailed rat was caught on camera handling whole fruits on four occasions. Although there was no footage of the rat breaking the fruits open, the team did chance upon 13 fruits that had been chewed into and had their seeds removed. Though the bite marks were not clear enough to identify an initiator, this was clear evidence that a seed- distributing animal was out there. They then found the ecological equivalent of a smoking gun:baobab seeds in seven different piles of bush-pig faces.While the finding is important in its own right, it also provides valuable evidence that introduced species may not be entirely harmful. Madagascar’s pigs, for example, though not native, have made themselves essential to the survival of truly native species. Similar relationships are suspected to hold in South America between rabbits native to Europe and plants with no seed distributors. For Dr Andriantsaralaza, that suggests the full ecological role of introduced species should be considered before talk of extinction begins.8．What made scientists think the baobab tree should have disappeared?A．The extinction of its seed spreader.B．The destruction of human activitiesC．The inadaptation of the baobab tree.D．The increase of its natural enemies. 9．What are camera traps used for?A．Seeking seed-containing fruits.B．Tracking the footprints of seeds.C．Recording the animals’ activities.D．Monitoring the baobab tree canopies. 10．Which is most probably the seed-eater according to the report?A．The giant tortoise B．The bunch-tailed rat.C．The European rabbit.D．The bush-pig.11．What is the author’s purpose in writing the text?A．To introduce a new way to protect the baobab tree.B．To show non-native species are not always harmful.C．To compare different kinds of seed-distributing methods.D．To explain the importance of protecting endangered species.The concepts of delayed satisfaction, self-control, and self-regulation are often used interchangeably and inconsistently. The ability to delay an impulse (冲动) for an immediate reward to receive a more favorable reward at a later time is the standard definition of delayed satisfaction.Studies show that delayed satisfaction is one of the most effective personal characteristics of successful people. People who learn how to manage their need to be satisfied in the moment develop more in their careers, relationships, health, and finances than people who give in to it.Being able to delay satisfaction isn’t the easiest skill to acquire. It involves feeling dissatisfied, which is why it seems impossible for people who haven’t learned to control their impulses. Choosing to have something now might feel good, but making the effort to have discipline and manage your impulses can result in bigger or better rewards in the future. Over time, delayed satisfaction will improve your self-control and ultimately help you achieve your long-term goals faster.The Seinfeld Strategy is one of several helpful self-satisfaction techniques you can use to put off satisfaction for longer periods of time. Every day that you delay satisfaction and avoid temptation (诱惑) , you cross it off your calendar. After a few days, this creates a chain. This strategy works well for people who enjoy gamification (游戏化). If you find it satisfying to keep the chain going, you’re less likely to give in to temptation.Do you find yourself going back to your temptations without thinking about it?If this is the case, you can practice mindfulness to become more aware of what you do. When you notice yourself doing something out of habit, stop for a moment. Ask yourself why you’re doing what you’re doing. Take some time to analyze how you’re feeling. Pay attention to the details. Take a moment of mindulness to interrupt your autopilot every time this happens. The more you practice this, the more you’ll break the habit of going for instant satisfaction.12．What is delayed satisfaction?A．Making quick decisions.B．Giving in to desires instantly.C．Immediate rewards for impulses.D．Postponing rewards for better outcomes. 13．Why is delayed satisfaction hard to attain?A．It can lead to missed opportunities B．It’s bad for achieving long-term goals.C．It’s impossible to resist the inner needs D．It’s a comfort to possess something at once. 14．What does paragraph 4 mainly talk about?A．The complexity of the Seinfeld Strategy B．An example of self-discipline techniques.C．A method of practicing delayed satisfaction.D．The effectiveness of keeping the chain going.15．What does the author suggest people do for returning temptations?A．Ignore useless details.B．Get rid of old bad habits.C．Concentrate on true inner wants.D．Cancel temptations from the calendar.Facing hard things is, well, hard. Sometimes we are forced to simply shift, such as with a loss or failure; however, much of the time, we may recognize the difficulties underneath that need attention but feel too overwhelmed to address them. 16 The difficulties might be an outdated habit, a troubling memory or a long- ignored conflict.Some individuals fool themselves into thinking there really is not a problem. It’s like someone trying to hold active mice under a blanket by holding down the edges of the moving blanket. Pulling back the blanket to let the mice out is needed, despite being terrifying. Once the mice are released, there may be further challenges to get them out of the house. 17 People often encounter similar problems. Avoiding or leaving the situation appears to fix the problem but fails to tackle the underlying cause. Rather than repeatedly cutting weeds, getting down on the ground and pulling the roots is more effective. Facing issues is like uncovering roots for new beginnings to blossom. 1819 It feels like a balled-up mess of wires. Pulling hard at only one wire actually tightens the knot. We have to take a calmer look and pull apart each wire one at a time. We can’t expect the wires to loosen or unwind themselves. 20 Nevertheless, once they have been freed, they can sometimes be separated, put aside, and used as needed. A．They are just there and part of the chaos.B．And humans are masters of avoidance and denial.C．The overall benefits from tough work enable growthD．Making changes in one’s life is hard and complicated.E．Sadly, it often worsens when we approach it with anger.F．However, problems cannot be faced if they are not first recognized.G．Quick fixes might provide relief in the short term but often not in the long term.二、完形填空Madeline sat on her bed and tried to write. Tears dropped onto the page, making the ink 21 . Her best friend was moving, and her heart 22 as she penned how much she would miss him.She heard her mother speaking downstairs, but the words were 23 . This was a 24 , as her mother said, “Kids her age don’t know what love is!”Uncle Joe responded in a low tone. 25 , Madeline couldn’t catch what was said. She continued to write until she reached the end and 26 , she laid her head on the pillow and sobbed. Then, she felt a 27 hand on her shoulder. “It’s going to be okay. You can 28 each other, right?” Madeline 29 her head. “Mom says I’m not old enough for a phone.”Uncle Joe answered 30 , “But I’m friends with Leo’s dad. Your mom said you can talk to Leo on my phone. Plus, I gave her his number.” He didn’t tell her that her mom had thought it all silly and unnecessary.Madeline 31 , throwing her arms around Uncle Joe’s neck. “Thank you!”“No problem.” His eyes fell on the 32 . “Want me to ensure this gets to Leo?” Madeline nodded “Feel like playing a game? I promise I won’t mess around.”Madeline smiled — small but 33 .Uncle Joe wouldn’t read the letter; she 34 him. A sure thing was that his sister was mistaken. Though only eight, Madeline and Leo shared a pure, innocent bond — untouched by 35 .21．A．emerge B．bleed C．leak D．escape 22．A．raced B．hesitated C．ached D．melted23．A．indistinct B．sharp C．pale D．impolite 24．A．burden B．warning C．bonus D．blessing 25．A．Instead B．Anyway C．Again D．Moreover 26．A．worried B．confused C．bored D．exhausted 27．A．comforting B．firm C．smooth D．trembling 28．A．greet B．call C．miss D．visit 29．A．dropped B．shook C．covered D．touched 30．A．proudly B．slowly C．quietly D．casually 31．A．sat up B．turned over C．looked up D．bent down 32．A．toy B．phone C．note D．pen 33．A．friendly B．genuine C．unique D．tight 34．A．refused B．begged C．respected D．trusted 35．A．romance B．doubt C．mood D．status三、语法填空阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。

高考英语阅读理解冲刺训练Day 38

高考英语阅读理解冲刺训练Day 38Passage 1The British Medical Journal recently featured a strong response to what was judged an inappropriately merciful reaction by a medical school to a student cheating in an examination. Although we have insufficient reliable data about the extent of this phenomenon, its prevention, or its effective management, much can be concluded and acted upon on the basis of common sense.There is general agreement that there should be zero tolerance of cheating in a profession based on trust and one on which human lives depend. It is reasonable to assume that cheaters in medical school will be more likely than others to continue to act dishonestly with patients, colleagues, and government.The behaviors under question are multifactorial in origin. There are familial （家庭的）, religious, and cultural values that are acquired long before medical school. For example, countries, cultures, and subcultures exist where bribes and dishonest behaviour are very normal. There are secondary schools in which neither staff nor students tolerate cheating and others where cheating is common；there are homes which cultivate young people with high standards of moral behaviour and others which leave moral training to the harmful influence of television and the market place.Medical schools reflect society and cannot be expected to remedy all the ills of a society. The selection process of medical students might be expected to favour applicants with positive moral behaviour. Medical schools should be the major focus of attention for cultivating future doctors with moral sensitivity. Unfortunately there are troubling data that suggest that during medical school the moral behaviour of medical students does not necessarily improve；indeed, moral development may actually stop or even regress（倒退）.It is critical that the academic and clinical leaders of the institution set a personal example on moral behaviour. Medical schools must do something to make sure that their students are expected to be clear from day one. The development of a school's culture of moral behaviour requires cooperation with the students in whichthey play an active role in its creation and developing. Moreover, the school's examination system and general treatment of students must be fair. Finally, the treatment of infractions must be firm, fair, transparent（透明的）.1. What does the author say about cheating in medical schools？________A. Extensive research has been done about this phenomenon.B. We have sufficient data to prove that prevention is possible.C. We know that this phenomenon exists in every medical school.D. We still need more reliable data to know how serious it is.2. According to the author, it is important to prevent cheating in medical schools because________ .A. the medical profession is based on trustB. there is zero tolerance of cheating in medicineC. the medical profession depends on the governmentD. cheating exists extensively in medical schools3. Which of the following statements will the author probably agree with？________A. Medical schools should make a less competitive environment for students.B. Outstanding people should create a set of moral standards to be followed.C. Medical students should be positive in creating and preserving moral behavior.D. We should focus on the cause and effect of the cheating in exams in medical schools.4. Which of the following can be implied from the passage？________A. It makes little sense to talk about medical school student cheating in exams.B. Medical schools haven't been doing well to help students develop morally.C. Cheating in exams is tolerable outride of medical school circle.D. Elimination of exams helps cultivate healthier characters of medical school students.Passage 2Post-00s is a documentary about growing up. It covers almost every aspect of millennials’ experiences on their path toward adolescence – their struggles with schoolwork, their relationship with peers, their confusion if a younger brother or sisteris born into the family, and their growing desire to keep a distance from their parents. But this five-episode series was different from any other TV program with a similar theme.Post-00s was filmed over a period of 10 years, during which the show’s makers followed a group of kids from when they were infants through to when they became teenagers. In other words, the show’s “characters” grow older for real, and their stories are all real.“Coming-of-age” stories, as they’re known, have a special appeal. They satisfy our curiosity of looking at someone else’s life, and we become more and more attached to the characters as if we truly know them. And while we enjoy the truthfulness of the stories because nothing is set in advance, we also can’t help but feel the cruelty of reality. After all, there’s no re-writing of the script（剧本）and there’s no turning back – this is real life.This realness can also be seen in Boyhood, a 2014 film that won the Silver Bear award for best director at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival. During a period of 12 years, the film follows the life of Mason Jr – played by US actor Ellar Coltrane – from when he was 6 to when he finished high school.One of Boyhood’s appeals comes from its “ordinariness”. Mason Jr isn’t some child genius... He is a quietly spoken, fairly typical American boy, growing up in the Texas suburbs. He likes riding his bike and playing video games.While coming-of-age stories may look ordinary on the outside, they often allow us to look underneath the surface and see something extraordinary – the power of life itself.1. In the documentary, we see post-00’s growing experience EXCEPT ________ .A. how they deal with their studies.B. how they help look after brothers or sisters.C. how they get along with people of their age.D. how much they long to be independent of their parents.2. What do Post-00 and Boyhood have in common?________A. They’re intended to win an award for best director.B. The heroes and heroines are characters themselves.C. They’re a kind of reality show of ordinary kids’ growth.D. The stories are based on true life but polished by writers.3. Audience are interested in “coming-of-age” stories because________ .A. they can see the truth of lifeB. they know the characters wellC. they are much fond of gossipD. they appreciate stories of daily life4. Which of the following might be the best title for the passage? ________A. Post-00s are different geniuses.B. Actors are ordinary characters.C. Documentary is real life.D. Life is one big story.Passage 3A little social support from your best buds goes a long way, whether you're a human or a chimpanzee(黑猩猩). A new study that followed a chimpanzee community in the forests of Uganda has found that quality time with close companions significantly decreased stress hormone levels in the primates——whether they were resting, grooming or facing off against rival groups.The findings, described this week in the journal Nature Communications, shed light on the physiological effects of close companionship in chimpanzees——and could have implications for human health too.Researchers have long known that stress can worsen health and raise the risk of early death in humans as well as other social mammals."It can have effects on immune function, cardio function, fertility, cognition, and even your mood," said study coauthor Kevin Langergraber, a primatologist at Arizona State University.Maintaining close social bonds can help these animals (humans included) reduce some of that stress, potentially minimizing some health risks. But scientists have yet to pin down the exact physiological mechanisms at work."Social bonds make you survive and produce better——but how do they do that?" Langergraber said.To find out, the international team of researchers studied members of the Sonso chimpanzee community in Uganda’s Budongo Forest, a group consisting of 15 males, 35 females and 28 juveniles and infants during the study period from February 2008 to July 2010.Like humans, chimpanzees tend to have besties——bond partners with whom they appear to feel close. The researchers wanted to see whether interactions with these bond partners led to lower stress levels during particularly stressful situations, such as when fighting rival groups, or whether time spent with friends helped lower stress levels more generally, throughout the day.The scientists observed the chimps perform three types of activities: resting, grooming or quarrelling with other groups of chimps. The researchers kept track of whether the chimps were doing any of these three things with their bond partners or with other chimps in their group.A team of up to six observers watched the chimps and followed them around to collect urine(尿液) samples. The samples, collected from nine adult male and eight adult female chimps, were tested to see how much of the stress hormone cortisol they contained.The scientists found that chimpanzees' levels of urinary cortisol were 23% lower, on average, during the activities when they were with their bond partner. This was especially true for stressful activities, such as the intergroup rivalries, where any chimp on the front line might face physical harm or even death.The findings in chimpanzees, some of our closest living relatives, could shed light on the role such close social relationships play in human health too, he said. Suchfriendships may be just as important during good times as bad——though more research needs to be done before any conclusions can be drawn."This has interest for a lot of people in a medical context as well," Langergraber said.1. The scientists carried out a research into chimpanzee community in Uganda ________ .A. to seek evidence of benefits of social bonds from physiological angleB. to uncover whether social bonds make humans surviveC. to study how chimps perform three types of activitiesD. to train chimps to maintain close social bonds with each other2. What does the underlined word "they" in photograph 10 refer to?________A. ObserversB. ChimpanzeesC. Urine samplesD. Bond partners3. The chimps' levels of urinary cortisol decrease most when ________ .A. they are with other chimps in their groupB. they face the intergroup rivalries with friendsC. they perform three different types of activitiesD. they spend time with friends throughout the day4. What's the author's purpose in writing the passage?________A. To point out stress is harmful to all social mammals.B. To illustrate how chimps control their stress level.C. To urge scientists to do more research into chimpanzees.D. To inform us friendships benefit both chimps and humans.Passage 4For most of her life, Suanne Laqueur’s passion for storytelling was shown on the dance floor.Although Laqueur began writing at a young age, dancing always took center stage. She majored in dance and theater at Alfred University and taught at her mother’s dancestudio in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, for years. But when her mother was ready to retire and an opportunity opened for Laqueur to take over the studio, she realized she had no interest in taking on the business side of her art: “Owning a studio is a lot of work—financially, logistically. I love the teaching, the choreographing(编舞), the staging, but I didn’t want to own it.”Yet Laqueur’s disinterest in running the studio changed when she became a self-published author. In the fall of 2013, she decided to pursue Self-publishing as a way of sharing her first completed novel with friends and family. During the process, she realized that following her true passion—telling stories through writing—made the business of the art worthwhile, and owning that business meant she could direct her writing career however she chose.Starting with her second self-published novel, she began investing more time in marketing and building her audience. Her investment paid off. Since 2014, Laqueur, now 49, has self-published six novels, which collectively have hundreds of ratings and reviews on Goodreads. Her 2016 novel An Exaltation of Larks stole the show at the 25th Annual Writer’s Digest Self-Published Book Awards, topping more than 2,300 entries to win the grand prize.“You have to write the most truthful story to you, and I think self-publishing allows that freedom,’ she says. “If you work with traditional publishing, it’s more about what’s marketable. There are trade-offs, which everyone will tell you, but by self-publishing I have control of the book, I have control of the story, and I’m cool with that.”1. From Paragraph 2, we can learn that Laqueur _______.A. wanted to own a publishing houseB. didn’t like teaching dancing in factC. was a part-time writer when she was youngD. was interested in running her mother’s studio2. What made Laqueur change her attitude to business?A. Her mother’s persuasion.B. Self-publishing her novels.C. The desire to make money,D. Her own passion toward art.3. Which of the following can best replace the phrase “stole the show” in Paragraph 4?A. became a failure.B. was shown to people.C. got all the attention.D. was accidentally stolen.4. What can be inferred from what Laqueur’s said?A. She enjoys the way of self-publishing.B. She will never use traditional publishing.C. Traditional publishing only focuses on the market.D. Self-publishing will replace traditional publishing.Passage 5Wanted: A Personal AssistantI’m a very busy woman, looking for an assistant to help me with certain important tasks. This is not your average assistant job. What I’m looking for is someone to take care of some of my more personal business so that I may focus on my true passion: grocery shopping. Please apply if and only if you are willing and able to accomplish the following tasks:Work I would love to have a nine-to-five job. However, I find sitting in an office all day unbearable. An ideal assistant would secure a high-paying office job and excel in that setting, even going so far as to eagerly accept every invitation to after-work drinks.Go on family vacations I love my family, especially when I don’t have to spend time with them. Thus, I will require my employee to attend all family vacations in my place. Since I’ll miss out on spending time with my nephews, a good assistant will live-stream (直播) them for me the entire time while discreetly muting the live-stream whenever they start fighting.Exercise I am determined to get in better shape but find working out strenuous and tiring. The right candidate will exercise for a minimum of an hour every day and allow me to reap the benefits of his or her vigorous activity.Eat Just kidding—I love eating!Date I’m looking for love but find dating tedious and intimidating. Ideally, my employee will get a drink with a potential mate so he or she can do the tiresome work of getting to know someone and deciding whether I’ll like him. If the romantic candidate advances past a third date, I’d be willing to step in and proceed with the relationship from there, excluding birthdays, holidays, and other high-pressure situations.Have a baby I’m eager to have a child, but being pregnant and giving birth seems hard. Likewise, raising a child seems daunting. I’d prefer to spend an hour or two with my child each day while someone else tackles the incredible responsibility of childrearing. Once my child turns 18, I will happily assume all parenting duties, excluding any financial obligations.1. What is the author truly interested in?A. Spending vacations.B. Going shopping.C. Dating someone.D. Raising children.2. The personal assistant needs to do the following things for the author EXCEPT ________.A. working out.B. going to work.C. accompanying families.D. eating delicious food.3. What do you think is the purpose of the passage?A. To warn.B. To inform.C. To amuse.D. To advertise.参考答案Passage 11. D细节理解题定位到第一段：Although we have insufficient reliable data about the extent of this phenomenon, its prevention, or its effective management, much can be concluded and acted upon on the basis of common sense. 由关键词所在句子可知，我们仍然需要更多的可靠的数据来知道问题究竟有多严重。

Conceptualizing the construct of interpersonal conflict

ISSN 0832-7203Conceptualizing the Constructof Interpersonal ConflictPar : Jon Hartwick, McGill Univ.Henri Barki, École des HECCahier du GReSI no 02-04Avril 2002Copyright © 2002. École des Hautes Études Com merciales de Montréal.Tous droits réservés pour tous pays. Toute traduction et toute reproduction sous quelque forme que ce soit est interdite. École des Hautes Études Commerciales, 3000, chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 2A7. Les textes publiés dans la série des Cahiers du GReSI n'engagent que la responsabilité de leurs auteurs.CONCEPTUALIZING THE CONSTRUCT OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTJon Hartwick (1951-2002)McGill University, Faculty of ManagementHenri Barki (henri.barki@hec.ca)École des Hautes Études CommercialesIT Department3000 Chemin de la Côte Sainte-CatherineMontreal, Quebec, Canada H3T 2A7Tel : (514) 340-6482Fax : (514) 340-6132Conceptualizing the Construct of Interpersonal ConflictJon Hartwick and Henri BarkiRésuméParmi les chercheurs oeuvrant dans le domaine des conflits ceux qui donnent une définition et une mesure précise des conflits interpersonnels sont peu nombreux. Par ailleurs, les chercheurs qui spécifient clairement comment leurs conceptualisations des conflits interpersonnels sont différentes de celles des autres chercheurs sont encore plus rares. En rendant la comparaison des résultats des différentes études difficile cette situation empêche l'avancement des connaissances d ans le domaine. Afin de répondre à cette problématique, cet article développe et présente une définition générale des conflits interpersonnels de même qu'un cadre bi-dimensionnel englobant les conceptualisations antérieures. Par la suite, l'article se sert de cette définition et du cadre proposé pour souligner les faiblesses des conceptualisations et des mesures actuelles du conflit interpersonnel ainsi que pour identifier et suggérer des éléments de solution.AbstractFew conflict researchers clearly specify, not only their chosen definitions and means of assessing interpersonal conflict, but also how their conceptualization is similar or different from other researchers’ perspectives. The lack of a clear conceptualization and operationalization of the construct of interpersonal conflict makes it difficult to compare the results of different studies and hinders the accumulation of knowledge in the conflict domain. To address this issue, the present paper develops and presents a general definition for the construct of interpersonal conflict, as well as a two-dimensional conceptual framework that incorporates previous conceptualizations of this construct. Subsequently, the paper uses this definition and framework to highlight several shortcomings of current conceptualizations and operationalizations of interpersonal conflict in the organizational literature, and to provide directions for their remedy.KeywordsAA01 BehaviorAA02 Human factorsAA10 Conflict resolutionAI02 Research frameworks_____________________ 3Conceptualizing the Construct of Interpersonal ConflictJon Hartwick and Henri BarkiConflict is a frequent occurrence in organizations, affecting a host of individual and organizational processes and outcomes. Its importance is evidenced by more than 70 years of research, work that has been summarized in numerous books, handbook chapters, and journal review articles (e.g., Deutsch, 1990; Fink, 1968; Greenhalgh, 1987; Pondy, 1967; Pruitt and Rubin, 1986; Putnam and Poole, 1987; Thomas, 1976; 1992a; Tjosvold, 1991; Wall and Callister, 1995). In this literature, the term conflict has been used in different ways, referring to different forms or kinds of conflict (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious, political, marital, personality, gender, role, value, etc.), to different units or levels of analysis that are involved (e.g., within the individual, between individuals, between groups, between organizations, between nations, etc.) and to different situational contexts where it occurs (e.g., at home, in organizations, in the arena, on the battlefield, etc.).While past research on conflict is voluminous, a clear, generally accepted definition of interpersonal conflict is still lacking (Wall and Callister, 1995). Many empirical studies fail to provide any definition of conflict. Others skirt the issue and define conflict either in terms of when, where or how it occurs, or in terms of what impact it has. In doing so, they define conflict indirectly by describing its antecedents or consequences, not by specifying exactly wh at it is. Even studies that provide a direct definition don’t always agree about conflict's defining elements. Some of them equate conflict with disagreement or differences of opinion; some see it as antagonistic or hostile behavior; others view it as a mixture of negative emotions like anxiety, jealousy, frustration and anger; and still others treat conflict as some combination of the above. Adding to an already complex situation, several studies have differentiated between types of interpersonal conflict found in organizational settings such as task, process, and relationship conflict (Jehn, 1994; 1995; 1997; Jehn and Mannix, 2001), and cognitive vs. affective conflicts (Amason, 1996; Amason and Schweiger, 1994). The present situation is not unlike the one described more than three decades ago by Fink (1968):"The resulting terminological and conceptual confusion may simply reflect that scientificknowledge about social conflict has not yet moved to a level of analytical precision superior to thatof common sense knowledge. But it may also constitute an impediment to scientific communicationand to the advance of knowledge which such communication is supposed to facilitate.Terminological diversity can mask conceptual unity, or it can reflect an underlying conceptualdifficulty. Conceptual diversity may reflect divergent aims, divergent assumptions, or divergentactual bases for theory construction, which can be obscured by the use of similar terminology… itseems obvious that a consistent language for discussing conflict phenomena is desirable. Such alanguage can only be developed within a unified conceptual framework for dealing with conflict ingeneral." (p. 430)The goal of the present paper is to develop and present a conceptual framework of interpersonal conflict, that is conflicts that occur between individuals or groups in organizations, regardless of form or kind. As part of this framework, a general definition of interpersonal conflict is proposed, and alternative means of measuring the construct are suggested. In addition, a typology is provided for viewing types of interpersonal conflict in the organizational literature. Using this framework, we point to a number of limitations in current assessments of interpersonal conflict, as well as in the i n terpretation of conflict's causes and effects.Defining Interpersonal ConflictInterpersonal conflict is a dynamic process that occurs between individuals and/or groups who are in_____________________ 4_____________________ 5Copyright École des HECinterdependent relationships, and is more likely to occur when a variety zero-sum reward structures, scarce resources, etc.) and personal (e.g., previous history of conflicts, interpersonal diversity, etc.) conditions exist (e.g., Fink, 1968; Pondy, 1967; Thomas, 1992a; Wall and properties are thought to underlie descriptions of what conflict is : disagreement, interference, and negative emotion (Barki and Hartwick, 2001; Pondy, 1967; Putnam and Poole, 1987; Thomas, 1992a; 1992b; Wall and Callister, 1995).These three themes can be viewed as reflecting cognitive, behavioral and affective manifestations of interpersonal conflict. First, although a number of different cognitions can be associated with interpersonal conflict, disagreement is the most commonly discussed and assessed cognition in the literature. Disagreement exists when parties think that a divergence of values, needs, interests, opinions, goals, or objectives exists. Second, a number of different behaviors such as debate, argumentation, competition, political maneuvering, back-stabbing, aggression, hostility, and destruction have been associated with interpersonal conflict. While such behaviors may be typical of conflict, they do not always imply the existence of conflict. It is only when the behaviors of one party interfere with or oppose another party's attainment of its own interests, objectives or goals that conflict is said to exist. Finally, while a number of affective states have been associated with conflict, overwhelmingly, it has been negative emotions such as fear, jealousy, anger, anxiety, and frustration that have been used to characterize interpersonal conflict.While these themes or properties are generally recognized as being important elements of interpersonal conflict, definitions of conflict have used or combined them in different ways. The Venn diagram of Figure 1, depicting the overlapping variances of disagreement, interference, and negative emotion, is useful for describing and organizing the different perspectives found in the literature. One group of definitions equates conflict with a single property or theme. That is, they define interpersonal conflict solely as disagreement (shown in Figure 1 by the disagreement circle), or solely as interference (shown in Figure 1 by the interference circle), or solely as negative emotion (shown in Figure 1 by the negative emotion circle). For example, Dahrendorf (1958) equated conflict with the presence of disagreement: "All relations between sets of individuals that involve an incompatible difference of objective … are in this sense relations of social conflict." (p. 135). Similarly, Jehn and Mannix (2001) defined conflict as "… an awareness on the part of the parties involved of discrepancies, incompatible wishes, or irreconcilable desires." (p. 238) Wall and Callister (1995) provide another example of this perspective, one that equates conflict with perceived interference, and define it as "… a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party." (p. 517)._____________________ 6Copyright École des HECD Disagreement I InterferenceNENegative EmotionFigure 1 - Venn Diagram for Components of Conflict_____________________ 7Copyright École des HECA second group of perspectives conceptualize conflict using more than one conflict theme or property. One variant of this multiple-theme group suggests a broad, inclusive definition of interpersonal conflict, defining it as the presence of either disagreement, or interference, or negative emotion (represented in Figure 1 as the union of the disagreement, interference and negative emotion circles). In other words, the presence of any one of the three properties is deemed sufficient to label a situation as conflictual. For example, Fink (1968) defined conflict as "Any social situation or process in which two or more social entities are linked by at least one form of antagonistic psychological relation or at least one form of antagonistic interaction." (p. 456) Fink's definition included "… a number of different kinds of psychological antagonisms (e.g., incompatible goals, mutually exclusive interests, emotional hostility, factual or value dissensus, traditional enmities, etc.) and a number of different kinds of antagonistic interaction (ranging from the most direct, violent and unregulated struggle to the most subtle, indirect, and highly regulated forms of mutual interference), none of which is necessarily present in all instances of conflict." (p. 456).A second variant of this group also conceptualizes conflict using multiple themes or properties, but defines it more narrowly than the first, as the joint presence of two or more themes (represented in Figure 1 by any one of the four intersecting sub-areas). For example, Mack and Snyder (1957) argued for a definition of conflict that reflects the joint presence of disagreement (mutually exclusive and/or mutually incompatible values and opposed values) and interference (mutually opposed actions and counteractions, as well as behaviors that injure, thwart, o r attempt to control other parties). Similarly, Hocker and Wilmot (1985) defined conflict as "… an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party in achieving their goals." (p. 23). In Figure 1, these definitions correspond to the two sub-areas labeled "D, I" (formed by the intersection of D and I circles) and "D, I, NE" (formed by the intersection of D, I, and NE circles). Another example for the second v ariant of the multiple perspective can be found in Pondy (1967) who stated: "The term conflict refers neither to its antecedent conditions, nor to individual awareness of it, nor certain affective states, nor its overt manifestations, nor its residues of feeling, precedent, or structure, but to all of these taken together …" (p. 319). Thus, Pondy’s view corresponds to the sub-area labeled "D, I, NE" in Figure 1.Most reviews of the conflict domain suggest that conflict should be defined using multiple them es or properties. For example, both Mack and Snyder (1957) and Fink (1968) suggested that the wealth of scientific evidence supports a view of conflict that incorporates multiple properties (though as noted above, they disagree about how to do so). Pondy (1967) also argued for the second perspective, and Thomas (1992a; 1992b) noted a trend, following Pondy, toward definitions of conflict that used multiple themes or properties. Recently, empirical evidence supporting the multiple theme view has been provided by a study of 162 project teams in 141 organizations which found that 95% of the variance in participants’ perceptions of interpersonal conflict (as measured through assessments of conflict frequency and intensity) was predicted by perceptions of disagreement, interference and negative emotion, with omission of any one of these properties significantly worsening the prediction (Barki and Hartwick, 2001).To our knowledge, there have been no conceptual or empirical comparisons of the two variants of the m ultiple-theme perspective. Recall, the first variant suggests a broad boundary for the concept of interpersonal conflict, including all instances of disagreement, interference, and negative emotion. The second variant suggests a more narrow boundary including only those conflict episodes where disagreement, interference, and negative emotion are all present. Both variants agree that conflict exists in situations where all three properties are present. Critical to their comparison is an assessment of the three sub-areas in Figure 1 where only one property is present; that is, the sub-area representing instances of "pure" disagreement (i.e., the sub-area labeled "D" where disagreement, but neither interference nor negative emotion, exists), the sub-area representing instances of "pure" interference (i.e., the sub-area_____________________ 8Copyright École des HEClabeled "I" where interference, but neither disagreement nor negative emotion, exists), and the sub-area representing instances of "pure" negative emotion (i.e., the sub-area labeled "NE" where negative emotion, but neither disagreement nor interference, exists).Organizational life is replete with instances of pure disagreement. Possible examples of pure disagreement occur when there are opinion differences concerning goals, tasks, or activities that are not very relevant or important to an individual, when these differences are easily resolvable, or when they hold the potential for win-win solutions. When such disagreements are not accompanied by any interference or negative emotion (i.e., the case of pure disagreement), they would not generally be seen or labeled as conflict – just because people disagree does not mean that they are in conflict. Numerous instances of pure interference also exist in organizations. An example of pure interference would be a situation where the behaviors or actions of one individual unintentionally prevent another from attaining his or her goals, perhaps by sheer accident. Such involuntary, accidental acts of interference would not generally be seen or labeled as conflict. Finally, organizations are replete with instances of pure negative emotion. Often, individuals dislike or hate others without necessarily disagreeing or interfering with them. Their negative emotions could stem from others’ personal or physical attributes, from their choice of friends and associates, or from their past behaviors. Again, just because an employee dislikes another as a person, it doesn't mean that he or she would always be in conflict with that person, especially when their work related views and opinions are quite similar.Intuitively, the above examples provide instances of pure disagreement, pure interference behavior, and pure negative emotion that would not generally be labeled as conflict. However, it is important to note that such situations may not be the norm in organizational life. More often than not, disagreement, interference and negative emotion are likely to occur together. Moreover, past conflicts could spill over, leading to greater disagreement, interference, and negative emotion in the present situation. In addition, current instances of pure disagreement, pure interference and pure emotion, may foster conflict in the future. The significance of the examples provided in the above paragraph lie not in their frequency of occurrence, but rather in their usefulness in clarifying theoretical distinctions between different definitions of conflict. In this regard, they support the second variant of the multiple theme perspective and indicate that disagreement, interference and negative emotion need to be taken into consideration when defining interpersonal conflict.We therefore suggest the following definition: Interpersonal conflict is a dynamic process that occurs between interdependent parties as they experience negative emotional reactions to perceived disagreements and interference with the attainment of their goals . According to this definition, interpersonal conflict exists only when all of its three components (i.e., disagreement, interference, and negative emotion) are present in a situation. Cases of pure disagreement, pure interference, pure emotion, or cases combining only two of these components, are not considered to be instances of interpersonal conflict.Some conflict theorists (e.g., Fink, 1968) could consider such a definition to be too strong or restrictive, and argue that instances of pure disagreement, pure interference, and pure negative emotion also need to be included among instances of conflict, albeit those that are of very weak intensity. Such an argument could also consider instances where two of the three themes or properties are present to be conflicts that are somewhat stronger, and instances where all three are present to reflect the most intense conflicts. While plausible, we believe that such a view could lead to much confusion within the field. For one thing, considering disagreement, interference or negative emotion, by themselves as conflict, would introduce an equivalence to different constructs. In addition to creating ambiguities, this would also force a coarser grained conceptualization than the three-component view. Moreover, it is likely that different antecedents and consequences will be identified for "weak" and other forms of conflict. As such, this would put the_____________________ 9Copyright École des HEConus on researchers to clearly identify which form of conflict they are describing or examining, and qualifiers such as weak are apt to be lost or omitted in subsequent communications, leading to conceptual confusion, ambiguity, and inaccuracy in future discussions. We believe that the clarity and simplicity of keeping disagreement, interference, and negative emotion separate from the construct of interpersonal conflict would be more useful and fruitful both for conflict research and its management.A Typology for Conceptualizing and Assessing Interpersonal ConflictGiven the above definition, the amount of interpersonal conflict that exists between interdependent parties can be assessed in two different ways. First, conflict could be assessed in terms of all three of its themes or properties. To do so, individuals need to be queried about the magnitude or intensity of their opinion differences concerning some issue with a particular individual or group, about the magnitude or intensity of their interference behaviors concerning some issue with a particular individual or group, and about the magnitude or intensity of their negative emotion concerning some issue with a particular individual or group. Anything less and an incomplete, and possibly inaccurate, assessment of interpersonal conflict would be achieved. Second, an overall assessment of conflict could also be obtained by asking individuals general questions regarding the magnitude or intensity of conflict they are experiencing about some issue, with a particular individual or group. The two ways of measurement should yield similar and valid overall assessments of interpersonal conflict.By extending the above categorization, a two-dimensional framework of interpersonal conflict was developed, and is depicted in Table 1. The first dimension of this framework encompasses the cognitive, behavioral and emotional components of interpersonal conflict as reflected by disagreement, interference and negative emotion. As previously noted, interpersonal conflict can be assessed either using specific questions reflecting all three of its definitional components, or more generally, by assessing the overall level of conflict existing in a situation. These four possibilities are depicted on the left side of Table 1 by the rows labeled: Cognition/Disagreement, Behavior/Interference, Affect/Negative Emotion and Overall Conflict.Conceptualizing the Construct of Interpersonal Conflict by Jon Hartwick and Henri Barki_____________________ 10Copyright École des HECFocus of ConflictTask ConflictNon-Task ConflictTask Outcome(what)Task Process(how) Non-Task OrganizationalIssueNon-OrganizationalIssueConflict Issue Not SpecifiedCognition/ Disagreement1disagreement with X over task content2disagreement with X over task process3disagreement with X over non-task organizational issue4disagreement with Xover non-organizational issue5disagreement withXBehavior/ Interference6interference with X over task content7interference with X over task process8interference with X over non-task organizational issue9interference with Xover non- organizational issue10interference withXC o m p o n e n t s o f C o n f l i c tAffect/Negativ e Emotion11negative emotion toward X over taskcontent12negative emotion toward X over taskprocess13negative emotion toward X over non-task organizationalissue 14negative emotion toward X over non- organizational issue15negative emotion toward XOverall Conflict16conflict with X overtask content 17 conflict with X over task process18conflict with X over non-taskorganizational issue19conflict with X over non-organizationalissue20conflict with XTable 1A Typology for the Conceptualization and Assessment of Interpersonal Conflict in OrganizationsThe second dimension of the framework reflects the focus of interpersonal conflict. From an individual’s perspective, conflicts are about one or more issues, and occur with some particular person or group.1 In addition, interpersonal conflicts that occur in organizational contexts are either about an organizational task that needs to be accomplished (Task Conflict), or about some other issue that is not related to an organizational task (Non-Task Conflict). In turn, Task Conflict can either be about an organizational task's Outcome (i.e., what is to be accomplished by the task) or the Process used to perform the task (i.e., how the task is to be accomplished). Moreover, Non-Task conflicts can either be about other specific non-task organizational issues (i.e., issues that are not directly related to the organizational task at hand—parking spaces, shift and vacation times, credit for performance, promotions, etc.), or about specific non-organizational issues (i.e., issues that are not directly related to the organization—personal loans, recreational teams, spousal affairs, children’s interactions, etc.). Finally, in addition to questions concerning these domains of specific focus, non-specific questions concerning levels of disagreement, interference, negative emotion, and conflict can also be asked to assess interpersonal conflict. By not specifying the focus of the conflict, these non-specific questions assess general overall levels of disagreement, interference, negative emotion, and conflict. These five possibilities are depicted at the top of Table 1 by the columns labeled: Task Conflict—Task Outcome, Task Conflict—Task Process, Non-Task Conflict—Organizational Non-Task Issue, Non-Task Conflict—Non-Organizational Issue, and Conflict Issue Not Specified.The above categorization of conflict issues owes much to the work of Pinkley (1990; Pinkley and Northcraft, 1994), Amason (1996; Amason and Schweiger, 1994) and Jehn (1994; 1995; 1997; Jehn and Mannix, 2001). This body of work has distinguished three types of conflict: task conflict, process conflict and relationship conflict. Initially, Pinkley (1990) observed a dimension of conflict anchored at one end by items that were labeled task conflict, and at the other end by items labeled relationship conflict, leading him to differentiate two types of conflicts. Later, Jehn (1994; 1995) distinguished task conflict from relationship conflict. She defined task conflict as an awareness of differences in viewpoints and opinions pertaining to a group task. Relationship conflict was defined as an awareness of interpersonal incompatibilities. Similarly, Amason (1996; Amason and Schweiger, 1994) also distinguished between two types of conflict which he labeled cognitive conflict and affective conflict. The former was defined as task-oriented conflict that focuses on judgmental differences about how to achieve common objectives, while the latter was defined as conflict that involves p ersonalized, individually-oriented disputes. Both Jehn and Amason have noted the similarity between task and cognitive conflict, and between relationship and affective conflict (Amason, 1996; Amason and Sapienza, 1997; Jehn, 1997; Jehn and Mannix, 2001). M ore recently, Jehn identified process conflict as a third type of conflict, and defined it as an awareness of controversies about aspects of how task accomplishment will proceed (Jehn, 1997; Jehn and Shah, 1997; Jehn and Chatman, 2000; Jehn and Mannix, 2001).Our categorization of interpersonal conflict types depicted in Table 1 differs from the conceptualization of task and process conflict developed by Jehn and Amason in a number of ways. The first difference concerns the categories of task and process conflict. We believe that process conflict is one component of task conflict, and not separate from it, as argued by Jehn. In essence, our position is that task conflict generally concerns one of two sets of issues: conflicts concerning what is to be done (which we label Task Outcome conflict in Table 1), and conflicts concerning how the task is to be done (which we label Task1Table 1 d epicts disagreement, interference, negative emotion and conflict with a generic target labeled X, essentially ignoring the target person or group with whom an individual has some conflict. This choice was made because we felt adding a third dimension would introduce a level of complexity to the typology that is beyond the objectives of the present paper. The third dimension would reflect the qualities of the individual parties in conflict or the nature of their relationship. An obvious candidate would be the power relationship between interdependent parties; for example, a superior-subordinate, peer, or subordinate-superior relationship._____________________ 11。

SparseVB：变分贝叶斯算法为线性和逻辑回归的稀疏高维回归模型的稀疏变量选择说明书

Package‘sparsevb’October14,2022Type PackageTitle Spike-and-Slab Variational Bayes for Linear and LogisticRegressionVersion0.1.0Date2021-1-04Author Gabriel Clara[aut,cre],Botond Szabo[aut],Kolyan Ray[aut]Maintainer Gabriel Clara<*************************>Description Implements variational Bayesian algorithms to perform scalable variable selec-tion for sparse,high-dimensional linear and logistic regression models.Features in-clude a novel prioritized updating scheme,which uses a preliminary estimator of the varia-tional means during initialization to generate an updating order prioritizing large,more rele-vant,coefﬁcients.Sparsity is induced via spike-and-slab priors with either Laplace or Gaus-sian slabs.By default,the heavier-tailed Laplace density is used.Formal derivations of the algo-rithms and asymptotic consistency results may be found in Kolyan Ray and Botond Sz-abo(2020)<doi:10.1080/01621459.2020.1847121>and Kolyan Ray,Botond Sz-abo,and Gabriel Clara(2020)<arXiv:2010.11665>.BugReports https:///gclara/varpack/-/issuesLicense GPL(>=3)Imports Rcpp(>=1.0.5),selectiveInference(>=1.2.5),glmnet(>=4.0-2),statsLinkingTo Rcpp,RcppArmadillo,RcppEnsmallenSystemRequirements C++11Encoding UTF-8RoxygenNote7.1.1NeedsCompilation yesRepository CRANDate/Publication2021-01-1509:20:02UTC12sparsevb-package R topics documented:sparsevb-package (2)svb.ﬁt (3)Index6 sparsevb-package sparsevb:Spike-and-Slab Variational Bayes for Linear and LogisticRegressionDescriptionImplements variational Bayesian algorithms to perform scalable variable selection for sparse,high-dimensional linear and logistic regression models.Features include a novel prioritized updating scheme,which uses a preliminary estimator of the variational means during initialization to generate an updating order prioritizing large,more relevant,coefﬁcients.Sparsity is induced via spike-and-slab priors with either Laplace or Gaussian slabs.By default,the heavier-tailed Laplace density is used.Formal derivations of the algorithms and asymptotic consistency results may be found in Kolyan Ray and Botond Szabo(2020)<doi:10.1080/01621459.2020.1847121>and Kolyan Ray, Botond Szabo,and Gabriel Clara(2020)<arXiv:2010.11665>.DetailsFor details as they pertain to using the package,consult the svb.fit function help page.Detailed descriptions and derivations of the variational algorithms with Laplace slabs may be found in the references.Author(s)Maintainer:Gabriel Clara<*************************>Authors:•Botond Szabo•Kolyan RayReferences•Ray K.and Szabo B.Variational Bayes for high-dimensional linear regression with sparse priors.(2020).Journal of the American Statistical Association.•Ray K.,Szabo B.,and Clara G.Spike and slab variational Bayes for high dimensional logistic regression.(2020).Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems33.See AlsoUseful links:•Report bugs at https:///gclara/varpack/-/issuessvb.fit Fit Approximate Posteriors to Sparse Linear and Logistic ModelsDescriptionMain function of the sparsevb putes mean-ﬁeld posterior approximations for both linear and logistic regression models,including variable selection via sparsity-inducing spike and slab priors.Usagesvb.fit(X,Y,family=c("linear","logistic"),slab=c("laplace","gaussian"),mu,sigma=rep(1,ncol(X)),gamma,alpha,beta,prior_scale=1,update_order,intercept=FALSE,noise_sd,max_iter=1000,tol=1e-05)ArgumentsX A numeric design matrix,each row of which represents a vector of covari-ates/independent variables/features.Though not required,it is recommendedto center and scale the columns to have norm sqrt(nrow(X)).Y An nrow(X)-dimensional response vector,numeric if family="linear"andbinary if family="logistic".family A character string selecting the regression model,either"linear"or"logistic".slab A character string specifying the prior slab density,either"laplace"or"gaussian".mu An ncol(X)-dimensional numeric vector,serving as initial guess for the varia-tional means.If omitted,mu will be estimated via ridge regression to initializethe coordinate ascent algorithm.sigma A positive ncol(X)-dimensional numeric vector,serving as initial guess for thevariational standard deviations.gamma An ncol(X)-dimensional vector of probabilities,serving as initial guess forthe variational inclusion probabilities.If omitted,gamma will be estimated viaLASSO regression to initialize the coordinate ascent algorithm.alpha A positive numeric value,parametrizing the beta hyper-prior on the inclusion probabilities.If omitted,alpha will be chosen empirically via LASSO regres-sion.beta A positive numeric value,parametrizing the beta hyper-prior on the inclusion probabilities.If omitted,beta will be chosen empirically via LASSO regres-sion.prior_scale A numeric value,controlling the scale parameter of the prior slab ed as the scale parameterλwhen prior="laplace",or as the standard deviationσif prior="gaussian".update_order A permutation of1:ncol(X),giving the update order of the coordinate-ascent algorithm.If omitted,a data driven updating order is used,see Ray and Szabo(2020)in Journal of the American Statistical Association for details.intercept A Boolean variable,controlling if an intercept should be included.NB:This feature is still experimental in logistic regression.noise_sd A positive numerical value,serving as estimate for the residual noise standard deviation in linear regression.If missing it will be estimated,see estimateSigmafrom the selectiveInference package for more details.Has no effect whenfamily="logistic".max_iter A positive integer,controlling the maximum number of iterations for the varia-tional update loop.tol A small,positive numerical value,controlling the termination criterion for max-imum absolute differences between binary entropies of successive iterates. DetailsSupposeθis the p-dimensional true parameter.The spike-and-slab prior forθmay be represented by the hierarchical schemew∼Beta(α,β),z j|w∼i.i.d.Bernoulli(w),θj|z j∼ind.(1−z j)δ0+z j g.Here,δ0represents the Dirac measure at0.The slab g may be taken either as a Laplace(0,λ)or N(0,σ2)density.The former has centered densityfλ(x)=λ2e−λ|x|.Givenαandβ,the beta hyper-prior has densityb(x|α,β)=xα−1(1−x)β−1 1tα−1(1−t)β−1d t.A straightforward integration shows that the prior inclusion probability of a coefﬁcient isαα+β. ValueThe approximate mean-ﬁeld posterior,given as a named list containing numeric vectors"mu", "sigma","gamma",and a value"intercept".The latter is set to NA in case intercept=FALSE.In mathematical terms,the conditional distribution of eachθj is given byθj|µj,σj,γj∼ind.γj N(µj,σ2)+(1−γj)δ0.Examples###Simulate a linear regression problem of size n times p,with sparsity level s### n<-250p<-500s<-5###Generate toy data###X<-matrix(rnorm(n*p),n,p)#standard Gaussian design matrixtheta<-numeric(p)theta[sample.int(p,s)]<-runif(s,-3,3)#sample non-zero coefficients in random locations pos_TR<-as.numeric(theta!=0)#true positivesY<-X%*%theta+rnorm(n)#add standard Gaussian noise###Run the algorithm in linear mode with Laplace prior and prioritized initialization### test<-svb.fit(X,Y,family="linear")posterior_mean<-test$mu*test$gamma#approximate posterior meanpos<-as.numeric(test$gamma>0.5)#significant coefficients###Assess the quality of the posterior estimates###TPR<-sum(pos[which(pos_TR==1)])/sum(pos_TR)#True positive rateFDR<-sum(pos[which(pos_TR!=1)])/max(sum(pos),1)#False discovery rateL2<-sqrt(sum((posterior_mean-theta)^2))#L_2-errorMSPE<-sqrt(sum((X%*%posterior_mean-Y)^2)/n)#Mean squared prediction errorIndexsparsevb,3sparsevb(sparsevb-package),2sparsevb-package,2svb.fit,2,36。

IND308 高速 weighing controller 商品说明书

IND308 Weighing ControllerHigh-speed and stable weighing & packingIND308 comes with a brand-new powerf u l hardware platform, characterized by ou tstandi ng wei gh i ng da ta ac qu isition performance and advanced intelli g ent control al gor ithms, can si gniﬁc antly improve packi ng speed, acc ura cy, and stability.Stable and reliable industrial design24 V DC powered, with low power cons ump tion and hi gh er interference i mmun ity; with an all-metal hou si ng and excellent protection level. Photoelectric isolated discrete i npu t /ou t pu t points with hi gh speed allow for rapid and reliable responses to control re qu irements.Various interfaces and ﬂexible conﬁgurationIND308 s uppor ts display in Chinese and Eng lish, with c u stomized poweri ng-on screens and convenient operations. I/O port f un ctions incl ud i ng 8 d i g ital i npu ts and 12 di g ital ou t pu ts can be assi gn ed for different f un ctions. The serial port s uppor ts the M odbu s RTU protocol. The newly con ﬁgur ed network interface can achieve parameter back up and r ecovery f un ctions.Abundant packing control modesIND308 s uppor ts PLC control, havehopper, no hoppe r, bu lk gra i n, dua l scale and decrement modes. Intelli g ent self-learni ng mod e is adaptable toc hang es in the on-site packi ng environ-ment, , which ens ur es rapid adj u stment of system to a precise state.IND308 weighing controllerIND308 is a specialized wei gh i ng d isplay controller developed by METTLER TOLEDO for t arg et-wei gh t packi ng app lications.IND308 wei gh i ng controller is characterized by its hi gh speed, hi gh efﬁcie ncy, complete f un ctions, reliability and stability, which f u lly embodies the leadi ng produ ct technol og y and ex qu isite man u -fact ur i ng pro cess of METTLER TOLEDO.IND308 can be widely u sed in vari ou s i ndu stries, s u ch as gra in, chemical i ndu stry, feed, ﬁlling, etc.IND308 weighing controllerTechnical indexesProduct features• Built-in various control modes for packing scales• Application of target value packing control with three-speed control• Supports Modbus RTU protocal• Supports parameter backup and recovery • 8 photoelectric isolated digital inputs • 12 photoelectric isolated digital outputs • 24V DC power supply, with low power consumption and higher interference immunityTechnical indexesFunction featuresMounting hole dimension ﬁgureMounting hole dimensions:149mm x 70mmDimensions:Exterior dimensions:184mm x 118mm x 127mmAddress: No.111 West Taihu Road, Xinbei District, Changzhou City, Jiangsu Province Postal code:213125Fax**************Address: 589 Guiping Road, Shanghai Postal code:200233Fax*************E-mail:*********For more information.Mettler-Toledo has always been committed to improving its product functions. For this reason, the technical speciﬁcations of the product will also be changed. No separate notiﬁcation is provided when the above situation occurs. Mettler-Toledo has always been committed to improving its product functions. For this reason, the technical speciﬁcations of the productwill also be changed. No separate notiﬁcation is provided when the above situation occurs.Printed in P. R. China 2021/61: IND308 mounting hole dimension;2: Reserved space for wiring.EnclosurePanel-mounted, with stainless steel front panel for IP65 rating Operating environment -10°C - +40°C; humidity: 10% - 95%, non-condensing Power supply 24 V DC power supply, maximum power consumption of 6 W Keypad and display 3.5" Mono TFT display, with 21 membrane touch keysW eighing processing AD conversion rate: 960 times/second; maximum display division: 100,000d; maximum veriﬁcation division: 6,000eCommunication interface 1 RS485 serial port, supporting Modbus RTU protocol Control interface 8 inputs and 12 outputs (photoelectric isolated)Data statisticsStorage of 20 recipes; each recipes shows total weight in up to 10 digits and total packages in up to 6 digitsW orking modeFunction descriptionPLC modeThree preset output (fast, middle and slo w , three speed feed); output signal a f ter weighing is completedSet over -tolerance judgment; control sever valve; support judgment for weighing hopper door ready, and control feedingApplied with PLC to achieve various weighing control processes, can also realize simple multi-speed packaging process independentlyBulk grain modeSupport discharging control, feeding control and the last package control during feedingCumulative weight control of discharging (the last two packages are automatically separated for adjustment)With upper hopper low and lower hopper high signal judgment (for feeding and loosing control separately)Have hopper modeStandard packaging function; bag clamping and bag loosing judgment; with bag ﬂapping and bag dropping functions; the number of ﬂapping and ﬂapping interval duration can be set Packaging function under ton bag function is availableNo hopper modeT are automatically a f ter bag clamping; can support the judgment of bag clamping in place Platform rising a f ter reaching the set weight; ﬂapping function for powderDual scale modeThe dual scale linkage control can be realized through the interlock of the discrete input and / output points of 2 instruments, achieving higher efﬁciency。

新世纪高等院校英语专业本科生系列教材(修订版)：综合教程3-课后答案(新)(全)

Unit 1• 1. I planned to be observant and silent so that nobody would notice that I was a freshman.• 2. For three days, I ate a mixture of junk food by myself.I got the food from a machine placed outside my dorm asif to meet my needs.• 3. It did n’t matter whether you were widely liked or not;you did not have to follow other people so as to be accepted by everybody else.• 1. I had just the feeling of a newcomer to college without the strength only an experienced student might possess. • 2. My apparent confidence• 3. Some food to appease my hunger• 4. Going with the tide of the majority was no longer crucial to your success in college• 5. Foolish and glaring mistakes•II.Distress; clutched; pose; sneaked; preoccupation;shackles; curse; deliberation•III.Assure; discretion; relaxation; humiliate; strategy;embarrassment; maneuverable; maturity•IV.Lived up to; headed for; seek out; has broken out; grope for; trying …on; go out to; tipped off•V.1.vague/indistinct; 2.carefully/meticulously;3.self-restraint/self-control;4.clever/intelligent/sensible;5.manner/behaviour;6.excited/agitated;7.sneak;8.mature/sophisticated •VI.Became popular; respect; keep up; lead to; understand;found;use; startI.Rewrite the following...●1.My decision to resign was wise.●2. Their readiness to accept the peace agreement reallysurprised the diplomatic world.●3. My determination to pass the test helped me.●4. Her failure to get into college disappointed herparents.●5. My willingness to cooperate was appreciated.●6. His refusal to help surprised me.●7.The proposal that we should import more equipment is tobe discussed at the meeting.●8. Who can have told you that puzzles me.●III DBCC; ABDB;●IV. 1. I spent the afternoon seeking out each of myclassrooms so that I could make a perfectly timed entrance before each lecture.●2. He wore glassed and a false beard so that nobody wouldrecognize him.●3. The stranger spoke very slowly so that I couldunderstand what he said.●4. She locked the door so that she would n’t be disturbed.●5. John whispere d so that others could n’t hear him.●6. Please arrive early so that we can start the meetingon time.●7. John has bought a bicycle so that he may save money onbus travel.●8. The lecturer showed some slides so that he mightillustrated his point.●V.1-5 although/though; yet; however/though;however/nevertheless/though; 5.although/though;still/nevertheless; 6. despite/in spite of; 7.although/though; 8. however; 9. however; 10 despite/in spite of;●1. It distressed me a great deal to hear the news that hehad suffered repeated failures.●2. He assumed an air of cheerfulness, even though he lostfavor with his boss.●3. Gulliver met with extraordinary adventures and saw astrange assortment of people.●4. He will be furious with you if you repeat the samemistake.●5. We were all greatly drawn by his frank views, humorouswords and genial manner.●6. After the thunderous applause die down, the Nobel Prizewinner began his speech.●7. He is gifted with a sort of insight and foresight, sohe rarely runs with the crowed.●8. I feel realities are after all very harsh, so one canhardly live up entirely to his ideals.●III.我上大学的头几天颇为难忘。

Game Theory 2

GAME THEORYThomas S.Ferguson Part II.Two-Person Zero-Sum Games1.The Strategic Form of a Game.1.1Strategic Form.1.2Example:Odd or Even.1.3Pure Strategies and Mixed Strategies.1.4The Minimax Theorem.1.5Exercises.2.Matrix Games.Domination.2.1Saddle Points.2.2Solution of All2by2Matrix Games.2.3Removing Dominated Strategies.2.4Solving2×n and m×2Games.2.5Latin Square Games.2.6Exercises.3.The Principle of Indiﬀerence.3.1The Equilibrium Theorem.3.2Nonsingular Game Matrices.3.3Diagonal Games.3.4Triangular Games.3.5Symmetric Games.3.6Invariance.3.7Exercises.4.Solving Finite Games.4.1Best Responses.4.2Upper and Lower Values of a Game.4.3Invariance Under Change of Location and Scale.4.4Reduction to a Linear Programming Problem.4.5Description of the Pivot Method for Solving Games.4.6A Numerical Example.4.7Exercises.5.The Extensive Form of a Game.5.1The Game Tree.5.2Basic Endgame in Poker.5.3The Kuhn Tree.5.4The Representation of a Strategic Form Game in Extensive Form.5.5Reduction of a Game in Extensive Form to Strategic Form.5.6Example.5.7Games of Perfect Information.5.8Behavioral Strategies.5.9Exercises.6.Recursive and Stochastic Games.6.1Matrix Games with Games as Components.6.2Multistage Games.6.3Recursive Games. -Optimal Strategies.6.4Stochastic Movement Among Games.6.5Stochastic Games.6.6Approximating the Solution.6.7Exercises.7.Continuous Poker Models.7.1La Relance.7.2The von Neumann Model.7.3Other Models.7.4Exercises.References.Part II.Two-Person Zero-Sum Games1.The Strategic Form of a Game.The individual most closely associated with the creation of the theory of games is John von Neumann,one of the greatest mathematicians of this century.Although others preceded him in formulating a theory of games-notably´Emile Borel-it was von Neumann who published in1928the paper that laid the foundation for the theory of two-person zero-sum games.Von Neumann’s work culminated in a fundamental book on game theory written in collaboration with Oskar Morgenstern entitled Theory of Games and Economic Behavior,1944.Other more current books on the theory of games may be found in the text book,Game Theory by Guillermo Owen,2nd edition,Academic Press,1982,and the expository book,Game Theory and Strategy by Philip D.Straﬃn,published by the Mathematical Association of America,1993.The theory of von Neumann and Morgenstern is most complete for the class of games called two-person zero-sum games,i.e.games with only two players in which one player wins what the other player loses.In Part II,we restrict attention to such games.We will refer to the players as Player I and Player II.1.1Strategic Form.The simplest mathematical description of a game is the strate-gic form,mentioned in the introduction.For a two-person zero-sum game,the payoﬀfunction of Player II is the negative of the payoﬀof Player I,so we may restrict attention to the single payoﬀfunction of Player I,which we call here L.Deﬁnition1.The strategic form,or normal form,of a two-person zero-sum game is given by a triplet(X,Y,A),where(1)X is a nonempty set,the set of strategies of Player I(2)Y is a nonempty set,the set of strategies of Player II(3)A is a real-valued function deﬁned on X×Y.(Thus,A(x,y)is a real number for every x∈X and every y∈Y.)The interpretation is as follows.Simultaneously,Player I chooses x∈X and Player II chooses y∈Y,each unaware of the choice of the other.Then their choices are made known and I wins the amount A(x,y)from II.Depending on the monetary unit involved, A(x,y)will be cents,dollars,pesos,beads,etc.If A is negative,I pays the absolute value of this amount to II.Thus,A(x,y)represents the winnings of I and the losses of II.This is a very simple deﬁnition of a game;yet it is broad enough to encompass the ﬁnite combinatorial games and games such as tic-tac-toe and chess.This is done by being suﬃciently broadminded about the deﬁnition of a strategy.A strategy for a game of chess,for example,is a complete description of how to play the game,of what move to make in every possible situation that could occur.It is rather time-consuming to write down even one strategy,good or bad,for the game of chess.However,several diﬀerent programs for instructing a machine to play chess well have been written.Each program constitutes one strategy.The program Deep Blue,that beat then world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a match in1997,represents one strategy.The set of all such strategies for Player I is denoted by X.Naturally,in the game of chess it is physically impossible to describe all possible strategies since there are too many;in fact,there are more strategies than there are atoms in the known universe.On the other hand,the number of games of tic-tac-toe is rather small,so that it is possible to study all strategies andﬁnd an optimal strategy for each ter,when we study the extensive form of a game,we will see that many other types of games may be modeled and described in strategic form.To illustrate the notions involved in games,let us consider the simplest non-trivial case when both X and Y consist of two elements.As an example,take the game called Odd-or-Even.1.2Example:Odd or Even.Players I and II simultaneously call out one of the numbers one or two.Player I’s name is Odd;he wins if the sum of the numbers if odd. Player II’s name is Even;she wins if the sum of the numbers is even.The amount paid to the winner by the loser is always the sum of the numbers in dollars.To put this game in strategic form we must specify X,Y and A.Here we may choose X={1,2},Y={1,2}, and A as given in the following table.II(even)yI(odd)x12 1−2+3 2+3−4A(x,y)=I’s winnings=II’s losses.It turns out that one of the players has a distinct advantage in this game.Can you tell which one it is?Let us analyze this game from Player I’s point of view.Suppose he calls‘one’3/5ths of the time and‘two’2/5ths of the time at random.In this case,1.If II calls‘one’,I loses2dollars3/5ths of the time and wins3dollars2/5ths of the time;on the average,he wins−2(3/5)+3(2/5)=0(he breaks even in the long run).2.If II call‘two’,I wins3dollars3/5ths of the time and loses4dollars2/5ths of the time; on the average he wins3(3/5)−4(2/5)=1/5.That is,if I mixes his choices in the given way,the game is even every time II calls ‘one’,but I wins20/c on the average every time II calls‘two’.By employing this simple strategy,I is assured of at least breaking even on the average no matter what II does.Can Player Iﬁx it so that he wins a positive amount no matter what II calls?Let p denote the proportion of times that Player I calls‘one’.Let us try to choose p so that Player I wins the same amount on the average whether II calls‘one’or‘two’.Then since I’s average winnings when II calls‘one’is−2p+3(1−p),and his average winnings when II calls‘two’is3p−4(1−p)Player I should choose p so that−2p+3(1−p)=3p−4(1−p)3−5p=7p−412p=7p=7/12.Hence,I should call‘one’with probability7/12,and‘two’with probability5/12.On theaverage,I wins−2(7/12)+3(5/12)=1/12,or813cents every time he plays the game,nomatter what II does.Such a strategy that produces the same average winnings no matter what the opponent does is called an equalizing strategy.Therefore,the game is clearly in I’s favor.Can he do better than813cents per gameon the average?The answer is:Not if II plays properly.In fact,II could use the same procedure:call‘one’with probability7/12call‘two’with probability5/12.If I calls‘one’,II’s average loss is−2(7/12)+3(5/12)=1/12.If I calls‘two’,II’s average loss is3(7/12)−4(5/12)=1/12.Hence,I has a procedure that guarantees him at least1/12on the average,and II has a procedure that keeps her average loss to at most1/12.1/12is called the value of the game,and the procedure each uses to insure this return is called an optimal strategy or a minimax strategy.If instead of playing the game,the players agree to call in an arbitrator to settle thisconﬂict,it seems reasonable that the arbitrator should require II to pay813cents to I.ForI could argue that he should receive at least813cents since his optimal strategy guaranteeshim that much on the average no matter what II does.On the other hand II could arguethat he should not have to pay more than813cents since she has a strategy that keeps heraverage loss to at most that amount no matter what I does.1.3Pure Strategies and Mixed Strategies.It is useful to make a distinction between a pure strategy and a mixed strategy.We refer to elements of X or Y as pure strategies.The more complex entity that chooses among the pure strategies at random in various proportions is called a mixed strategy.Thus,I’s optimal strategy in the game of Odd-or-Even is a mixed strategy;it mixes the pure strategies one and two with probabilities 7/12and5/12respectively.Of course every pure strategy,x∈X,can be considered as the mixed strategy that chooses the pure strategy x with probability1.In our analysis,we made a rather subtle assumption.We assumed that when a player uses a mixed strategy,he is only interested in his average return.He does not care about hismaximum possible winnings or losses—only the average.This is actually a rather drastic assumption.We are evidently assuming that a player is indiﬀerent between receiving5 million dollars outright,and receiving10million dollars with probability1/2and nothing with probability1/2.I think nearly everyone would prefer the$5,000,000outright.This is because the utility of having10megabucks is not twice the utility of having5megabucks.The main justiﬁcation for this assumption comes from utility theory and is treated in Appendix1.The basic premise of utility theory is that one should evaluate a payoﬀby its utility to the player rather than on its numerical monetary value.Generally a player’s utility of money will not be linear in the amount.The main theorem of utility theory states that under certain reasonable assumptions,a player’s preferences among outcomes are consistent with the existence of a utility function and the player judges an outcome only on the basis of the average utility of the outcome.However,utilizing utility theory to justify the above assumption raises a new diﬃculty. Namely,the two players may have diﬀerent utility functions.The same outcome may be perceived in quite diﬀerent ways.This means that the game is no longer zero-sum.We need an assumption that says the utility functions of two players are the same(up to change of location and scale).This is a rather strong assumption,but for moderate to small monetary amounts,we believe it is a reasonable one.A mixed strategy may be implemented with the aid of a suitable outside random mechanism,such as tossing a coin,rolling dice,drawing a number out of a hat and so on.The seconds indicator of a watch provides a simple personal method of randomization provided it is not used too frequently.For example,Player I of Odd-or-Even wants an outside random event with probability7/12to implement his optimal strategy.Since 7/12=35/60,he could take a quick glance at his watch;if the seconds indicator showed a number between0and35,he would call‘one’,while if it were between35and60,he would call‘two’.1.4The Minimax Theorem.A two-person zero-sum game(X,Y,A)is said to be aﬁnite game if both strategy sets X and Y areﬁnite sets.The fundamental theorem of game theory due to von Neumann states that the situation encountered in the game of Odd-or-Even holds for allﬁnite two-person zero-sum games.Speciﬁcally,The Minimax Theorem.For everyﬁnite two-person zero-sum game,(1)there is a number V,called the value of the game,(2)there is a mixed strategy for Player I such that I’s average gain is at least V no matter what II does,and(3)there is a mixed strategy for Player II such that II’s average loss is at most V no matter what I does.This is one form of the minimax theorem to be stated more precisely and discussed in greater depth later.If V is zero we say the game is fair.If V is positive,we say the game favors Player I,while if V is negative,we say the game favors Player II.1.5Exercises.1.Consider the game of Odd-or-Even with the sole change that the loser pays the winner the product,rather than the sum,of the numbers chosen(who wins still depends on the sum).Find the table for the payoﬀfunction A,and analyze the game toﬁnd the value and optimal strategies of the players.Is the game fair?2.Player I holds a black Ace and a red8.Player II holds a red2and a black7.The players simultaneously choose a card to play.If the chosen cards are of the same color, Player I wins.Player II wins if the cards are of diﬀerent colors.The amount won is a number of dollars equal to the number on the winner’s card(Ace counts as1.)Set up the payoﬀfunction,ﬁnd the value of the game and the optimal mixed strategies of the players.3.Sherlock Holmes boards the train from London to Dover in an eﬀort to reach the continent and so escape from Professor Moriarty.Moriarty can take an express train and catch Holmes at Dover.However,there is an intermediate station at Canterbury at which Holmes may detrain to avoid such a disaster.But of course,Moriarty is aware of this too and may himself stop instead at Canterbury.Von Neumann and Morgenstern(loc.cit.) estimate the value to Moriarty of these four possibilities to be given in the following matrix (in some unspeciﬁed units).HolmesMoriartyCanterbury Dover Canterbury100−50 Dover0100What are the optimal strategies for Holmes and Moriarty,and what is the value?(His-torically,as related by Dr.Watson in“The Final Problem”in Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Memoires of Sherlock Holmes,Holmes detrained at Canterbury and Moriarty went on to Dover.)4.The entertaining book The Compleat Strategyst by John Williams contains many simple examples and informative discussion of strategic form games.Here is one of his problems.“I know a good game,”says Alex.“We pointﬁngers at each other;either oneﬁnger or twoﬁngers.If we match with oneﬁnger,you buy me one Daiquiri,If we match with twoﬁngers,you buy me two Daiquiris.If we don’t match I letyou oﬀwith a payment of a dime.It’ll help pass the time.”Olaf appears quite unmoved.“That sounds like a very dull game—at least in its early stages.”His eyes glaze on the ceiling for a moment and his lipsﬂutterbrieﬂy;he returns to the conversation with:“Now if you’d care to pay me42cents before each game,as a partial compensation for all those55-cent drinks I’llhave to buy you,then I’d be happy to pass the time with you.Olaf could see that the game was inherently unfair to him so he insisted on a side payment as compensation.Does this side payment make the game fair?What are the optimal strategies and the value of the game?2.Matrix Games —DominationA ﬁnite two-person zero-sum game in strategic form,(X,Y,A ),is sometimes called a matrix game because the payoﬀfunction A can be represented by a matrix.If X ={x 1,...,x m }and Y ={y 1,...,y n },then by the game matrix or payoﬀmatrix we mean the matrix A =⎛⎝a 11···a 1n ......a m 1···a mn⎞⎠where a ij =A (x i ,y j ),In this form,Player I chooses a row,Player II chooses a column,and II pays I the entry in the chosen row and column.Note that the entries of the matrix are the winnings of the row chooser and losses of the column chooser.A mixed strategy for Player I may be represented by an m -tuple,p =(p 1,p 2,...,p m )of probabilities that add to 1.If I uses the mixed strategy p =(p 1,p 2,...,p m )and II chooses column j ,then the (average)payoﬀto I is m i =1p i a ij .Similarly,a mixed strategy for Player II is an n -tuple q =(q 1,q 2,...,q n ).If II uses q and I uses row i the payoﬀto I is n j =1a ij q j .More generally,if I uses the mixed strategy p and II uses the mixed strategy q ,the (average)payoﬀto I is p T Aq = m i =1 n j =1p i a ij q j .Note that the pure strategy for Player I of choosing row i may be represented as the mixed strategy e i ,the unit vector with a 1in the i th position and 0’s elsewhere.Similarly,the pure strategy for II of choosing the j th column may be represented by e j .In the following,we shall be attempting to ‘solve’games.This means ﬁnding the value,and at least one optimal strategy for each player.Occasionally,we shall be interested in ﬁnding all optimal strategies for a player.2.1Saddle points.Occasionally it is easy to solve the game.If some entry a ij of the matrix A has the property that(1)a ij is the minimum of the i th row,and(2)a ij is the maximum of the j th column,then we say a ij is a saddle point.If a ij is a saddle point,then Player I can then win at least a ij by choosing row i ,and Player II can keep her loss to at most a ij by choosing column j .Hence a ij is the value of the game.Example 1.A =⎛⎝41−3325016⎞⎠The central entry,2,is a saddle point,since it is a minimum of its row and maximum of its column.Thus it is optimal for I to choose the second row,and for II to choose the second column.The value of the game is 2,and (0,1,0)is an optimal mixed strategy for both players.For large m ×n matrices it is tedious to check each entry of the matrix to see if it has the saddle point property.It is easier to compute the minimum of each row and the maximum of each column to see if there is a match.Here is an example of the method.row min A =⎛⎜⎝3210012010213122⎞⎟⎠0001col max 3222row min B =⎛⎜⎝3110012010213122⎞⎟⎠0001col max 3122In matrix A ,no row minimum is equal to any column maximum,so there is no saddle point.However,if the 2in position a 12were changed to a 1,then we have matrix B .Here,the minimum of the fourth row is equal to the maximum of the second column;so b 42is a saddle point.2.2Solution of All 2by 2Matrix Games.Consider the general 2×2game matrix A = a b d c.To solve this game (i.e.to ﬁnd the value and at least one optimal strategy for each player)we proceed as follows.1.Test for a saddle point.2.If there is no saddle point,solve by ﬁnding equalizing strategies.We now prove the method of ﬁnding equalizing strategies of Section 1.2works when-ever there is no saddle point by deriving the value and the optimal strategies.Assume there is no saddle point.If a ≥b ,then b <c ,as otherwise b is a saddle point.Since b <c ,we must have c >d ,as otherwise c is a saddle point.Continuing thus,we see that d <a and a >b .In other words,if a ≥b ,then a >b <c >d <a .By symmetry,if a ≤b ,then a <b >c <d >a .This shows thatIf there is no saddle point,then either a >b ,b <c ,c >d and d <a ,or a <b ,b >c ,c <d and d >a .In equations (1),(2)and (3)below,we develop formulas for the optimal strategies and value of the general 2×2game.If I chooses the ﬁrst row with probability p (es the mixed strategy (p,1−p )),we equate his average return when II uses columns 1and 2.ap +d (1−p )=bp +c (1−p ).Solving for p ,we ﬁndp =c −d (a −b )+(c −d ).(1)Since there is no saddle point,(a−b)and(c−d)are either both positive or both negative; hence,0<p<1.Player I’s average return using this strategy isv=ap+d(1−p)=ac−bda−b+c−d.If II chooses theﬁrst column with probability q(es the strategy(q,1−q)),we equate his average losses when I uses rows1and2.aq+b(1−q)=dq+c(1−q)Hence,q=c−ba−b+c−d.(2)Again,since there is no saddle point,0<q<1.Player II’s average loss using this strategyisaq+b(1−q)=ac−bda−b+c−d=v,(3)the same value achievable by I.This shows that the game has a value,and that the players have optimal strategies.(something the minimax theorem says holds for allﬁnite games). Example2.A=−233−4p=−4−3−2−3−4−3=7/12q=samev=8−9−2−3−4−3=1/12Example3.A=0−1012p=2−10+10+2−1=1/11q=2+100+10+2−1=12/11.But q must be between zero and one.What happened?The trouble is we“forgot to test this matrix for a saddle point,so of course it has one”.(J.D.Williams The Compleat Strategyst Revised Edition,1966,McGraw-Hill,page56.)The lower left corner is a saddle point.So p=0and q=1are optimal strategies,and the value is v=1.2.3Removing Dominated Strategies.Sometimes,large matrix games may be reduced in size(hopefully to the2×2case)by deleting rows and columns that are obviously bad for the player who uses them.Deﬁnition.We say the i th row of a matrix A=(a ij)dominates the k th row if a ij≥a kj for all j.We say the i th row of A strictly dominates the k th row if a ij>a kj for all j.Similarly,the j th column of A dominates(strictly dominates)the k th column if a ij≤a ik(resp.a ij<a ik)for all i.Anything Player I can achieve using a dominated row can be achieved at least as well using the row that dominates it.Hence dominated rows may be deleted from the matrix.A similar argument shows that dominated columns may be removed.To be more precise,removal of a dominated row or column does not change the value of a game .However,there may exist an optimal strategy that uses a dominated row or column (see Exercise 9).If so,removal of that row or column will also remove the use of that optimal strategy (although there will still be at least one optimal strategy left).However,in the case of removal of a strictly dominated row or column,the set of optimal strategies does not change.We may iterate this procedure and successively remove several rows and columns.As an example,consider the matrix,A .The last column is dominated by the middle column.Deleting the last column we obtain:A =⎛⎝204123412⎞⎠Now the top row is dominated by the bottomrow.(Note this is not the case in the original matrix).Deleting the top row we obtain:⎛⎝201241⎞⎠This 2×2matrix does not have a saddle point,so p =3/4,q =1/4and v =7/4.I’s optimal strategy in the original game is(0,3/4,1/4);II’s is (1/4,3/4,0).1241 A row (column)may also be removed if it is dominated by a probability combination of other rows (columns).If for some 0<p <1,pa i 1j +(1−p )a i 2j ≥a kj for all j ,then the k th row is dominated by the mixed strategy that chooses row i 1with probability p and row i 2with probability 1−p .Player I can do at least as well using this mixed strategy instead of choosing row k .(In addition,any mixed strategy choosing row k with probability p k may be replaced by the one in which k ’s probability is split between i 1and i 2.That is,i 1’s probability is increased by pp k and i 2’s probability is increased by (1−p )p k .)A similar argument may be used for columns.Consider the matrix A =⎛⎝046574963⎞⎠.The middle column is dominated by the outside columns taken with probability 1/2each.With the central column deleted,the middle row is dominated by the combination of the top row with probability 1/3and the bottom row with probability 2/3.The reducedmatrix, 0693,is easily solved.The value is V =54/12=9/2.Of course,mixtures of more than two rows (columns)may be used to dominate and remove other rows (columns).For example,the mixture of columns one two and threewith probabilities 1/3each in matrix B =⎛⎝135340223735⎞⎠dominates the last column,and so the last column may be removed.Not all games may be reduced by dominance.In fact,even if the matrix has a saddle point,there may not be any dominated rows or columns.The 3×3game with a saddle point found in Example 1demonstrates this.2.4Solving 2×n and m ×2games.Games with matrices of size 2×n or m ×2may be solved with the aid of a graphical interpretation.Take the following example.p 1−p 23154160Suppose Player I chooses the ﬁrst row with probability p and the second row with proba-bility 1−p .If II chooses Column 1,I’s average payoﬀis 2p +4(1−p ).Similarly,choices of Columns 2,3and 4result in average payoﬀs of 3p +(1−p ),p +6(1−p ),and 5p respectively.We graph these four linear functions of p for 0≤p ≤1.For a ﬁxed value of p ,Player I can be sure that his average winnings is at least the minimum of these four functions evaluated at p .This is known as the lower envelope of these functions.Since I wants to maximize his guaranteed average winnings,he wants to ﬁnd p that achieves the maximum of this lower envelope.According to the drawing,this should occur at the intersection of the lines for Columns 2and 3.This essentially,involves solving the game in which II is restrictedto Columns 2and 3.The value of the game 3116is v =17/7,I’s optimal strategy is (5/7,2/7),and II’s optimal strategy is (5/7,2/7).Subject to the accuracy of the drawing,we conclude therefore that in the original game I’s optimal strategy is (5/7,2/7),II’s is (0,5/7,2/7,0)and the value is 17/7.Fig 2.10123456col.3col.1col.2col.4015/7pThe accuracy of the drawing may be checked:Given any guess at a solution to a game,there is a sure-ﬁre test to see if the guess is correct ,as follows.If I uses the strategy (5/7,2/7),his average payoﬀif II uses Columns 1,2,3and 4,is 18/7,17/7,17/7,and 25/7respectively.Thus his average payoﬀis at least17/7no matter what II does.Similarly, if II uses(0,5/7,2/7,0),her average loss is(at most)17/7.Thus,17/7is the value,and these strategies are optimal.We note that the line for Column1plays no role in the lower envelope(that is,the lower envelope would be unchanged if the line for Column1were removed from the graph). This is a test for domination.Column1is,in fact,dominated by Columns2and3taken with probability1/2each.The line for Column4does appear in the lower envelope,and hence Column4cannot be dominated.As an example of a m×2game,consider the matrix associated with Figure2.2.If q is the probability that II chooses Column1,then II’s average loss for I’s three possible choices of rows is given in the accompanying graph.Here,Player II looks at the largest of her average losses for a given q.This is the upper envelope of the function.II wants toﬁnd q that minimizes this upper envelope.From the graph,we see that any value of q between1/4and1/3inclusive achieves this minimum.The value of the game is4,and I has an optimal pure strategy:row2.Fig2.2⎛⎝q1−q154462⎞⎠123456row1row2row3011/41/2qThese techniques work just as well for2×∞and∞×2games.2.5Latin Square Games.A Latin square is an n×n array of n diﬀerent letters such that each letter occurs once and only once in each row and each column.The5×5 array at the right is an example.If in a Latin square each letter is assigned a numerical value,the resulting matrix is the matrix of a Latin square game.Such games have simple solutions.The value is the average of the numbers in a row,and the strategy that chooses each pure strategy with equal probability1/n is optimal for both players.The reason is not very deep.The conditions for optimality are satisﬁed.⎛⎜⎜⎜⎝a b c d eb e acd c a de b d c e b ae d b a c ⎞⎟⎟⎟⎠a =1,b =2,c =d =3,e =6⎛⎜⎜⎜⎝1233626133313623362163213⎞⎟⎟⎟⎠In the example above,the value is V =(1+2+3+3+6)/5=3,and the mixed strategy p =q =(1/5,1/5,1/5,1/5,1/5)is optimal for both players.The game of matching pennies is a Latin square game.Its value is zero and (1/2,1/2)is optimal for both players.2.6Exercises.1.Solve the game with matrix−1−3−22 ,that is ﬁnd the value and an optimal (mixed)strategy for both players.2.Solve the game with matrix 02t 1for an arbitrary real number t .(Don’t forget to check for a saddle point!)Draw the graph of v (t ),the value of the game,as a function of t ,for −∞<t <∞.3.Show that if a game with m ×n matrix has two saddle points,then they have equal values.4.Reduce by dominance to 2×2games and solve.(a)⎛⎜⎝5410432−10−1431−212⎞⎟⎠(b)⎛⎝1007126476335⎞⎠.5.(a)Solve the game with matrix 3240−21−45 .(b)Reduce by dominance to a 3×2matrix game and solve:⎛⎝08584612−43⎞⎠.6.Players I and II choose integers i and j respectively from the set {1,2,...,n }for some n ≥2.Player I wins 1if |i −j |=1.Otherwise there is no payoﬀ.If n =7,for example,the game matrix is⎛⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝0100000101000001010000010100000101000001010000010⎞⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠。

分子生物学-特纳第二版课后练习题

Section C - properties of nucleic acids1．The sequence 5'-AGTCTGACT-3' in DNA is equivalent to which sequence in RNA?A 5'-AGUCUGUGACU -3'B 5' -UGTCTGUTC -3'C 5' -UCAGUCUGA-3'D 5'- AGUCAGACU-3'2. Which of the following correctly describes A-DNA?A a right-handed antiparallel double helix with 10 bp/turn and bases lying perpendicular tothe helix axis.B a left-handed antiparallel double-helix with 12 bp/turn formed from alternating pyrimidine-purine sequences.C a right-handed antiparallel double helix with 11 bp/turn and bases tilted with respect to thehelix axis.D a globular structure formed by short intramolecular helices formed in a single-strandnucleic acid.3. Denaturation of double stranded DNA involves.A breakage into short double-stranded fragments.B separation into single strands.C hydrolysis of the DNA backbone.D cleavage of the bases from the sugar-phosphate backbone.4. Which has the highest absorption per unit mass at a wavelength of 260 nm?A double-stranded DNA.B mononucleotides.C RNA.D protein.5. Type I DNA topoisomeraes ...A change linking number by 士2B require ATP.C break one strand of a DNA double helix.D are the target of antibacterial drugs.Section D - Prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromatin structure 1．Which of the following is common to both E. coli and eukaryotic chromosomes? A the DNA is circular.B the DNA is packaged into nucleosomes.C the DNA is contained in the nucleus.D the DNA is negatively supercoiled.2．A complex of 166 bp of DNA with the histone octamer plus histone HI is known as a . . .A nucleosome core.B solenoid.C 30 nm fiber.D chromatosome.3．In what region of the interphase chromosome does transcription take place? A the telomere.B the centromere.C euchromatin.D heterochromatin.4．Which statement about CpG islands and methylation is not true?A CpG islands are particularly resistant to DNase I.B CpG methylation is responsible for the mutation of CpG to TpG in eukaryotes.C CpG islands occur around the promoters of active genes.D CpG methylation is associated with inactive chromatin.5．Which of the following is an example of highly-repetitive DNA?A Alu element.B histone gene cluster.C DNA minisatellites.D dispersed repetitive DNA.Section E - DNA replication 1．The number of replicons in a typical mammalian cell is . . .A 40-200.B 400.C 1000-2000.D 50000-100000.2. In prokaryotes,the lagging strand primers are removed by . . .A 3' to 5' exonuclease.B DNA ligase.C DNA polymerase I.D DNA polymerase III.3. The essential initiator protein at the E. coli origin of replication is . . . A DnaA.B DnaB.C DnaC.D DnaE.4. Prokaryotic plasmids can replicate in yeast cells if they contain a cloned yeast. . . A ORC.B CDK.C ARS.D RNA.Section F - DNA damage, repair and recombination（此章不考）1. Per nucleotide incorporated, the spontaneous mutation frequency in E. coli is . . .A 1 in 106.B 1 in 108.C 1 in 109.D 1 in 1010.2. The action of hydroxyl radicals on DNA generates a significant amount of . . . A pyrimidine dimmers.B 8-oxoguanine.C O6- methylguanine.D 7-hydroxymethylguanine.3. In methyl-directed mismatch repair in E. coli, the daughter strand containing themismatched base is nicked by . . .A MutH endonuclease.B UvrABC endonuclease.C AP endonuclease.D 3' to 5' exonuclease.4. The excision repair of UV-induced DNA damage is defective in individuals sufferingfrom ...A hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer.B Crohn's disease.C classical xeroderma pigmentosum.D xeroderma pigmentosum variant.Section K - Transcription in prokaryotes1. Which two of the following statements about transcription are correct?A RNA synthesis occurs in the 3' to 5' direction.B the RNA polymerase enzyme moves along the sense strand of the DNA in a 5' to 3' direction.C the RNA polymerase enzyme moves along the template strand of the DNA in a 5' to 3'direction.D the transcribed RNA is complementary to the template strand.E the RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides to the 5' end of the growing RNA chain.F the RNA polymerase adds deoxyribonucleotides to the 3' end of the growing RNA chain.2. Which one of the following statements about E. coli RNA polymerase is false?A the holoenzyme includes the sigma factor.B the core enzyme includes the sigma factor.2+C it requires Mg for its activity.D it requires Zn2+ for its activity.3. Which one of the following statements is incorrect?A there are two sub a nits in the E. coli RNA polymerase.B there is one B subunit in the E. coli RNA polymerase.C E. coli has one sigma factor.D the B sub unit of E. coli RNA polymerase is in hibited by rifampici n.E the streptolydigins inhibit transcription elongation.F heparin is a polyanion, which binds to the B subunit.4. Which one of the following statements about transcription in E. coli is true?A the -10 sequence is always exactly 10 bp upstream from the transcription start site.B the initiating nucleotide is always a G.C the intervening sequence between the -35 and -10 sequences is conserved.D the sequence of the DNA after the site of transcription initiation is not important fortranscription efficiency.E the distance between the -35 and -10 sequences is critical for transcription efficiency.5. Which one of the following statements about transcription in E. coli is true?A loose binding of the RNA polymerase core enzyme to DNA is non-specific and unstable.B sigma factor dramatically increases the relative affinity of the enzyme for correct promotersites.C almost all RNA start sites consist of a purine residue, with A being more common than G.D all promoters are inhibited by negative supercoiling.E terminators are often A-U hairpin structures.Section L - Regulation of transcription in prokaryotes1. Which two of the following statements are correct?A the double stranded DNA sequence that has the upper strand sequence5'-GGATCGATCC-3' is a palindrome.B the double stranded DNA sequence that has the upper strand sequence 5'-GGATCCTAGG-3' is apalindrome.C the Lac repressor inhibits binding of the polymerase to the lac promoter.D the lac operon is directly induced by lactose.E binding of Lac repressor to allolactose reduces its affinity for the lac operator.F IPTG is a natural inducer of the lac promoter.2. Which one of the following statements about catabolite-regulated operons is false?A cAMP receptor protein (CRP) and catabolite activator protein (CAP) are different names forthe same protein.B when glucose is present in the cell cAMP levels fall.C CRP binds to cAMP and as a result activates transcription.D CRP binds to DNA in the absence of cAMP.E CRP can bend DNA, resulting in activation of transcription.3. Which one of the following statements about the trp operon is true?A the RNA product of the trp operon is very stable.B the Trp repressor is a product of the trp operon.C the Trp represso，r like the Lac repressor, is a tetramer of identical subunits.D the Trp repressor binds to tryptophan.E tryptophan activates expression from the trp operon.F the trp operon is only regulated by the Trp represso4. Which two of the following statements about attenuation at the trp operon are true?A attenuation is rho-dependent.B deletion of the attenuator sequence results in an increase in both basal and activatedlevels of tran- scription from th~ trp promoter.C the attenuator lies upstream of the trp operator sequence.D attenuation does not require tight coupling between transcription and translation.E pausing of a ribosome at two tryptophan codons in the leader peptide when tryptophan isin short supply causes attenuation.F a hairpin structure called the pnti-terminator stops formation of the terminator hairpin,resulting in transcriptional read-through into the trpE gene, when tryptophan is scarce. Section M - Transcription in eukaryotes1. Which one of the following statements about eukaryotic RNA polymerases I, II and III isfalse?A RNA Pol II is very sen sitive to a ama nit in.B RNA Pol II is located in th~ nucleoplasm.C RNA Pol III transcribes th~ genes for tRNA.D eukaryotic cells contain other RNA polymerases in addition to RNA Pol I, RNA Pol II andRNA Pol III.E each RNA polymerase contains subunits with homology to subunits of the E. coli RNApolymerase as well as additional subunits，which are unique to each polymerase.F the carboxyl end of RNA Pol II contains a short sequence of only seven amino acids whichis called the carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD) and which may be phosphorylated.2. Which two of the following statements about RNA Pol I genes are true?A RNA Pol I transcribes the genes for ribosomal RNAs.B human cells contain 40 clusters of five copies of the rRNA gene.C the 185, 5.85 and 285 rRNAs are synthesized as separate transcripts.D RNA Pol I transcription occurs in the nucleoplasm.E RNA Pol I transcription occurs in the cytoplasm.F rRNA gene clusters are known as nucleolar organizer regions.3. Which one of the following statements about RNA Pol I transcription is false?A in RNA Pol I promoters the core element is 1000 bases downstream from the upstreamcontrol element (UCE).B upstream binding factor (UBF) binds to both the UCE and the upstream part of the coreelement of the RNA Pol I promoter.C selectivity factor SLl stabilizes the UBF-DNA complex.D SL1 contains several subunits including the TATA-binding protein TBP.E in Acanthamoebathere is a single control element in rRNA gene promoters.4. Which two of the following statements about RNA Pol III genes are true?A the transcriptional control regions of tRNA genes lie upstream of the start of transcription.B highly conserved sequences in tRNA gene coding regions are also promoter sequences.C TFIIIC contains TBP as one of its subunits.D TFIIIB is a sequence specific transcription factor on its own.E in humans 5S rRNA genes are arranged in a single cluster of 2000 copies.Section 0 - RNA processing and RNPs1. Which ribonucleases are involved in producing mature tRNA in E. coli?A RNases A, D, E and F.B RNases D, E, F and H.C RNases D, E, F and P.D RNases A, D, H and P.2. Most eukaryotic pre-mRNAs are matured by which of the following modifications to theirends?A capping at the 3'-end cleavage and polyadenylation at the 5'-end.B addition of a GMP to the 5'-end，cleavage and polyadenylation to create the 3'-end.C addition of a guanine residue to the 5'-end cleavage and polyadenylation to create the 3'-end.D addition of a GMP to the 5'-end，polyadenylation ，then cleavage to create the 3'-end.3. Which one of the following statements correctly describes the splicing processundergone by most eukaryotic pre-mRNAs?A in a two-step reaction, the spliceosome removes the exon as a lariat and joins the twointrons together.B splici ng requires con served seque nces which are the 5 , the 3'sspiCsBsSfte thebranch-point and the polypurine tract.C the U1 snRNP initially binds to the 5'-splice site，U2 to the branchpoint sequence andthen the tri-snRNP, U4, US and U6 can bind.D in the first step of splicing the G at the 3'-end of the intron is joined to the 2'-hydroxyl groupof the A residue of the branchpoint sequence to create a lariat.Section P - The genetic code and tRNA1. Which of the following list of features correctly apply to the genetic code?A triplet degenerate nearly universal, comma-less, nonoverlapping.B triplet universal, comma-less, degenerate, nonoverlapping.C overlapping, triplet, comma-less, degenerate nearly universal.D overlapping, comma-less nondegenerate nearly universal triplet.2. Which of the following statements about tRNAs is false?A most tRNAs are about 76 residues long and have CCA as residues 74, 75 and 76.B many tRNAs contain the modified nucleosides pseudouridine dihydrouridine ribothymidineand mosme.C tRNAs have a common L-shaped tertiary structure with three nucleotides at one end ableto base pair with an anticodon on a messenger RNA molecule.D tRNAs have a common cloverleaf secondary structure containing three single strandedloops called the D-, T- and anticodon loops.3．Which three statements are true? The aminoacyl tRNA synthetase reaction...A joins AMP to the 3'-end of the tRNA.B is a two step reaction.C joins any amino acid to the 2'- or 3' -hydroxyl of the ribose of residue A76.D is highly specific because the synthetasesuse identity elements in the tRNAs todistinguish between them.E joins AMP to the amino acid to produce an intermediate.F releases PPi in the second step.Section Q - Protein synthesis1. Which statement about the codon-anticodon interaction is false?A it is antiparallel and can include nonstandard base pairs.B inosine in the 5' -anticodon position can pair with A,C or U in the 3'-codon positionC inosine in the 3'-anticodon position can pair with A, C or U in the 5'-codon position.D A is never found in the 5'-anticodon position as it is modified by anticodon deaminase. 2．Which one of the following statements correctly describes initiation of protein synthesis in E. coli?A the initiator tRNA binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence.B three initiation factors are involved and IF2 binds to GTP.C the intermediate containing IF1, IF2, IF3, initiator tRNA and mRNA is called the 30Sinitiation complex.D binding of the 50S subunit releases IF1, IF2, GMP and PPi.E the initiation process is complete when the 70S initiation complex is formed which containsthe initiator tRNA in the A site of the ribosome and an empty P site.3．Which statement about elongation of protein synthesis in prokaryotes is false?A elongation can be divided into three steps: peptidyl-tRNA delivery peptide bond formationand translocation.B the peptidyl transferase center of the large ribosomal subunit is responsible for peptidebond formation.C in the EF-Tu-Ts exchange cycle EF-Tu-GTP is regenerated by EF-Ts displacing GDP.D EF-G is also known as translocase and uses GTP in its reaction.4．Which two of the following statements about initiation of eukaryotic protein synthesis are true?A eukaryotes use a mRNA scanning method to locate the correct start codon.B there are at least nine eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs).C eukaryotic initiation uses N-formylmethionine.D the 80S initiation complex completes the initiation process and contains the initiator tRNAbasepaired to the start codon in the A site.E ATP is hydrolysed to AMP and PPi during the scanning process.F the initiator tRNA binds after the mRNA has bound to the small subunit.。

On the usage and measurement of landscape connectivity

OIKOS 90:7–19.Copenhagen 2000Minireviews provides an opportunity to summarize existing knowledge of selected ecological areas,with special emphasis on current topics where rapid and signiﬁcant advances are occurring.Reviews should be concise and not too wide-ranging.All key references should be cited.A summary is required.MINI-REVIEWOn the usage and measurement of landscape connectivityLutz Tischendorf and Lenore FahrigTischendorf,L.and Fahrig,L.2000.On the usage and measurement of landscape connectivity.–Oikos 90:7–19.This paper examines the usage and measurement of ‘‘landscape connectivity’’in 33recent studies.Connectivity is deﬁned as the degree to which a landscape facilitates or impedes movement of organisms among resource patches.However,connectivity is actually used in a variety of ways in the literature.This has led to confusion and lack of clarity related to (1)function vs structure,(2)patch isolation vs landscape connectivity and,(3)corridors vs connectivity.We suggest the term connectivity should be reserved for its original purpose.We highlight nine studies;these include modeling studies that actually measured connectivity in accordance with the deﬁni-tion,and empirical studies that measured key components of connectivity.We found that measurements of connectivity provide results that can be interpreted as recom-mending habitat fragmentation to enhance landscape connectivity.We discuss rea-sons for this misleading conclusion,and suggest a new way of quantifying connectivity,which avoids this problem.We also recommend a method for reducing sampling intensity in landscape-scale empirical studies of connectivity.L .Tischendorf and L .Fahrig ,Ottawa -Carleton Inst .of Biology ,Carleton Uni 6.,Ottawa ,ON ,Canada K 1S 5B 6(present address of LT :Busestrasse 76,D -28213Bremen ,Germany [tischendorf@cla 6is -bremen .de ]).What is landscape connectivity?The effects of spatial structure (patchiness)on popu-lation dynamics were ﬁrst examined in patch-based population models beginning in the early 1970s (e.g.,Levins 1969,Reddingius and den Boer 1970,Levin 1974,1976,Roff 1974).Further modeling studies showed that assumptions about movement among habitat patches greatly inﬂuence the predictions of such models (e.g.,Lefkovitch and Fahrig 1985,Fahrig 1988,1990,Fahrig and Paloheimo 1988,Henein and Merriam 1990,Adler and Nuernberger 1994,Lindenmayer and Lacy 1995,Lindenmayer and Possingham 1996,Frank and Wissel 1998,Henein et al.1998).Movement among habitat patches is,how-ever,not simply a function of an organism itself,but also depends on the landscape through which it must move.To emphasize the interaction between species’attributes and landscape structure in determining movement of organisms among habitat patches,Mer-riam (1984)introduced the concept of ‘‘landscape connectivity’’.OIKOS 90:1(2000)7Accepted 31January 2000Copyright ©OIKOS 2000ISSN 0030-1299Printed in Ireland –all rights reservedTaylor et al.(1993)deﬁned landscape connectivity as ‘‘the degree to which the landscape facilitates or im-pedes movement among resource patches’’.Similarly, With et al.(1997)deﬁned landscape connectivity as ‘‘the functional relationship among habitat patches, owing to the spatial contagion of habitat and the movement responses of organisms to landscape struc-ture’’.These deﬁnitions accentuate the dependence of movement on landscape structure,which suggests that connectivity is species-and landscape-speciﬁc.One must therefore describe landscape structure from a species’point of view(Wiens and Milne1989).This starts with deﬁning the species’habitat.The next step is to determine the scale at which the species responds to landscape structure,through itsﬁne-scale(grain)and large-scale(extent)movement(Wiens1997).This deter-mines the scale of habitat pattern as perceived by the organism.Finally,one must determine how the species responds to the different elements of a landscape.This comprises the species movement pattern and mortality risk on landscape elements(patches)as well as reactions at boundaries.Note that all of these behavioral facets contribute toward facilitating or impeding movement among resource patches.In summary,landscape connectivity encapsulates the combined effects of(1)landscape structure and(2)the species’use,ability to move and risk of mortality in the various landscape elements,on the movement rate among habitat patches in the landscape. Objective and approachWe reviewed the literature covered by the Agriculture, Biology&Environmental Sciences Edition of the Cur-rent Contents database(CC1998),from May1993to November1998.We searched article titles and key words for the term connecti6ity in combination with landscape or patch or habitat.The search resulted in49 papers.However,17of these papers did not use con-nectivity at all.We omitted these from the review,and included one other paper(Doak et al.1992)leaving33 papers,which are assembled in descending chronologi-cal and alphabetical order in Table1,and classiﬁed in Fig.1.Our objective was to examine the current usage and measurement of landscape connectivity.We start with a critical discussion of the diverse usage of connectivity, followed by a description of modeling and empirical studies that actually attempted to quantify connectivity or key components of it.We then discuss crucial model-ing assumptions and reveal the deceptive paradox of patch-based connectivity measurements,and its poten-tial for misleading conclusions.We end by suggesting ways to streamline and focus research on landscape connectivity.Current usage of connectivityStructure or function?The literature review revealed that the term connectiv-ity is sometimes used as a functional concept and other times in a structural way.Structural connectivity is equated with habitat contiguity and is measured by analyzing landscape structure,independent of any at-tributes of the organism(s)of interest(Collinge and Forman1998).The functional concept of connectivity explicitly con-siders the behavioral responses of an organism to the various landscape elements(patches and boundaries). Consequently,functional connectivity covers situations where organisms venture into non-habitat(matrix), where they may(1)face higher mortality risks(e.g., Lidicker1975,Gaines and McGlenaghan1980,Krohne and Burgin1987,Henein and Merriam1990,Schippers et al.1996,Charrier et al.1997,Poole1997,Sakai and Noon1997),(2)express different movement patterns (e.g.,Baars1979,Rijnsdorp1980,Wallin and Ekbom 1988,Wegner and Merriam1990,Hansson1991,John-son et al.1992a,Andreassen et al.1996b,Matter1996, Charrier et al.1997,Collins and Barrett1997),and(3) cross boundaries(e.g.,Mader1984,Wiens et al.1985, Bakowski and Kozakiewicz1988,Merriam et al.1989, Duelli et al.1990,Mader et al.1990,Frampton et al. 1995,Mauremooto et al.1995,Charrier et al.1997, Sakai and Noon1997).Depending on the movement attributes of the organ-ism,structural and functional connectivity can be syn-onymous.This occurs when the organism’s movement is conﬁned to its preferred habitat,i.e.,individuals do not cross the habitat/matrix boundary,and the organ-ism moves freely within the preferred habitat(e.g., Bascompte and Sole´1996).This is the assumption behind most percolation-based connectivity measures (Gardner et al.1987,Gardner and O’Neill1991,Green 1994).The fact that structural connectivity is relatively easy to measure could lead to the conclusion that connectiv-ity is a generalized feature of a landscape.This would be erroneous.In fact,the same landscape will have different connectivities for different organisms.Struc-turally connected habitat patches still may not be func-tionally connected and even non-contiguous habitat patches may be functionally connected,depending on the species(With1997).For example,if the only two habitat patches in a landscape are structurally con-nected by an inappropriate corridor for the species in question(too narrow or too long),structural connectiv-ity would exist without successful movement(functional response)from one patch to the other.Likewise,non-contiguous habitat patches may functionally be con-nected if the species can cross the non-habitat area (matrix)successfully and move between habitat8OIKOS90:1(2000)OIKOS 90:1(2000)9T a b l e 1.C h r o n o l o g i c a l a n d a l p h a b e t i c a l a s s e m b l a g e o f t h e 33r e v i e w e d c o n n e c t i v i t y s t u d i e s .S t u d y t y p e a n d d u r a t i o nS t u d yN o .M e a s u r e m e n t /u s a g e o f c o n n e c t i v i t yC o m m e n t s /s t u d y t a r g e t S p a t i a l s c a l e A n d r e a s s e n e t l a n d s c a p e e f f e c t s o n m o v e m e n t f r e q u e n c i e s e x p e r i m e n t ,r a d i o -t r a c k i n g ,13w k ,3p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f c o r r i d o r s1g e n e r a t i o n s a l .1998e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l p a t c h i s o l a t i o n o n s u m m e d i n ﬂu e n c e o f s i z e a n d s p a t i a l p a t c h o b s e r v a t i o n a l ,2y rA u l t a n d 2a r r a n g e m e n t o f n e i g hb o r i n g p a tc h e sc o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e a nd p o p u l a t i o n J o h n s o n 1998d e n s i t y e x p e r i m e n t ,l i v e -t r a p p i n g ,13w k ,3e f f e c t o n d i s p e r s a l d i s t a n c e s a n d s p a t i a l p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f c o r r i d o r s l a n d s c a p eB j o r n s t a d e t a l .3a g g r e g a t i o n g e n e r a t i o n 1998l a n d s c a p e ,10e x p e r i m e n tp e r c e n t o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d s t r a i g h t l i n e s 4C o l l i n g e a n d e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l c o n n e c t i v i t y m ×10mm e a s u r e m e n t o n i n s e c t d e n s i t y ,r i c h n e s s ,F o r m a n 1998c o v e r i n g h a b i t a t w i t h i n a l a nd s c a pe a n d c o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e d i s c u s s i o nr a t i o n a l e o n t h e q u a n t i ﬁc a t i o n o f l a n d s c a p es t r u c t u r a l p a t c h i s o l a t i o n D a v i d s o n 19985l a n d s c a p e f r a g m e n t a t i o n l a n d s c a p em o v e m e n t o f w a t e r b i r d s a m o n g h a b i t a t d i s c u s s i o nH a i g e t a l .1998r a t i o n a l e o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f f u n c t i o n a l 6p a t c h e s c o n n e c t i v i t y f o r w a t e r b i r d c o n s e r v a t i o n s p a t i a l l y e x p l i c i t s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l ,25y rH e n e i n e t a l .p r e s e n c e ,a b s e n c e a n d q u a l i t y o f f e n c e r o w s 7e f f e c t s o n p o p u l a t i o n s u r v i v a l l a n d s c a p ei n s i m u l a t e d l a n d s c a p e 1998e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l 8l a n d s c a p ee x p e r i m e n t ,o n e s e a s o nP e t i t a n d B u r e l d i s t a n c e s (e u c l i d i a n ,a l o n g h e d g e r o w s a n d ,w e i g h t e d b y m o v e m e n t i n t e n s i t y a n d c o n n e c t i v i t y o n s p e c i e s ’l o c a l a b u n d a n c e 1998bm o r t a l i t y i n d i f f e r e n t h a b i t a t t y p e s )b e t w e e n s a m p l e s i t e s 9l a n d s c a p ee x p e r i m e n t ,o n e s e a s o n‘‘f u n c t i o n a l d i s t a n c e ’’(w e i g h t e d b y P e t i t a n d B u r e l e f f e c t o f f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y o n 1998am o v e m e n t i n t e n s i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y i n s p e c i e s ’l o c a l a b u n d a n c e d i f f e r e n t h a b i t a t t y p e s )l a n d s c a p em a n i p u l a t i v e m a r k -r e c a p t u r e e x p e r i m e n t ,e f f e c t s o f l a n d s c a p e s t r u c t u r e o n m o v e m e n t a b i l i t y o f d a m s e l ﬂi e s t h r o u g h 10P i t h e r a n d d i f f e r e n t h a b i t a t t y p e s m o v e m e n t f r e q u e n c i e s o n e s e a s o n T a y l o r 1998e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l c o n n e c t i v i t y o n l a n d s c a p eG I S b a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d y n a m i c s m o d e l n e a r e s t n e i g h b o r d i s t a n c e (c o m b i n e d w i t h 11R o o t 1998d i s pe r s a lf r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n )b e t w e e n (m e t a )p o p u l a t i o n s i z e (R A M A S )h a b i t a t p a t c h e s 12p a t c hv e g e t a t i o n s u r v e ya m o u n t o f f o r e s t h ab i t a t a r o u n d p a tc h e s e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l p a t c h i s o l a t i o n o n G r a s h o f b o kd a m 1997w i t h i n t h r e e z o n e s u p t o 1000m z o o c h o r o u s a n d a n e m o c h o r o u s p l a n t s p e c i e s l a n d s c a p es t a t i c o p t i m i z a t i o n a n d s i m u l a t i o n m o d e lp o p u l a t i o n a b u n d a n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p 13H o f a n d c o n n e c t i v i t y m e a s u r e a s s u m e d t o b e b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t c e l l s i n a g r i d m o d e l s p a t i a l l i m i t a t i o n f a c t o r R a p h a e l 1997c o n n e c t i v i t y c o m p o n e n t s :a )d e g r e e o f r a t i o n a l e o n t h e e f f e c t o f c o n n e c t i v i t y o n l a n d s c a p ec o n c e p t u a l m ode l ,d i s c u s s i o n14M e t z g e r a n d h a b i t a t p e r c o l a t i o n ,b )c o r r i d o r a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y D e ´c a m p s 1997s t e p p i n g s t o n e n e t w o r k s ,c )m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y e f f e c t o n l o c a l b i r d c o m m u n i t y (s p e c i e s S c h m i e g e l o w e t p a t c he x p e r i m e n t ,1y rc o r r id o r s (r i p a r i a n b u f fe r s t r i p s )b e t w e e n 15f o r e s t f r ag m e n t s a b u n d a n c e s )a l .1997e f f e c t s o f s i m u l a t e d l a n d s c a p e ch a n g e s o n p r o xi m i t y i n d e x -s u m m a r i z e d (p a t c h p a t c hq u a n t i ﬁc a t i o n o f s p a t i a l p a t t e r n i n G I SS p e t i c h e t a l .161997m a p ss t r u c t u r a l p a t c h i s o l a t i o n (p r o x i m i t y )a r e a /d i s t a n c e t o f o c a l p a t c h )r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r a l l p a t c h e s l o c a t e d w i t h i n r e c t a n g u l a r b u f f e r z o n e a r o u n d f o c a l p a t c h e s t i m a t i o n o f e f f e c t s o n s p e c i a l i s t l a n d s c a p ec o n c e p t u a l m ode li n t r i n s i c (j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f s i m i l a r h a b i t a t )T i e b o u t a n d 17c o l o n i z i n g a b i l i t y a nde x t r i n s i c (c o r r i d o r )c o n n e c t i v i t y A n d e r s o n 1997W i t h e t a l .ef f e c t o f l a n d s c a p e s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e o n a v e r ag e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t w o s i t e s o f a l a n d s c a p e r a n d o m w a l k s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l o n 18n e u t r a l (r a n d o m a n d f r a c t a l )l a n d s c a p e 1997g r i d b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s a m e (p e r c o l a t i o n )p e r c o l a t i o n t h r e s h o l d a n d p o p u l a t i o n s ’s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o nm a p sc l u s t e r ,p o p u l a t i o n s ’s p a t i a ld i s t r i b u t i o n10OIKOS 90:1(2000)T a b l e 1.(C o n t i n u e d )S p a t i a l s c a l e S t u d y t y p e a n d d u r a t i o nS t u d yN o .M e a s u r e m e n t /u s a g e o f c o n n e c t i v i t yC o m m e n t s /s t u d y t a r g e t p a t c h (c o r r i d o r )e x p e r i m e n t ,3m oA n d r e a s s e n e t a l .19s t r u c t u r a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n c o r r i d o r s e f f e c t s o n m o v e m e n t r a t e s 1996b e f f e c t s o n m o v e m e n t r a t e s p a t c h (c o r r i d o r )w i d t h o f c o r r i d o r s e x p e r i m e n t ,3m oA n d r e a s s e n e t a l .201996a l a n d s c a p e p h y s i c a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p a t c h e s m e t a p o p u l a t i o n m o d e lH e s s 1996e f f e c t o n r e c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n 21(c o r r i d o r s )r a t e e f f e c t o f f u n c t i o n a l p a t c h i s o l a t i o n o n p a t c h h a b i t a t i s o l a t i o n b a s e d o n d i s p e r s a l o b s e r v a t i o n a l ,2y rH j e r m a n n a n d 22s p e c i e s p a t c h o c c u p a n c y d i s t a n c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d n e g a t i v e I m s 1996e x p o n e n t i a l d i s p e r s a l f u n c t i o n e f f e c t o n p o p u l a t i o n m e a n s a n d 23p a t c h o p t i m i z a t i o n m o d e lb e t w e e n -p a tc h m o v e m e n t p r o b a b i l i t y H o f a nd F l a t he r v a r i a n c e s 1996d e p e n d e n t o n a )s p e c i e s d i s p e r s a l c a p a b i l i t y ,b )h a r s h n e s s of i n t e r -p a t c h e n v i r o n m e n t ,c )i n t e r -p a t c h d i s t a n c e e x p e r i m e n t ,1y rL e c o m t e a n d s i m u l a t e d p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f 24e f f e c t s o n i n t e r -p a t c h d i s p e r s a l p a t c h C l o b e r t 1996c o r r i d o r s i n a n e x p e r i m e n t a l l a n d s c a p e p a t c h o b s e r v a t i o n a l ,1y rt o t a l l e n g t h o f h e d g e s i n a 0.5-k m P a i l l a t a n d B u t e t e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l p a t c h i s o l a t i o n o n 25r a d i u s a r o u n d a s a m p l i n g p l o t (p a t c h )s p e c i e s a b u n d a n c e a n d ﬂu c t u a t i o n s 1996e f f e c t o f r e a l l a n d s c a p e s t r u c t u r e o n l a n d s c a p e G I S -r e l a t e d r a n d o m w a l k s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l26S c h i p p e r s e t a l .m o v e m e n t p r o b a b i l i t i e s b e t w e e n a l l f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y p a i r s o f h a b i t a t p a t c h e s 1996G I S -r e l a t e d r a n d o m w a l k s i m u l a t i o n m o d e ld i s pe r s a l s u c c e s s r a t e ,f r a c t i o n o f S c h u m a k e r 1996e f f e c t o f l a n d s c a p e s t r u c t u r e o n 27l a n d s c a p e f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t l o c a t e d n e w t e r r i t o r i e s p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f c o r r i d o r s i n e f f e c t o n m e t a p o p u l a t i o n p e r s i s t e n c e S w a r t a n d L a w e s l a n d s c a p e 28m o d e lm e t a p o p u l a t i o n m o d e l 1996G I S -r e l a t e d r a n d o m w a l k a n d p o p u l a t i o n d y n a m i c s 29D e m e r s e t a l .l a n d s c a p e e f f e c t o f r e a l l a n d s c a p e s t r u c t u r e o n d i s p e r s a l (c o l o n i z a t i o n )s u c c e s s s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y 1995l a n d s c a p e o b s e r v a t i o n a l ,3y rp r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f c o r r i d o r s a n d /o r 30e f f e c t o n m o v e m e n t r a t e s a n d d i s t a n c e s A r n o l d e t a l .1993s t e p p i n g s t o n e s s t a t i c o p t i m i z a t i o n m o d e ll a n d s c a p e o p t i m i z a t i o n o f h a b i t a t p l a c e m e n t p r o b a b i l i s t i c ,d i s t a n c e d e p e n d e n t H o f a n d J o y c e 31i s o l a t i o n o f a c e l l i n a g r i d m o d e l 1993d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e l a n d s c a p e l a n d s c a p e c o n c e p t u a l d i s c u s s i o nT a y l o r e t a l .199332d e ﬁn i t i o n o f f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y f a c i l i t a t e s o r i m p e d e s m o v e m e n t a m o n g r e s o u r c e p a t c h e s e f f e c t o f s c a l e o f c l u s t e r i n g o n s e a r c h t i m e -n u m b e r o f m o v e m e n t l a n d s c a p e r a n d o m w a l k s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l o n h i e r a r c h i c a l ,n e u t r a l 33D o a k e t a l .1992l a n d s c a p e m a p ss t e p s r e q u i r e d t o ﬁn d a n e w h a b i t a t f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y p a t c hpatches.Research is needed to determine what,if any, simple measures of landscape structure can be used as measures of landscape connectivity.Patch isolation or landscape connectivity?Patch isolation is determined by the rate of immigration into the patch;the lower the immigration rate,the more isolated is the patch.Immigration rate depends on(1) the amount of occupied habitat surrounding the focal patch,(2)the number of emigrants leaving the sur-rounding habitat,(3)the nature of the intervening matrix,(4)the movement and perceptual abilities of the organism,and(5)the mortality risk of dispersers (Wiens et al.1993).Since(1)and(3)are landscape structural features and(4)and(5)are the organisms’responses to landscape structure,patch isolation de-pends on‘‘the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement...’’(Taylor et al.1993).Patch isolation is therefore imbedded within the concept of landscape connectivity.In fact,landscape connectivity is essentially equivalent to the inverse of the average degree of patch isolation over the landscape;a land-scape including mostly patches with a high degree of isolation will be less connected than vice versa.Five of the33studies we reviewed equated patch isolation with connectivity(Hjermann and Ims1996, Paillat and Butet1996,Grashofbokdam1997,Spetich et al.1997,Ault and Johnson1998).Even though patch isolation is clearly part of landscape connectivity (above),none of these studies estimated immigration rates into patches.Rather,they related a species’abun-dance or presence/absence in a patch to structural attributes of the surrounding landscape,such as dis-tance to the nearest occupied patch,or amount of habitat in a circle surrounding the patch.Such studies may reveal the relative importance of local patch vs surrounding landscape effects.However,they do not directly contribute to determining landscape connectiv-ity,because they do not actually determine rates of movement among patches.Corridors or connectivity?Corridors are narrow,continuous strips of habitat that structurally connect two otherwise non-contiguous habitat patches.The corridor concept(e.g.,Forman 1983,Bennett1990,Merriam1991,Saunders and Hobbs1991,Lindenmayer and Nix1993,Merriam and Saunders1993,Bonner1994,Dawson1994,Rosenberg et al.1997,Tischendorf1997a)originated from the generalized assumption that organisms do not venture into non-habitat.Under this assumption,addition of any habitat to a landscape increases the ability of organisms to move.Corridors in a landscape may therefore be a component of its connectivity if they promote movement among habitat patches,but they do not determine its connectivity.The degree to which corridors contribute to landscape connectivity depends on the nature of the corridors,the nature of the matrix and the response of the organism to both(Rosenberg et al.1997,Beier and Noss1998).Six of the reviewed studies equated the term connec-tivity with the presence/absence of corridors(Hess 1996,Lecomte and Clobert1996,Swart and Lawes 1996,Schmiegelow et al.1997,Andreassen et al.1998, Bjornstad et al.1998),and two studies associated con-nectivity with corridor width(Andreassen et al.1996a) or corridor continuity(Andreassen et al.1996b).The studies investigated(1)what features of a corridorFig.1.Classiﬁcation of the33reviewed studiesaccording to study type(a),year of publication(b),andusage of the termconnectivity(c).OIKOS90:1(2000)11determine its use by the organism,(2)space-use of organisms as a function of corridor presence/absence, and(3)population or community responses to corridors, e.g.,species richness,diversity or abundance.None of the studies explicitly recognized that corridors are only a component of the concept of landscape connectivity;they actually equated the connecting function of corridors with connectivity.Measurements of connectivityIn this section we review studies that quantiﬁed connec-tivity or key components of it.Recall that connectivity is deﬁned as the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement among resource patches.Only four of the studies(Doak et al.1992,Demers et al.1995, Schippers et al.1996,Schumaker1996)measured move-ments among resource patches over the entire landscape and actually quantiﬁed connectivity in accordance with its deﬁnition.All of these were modeling studies and were based on simulated movements across heterogeneous landscapes.We also reviewﬁve other studies which we think made an important contribution toward the con-cept of landscape connectivity(as explained below),even though they did not measure movement among resource patches directly(Arnold et al.1993,With et al.1997,Petit and Burel1998a,b,Pither and Taylor1998). Modeling studiesDispersal successDispersal success is usually deﬁned as the proportion of individuals that successfully immigrate into a new habitat patch during the course of a simulation run.Three of the modeling studies quantiﬁed connectivity using dispersal success.Schippers et al.(1996)(no.26in Table1)simulated the badger’s(Meles meles)response(movement proba-bility and mortality risk)to landscape structure using a classiﬁed GIS grid map and empirical expertise.Move-ment probabilities between cells were derived by compar-ing the quality(for badger use)of adjacent cells.Higher quality cells attracted moving individuals.Mortality rates were higher in low-quality cells.The number of simulated movement steps corresponded to an estimated actual time of badger movement within a four-year period.The authors produced inter-patch transition probabilities and movement frequency maps(visits per grid cell),based on dispersal success.Schumaker(1996)(no.27in Table1)analyzed the potential of indices of landscape structure to predict dispersal success.He created landscape models in two ways:(1)sample landscapes were randomly drawn from a GIS data set to cover a range of different landscape conﬁgurations;(2)artiﬁcial landscape grids were created by randomly designating habitat cells.Cells of the grid represented territories.An individual-based correlated random walk model was used to simulate movements across the landscape.Individuals were released in a randomly selected50%of habitat territories,and were allowed to settle in any unoccupied territory,which then became unavailable to subsequent nd-scape boundaries reﬂected approaching individuals. Connectivity was measured as the mean fraction(over several runs)of individuals that successfully dispersed into new territories during the course of a simulation.The results revealed correlations between each of ten indices of landscape structure and dispersal success(connectiv-ity).Demers et al.(1995)(no.29in Table1)investigated the relationship between colonization success of edge-preferring organisms,and the amount and change of edge habitat,in real agricultural landscapes.A vector-based GIS data set containing fencerow and forest-edge cover-ages was used as a model landscape.Individuals were allowed to move only in suitable habitat after being dropped at random points across the landscape.Individ-uals could cross inhospitable habitat(matrix)up to a maximum distance,after any edge habitat in the land-scape was successfully colonized.Occupied habitat could not be colonized by subsequent dispersers.The authors measured connectivity as the‘‘total length and area of hedgerow and forest edge colonized by the offspring of each successful virtual organism’’.The results showed higher connectivity in landscapes with more and longer overall edge habitat.Search timeOne paper(Doak et al.1992)(no.33in Table1)used search time to quantify connectivity.Search time is the number of movement steps individuals require toﬁnd a new habitat patch.Doak et al.(1992)examined the effect of spatial scale on the success of dispersing individuals.An artiﬁcial landscape was modeled by a hierarchical grid of three layers(spatial scales).Clusters of habitat cells were created on different spatial scales.Virtual individuals were released in the habitat and followed a random walk until a new habitat patch(different from the origin)was ndscape boundaries acted as reﬂecting borders. For each individual the number of movement steps required toﬁnd a new habitat patch(search time)was recorded.The mean and standard deviation over all individual search times were calculated and related to the scale of rge-scale clustering(few large patches)induced longer search times than small-scale clustering(more smaller patches)(see also Ruckelshaus et al.1997).Population spatial distributionWith et al.(1997)(no.18in Table1)investigated the effects of landscape spatial structure on(1)the probabil-12OIKOS90:1(2000)。

英语保护野生动物白鳍豚

Threats
Main threats to their survival include entanglement in fishing gear, ship strikes, and noise pollution.
Conservation Efforts
Various conservation efforts are being made to protect white-finned porpoises, including establishing protected areas, reducing fishing activities, and raising awareness among the public.
Global significance
The survival of the white-finned porpoise is not only important locally but also globally. This species plays a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem balance and biodiversity. English can help build a global consensus on the need to protect this species, fostering cooperation among countries to ensure its long-term survival.
Lifespan
03
White-finned porpoises have a lifespan of about 20-30 years in the wild.
The Biological Characteristics of White finned Porpoise

16_BABOK与TOGAF的关系

ObservationsThere are obviously overlaps between Enterprise Analysis and Enterprise Architecture, but activities are not always done in the same sequence.▪Enterprise Analysis is more a business initiative than an Enterprise Architecture which includes both business and IT people▪Enterprise Analysis provides the context in which an Enterprise Architecture should be conducted▪Enterprise Analysis is about defining the strategic goals and the strategic planning taking into account the environment and market trends, identify business issues, focus on remaining competitive, profitable, efficient. Enterprise Architecture is reusing all this information.▪Enterprise Analysis is only covering the initial activities of Enterprise Architecture but does not address other Enterprise Architecture activities such as: - Application Architecture, Data Architecture, Technology Architecture (and SolutionArchitecture).▪Enterprise Analysis does not include all aspects related to governance such as the IT Governance and the Enterprise Architecture Governance Framework. Touch points with other frameworks are not addressed.▪Enterprise Analysis may not completely address the need of working with other parts of the enterprise such as IT, PMO, development teams, IT partners.▪Enterprise Architecture suggest a Preliminary phase which is about defining ‘‘where, what, why, who, and how” Enterprise Architecture will be done,establishing the business context, customizing the framework, defining thearchitecture principles, establishing the Architecture Governance structure. Enterprise Analysis complements Enterprise Architecture but also overlaps in some areas. Organization looking into Enterprise Architecture and specifically TOGAF 9 may consider adopting a Business Analysis framework such as BABOK and integrate them in the Preliminary Phase. If both approaches exist in a company, this would be a great opportunity for optimizing the alignment between Business and IT, and to run an Enterprise Architecture program from a complete business perspective.About Business Analysis Body of Knowledge® (BABOK®)The Business Analysis Body of Knowledge® (BABOK®) is the collection of knowledge within the profession of Business Analysis and reflects current generally accepted practices. As with other professions, the body of knowledge is defined and enhanced by the Business Analysis professionals who apply it in their daily work role. The BABOK® Guide describes Business Analysis areas of knowledge, their associated activities and the tasks and skills necessary to be effective in their execution. The BABOK® Guide is a reference for professional knowledge for Business Analysis and provides the basis for the Certified Business Analysis Professional™ (CBAP®) Certification.BABOK® Guide 2.0 represents the development of a common framework to understand and define the practice of business analysis.About TOGAF™TOGAF is an industry standard architecture framework that may be used freely by any organization wishing to develop an information systems architecture for use within that organization.TOGAF has been developed and continuously evolved since the mid-90’s by representatives of some of the world’s leading IT customer and vendor organizations, working in The Open Group's Architecture Forum. Details of the Forum, and its plans for evolving TOGAF in the current year, are given on the Architecture Forum web site.About TOGAF Version 9 Enterprise EditionTOGAF Version 9 Enterprise Edition ("TOGAF 9" for short) is a detailed method and set of supporting resources for developing an Enterprise Architecture. Developed and endorsed by the membership of The Open Group's Architecture Forum, TOGAF 9 represents an industry consensus framework and method for Enterprise Architecture that is available for use internally by any organization around the world - members and non-members of The Open Group alike - subject to license conditions - see Downloading TOGAF 9As a comprehensive, open method for Enterprise Architecture, TOGAF 9 complements, and can be used in conjunction with, other frameworks that are more focused on specific aspects of architecture or for vertical sectors such as Government, Defense, and Finance。

小学上册A卷英语第六单元自测题

小学上册英语第六单元自测题英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The flamingo is known for its _______ (优雅).2. A _____ is a large area of flat land.3.Which animal is known for its ability to fly?A. ElephantB. TigerC. BirdD. Shark4. A _______ is a substance that can remove electrons from other substances.5.Which animal is known for its ability to change colors?A. ChameleonB. FrogC. ElephantD. TigerA6.My mom likes to plant ______.7.What is the name of the famous American musician known for "Counting Stars"?A. OneRepublicB. Maroon 5C. ColdplayD. Imagine DragonsA8.isthmus) connects two larger land areas. The ____9.How many days are in a week?A. FiveB. SixC. SevenD. Eight10.The ancient Greeks believed in the importance of ______ (教育).11.What shape is a basketball?A. SquareB. TriangleC. RectangleD. CircleD12.What do we call a baby goat?A. KidB. CalfC. FoalD. LambA13.What shape is a basketball?A. SquareB. TriangleC. OvalD. CircleD14.What is the color of a ripe banana?A. GreenB. YellowC. BrownD. RedB15. A _____ (植物活动) can raise awareness about conservation.16. A __________ is a large region with a distinct ecosystem.17.The chemical formula for silver nitrate is _______.18.How many wheels does a bicycle have?A. 1B. 2C. 3D. 4B19.What do you call a story that explains why something happens?A. FolktaleB. MythC. LegendD. All of the aboveD20.What shape is a basketball?A. SquareB. TriangleC. CircleD. RectangleC21.What shape is a basketball?A. SquareB. TriangleC. RectangleD. SphereD22.My mom loves __________ (社区服务).23.The chemical formula for platinum(II) chloride is _____.24.The mouse hides in a ________________ (洞).25.What do you call the act of learning about something?A. StudyingB. TeachingC. ExploringD. ResearchingA26.He is _____ (tall) and kind.27.The ____ has stripes and is known for its strength.28.The __________ (历史的生动描绘) brings the past to life.29.I need to _____ (finish/start) my homework.30.What instrument do you blow into to make music?A. DrumB. FluteC. GuitarD. HarpB Flute31.The dog is barking ________.32.What is the name of the famous river in France?A. SeineB. ThamesC. DanubeD. RhineA33. A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can be _____ at a given temperature.34.The flowers are blooming in the ______. (spring)35.What is the capital city of Sweden?A. StockholmB. OsloC. CopenhagenD. HelsinkiA36.__________ changes involve the formation of new substances.37. A reaction that absorbs energy is known as an ______ reaction.38.My brother loves __________ (参与环保活动).39.What is the primary purpose of a compass?A. To tell timeB. To find directionC. To measure distanceD. To calculate weightB40. A __________ is a significant geographical feature.41.What is a common pet that can swim?A. DogB. CatC. FishD. HamsterC42.I read a _____ (书) before bed.43.What is the primary color of grass?A. RedB. YellowC. GreenD. Blue44.What is the capital of Fiji?A. SuvaB. NadiC. LautokaD. LabasaA45.I enjoy ______ (hiking) in the mountains.46.What do we call a baby kangaroo?A. JoeyB. CalfC. KitD. CubA47.What is the basic unit of matter?A. AtomB. MoleculeC. ElementD. CompoundA Atom48.This girl, ______ (这个女孩), enjoys volunteering at the animal shelter.49.I see a __ on the window. (raindrop)50.The boiling point of water is __________ (100度) Celsius at sea level.51.I like to collect ________ (玩具名称) from my favorite shows.52. A __________ has a shell and can live in water or on land.53.I saw a ______ (小猫) play with a ball of ______ (线).54.What do we call the art of folding paper into decorative shapes?A. OrigamiB. CalligraphyC. PotteryD. WeavingA55.The __________ (历史的丰富内涵) inform our identities.56.The _____ is a bright star in the evening sky.57.The __________ is a part of the plant that anchors it to the ground.58.What is 100 50?A. 30B. 40C. 50D. 6059.What do you wear on your feet?A. HatB. ShoesC. GlovesD. Scarf60.The capital of Belgium is _______.61.She is _____ (riding) a bike.62.She _____ (plays/played) violin beautifully.63.The ________ is known for its bright and cheerful presence.64. A ____(community forum) encourages dialogue on local issues.65.Which organ is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body?A. BrainB. HeartC. LungsD. StomachB66.The chemical formula for propane is ________.67.The ________ was a treaty that addressed environmental concerns.68.中国的________ (history) 充满了勇敢和智慧的故事。

全国体育舞蹈等级考试培训教材（中英文对照）

精品文档RUMBA bronze 伦巴铜牌（12小节）1. 1-3 Basic Movement 1-3基本动作步2. Fan 扇形步3. Hockey Stick 曲棍形转步4. 1-3 Back Walks 1-3基本动作步5. 6 Back Walks 6后退走步6. Under Arm Turn To Right 臂下右转7. Hand To Hand x3 手对手步 X38. Spot Turn To Left 原地左转步CHA CHA CHA bronze 恰恰恰铜牌（12小节）1. 1-5 Basic Movement 1-5闭式基本步2. Fan 扇形步3. Hockey Stick 曲棍形转步4. Forward x2 2前进锁步5. Backward x3 3后退锁步6. Under arm turn to right 臂下右转步7. Hand to hand x3 手对手步 X38. Spot turn left 原地左转步JIVE bronze 牛仔铜牌（16小节）1. C.O.P.Right to left 右至左换向步2. C.O.P.Left to right 左至右换向步3. 1-5 Link 连结步4. Whip 绕转步5. PP Walks(slow)(Quick) 侧行走步（慢）（快）6. 3-8 C.O.P.Right to Left 3-8右至左换向步7. 2 American spin 美式旋转步8. C.O.P.Left to right 左至右换向步9. Change of Hand behind back 背后换手10. C.O.P.Left to right 左至右换向步RUMBA silver 伦巴银牌（16小节）1. Curl to fallaway 卷曲转步至并退步2. Cuban rock 古巴摇滚步3. Right foot forward turn to left to shadow position右脚前进向左转成影形位置4. 3 Forward walks-fan position 3走步至扇形位置5. Hockey stick 曲棍形转步6. 1-3 Basic movement 1-3基本动作步7. 6 Back walks 6后退走步8. Natural top with lady's ，left turn steps 4、5右陀螺转女士4、5步向左转9. Close hip twist 闭式扭臀转步SAMBA silver 桑巴银牌（32小节）1. 4 Reverse basic movement 4左转基本步2. 4 Whisks(end P.P) 4拂步侧行完 8Bars3. PP samba walk 侧行桑巴走步4. PP.Side samba walk 侧向桑巴走步5. PP.Samba walk 侧行桑巴走步6. PP.Side samba walk 侧向桑巴走步7. Shadow botafogo 影位博达拂哥斯步8. TR.Volta to right 游走沃达斯右转步 8Bars9. TR.Volta to left 游走沃达斯左转步10.Volta spot turn（Or whisk）女士沃达斯（男拂形步）11.Corta jaca 快踢步（1-S，6-Q）12.Natural roll 右滚转步（4-6，1-6）8Bars13.Close rock 闭式摇滚步（1-3）14.Reverse turn 左转步（1-3）15.Back rock 后退摇滚步（1-6）16.Plait 卷褶步（SSQQS）17.Natural roll link 右摇滚串步（4-6）18.Reverse turn 左转步（4-6） 8BarsCHA CHA CHA silver 恰恰恰银牌（16小节）1. Open hip twist 分式扭臀转步2. Hockey stick 曲棍形转步3. 1-5 Basic movement 1-5闭式基本步4. Natural top with finish(B) 右陀螺转步B式完成5. Close hip twist to end open CPP 闭式扭臀转步至分式相对侧行位6. Quick checks in open CPP 快分式相对侧行位抑制步7. Quick checks in op PP 快分式侧行位抑制步8. Cuban breaks in open CPP 分式位置之古巴小碎步9. Check in open CPP 分式步相对侧行位抑制步10.Spot turn to left 原地左转步JIVE silver 牛仔银牌（24小节）1. Change of places R to L 右至左换向步2. Change of places L to R change hands R to R左至右换向步换成右手接右手3. American spin X2 美式旋转X24. Change of places L to R 左至右换向步5. 1-5 Link 连结步6. Whip 绕转步7. Promenade walks 2 slow 6 quick 侧行走步2慢6快8. 3-8 Change of places R to L 3-8右至左换向步9. Change of places L to R 左至右换向步10.Stop and go 停走步11.Change of hands behind back 背后换手步12.Change of places L to R 左至右换向步13.1-5 Link 连结步14.Whip 绕转步CHA CHA CHA gold 恰恰恰金牌（19小节）1. Open hip twist spiral to open CPP分式扭臀螺旋转成分式相对侧行位置2. Quick checks in open CPP 快分式相对侧行位置抑制步3. Quick checks in open PP 快分式相对侧行位置抑制步4. Cuban breaks in open CPP 分式相对侧行位置古巴小碎步5. Check in open CPP 分式相对侧行位置抑制步6. Spot turn to left(Right to right hand hold)原地左转步（右手接右手分式位置）7. Sweet heart 甜心步8. Fallow my leader end with R to R 男士引导成男女同脚位置9. Alemana 手中转步10.Cross basic 交叉基本步JIVE gold 牛仔金牌（25小节）1. Change of places R to L with double turn 双旋转右至左换向步2. Change of places L to R 左至右换位步3. 1-5 Link 1-5连结步4. Double cross whip 双交叉绕转步5. Curly whip 卷曲绕转步6. Whip 绕转步7. PP walks S.PP walks Q 侧行走步慢快8. 3-8 Change of places R-L 3-8右至左换向步9. American spin 美式旋转步10.2 Rolling off Arm 2卷臂转步11.American spin 美式旋转步12. 2 Stop & go 2 停走步13.C.O.P. L to R 左至右换向步RUMBA gold 伦巴金牌（20小节）1. Open hip twist 分式扭臀转步2. Hockey stick change hands(R-R) 曲棍形转步换成右手接右手3. Alemana 手中转步4. Continuous hip twist 连续扭臀转步5. Continuous circular hip twist 连续式环绕扭臀转步6. Fan position 扇形步7. Sliding doors end shadow position 滑门步至影形位8. 6 walks in shadow position 6走步（影形位）9. Fan position 扇形步SAMBA gold 桑巴金牌（32小节）1. Promenade botafogo 侧行博达佛哥斯步2. Side samba walk 侧向桑巴走步3. 2 Shadow botafogo 2影位博达佛哥斯步4. Continuous volta to R 连续右转沃达斯步 8 Bars5. Whisk to PP 拂行步至侧行位6. 2 Promenade samba walks(Lady spot volta to R,1 samba walk)精品文档2侧行桑巴走步（女士右转沃达斯步 1桑巴走步）7. Rolling off the arm 卷臂转步8. 2 Promenade samba walks 2侧行桑巴走步9. Rolling off the arm 卷臂转步 8 Bars10.Lead lady to spiral to close hold 女士螺旋转成闭式位置11.1-3 Reverse turn 1-3左转步12.Plait SS QQS.SSQQS 卷褶步13.Continuous volta spot turn to left 连续左转沃达斯步 8 Bars14.Samba locks X5 桑巴交叉步 X515.Simple volta 原地沃达斯步16.Volta spot to left 左转沃达斯步17.Whisk on RF 右拂形步 8 BarsPASO-DOBLE gold 斗牛金牌（40小节）1. Sur place 原地踏步2. Promenade 侧行并步3. Elevations 高举步4. Attack 攻击步5. Sur place 原地踏步6. Separation 分离步7. Sur place to left 原地踏步向左8. Chasse to left P.P 追步向左侧行步完成9. Promenade colse 侧行并步10.P.P.-C.P.P.(M) 侧行步相对侧行步（会员级）11.Huit 八步（披肩动作）12.Twist turn 扭转步RUMBA gold 1 伦巴金星一级（28小节）1. 1-3 Curl into fallaway 卷曲转步接并退步2. Cuban rocks 古巴摇滚步3. Spot turn to R 原地右转步4. 1-3 Basic movement 1—3基本动作5. Natural top with loose spiral cross 右陀螺转（接螺旋转）6. Reverse top 左陀螺转7. Fan 扇形步8. Alemana 手中转9. Rope spinning 卷绳旋转步10.Opening out to R.and L. 右、左侧分步11.Spiral to fan 螺旋转接扇形完成12.O/T hockey stick 曲棍形步（分式相对侧行位置完）13.Check O.C.P.P. 分式相对侧行位置14.U/A turn to right 臂下右转步15.1-3 Hand to hand 手接手16. 6 Shadow walks 影位走步17.4-6 Open hip twist(end in open position)分式扭臀转步4-6（分式位置结束）精品文档PASO DOBLE gold 1 斗牛舞金星一级（56小节）1. La passe 穿越步 8 Bars2. Banderillas 刺枪步 8 Bars3. Twists 连续扭转步 8 Bars4. Left foot variation 左脚变化步5. Attack 攻击步6. Sur place 原地踏步 8 Bars7. Syncopated separation 切音分离步 8 Bars8. Syncopated chasse 切音追步9. Fallaway reverse 并退左转步10.Spanish line 西班牙舞姿 8 Bars11.Flamenco taps 佛朗明哥踢踏步12.Spanish line 西班牙舞姿13.Flamenco taps 佛朗明哥踢踏步14.Promenade close 侧行并步 8 BarsSAMBA gold 1 桑巴金星一级（40小节）1. 1-9 PP Botafogos 1-9侧行博达佛哥斯步2. Side samba walk 侧向桑巴走步3. PP samba walk 侧行桑巴走步4. Side samba walk 侧向桑巴走步5. Shadow botafogos 影位博达佛哥斯步 8 Bars6. Continuous volta spot turn 连续原地沃达斯7. Corta jaca forward & back turning 快后退8. Open rocks 分式摇滚步9. Reverse turn 1-9左转步10.1-3 Natural roll link 1-3右滚转串步11.4-6 Natural roll 4-6右滚转步12.Natural roll 右滚转步 16 Bars13.1-3 Close rock 1-3闭式摇滚步14.1-3 Reverse turn 1-3左转步15.1-3 Backward rock 1-3后退摇滚步16.Plait SS QQ S 卷褶步17.4-6 Reverse turn 4-6左转步18.1-3 PP botafogos 1-3侧行博达佛哥斯步19.Side samba walk 侧向桑巴走步 8 Bars20.Travelling voltas to L-R 游走沃达斯步向左-右21.Voltas spot turn to left 原地沃达斯左转22.Voltas spot turn to right 原地沃达斯右转23.Stationary samba walks 原地桑巴走步 8 BarsCHA CHA CHA gold 1 恰恰恰金星一级（28小节）1. Alemana R-R 手中转（右手接右手）2. Close hip twist 闭式扭臀转步3. Hockey stick 曲棍形转步精品文档4. 1-5 Close basic 1-5闭式基本步5. Natural top 右陀螺转步6. Close hip twist spiral 闭式扭臀螺旋转7. Split cuban break in O.C.P.P. 分式相对侧行位置之分裂古巴小碎步8. Check from in O.C.P.P. 分式相对侧行位置之抑制步9. Spot turn to left 原地左转步10.Cross basic(lady spiral)end close hold(4 Bars)交叉基本步（女士螺旋转）闭式完（4小节）11.Open basic 分式基本步12.Foot change 换脚13.Round chasse hip twist chasse(4 Bars)朗得追步扭臀追步（4小节）4 Bars14.Foot change 换脚JIVE gold 1 牛仔金星一级（26小节）1. Change of places R to L with double 双旋转步进行右至左换向步2. Change of places L to R overturned 加强转度左至右换向步3. Flick ball change X 2 踢踏步脚掌交换步4. 3-8 Change of places L to R overturned 3-8左至右换向步5. Spanish arms 西班牙臂转步6. Change of places L to R 左至右换向步7. Rolling off the arm 卷臂转步8. Change of places L to R 左至右换向步9. Toe heel swivels 脚尖脚跟回旋转步10.Fallaway throwaway overturned 加强转度抛开式并退步11.Chicken walks 鸡走步12.Fallaway throwaway 抛开式并退步13.Curly whip from open position 卷曲绕转步从分式位置14.Double whip 双交叉绕转步15.Reverse whip 左绕转步。

作品名称BABY GO!

作品名称：BABY GO!学号：1250250 姓名：郁润专业：经管学院公共管理专业一．作品简介此次我做的是一个适合小朋友玩的闯关游戏，名字叫“BABY GO!”,旨在考察小朋友的综合素质，大人可能觉得有些幼稚。

游戏一共设置五关，每关都不同，测试计算能力、打字速度、文化常识积累以及运气与胆识等多方面。

二.作品效果图三．设计思想1.设计平台开发平台：Visual Studio 2008开发语言：2. 编写过程(包括背景及设计构思)【第一阶段背景及初步构思阶段】一开始我想做一个类似一站到底的知识竞答闯关游戏，但由于种种原因放弃了。

后来就想做这样一个适合小朋友的闯关游戏，即设置若干个关卡，每一关都不同，闯过一关，加上一分，最后根据分数，相应出现不同场景，比如分数较低则出现“继续努力”等字样。

我的基本思路是设置一个主窗体和若干副窗体，在主窗体上放置按钮，通过按钮切换到副窗体，每个副窗体的代码都根据游戏内容分开编写。

同时建立一个模块，定义一个全局变量，放置当前得分，可以贯穿整个闯关过程。

【第二阶段实施阶段】实施时并不顺利，遇到了一些问题。

1. 第一个原则性错误出现在全局变量的定义上，我起初没有用Public定义它，而是习惯性地用Dim,导致我在编写窗体代码过程中引用这个变量时，总是出现未声明，后来看了书我才意识到了问题所在，不过现在记忆深刻。

2. 第一关是在窗体2上，我是借用了之前自己编写的石头剪刀布的代码，但再一次调试时我意识到了一些问题并作出了改善。

比如某一方率先赢得三轮胜利且最终赢得胜利后，程序还可以运行，但是将不符合先前的游戏规则，于是此次我在这个节点将相应控件的Enabled 属性设置为False，便不可操作了。

又比如玩家的名字可以自定义（在主窗口中填写），然后在第一关玩家位置出现玩家的名字。

3. 编好第一关进行调试时，我又发现了一个漏洞，就是对于主窗口中玩家的名字，很多人会忘记填写。

于是我做出一些改善，当玩家按下第一关按钮时，如果他玩家的名字忘记填写，将会出现一个Msgbox提示玩家填写，写完后才可切换到第一关。

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Business Analysis Body of Knowledge

The BABOK is the collection of knowledge within the profession of Business Analysis and reflects generally accepted practice Describes business analysis areas of knowledge, their associated activities and tasks and the skills necessary to be effective in their execution Provides the basis for the CBAP certification

Business Analysis

Business Analysis is the set of tasks, knowledge and techniques required to identify business needs and determine solutions to business problems.
Benefits of CBAP Certification
Validation of skills and capabilities by a recognized external authority Recognition by peers and management as qualified and experienced to practice business analysis Confirmation of competence in the principles and practices of business analysis Advanced career potential by creating a separate and distinct career path within the information technology industry and business community

Work Experience

Activities that will not apply include:
Non-supervisory management of business analysis activities (e.g., resource management, status reporting, performance management, etc.) Teaching business analysis training courses Selling requirements tools/software Project Management Testing Programming
Current CBAP Exam Blueprint
Knowledge Area Enterprise Analysis Requirements Planning and Management Requirements Elicitation Percent of Questions 22.0% 22.7% 18.7%

CBAP

A recognized expert in identifying the business needs of an organization in order to determine business solutions CBAPs are acknowledged as competent individuals performing a role which is increasingly recognized as a vital component of any successful project

Certification Requirements
5 years (7,500 hours) of business analysis work in the last 10 years Demonstrated experience and expertise in at least 4 of the 6 BABOK Knowledge Areas Minimum high school diploma or equivalent 21 hours of BA professional development in the last 4 years 2 professional references
A Business Analyst works as a liaison among stakeholders in order to elicit, analyze, communicate, and validate requirements for changes to business processes, policies, and information systems.
Professional Development

Directly related to business analysis or its underlying fundamentals IIBA endorsed education provider courses qualify – note if EEP course IIBA will review course outline to determine if other courses qualify Project management, programming, or testing courses will not qualify

The Certification Process

Submit application including:
Application form and application fee References Code of Conduct form Examination fee (due at least 60 days prior to exam date)
CBAP Certification

Qualified practitioners will receive the designation – Certified Business Analysis Professional (CBAP)
This certification is designed for individuals with an advanced level of knowledge and experience The IIBA is considering a secondary certification to meet the needs of less senior Business Analysts Membership in the IIBA is not required to take the certification examination
Solutions often include a systems development component, but may also consist of process improvement or organizational change.

International Institute of Business Analysis – Body of Knowledge (BABOK)
References

Must be provided by a:
Career Manager (person who is responsible for your annual performance review) Internal or external client Certified Business Analysis Professional (CBAP)Biblioteka Work Experience

Acceptable activities include:
Hands-on business analysis activities (as per BABOK) Coaching or mentoring Business Analysts with respect to business analysis activities Development of an organization’s business analysis methodology and/or best practices Development of business analysis training courses

March 2004
37 members 2 countries (Canada & US)

December 2008
7,791 members 81 chapters 68 countries 462 CBAP’s (Certified Business Analysis Professional)

IIBA reviews to determine if requirements are met – notifies via e-mail within 30 days
Register for Exam

Approved applicant has one year to successfully pass the exam Within a month of approval, e-mail from Castle Worldwide with user ID and password to register online for a test center and test date If exam is passed – granted CBAP certification If exam is not passed – may retake the exam once after three month wait if still within one year eligibility