Chapter15 Carbohydrates

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英语《阅读教程》第一册答案

P35-3 1.d 2.f 3.i 4.b 5.g 6.c 7.j 8.e 9.h 10.a
P35-4 1.weather 2.slowly 3.typical 4.extreme 5.temperatures 6.storms 7.floods 8.rain 9.damage 10.worse
P53
1
1.diet 2.diet 3.fast food 4.universal 5.tacos and burrios 6.diabetes 7.low-carb diet plex carbohydrates 9.soy products 10.dairy
5) Some examples of directions from residents of the American Midwest are “Take this road here. Go straight north for two miles,” or, “Keep to the left around the curve. Then merge with Local Route 12 .”
w 7.public 8.restaurants 9.habits 10.health
Chapter 5
Part 1
5) A. family in the past
1. biometeorologists 2.atmosphere 3.rain,snow,humidity, air pressure 4.weather 5.strokes 6. sudden stopping of the heart 7.flu 8.lungs 9. emotional conditions and feelings 10. Seasonal Affective Disorder, long periods of darkness

carbohydrates 中国医科大学糖代谢生物化学英文

COOC O ~ P + H2O CH2
PEP
(10) PEP →pyruvate
COOC O~ P CH2 PEP
ADP
ATP COO-
pyruvate kinase
CO CH3
Pyruvate
• Second substrate level phosphorylation • irreversible
1) Glycolytic pathway : G → pyruvate including 10 reactions.
(1) G phosphorylated into glucose 6-phosphate
HO CH2 HH O
OH H
OH
ATP
ADP
H
Mg2+
OH Hexokinase
H OH
bifunctional enzyme
2) Pyruvate kinase
• Allosteric regulation: F-1,6-BP acts as allosteric activator；
ATP and Ala in liver act as allosteric inhibitors;
Mg2+
F- 6-P
F- 1,6-BP
PFK-1
Aldolase
lactate
NAD+
GAP
DHAP
LDH NADH+H+
pyruvate ATP
NAD+ NADH+H+
H3PO4
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
pyruvate kinase Nhomakorabeaglycerate

U340食品生物化学(英文)Chapter 7 carbohydrates

Stereochemistry 立体化学
Aldoses with at least three carbons and ketoses with at least four carbons contain chiral centers
The majority of saccharides in nature have the "D" isomer.
Haworth Projections
The British carbohydrate chemist Sir Norman Haworth ['hɔ:wəθ] showed that the linear form of glucose (and other aldohexoses) could undergo a similar intramolecular reaction to form a cyclic hemiacetal.
7.2 Monosaccharides
Classification
Monosaccharides are classifed as aldoses 醛糖 and ketoses 酮糖
aldehyde group 醛基
ketone group 酮基
Structure of a simple aldose (glyceraldehyde 甘油醛) and a simple ketose (dihydroxyacetone 二羟基丙酮).
All of these functions are made possible by the characteristic chemical features of carbohydrates: (1)the existence of at least one and often two or more asymmetric centers, (2)the ability to exist either in linear or ring structures, (3) the capacity to form polymeric structures via glycosidic bonds糖苷键 (4) The potential to form multiple hydrogen bonds 氢键 with water or other molecules in their environment.

Chapter 5 Carbohydrates共32页文档

分子式 Cn(H2O)m 故称 “Carbohydrates / 碳水化合物”
“碳水化合物” VS “糖类” 有争议！
光合作用 Photosynthesis 的结果：水＋CO2 为原料合成
植物、藻类和某些细菌利用叶绿素，在可见光的照射下，将CO2 和 H2O 转化为糖类(有机物)，并释放出O2的生化过程。
Ⅱ Classification of CHO 碳水化合物分类（FAO/WHO，2019）
分类亚组
碳数/残基数组成
糖
单糖
丙糖/三碳糖丙醛糖（甘油醛），丙酮糖
1～2C
丁糖/四碳糖赤藓糖、苏阿糖
戊糖/五碳糖核糖、木糖、阿拉伯糖、来苏糖
己糖/六碳糖葡萄糖、半乳糖、果糖、甘露糖海藻糖
庚糖/七碳糖
CHO
H
OH
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
HO
CHO OH H H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CHO
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
D-葡萄糖 D -甘露糖 D -半乳糖
D -葡萄糖
C4 构型不同，C2、C 3、C 5 构型相同
D -甘露糖ຫໍສະໝຸດ 自FAO/WHO, Carbohydrates in human nutrition, Rome:ISBN,2019,66:1-7
其它单糖，一过性存在。其它单糖 → →→ 葡萄糖 → 血液、利用
血糖生成～、非血糖生成～胰岛素依赖、胰岛素不依赖（非葡萄糖）
以“Glycermic Index，GI / 血糖生成指数”分类高GI～、中GI～、低GI～

生物学-糖类学习资料

溴水能氧化醛糖，但不能氧化酮糖，因为酸性条件下，不会引起糖分子的异构化作用。可用此反应来区别醛糖和酮糖。
（3）硝酸氧化
（醛糖）
稀硝酸的氧化作用比溴水强，能使醛糖氧化成糖二酸。
CHO OH OH CH2OH 稀 HNO3 COOH OH OH COOH
3．还原反应
单糖还原生成多元醇。D-葡萄糖还原生成山梨醇，D-甘露糖还原生成甘露醇，D-果糖还原生成甘露醇和山梨醇的混合物。
来发现，有些化合物如鼠李糖(分子式为C6H12O5)、脱氧核
糖(分子式为C5H10O4)，按其结构和性质应属糖类，但却不符合通式 Cm(H2O)n ；相反，另一些化合物如醋酸
(CH3COOH)、乳酸[CH3CH（OH）COOH]，分子式虽符合上述
通式，但其结构和性质却与糖类完全不同。
3．环状结构的哈沃斯式（Haworth）透视式
H C H HO H H
2 3 4 5
O
1
OH H OH
HOH2C
6
H H OHH
5 4 3 2 1
H C
OHOHH OH O
OH 6CH2OH
H CH2OH H
2 6
6 CH OH 2
H
4
5
H
5
OH H
2
OH OH
3
H C
1
O
4
H OH
3
H C
1
O
OH
4 5
A
OH OH OH
-D-(+)-glucopyranose
OH
OH
OH B
Haworth perspective B

Carbohydrates

3. Related clinical diseases(糖代谢异常相关疾病).
Outline of the section
1. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates (糖的消化吸收) 2. Anaerobic oxidation (糖的无氧氧化—糖酵解) 3. Tricarboxylate cycle (TCA 循环) 4. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP, 磷酸戊糖途径) 5. Gluconeogenesis (糖异生) 6. Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis (糖原合成与分解) 7. Blood glucose regulation (血糖的调节)
Glucose(葡萄糖) Galactose(半乳糖)
Monosaccharides （单糖）
O
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
Glucose（葡萄糖, 己醛糖）
OH
Ribose（核糖, 戊醛糖）
Glucose （葡萄糖）
Enantiomer: 镜像对称（手性分子）
L-Glucose(葡萄糖)
D-Glucose(葡萄糖) predominant structure
Section 1
Structure, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
(糖的结构、消化与吸收)
1. What’s carbohydrates/saccharides?
• 糖(carbohydrates)即碳水化合物，其化学本质为多羟醛或多羟酮
类及其多缩聚体化合物，也称saccharides. 结构式Cn(H2O)n，n≥3. – 单糖(monosaccharides)：葡萄糖、果糖、半乳糖

化学基础英文20糖类化合物_carbohydrates

20-1. Glucose
Carbohydrates have been given non-systematic names, although the suffix ose is generally used. The most common carbohydrate is glucose (C6H12O6). Applying the terms defined above, glucose is a monosaccharide, an aldohexose (note that the function and size classifications are combined in one word) and a reducing sugar. The general structure of glucose and many other aldohexoses was established by simple chemical reactions. The following diagram illustrates the kind of evidence considered, although some of the reagents shown here are different from those used by the original scientists.
The five oxygens remaining in glucose after the aldehyde was accounted for were thought to be in hydroxyl groups, since a penta-acetate derivative could be made. These hydroxyl groups were assigned, one each, to the last five carbon atoms, because geminal hydroxyl groups are normally unstable relative to the carbonyl compound formed by loss of water.

Carbohydrates

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates, empirical formula CH2O, are the main energy source for our bodies and are vi tal to the synthesis of cells. They serve as food sources for living organisms and provide the struct ural support for plants. Many of the carbohydrates are large polymeric molecules made of simple s ugars. Only plants synthesise carbohydrates. Important carbohydrates are: starch (a polysaccharid e), lactose and sucrose (disaccharides) and glucose and fructose (monosaccharides). Glucose, mole cular formula C6H12O6, is found in all body cells and fructose, which has the same molecular form ula as glucose, is found in fruits and honey.Most carbohydrates (but not cellulose in humans) are changed to glucose, a simple sugar, as a result of digestion. Glucose is then carried by the blood to body cells, where it is oxidised during r espiration. The energy available goes to physical activities, keeps the body warm and is used for re pair and growth of cells. Excess carbohydrates are converted to fats and stored in the body.Cellulose, another polysaccharide, is the major component of plant cells. It cannot be digested by humans who lack the enzyme cellulase to hydrolyse it. Cellulose though not a source of energy , is an important part of diet and is called fibre or roughage.Compare the structural properties of starch and cellulose andexplain why humans can digest starch but not cellulose.Starch exists in two forms: amylose, which is a straight-chain polymer (α-1,4 linkage), and amylopectin, which is a branched structure with both α-1,4 and α-1,6 linkages. Cellulose on the other hand contains only β-1,4 linkage, which can be hydrolysed to glucose by the enzyme cellulase, which is absent in most animals, including mammals. Thus humans cannot digest cellulose. Cows and many other animals are able to digest cellulose in plants such as grass to produce glucose as a source of energy since they have bacteria in their alimentary canal that produce the cellulase enzyme.State what is meant by the term dietary fibre?Dietary fibre is mainly plant material that is part of fruits, grains and vegetables that the human bo dy cannot digest as it is not hydrolysed by enzymes produced by the human digestive tract (but ma y be digested by bacteria in the gut). Examples include cellulose, hemicellulose (made of different sugar monomers unlike cellulose) lignin and pectin.Constipation便秘 and diverticulosis肠憩室病The large intestine (肠) makes, stores and eliminates stool (大便). Low fibre diets lead to constipation due to the presence of hard stool that does not pass easily or frequently through the colon an d requires effort. Pressure applied to move a stool along causes diverticulosis, the presence of bulg es凸出 in the colon at weak places leading to abdominal腹 pain. Diverticulosis is quite common i n the western world where some diets consist of too much processed foods, which often lack fibre. Irritable应激性 Bowel肠 syndrome综合症Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) refers to symptomsarising from the bowel not working as it normally should and includes constipation, bloating (feeli ng full), abdominal pain, etc. One way to decrease symptoms of IBS is to include more dietary fibr e in the diet.Obesity肥胖Regular intake of excess food leads to storage of energy in the fatty tissues. Obesity is excess body mass and leads to problems such as cardiovascular disease (involving heart and/or blood vessels), obesity related diabetes, breathing difficulties during sleep, etc. A high fibre diet leads to feeling fu ll on a diet with reduced carbohydrates and fats, which then reduces weight gain.Crohn’s disease克罗恩病This is an inflammatory发炎 bowel disease of the lower part small intestine and/or the large intest ine. The cause of the disease is unknown; dietary fibre may be helpful in its prevention. Haemorrhoids痔疮In this condition there are enlarged blood vessels in and around the rectum and anus that are swoll en at weak points and can burst causing bleeding; these can also occur when the blood vessels ge t infected. Haemorrhoids can be caused by pressure in the abdomen as a result of constipation whi ch can cause strain during bowel movements and by being obese or overweight. High fibre diet m akes the bulk move through the large intestine more easily.实验：1. Molish反应(α-萘酚反应)：在试管中加入1 mL 2%的样品水溶液，滴入4滴10%的α-萘酚乙醇溶液，混合均匀后将试管倾斜约45度，沿管壁慢慢加入1 mL浓硫酸(勿摇动)。

绪论(食品化学)

食品化学肖军霞：博士，副教授Office:化学楼115E-mail:achievexiao@Food Chemistry（32学时）教材：《食品化学》夏延斌主编中国农业出版社，2004.8主要参考书1.《食品化学》王璋等编中国轻工业出版社1999年2.《食品化学》阚建全主编中国农大出版社2008年References4.Food Chemistry,Owen R.Fennema3rd Edition,19965.Food Chemistry,Belitz.Grosch.Second Edition,1999ContentsIntroductionChapter 1 WaterChapter 2 Carbohydrates Chapter 3 LipidsChapter 4 ProteinChapter 5 Vitamin and Mineral Chapter 6 EnzymeChapter 7 Pigments and Colorants Chapter 8 Flavor Chemistry绪论本章提要了解食品化学的研究内容、方法、食品化学的最新进展和动态。

重点掌握食品中主要的化学变化及其对食品品质和安全性的影响。

一、食品化学的概念二、食品化学的研究内容三、食品化学发展史与研究方法四、食品化学的学习方法与要求Introduction一、食品化学的概念一、食品化学的概念1、名词概念食品或食物具备营养功能；食品化学I tellyou!食品必需符合的基本要求：良好的风味特征；对人体无害。

食品的化学组成及理化性质食品中的化学成分Natural CompositionsUnnatural CompositionsInorganic CompositionsOrganic CompositionsFood AdditivesContaminantWaterMineralCarbohydratesLipidsProteinsVitaminsHormoneFlavor CompositionsToxic SubstancesNatural AdditivesSynthetic AdditivesProcessingEnvironmental Pollution食品中的基本营养素I tellyou!一、食品化学的概念1、名词概念食品化学：是从化学角度和分子水平研究食品的组成、结构、理化性质、生理和生化性质、营养与功能性质以及它们在食品储藏、加工和运销中的变化的学科。

生化英文名词解释

名词解释Glossary第一章蛋白质的结构与功能Chapter 1 Structure and Function of Proteinpeptide bond（肽键）：a covalent bond linking the α- amino group of one amino acid and theα-carboxyl group of another in a protein molecule.peptide（肽）：a molecule containing two or more amino acids linked by peptide bond. primary structure of protein（蛋白质的一级结构）：the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.secondary structure of protein（蛋白质的二级结构）：the spatial arrangement of local portions of a polypeptide chain.tertiary structure of protein（蛋白质的三级结构）：the spatial arrangement of all the atoms of a protein or a subunit.quaternary structure of protein（蛋白质的四级结构）：the spatial arrangement of a protein that consists of more than one folded polypeptide chain or subunit.subunit（亚基）：an individual polypeptide chain that associates with one or more separate chains to form a complete protein.motif（模序）：a substructure formed with two or more secondary-structure peptide segments that are drawn close to each other.domain（结构域）：a region within a protein, particularly within a large polypeptide, that functions in a semi-independent manner.positive cooperativity（正协同效应）：an effect that the binding of one ligand to a protein facilitates the subsequent ligand binding.allosteric effect（变构效应）：an effect that a small molecule, called an effector, noncovalently binds to a protein and alters its activity.isoelectric point（pI）of protein （蛋白质的等电点）：the pH at which a protein has an equal number of positive and negative charges and hence bears no net charge. denaturation of protein（蛋白质变性）： the disruption of the natively folded structure of a protein caused by exposure to heat, radiation, or chemicals, or change in pH, that leads to an alteration of chemical, physical and biological properties of the第二章核酸的结构与功能Chapter 2 Structure and Function of Nucleic Aciddenaturation of DNA（DNA的变性）：the disruption of the native conformation of DNA by separation of the DNA double helix into its two component strands, due to heat, chemicals, or change in pH, etc.hyperchromic effect（增色效应）：the increase in ultraviolet absorbance of a DNA while the DNA is denatured.melting temperature（Tm, 融解温度）：the temperature corresponding to half the maximal increase in ultraviolet absorbance of a thermally denatured DNA.annealing（退火）：the process of returning a thermally denatured DNA to its original native structure when it is cooled gradually.第三章酶Chapter 3 Enzymessimple enzyme（单纯酶）：an enzyme that consists of only polypeptide chain(s). conjugated enzyme（结合酶）：an enzyme with its polypeptide portion(apoenzyme) linked to one or more substance other than amino acids, such as metals or small organic molecules.holoenzyme（全酶）：a complete enzyme consisting of the apoenzyme portion plus the cofactor component.essential group（必需基团）： a chemical group on the side chain of amino acid residue of an enzyme that is closely related to the activity of the enzyme.active center / active site（活性中心）：the region of an enzyme molecule that contains the substrate binding site and the catalytic site for converting the substrate(s) into product(s).activation energy（活化能）：the threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction.absolute specificity（绝对特异性）：the extreme selectivity of an enzyme that allows it to catalyze only the reaction with a single substrate in the case of a monomolecular reaction, or the reaction with a single pair of substrates in the case of a bimolecularrelative specificity（相对特异性）：the relative selectivity of an enzyme that allows it to catalyze the reaction with one type of reactants or one type of chemical bond. stereospecificity（立体异构特异性）：the selectivity of an enzyme for a particular stereoisomer.zymogen（酶原）：the inactive precursor of an enzyme.zymogen activation（酶原激活）：the process in which a zymogen is converted to an active enzyme by limited proteolysis and subsequently the active center of the enzyme is formed or exposed.isoenzyme（同工酶）：multiple forms of an enzyme that catalyze the same reaction but differ from one another in one or more of the properties, such as structural, physical, chemical and even immunological properties.第四章糖代谢Chapter 4 Carbohydrate Metabolismglycolysis（糖酵解）： the anaerobic degradation of carbohydrate whereby a molecule of glucose is converted to two molecules of lactic acid.substrate-level phosphorylation（底物水平磷酸化）：the synthesis of ATP from ADP by the phosphorylation of ADP coupled with exergonic breakdown of a high-energy organic substrate molecules.Pastuer effect（巴斯德效应）：the phenomenon that the glycolytic pathway is inhibited under aerobic conditions.glycogen（糖原）： a highly branched polymer of glucose residues primarily in 1,4 linkage but with 1,6 linkage at branchpoints.gluconeogenesis（糖异生）： the synthesis of glucose or glycogen from noncarbohydrate molecules, i.e., lactic acid, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, etc.第五章脂类代谢Chapter 5 Lipid Metabolismessential fatty acids（必需脂肪酸）： the fatty acids, including linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid, which can not be synthesized in the mammalian body and must be obtained from diet.mobilization of fat（脂肪动员）： a process of lipolysis in which the fat stored in adipose tissues is converted to free fatty acids and glycerol, which are consequently released into blood so that they can be used in other tissues.β-oxidation of fatty acid（脂肪酸的β-氧化）： a process in which a fatty acid is degraded through a sequential removal of two-carbon fragments from the carboxyl end and therefore acetyl CoA is formed as the bond between the α- and β-carbon atoms is broken.ketone bodies（酮体）： a group of molecules, i.e., acetone, acetoacetate, and β–hydroxybutyrate, that are synthesized in the liver from acetyl CoA.第六章生物氧化Chapter 6 Biological Oxidationrespiratory chain （呼吸链）/ electron transfer chain（电子传递链）： a series of electron carriers responsible for the transport of reducing equivalent from metabolite to molecular oxygen, with the net results of capturing energy for use in ATP synthesis, and of the reduction of oxygen to water.P/O ratio（P/O比值）： the number of molecules of Pi consumed in ATP formation for each oxygen atom reduced to H2O.oxidative phosphorylation（氧化磷酸化）： the process in which the phosphorylation of ADP to yield ATP is coupled to the electron transport through respiratory chain. uncoupler（解偶联剂）： a molecule, such as dinitrophenol, that uncouples ATP synthesis from electron transport.第七章氨基酸代谢Chapter 7 Amino Acid Metabolismessential amino acids（必需氨基酸）： the amino acids，including valine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, phenylalanine, tryptophan methionine and lysine, that cannot be synthesized by animal body and must therefore be supplied by diet. transdeamination（联合脱氨基作用）： the coupled action of an aminotransferase and a glutamate dehydrogenase involved in deamination of the majority of amino acids. transamination（转氨基作用）： a reaction catalyzed by an aminotransferase, in which an amino group is transferred from an amino acid to a keto acid.ketogenic amino acids（生酮氨基酸）： the amino acids that can be converted to ketone bodies, i.e., leucine and lysine.glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids（生糖兼生酮氨基酸）： the amino acids, i.e., isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine and tryptophan, that can be converted to either ketone bodies or carbohydrates.one carbon units（一碳单位）/ one carbon groups（一碳基团）： organic groups, including methyl(—CH3), methylene(—CH2—), methenyl(—CH＝), formyl(—CHO) and formimino(—CH＝NH) groups, each containing only one carbon atom generated through catabolisms of some amino acids.第八章核苷酸代谢Chapter 8 Nucleotide Metabolismthe de novo pathway of nucleotide synthesis（核苷酸的从头合成途径）： a pathway through which nucleotides are synthesized by using simple molecules, such as ribose 5-phosphate, amino acids, one carbon units and carbon dioxide.the salvage pathway of nucleotide synthesis（核苷酸的补救合成途径）： a pathway through which nucleotides are synthesized by using the existing nitrogenous bases or nucleosides.第九章物质代谢的联系与调节Chapter 9 Integration and Regulation of Metabolismkey enzyme（关键酶）/ pacemaker enzyme（限速酶）/ regulatory enzyme（调节酶）：an enzyme that sets the rate for the entire biochemical pathway, usually catalyzes the slowest and irreversible step, and can be regulated by a number of metabolites and effectors in addition to its substrates.allosteric regulation（变构调节）： a regulatory mechanism through which a specific low-molecular-weight molecule, called an effector or a modulator, noncovalently binds to a regulatory site outside the active center of a regulatory enzyme and alters the conformation and activity of the enzyme.chemical modification（化学修饰调节）： a regulatory mechanism through which enzyme activities are regulated by means of reversible interconversion between the active and inactive forms of the enzyme resulted from enzyme-catalyzed covalent modificationto a specific amino acid residue.第十章 DNA的生物合成（复制）Chapter 10 Biosynthesis of DNA (Replication)replication（复制）：a process in which an exact copy of parental DNA is synthesized by using each polynucleotide strand of the parental DNA as templates. semiconservative replication（半保留复制）： duplication of DNA after which the daughter duplex carries one parental strand and one newly synthesized strand.DNA polymerase（DNA聚合酶）：any of various enzymes, with the full name of DNA dependent DNA polymerase, that catalyzes the formation of polynucleotides of DNA using an existing strand of DNA as a template.point mutation（点突变）：a mutation that causes the replacement of a single base pair with another, including nonsense mutation, missense mutation and silent mutation. frameshift mutation（框移突变）：a mutation of insertion or deletion of a genetic material that leads to a shift in the translation of the reading frame, resulting in a completely different translation.reverse transcriptase（逆转录酶）：any of various enzymes, with the full name of RNA dependent DNA polymerase, that catalyzes the formation of polynucleotides of DNA using an existing strand of RNA as a template.telomeres（端粒）： structures that occur at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes that prevent the unraveling of DNA.第十一章 RNA的生物合成（转录）Chapter 11 Biosynthesis of RNA (Transcription)RNA polymerase（RNA聚合酶）：any of various enzymes, with the full name of DNA dependent RNA polymerase, that catalyzes the formation of polynucleotides of RNA using an existing strand of DNA as a template.promoter（启动子）： a DNA sequence immediately before a gene that is recognized by RNA polymerase and signals the start point of transcription.intron（内含子）： a noncoding intervening sequence in a split or interrupted gene that is missing in the final RNA product.exon（外显子）： the region in a split or interrupted gene that codes for RNA which endup in the final product (e.g., mRNA).ribozyme（核酶）：ribonucleic acid with catalytic ability whose substrate is ribonucleic acid.第十二章蛋白质的生物合成（翻译）Chapter 12 Biosynthesis of Proteins (Translation)reading frame（阅读框）： a group of three nonoverlapping nucleotides that is read asa codon during protein synthesis. The reading frame begins with the initiator codonAUG.molecular chaperon (分子伴侣)：a sort of intracellular conservative protein, which can recognize the unnatural conformation of peptide and assist in the accurate folding of domains or the whole protein.signal peptide（信号肽）： a sequence of amino acid residues located at the N-terminal portion of a nascent secretory protein, which marks the protein for translocation across the rough endoplasmic reticulum.第十三章细胞信息转导Chapter 13 Cell Signalingprimary messenger（第一信使）： an extracellular signaling molecule that is released from the signaling cell and can regulate the physiological activity of the target cell.secondary messenger（第二信使）： a small intracellular molecule, such as Ca2+,cAMP, cGMP, diacylglycerol (DAG), inositol triphosphate (IP3), ceramide, or arachidonic acid (AA), etc., that is formed at the inner surface of the plasma membrane in response to a primary messenger.receptor （受体）： a molecular structure on the surface or interior of the target cell that specifically binds signaling molecule and initiates a response in the cell. ligand（配体）： a biologically active molecule that can bind to its specific receptor.G protein （G蛋白）/ guanylate binding proteins （鸟苷酸结合蛋白）：a trimeric guanylatebinding protein in the cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane that acts as a switch to turn activities on and off by interconversion between its monomeric GTPase andtrimeric GDP binding form.hormone response element （激素反应元件，HRE）：a specific DNA sequence that binds hormone-receptor complex; The binding of a hormone-receptor complex either enhances or diminishes the transcription of a specific gene.第十四章血液的生物化学Chapter 14 Biochemical Aspects of Bloodnon-protein nitrogen（非蛋白氮）：nitrogen contained in urea, creatine, creatinine, uric acid, bilirubin, and ammonia.acute phase protein（急性时相蛋白质）：a protein whose plasma concentration can be altered when acute inflammation or a certain type of tissue damage occurs.2,3-bisphosphoglyerate shunt（2,3-二磷酸甘油支路）：the pathway in erythrocyte glycolysis in which glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate(1,3-BPG) is isomerized to 2,3-bisphosphoglyerate(2,3-BPG) and the latter is consequently hydrolyzed to form 3-phosphoglycerate. The importance of 2,3-BPG in the erythrocyte lies in its ability to alter the extent to which hemoglobin binds with oxygen.第十五章肝的生物化学Chapter 15 Biochemical Aspects of the Liverbiotransformation（生物转化）： a series of enzyme-catalyzed processes through which non-nutritional molecules, which are usually hydrophobic, are converted into more soluble metabolites.jaundice（黄疸）： a clinical manifestation of hepatic disease, featuring yellow discolration of the plasma, skin, and mucous membranes, caused by bilirubin accumulation and staining.欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！致力为企业和个人提供合同协议，策划案计划书，学习资料等等打造全网一站式需求。

1.1carbohydrate

[记忆窍门] 该词和爬“crawl”很相近，由此联想到抽筋，易于记忆。 diarrhea n.腹泻；adj.腹泻的 [记忆窍门] 该词的前一部分“dia”和疾病“disease”相似，由此想到是一种疾病。
Text
2.1课文原文 Carbohydrate Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in most human diets, constituting from less than 40 to 80% of the calories. Current dietary guidelines recommend that the fat intake in Western countries should be decreased from around 40% at present to not more than 30% of the energy intake. The protein should be kept at about the present level, corresponding to 10-15% of the energy. Thus, the carbohydrate intake has to be increased to at least 55-60% of the energy.
吃”，吃什么呢？中国人当然吃米饭，而米饭里不是有很多淀粉吗？
Special words
oatmeal n.燕麦片 [记忆窍门] 该词可以分解为“oat”和“meal”，其中“oat”是燕麦； “meal”是饭的意思；由饭可以联想到吃，可以吃的燕麦形式就是燕麦片。 pasta n.面团（用以制意大利通心粉，细面条等） [记忆窍门] 由单词pasta可以联想到paste，为“粘贴”的意思，而贴东西用的糊状物通常是用面做成，由此很容易记住“pasta”为“面团” 。 peas n.豌豆( pea的名词复数 )； [记忆窍门] 单词“bean”是“豆”，而单词“peas”中含有“ea”，由此联想到该词一定是一种豆类； legumes n.豆科植物，豆类蔬菜( legume的名词复数 ) [记忆窍门] 单词“Legumes”可以被分解为“leg”和“ume”，其中 “leg”是“腿”，联想到豆荚通常是长长的，和“腿”有相似之处；同时 “ume” 为“梅花”之意，因二者都有香味而联系在一起。

chap.15 糖类(有机化学)

常用
chapter 15
8
单糖的开链结构和构型
D型糖与L型糖是对映体，根据D型糖可写出相应的L型糖
CHO H HO H H OH H OH OH CH2OH HO H HO HO CHO H OH H H CH2OH
O C HO H H CH2OH L-(-)-甘油醛
D-葡萄糖
L-葡萄糖
chapter 15
1）用斐林试剂、托伦试剂、班氏试剂氧化
CHO H HO H H OH H OH OH CH2OH Tollens Fehling Benedict' H HO H H COOH OH H OH OH CH2OH
D-葡萄糖
D-葡萄糖酸
还原糖——能与托伦试剂、班氏试剂或费林试剂反应的糖称为还原糖。（所有的单糖、具有变旋作用的二糖）非还原糖——不能与上述试剂反应的糖为非还原糖
21
成苷反应
糖苷中，非糖部分叫配糖基，连接配糖基与糖苷基的键叫苷键
CH2OH O O－CH3 OH OH OH
配糖基
苷键不同的苷键（α-苷键和β-苷键）需用不同的酶水解
chapter 15
22
糖苷的特点
无色无味晶体，味苦，水溶性大，有旋光性无变旋现象，不能成脎反应，无还原性与醚的性质类似，在碱性条件下稳定，在酸性或酶的催化下易水解由α-半缩醛羟基形成的苷键称为α- 苷键由β-半缩醛羟基形成的苷键称为β-苷键不同的苷键需不同的酶水解
葡萄糖的六元环Haworth结构并不能解释为什么它的两种异构体在平衡体系中含量不同。吡喃糖六元环与环己烷相似，分子不是平面结构，椅式构象是稳定构象。
不等性sp3杂化
O
吡喃环

(精华版)国家开放大学电大《高级英语阅读(1)》网络课形考网考作业及答案

(精华版)国家开放大学电大《高级英语阅读(1)》网络课形考网考作业及答案100%通过考试说明：2020年秋期电大把该网络课纳入到“国开平台”进行考核，该课程共有2个形考任务，针对该门课程，本人汇总了该科所有的题，形成一个完整的标准题库，并且以后会不断更新，对考生的复习、作业和考试起着非常重要的作用，会给您节省大量的时间。

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课程成绩按百分制计分，各章exercise测验占70%，计分学习活动占20％，网上学习表现占10%。

三项成绩都有且总分达到60分及以上，方可获得课程学分。

形考任务一（70分）Chapter 1 Exercise（分值7分）题目1I. Vocabulary skills（3 points）Look at the columns below. Match each vocabulary word on the right with the correct definition on the left.(0.5 points each)1.the bus or subway2.proof of completion of courses of students3.money for students from scholarships, grants, or loans4.formal talks by professors or instructors on subjects of study5.courses by video, video conferencing, or computers to students in different places6.the points or grade a student gets on a test答案：II. Reading Comprehension (4 points)Read the passages, then answer the questions that follow. (1 point each )Experiencing Culture ShockA When Eliza James arrived at the University of Xian, she was excited to live in a new country, to improve her Chinese, and to experience a culture so different from her own. But soon her excitement turned tofrustration as she encountered one roadblock after another. "I felt like I couldn't accomplish anything. My dorm room had no heat, I couldn't get into the classes I wanted, and every time I asked someone for help they gave me the runaround. I felt like no one was listening to me." Eliza met with administrators, sent letters of complaint, and even contacted the consulate in Beijing, but she got nowhere. What Eliza didn't realize was that her American approach to solving problems was very different from the Chinese one in which patience and negotiation skills are key. She soon learned how to solve problems within the cultural norms of Chinese society instead of forcing her own values onto those around her. "I finally feel like I fit in and that I know what I'm doing. In fact, it's really fun being in a place that's so incredibly different from what I am accustomed to."B Yoshi Yamamoto is a junior at a small college outside of Boston. Although he is an honors student now, Yoshi didn't always have such an easy time studying in America. "Teaching methods are very different here than they are in Japan. It took me a long time to get used to learning in seminars and discussing ideas with my classmates. At first it seemed like I wasn't actually learning anything." Yoshi's reaction was to totally withdraw: he didn't participate in class discussion; he spent lots of time alone in his room, and he even skipped class on occasion. "I thought I could teach myself. Now I recognize the value of the U.S. academic system, and I am able to adapt it to my own learning style."C Both Eliza and Yoshi experienced what is called culture shock: psychological disorientation due to living in a new culture. For many international students, studying abroad can offer exposure to new cultures and an opportunity to study new fields and languages. However, it also offers the greater challenge of trying to function in a foreign culture. Studying and reading about a certain culture is poor preparation for the reality of living in it. According to psychological studies, the four stages of culture shock are 1. euphoria, 2. hostility, 3. gradual adjustment, and 4. adaptation. Culture shock can be manifested in many ways: homesickness, boredom, stereotyping of or hostility towards the host culture, overeating or overdrinking, withdrawal, and inability to work effectively.D Different people experience different levels of culture shock and react in different ways. For example, Eliza got angry while Yoshi withdrew from society. The most important thing to remember is that culture shock is normal; it is not something to be ashamed of. Luckily, there are some things international students can do to make their adjustment to a new country go more smoothly. For instance, they can stay in touch with family and friends from home, join international student organizations, meet people from their own countries, and get involved in campus activities. Most importantly, they can adjust to life abroad by keeping a sense of humor and trying to remain positive.Recognizing Paragraph Topics（choose the paragraph letter）题目27. an explanation of culture shock选择一项：C. C题目38. ways that students can adjust to living in a new country选择一项：D. D题目49. the experience of an international student in the United States选择一项：B. B题目510. the experience of an international student in China选择一项：A. AChapter 2 Exercise（分值7分）题目1I. Vocabulary Skills（2 points）Sometimes examples can explain the meaning of a word or phrase. For example, sun, rain, and wind are examples of kinds of weather. Look at the columns below. Match each vocabulary word or phrase in the first column with the examples in the second column. (0.4 points each)1.kinds of extreme weather2.Earth’s natural materials and gases3. diseases or health disorders4. seasons of the year5. natural areas or regions of the earth答案：II. Reading Comprehension (5 points)Complete the following statements by choosing the best from the answers A, B or C. (1 point each) Seasonal Affective Disorder: More than Just the BluesA Joshua dreads the winter months, not only because of the cold New England weather--the sleet, snow, wind, and rain--but because as the seasons change from summer to fall to winter, the days get shorter. As the days get shorter, he starts feeling depressed and irritable and spends more and more time at home, eating and sleeping. A graduate student in philosophy, Joshua finds that he gets little work done during the winter months and has trouble paying attention in class and concentrating on his research. "I soon realized that what I thought was just the 'winter blues' was something more extreme than that." Josh visited a doctor who diagnosed him with SAD.B Seasonal Affective Disorder, or SAD, is a kind of depression that occurs seasonally. It is associated with the long hours of darkness and lack of sunlight during the winter months (people with SAD usually feel worse from December through February). Scientists don't completely understand the exact causes of SAD, but they believe it is related to a biochemical imbalance in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the basic part of the brain that controls the body's breathing, heartbeat, metabolism, and hormone release. The effects of SAD include moodiness, irritability, low energy, increased appetite for carbohydrates (foods such as potatoes, rice, and bread), difficulty concentrating, and the tendency to oversleep.C Although doctors described SAD for the first time in 1984, humans have probably dealt with the disorder for thousands of years. It is not a coincidence that many cultures have important celebrations during the short days of the winter months. Christmas, Hanukkah, and Winter Solstice celebrations all occur in December. These celebrations involve lighting candles in order to bring light, warmth, and happiness to an otherwise depressing time of year.D So what can SAD sufferers do to feel better? Naturally, they need more light. For people who have mild cases of SAD, exercising in the morning sun could be enough to help them. Phototherapy, or light therapy, is usually prescribed for people who have more serious cases of the disorder. In light therapy, patients sit in front of a light box, a strong artificial light, for up to four hours a day. Phototherapy is effective in over 80% of SAD cases, and patients usually see results within three to four days. Although the symptoms of SAD are similar to those of clinical depression, traditional antidepressants have not proven useful in treating SAD. While psychological counseling cannot treat the symptoms of SAD, it is recommended to help SAD sufferers learn to accept and deal with their illness.题目26. Joshua starts feeling depressed and irritable in the winter because选择一项：B. he suffers from Seasonal Affective Disorder题目37. Seasonal Affective Disorder, or SAD, is a condition that researchers believe affects people during the winter months. Scientists believe it is caused by选择一项：C. lack of sunlight and a biochemical imbalance in the brain题目48. Humans have probably struggled with SAD since选择一项：A. ancient times题目59. People who suffer from SAD can to feel better.选择一项：A. do light therapy题目610. This passage talks about_____.选择一项：B. Both A and B.Chapter 3 Exercise（分值7分）I. Reading Comprehension (5 points)Read the passages, then answer the questions that follow. (1 point each )Fast food can be good foodMany people are too busy to prepare and eat three nutritious meals a day.so they turn to the convenience of fast-food restaurants. Many of the items at fast-food restaurants, snack bars, and food stands are fattening and not very nutritious.But fast food d oesn’t have to be unhealthy.you can eat at fast-food restaurants and still eat well.Pay Attention to Calories and Fat ContentBy paying attention to the number of calories and fat that a food item has ,you can make smarter choices.Calories are “units for measuring how much energy a food will produce”.condsider two fast-food meals. A quarter-pound hamburger with cheese, jumbo-size fries,and a 16-ounce soda have a total of 1,535 calories and 76 grams of fat .a broiled (cooked under direct heat or over a flame )chicken sandwich ,a side salad with low-fat dressing,and a glass of water at the same fast-food restaurant have only 422 calories and 7 grams of fat .but maybe you really want a hamburger and fries .well,you can have a small hamburger,a small serving o f fries,and a glass of water.At a total of 490 calories and 20 grams of fat,that’s stilla much smarter choice than the large burger ,fries,and 20 grams of fat ,that’s still a much smarter choice than the large burger,fries,and sada.There’s More That You Can DoThere are a few additional things you can do to make sure you eat well in fast food restaurantS.First of all,say “no” when the cashier asks you if you want to “supersize” you meal (order an extra large portion of each item).Second, ask for no mayonnaise or sauce,or ask for it on the side (in a separate dish).Third,substitute(use something instead of something else)healthy foods for fatty ones. For example,instead of ordering deep-fried tempura,order fresh vegetables.Instead of ordering a beef burrito with lots of cheese and sour cream,order a vegetable burrito with beans and rice.and don’t eat the chips!Another thing you can do is order a side salad or a vegetable soup and eat it first.That way,you will eat some vegetables,and you won’t be able to eat as much of your burger and fries.Fnally,eat slowly and stop eating when you’re full. It sounds simple,but many people keep eating even after they become full.题目11.What is the main idea of this article ?________选择一项：C. You can eat well in fast-food restaurant题目22.A small hamburger and small firies has __________选择一项：A. more calories and fat than a chicken sandwich and a salad.题目33.Some things you can do to eat well in fast-food restaurants are________选择一项：D. order healthy foods instead of fatty ones and drink water.题目44.Manyonnaise and sauces probably_________选择一项：C. have a lot of fat and calories.题目55. By eating a salad or soup before the rest of your meal,_______选择一项：A. you eat less of the rest of your meal.II. Vocabulary skills（2 points）Read the paragraph below and fill in each blank with a word from the box. (0.4 points each)题目6changes damaging losing global availableThe growing similarities in diet and eating habits around the world are influencing people of various cultures in different ways. For example, Western foods are 6 damaging health in the industrialized island country of Japan. Instead of small meals of seafood, rice, and vegetables, the typical Japanese diet now includes large amounts of meat, dairy products, and desserts like tiramisu, a rich Italian dish full of chocolate, cheese, and sugar. According to Japanese health researchers, such 7 changes in eating habits are related to a great increase in health problems such as heart disease, strokes, cancer, and diabetes. On the other hand, the changing 8 global diet is having the opposite effect on the people in the CzechRepublic. The government of this European nation no longer supports meat and dairy products financially, so the cost of these foods is going up. In contrast, fresh fruits and vegetables are becoming more widely 9 available from private markets and stands. Cooks are even serving salads to schoolchildren, and families are eating healthier home-cooked meals. For these reasons, fewer Czech men are having heart attacks, the women are 10 losing a lot of weight, and most people are living healthier lives.Chapter 4 Exercise（分值7分I. Vocabulary Skills（2 points）题目1Match each vocabulary word on the left with the correct definition on the right. (0.4 points each)1.make sense2.pedestrians3.vehicle4.teenager5.fine答案：II. Reading Comprehension (5 points)Complete the following statements by choosing the best from the answers A, B, C, or D. (1 point each)These days, it’s getting easier and easier to find your way around. Some people have GPS devices in their cars to make sure they don’t get lost. GPS stands for Global Positioning System. These devices use satellites in space to “see” where you are and give you directions to where you want to go. And if you don’t have a GPS device, you can simply go online to get step-by-step directions. Websites like and can produce a map and directions in just a few seconds. But how do they do it? MapQuest® uses data (informatio n) from a few different sources to produce directions and maps. Before MapQuest® went online, it sold regular paper maps in places like gas stations. The website uses the data from those paper maps, information from digital mapping companies, and government databases. At the moment, MapQuest® uses more than 30 computers to read all this data and provides users with millions of maps every day.In order to find the best route (way or path) from one place to another, MapQuest® first has to look at all possible routes. Then MapQuest® looks at each part of each possible route. It considers the types of roads on the different routes. Are they dirt roads, paved roads, freeways, or city streets? It looks at how many turns there are in each route and what kinds of turns they are. Are they right turns or left turns? It also considers the speed limit on each road and how many intersections there are. An intersection is “a place where two or more roads cross each other”.MapQuest® can also tell you how long your trip will take you. It does this by doing some math. MapQuest® bases its estimated driving times on the length and speed limit of each part of the route and the amount of time it probably takes to get through each intersection. For example, it allows more time for a left turn at an intersection than it does for a right turn. Someday, maybe we will have cars that can just drive us wherever we want to go, but for now, mapping websites make it a little harder to get lost.题目26.What is the main idea of this article?选择一项：C. How mapping websites work.题目37.According to the article, MapQuest®______选择一项：D. starting by selling paper maps.题目48.When you search for directions, the first thing MapQuest® does is_______选择一项：D. look at all possible paths.题目59.When it’s deciding on the best route, MapQuest® probably chooses ________选择一项：C. freeways instead of dirt roads.题目610. To estimate your driving time, MapQuest® considers _________选择一项：D. the speed limits and types of turns on your route.Chapter 5 Exercise（分值7分）I. Reading Comprehension (5 points)Read the five main-idea questions that follow about the information in the reading. Three details correctly answer each question. Cross out the untrue, unrelated detail. (1 point each )题目11. What are the definitions of the two main types of families?选择一项：D. The nuclear family is the same as the extended family.题目22. What are the reasons for the changes in the structure of the family?选择一项：A. The divorce rate went down and the birthrate began to rise in the early 1900s in the United States. 题目33. What happened to families in industrialized countries in the 1930s and 1940s?选择一项：A. Before and during World War II, families faced few financi al problems and women didn’t have to work away from home.题目44. What changes will happen to family structure during the next decades?选择一项：D. After the war, there were more divorces and fewer stay-home-mothers.题目55. What will families be like in the future?选择一项：B. Two-parent family will probably come back and all other family forms will end.II. Vocabulary Skills（2 points）Read the paragraph below and fill in each blank with a word from the box. ( 0.4 points each)题目6living extended category typical believeThe Family of the FutureMany people today would like the traditional two-parent family back—that is to say, they want a man and a woman to marry for life; they also think the man should sport the family and the woman should stay home with the children. However, few families now fall into this 6 category In fact, if more women decide to have children on their own, the single-parent household may become more 7typica l than the traditional family in many countries. Also, unmarried couples may decided to have more children—or they might take in foster children or adopt. And because people are staying single and 8 living longer (often as widows), there may be more one-person households in the future. On the other hand, some people 9believe similar events happen again and again in history. If this is true, people may go back to the traditional 10 extended or nuclear family of the past. Others think the only certainty in history is changing: in other words, the structure of the future family could begin to change faster and faster—and in more and more ways.Chapter 6 Exercise（分值7分）I. Vocabulary skills（2 points）Complete the following statements by choosing the best from the answers A, B, C, or D. （0.4 points each）题目11. Some examples of the architecture of old Europe are the magnificent cathedrals and castles. The design and building styles of modern architecture are excellent too. What does the noun architecture mean in these sentences?选择一项：D. the form and plan of buildings and other structures题目22. Perhaps the real beginning of civilization—with its scientific and technological discoveries and inventions—was in the Middle East and Africa. Over five thousand years ago, those ancient civilizations had astronomy, mathematics, medicine, government, and so on. Which word is a synonym of the word civilization? 选择一项：C. culture题目33. The cultural legacy of ancient Chinese and Indian peoples included walled cities, the first governments, tools for work, and weapons for protection. odern peoples built on this legacy.What is a possible explanationof the word legacy?选择一项：A. ideas and achievements passed from earlier generations to modern society题目44. “For me, the idea of ancient culture creates a contradiction in definitions,” said Karen, going against Mei’s views. “Only modern things can be part of culture.Of course, people that li ke classical art and music will contradict me.”What might the noun contradiction mean?选择一项：A. the opposition of two opinions题目55. Because of the worldwide media—movies, TV, CDs, the Internet, newspapers, magazines—everybody knows the same information, plays the same music, and enjoys the same jokes.How might you define the phrase the media?选择一项：A. the combination of visual, sound, and printed ways to send ideas around the worldII.Reading Comprehension (5 points)Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write “T” for True and “F” for False. （1 point each）题目6Many visitors to different countries don’t realize how important it is to understand a country’s culture. Sometimes people learn this lesson by making a big cross-cultural blunder, or embarrassing mistake. In business situations, these blunders can cost a lot of money or end business relationships.6.It is important to understand other people’s cultures before you do business with them.选择一项：B. T题目7For example, one company wanted to sell toothpaste in Southeast Asia. In their advertisements, they claimed that their toothpaste whitens teeth. They didn’t understand that many of the local people chewed betel nuts to make their teeth black, and that these people thought black teeth were attractive.7. The toothpaste company probably kept using the same advertisement in Southeast Asia.选择一项：题目8In an other case, a car company tried to sell a car called “Matador” in a Spanish-speaking country. The company thought that it was a strong name because it means “bullfighter”. In Spanish, matador is indeed a noun meaning “bullfighter”. But it is also an adjective meaning “killing”. Imagine driving around in a car called “Killing”!8. The car company that tried to sell a car to a Spanish-speaking country probably didn’t sell many Matador cars in that country.选择一项：B. T题目9A European businessman had an important meeting with a company in Taiwan. He wanted to bring gifts for the people he was meeting with. He thought that something with his company’s logo on it would be a nice gift. So he bought some very nice pocket knives a nd had his company’s logo printed on them. He didn’t know that giving a knife as a gift symbolizes cutting off a friendship!9. The European businessman probably researches new cultures before he visits them now.选择一项：A. T题目10It’s very easy to make blunders like these people did. But it’s also very easy not to. Before you visit a new country, research that country’s customs and etiquette (social rules for polite behavior). You can find a lot of information online. Just go to a search engine and type in key words like “cross-cultural etiquette” or “cultural information Taiwan”. By spending a few minutes doing research, you can save yourself from a lot of embarrassment and make sure you don’t accidentally offend anyone.10. What you can disagree with people to save yourself from making cross-cultural blunders.选择一项：B. FChapter 7 Exercise（分值7分）I. Reading Comprehension (5 points)Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write “T” for True and “F” for False on the Answer Sheet. (1 point each)题目1For instance, a doctor doesn’t always have time to thoroughly explain an illness. In these cases, the Internet1. One benefit of using the Internet as a medical resource is it has a lot of information about illnesses and diseases.选择一项：B. T题目2For example, some websites claim that sniffing (smelling) a newspaper can cure nausea (the feeling of being sick to your stomach and wanting to vomit).2. One possible remedy for nausea is drinking a lot of tea.选择一项：B. F题目3Other websites suggest that a person with a cold should keep a piece of raw garlic in his or her mouth all day and bite down on it every few minutes to release the juice. People with smelly feet are told to soak their feet in tea for half an hour.3. The websites remedies might be unpleasant or odd, but they probably will cause harm. And who knows? They might actually be unhelpful.选择一项：A. F题目4An herbal remedy for helping your memory may also be a blood thinner. So if your doctor prescribed (put you on) a blood thinner and you start taking this herb without asking your doctor about it, a simple cut could be deadly; you might not be able to stop bleeding.4. A person who is taking a prescribed drug should probably talk to the doctor before taking an herbal remedy.选择一项：B. T题目5The bottom line is this: be careful when using the Internet as a health resource. Use it to find information that you can discuss with your doctor. But don’t spend a lot of money on “miracle cures”.5. The best way to use the Internet as a medical resource is to read about your illness and discuss what you find out with your doctor.选择一项：II. Vocabulary skills（2 points）Read the paragraph below and fill in each blank with a word from the box. ( 0.4 points each)题目6disease substance classification prevent figureIn a small-town farm market, hundreds of elderly people drink a glass of sour dark cherry juice every day. These happy senior citizens, some of them over the age of 90, claim that the natural fruit juice cures—or at least decreases—the pain of their arthritis, a 6 disease of the joints of the aging body. It’s a folk remedy, not a proven medical therapy. Nevertheless, science is beginning to 7 figure out why sour cherry juice might work to improve the health of patients with arthritis. The secret is in the 8 substance that gives the cherries their dark red color. It belongs to a 9 classification of natural nutrients that color blueberries, strawberries, plums, and other fruits—and vegetables too. Moreover, these coloring substances may help to 10 prevent serious health disorders like heart disease and cancer. In other words, vitamins and fiber ar e not the only reasons to eat fruits and vegetables. “To take advantage of natural whole foods,” advise nutritionists.Chapter 8 Exercise（分值7分）I. Vocabulary Skills（2 points）Complete the following statements by choosing the best from the answers A, B, C, or D. ( 0.4 points each) 题目11.At all hours, the media offer language learners “real-life” audio visual instruction and practice in aural comprehension.选择一项：B. understanding spoken language题目22. High-quality TV programming —a good plan of shows about various fields of study—can increase people’s knowledge and improve their thinking abilities.选择一项：D. choice and organization of shows题目33. Television and video provide almost everyone with good entertainment—a pleasant way to relax and spend free time at home.选择一项：A. amusement or pleasure4. Images of violence on the screen scare people, giving them terrible nightmares when they sleep.选择一项：D. behavior that hurts people题目55. The talk shows of “trash TV” make instant “stars” of real people with strange or immoral ideas, who tell their most personal secrets, shout angrily, and attack one another.选择一项：C. shows without qualityII. Reading Comprehension (5 points)Complete the following sentences by choosing the best from the answers A, B, C, or D. (1 point each)AEveryone makes mistakes, or so the saying goes. But have you ever heard about mistakes in Hollywood? When most people think of Hollywood, they think of blockbusters (very successful movies), high-paid actors, glitz, and glamour. But according to one Website, many Hollywood movies are full of mistakes. Some are technical errors. For instance, in a scene of the science-fiction adventure film The Matrix, when the main character steps out of his car, the viewer can clearly see the camera crew in the car window. In another scene, the same character is typing on his computer, yet the computer screen is blank. Other movie mistakes are historical. For example, the epic Gladiator, an Oscar winner, is known for having lots of historical errors. Throughout the movie, the gladiator Maximus refers to his home in Spain, and the other characters call him "the Spaniard." However, in 180 A.D., when the movie takes place, Spain as a country or even as a concept didn't exist yet. At another point in the movie, Maximus says that his homeland of Spain has "the best horses." But horses weren't brought to the Iberian Peninsula until the invasion of the Moors (North Africans) in 711 A.D, more than 500 years after the movie takes place. The historical drama Titanic, another Oscar winner, also has its share of historical blunders. The Titanic sunk in the year 1912. So why is one of the characters wearing a digital watch? In fact, movie watchers have found over 100 mistakes in The Matrix, Gladiator, and Titanic. Can you think of any errors in your favorite films?BHow susceptible are you to advertising? Has a TV commercial or magazine ad ever made you buy the product that was advertised? If so, perhaps you have been subjected to subliminal advertising. Subliminal advertising is a kind of advertising that appeals to the subconscious. The word "subliminal" comes from the Latin "sub" meaning "lower," "beneath," or "under," and "limen" meaning "threshold," (the level at which something begins to happen). Thus, subliminal advertising stimulates your brain at a level below conscious perception. You。

华中农业大学食品化学与分析ppt幻灯片

食
品
中
的
Organic Compositions
化
学
成
分
Water
食
Mineral
品中
Carbohydrates 的
Lipids
基本
Proteins
营
Vitamins
养素
Hormone
Flavor Compositions
Toxic Substances
Food Additives Unnatural Compositions
Food Club!
The End
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食品化学与分析华中农业大学食品科技学院
Food Chemistry and Analysis
（80 学时）教材：Textbook Series for 21st century
1.《食品化学》谢笔钧主编科学出版社 2004.6
2.《食品分析与感官评定》吴谋成主编中国农业出版社 2002.3
A. L. avoisier (France) ( 1743-1794）
C. W. Scheele (Sweden) (1742-1786）
Nicolas (France)
( 1767-1845)
J. V. Liebig (Germany) （1803-1873）
M. E. Chevreul (France) ( 1786-1889)
5. Food Chemistry, Belitz. Grosch. Second Edition, 1999
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Water Chapter 3 Carbohydrates Chapter 4 Lipids Chapter 5 Protein Chapter 6 Vitamin and Mineral Chapter 7 Pigments and Colorants Chapter 8 Flavor Chemistry (1) Chapter 9 Flavor Chemistry (2)

Carbohydrate(二)

H HO H H CHO OH H OH OH CH 2 OH H HO HO H CHO OH H H OH CH 2 OH
D -G lu c o s e
D -G a la c to s e
Glucose and Galactose半乳糖 are therefore epimers.
2. Ring structure
Mutarotation 变旋现象：interconversion of αand β-anomers
•The α- and β- anomers of carbohydrates are typically stable solids. However, in aqueous solution, they quickly equilibrate to an equilibrium mixture of the two forms. •For example, in aqueous solution, glucose exists as a mixture of 36% α- and 64% β- (>99% of the pyranose forms exist in solution). •The equilibration occurs via the ring opening of the cyclic sugar at the anomeric center with the acyclic无环的 form as the intermediate.
They may also be divided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and so forth, depending on how many carbon atoms they contain.

第十五章糖类化合物

CHO CH2OH
(+)- 葡萄糖 (glucose,G)
(2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5,6-五羟基己醛
CH2OH CO
CO
CH2OH
(-)-果糖 (fructose,F)
(-)-果糖C3以下各手性碳原子的构型与(＋)-葡萄糖的完全一样。
CHO
CH2OH 核糖
CHO
H
HH
H
CH2OH 2-脱氧核糖
“碳水化合物”(carbohydrates) 定义：多羟基醛、多羟基酮及其缩合物。
糖类据其能否水解及水解后生成分子数的多少，可分为3类： ➢ 单糖(monosaccharides) 果糖和葡萄糖等 ➢ 低聚糖或寡糖(oligosaccharides) 蔗糖、麦芽糖、纤维二糖、环糊精等
➢ 多糖(polysaccharides)-水解后生成10个分子以上单糖, 淀粉、糖原、纤维素
（二）单糖的相对构型
糖类的相对构型是由编号最大的手性碳原子的构型所决定的。
CHO
CHO
...... ......
H * OH
CH2OH
D-型糖
HO * H
CH2OH
L-型糖
如：
*
*
CH2OH
CH2OH
D-(＋)-葡萄糖 L-(—)-葡萄糖
L-阿洛糖 D-阿洛糖 L-阿卓糖 D-阿卓糖 L-葡萄糖 D-葡萄糖 L-甘露糖 D-甘露糖
2. 与溴水的反应——区别酮糖和醛糖
溴水能氧化醛糖而不能氧化酮糖；因为溴水是酸性试剂，酮糖因不发生差向异构化而不被氧化。
3. 与硝酸的反应稀硝酸能把醛糖氧化成糖二酸
CHO
溴水
稀 HNO3

Carbohydrates

• Cellulose has a branch-free linear structure, which allows hydrogen bonding to occur between adjacent cellulose molecules, resulting in strong, parallel groupings of molecules called microfibrils. • Chitin occurs in the cell walls of fungi, in certain algae, in the exoskeletons of arthropods, and in some cephalopods.
Principles of Biology
Carbohydrates
Figure 5 Disaccharides.
Maltose and sucrose are disaccharide sugars made up of two monomers.
Principles of Biology
Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides are relatively bulky and are therefore inefficient to store, so organisms convert those not immediately needed into polysaccharides. • A covalent bond called a glycosidic linkage connects structures made of multiple monomers. • The simplest polymer is two linked monosaccharides-a disaccharide. • Glycosidic linkages are formed when a hydroxyl (OH) group is lost from one monomer and a hydrogen (H) atom is lost from the other, resulting in the release of a water (H2O) molecule (a dehydration or condensation reaction), creating polysaccharides.

Chapter15 Carbohydrates

英语《阅读教程》第一册答案

carbohydrates 中国医科大学 糖代谢 生物化学 英文

U340食品生物化学(英文)Chapter 7 carbohydrates

Chapter 5 Carbohydrates共32页文档

生物学-糖类学习资料

Carbohydrates

化学基础英文20糖类化合物_carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

绪论(食品化学)

生化英文名词解释

1.1carbohydrate

chap.15 糖类(有机化学)

(精华版)国家开放大学电大《高级英语阅读(1)》网络课形考网考作业及答案

华中农业大学食品化学与分析ppt幻灯片

Carbohydrate(二)

第十五章糖类化合物

Carbohydrates

carbohydrates 中国医科大学糖代谢生物化学英文