06Chapter+6_cognitionIV
NHCE L&S-4 Unit 06 (原文和答案)
Book IV Unit 06 The Truth Can be Stranger Than FictionAims: Describing SuperstitionsArguing for a PossibilityAdding InformationKey Words:mascot: 吉祥物(a person, animal or thing thought to bring good luck to a team or group)charm: 护身符(an object thought to have magical powers)cone: 圆锥体pull off: (计划)获得成功(succeed in)stunt: 特技(trick; daring, deceptive movement)straitjacket: 约束衣(a long-sleeved jacket used to bind the arms of a mentally ill person to the body and prevent him from struggling)handcuffs: 手铐(metal rings that a police officer puts around a prisoner's wrists to stop them from using their hands or arms)canvas: 帆布(strong heavy cotton cloth used for making tents, shoes, and sails)monitor: 监视器(a piece of equipment used for checking whether something is present)doom: 命中注定(condemn someone to an unpleasant fate)crucify: 钉在十字架上(put someone to death by nailing or binding to a cross)feast: 宴会(splendid meal with many good things to eat and drink)statue: 雕像(a human or animal image that is made of stone, wood, metal, etc., usually of life size or more than life size )alien: 外星人(a person or creature from a planet other than Earth)Polynesian: 波利尼西亚人seafarer: 船员, 航海者(navigator; crew member)canoe: 独木舟(a long narrow boat that you push through the water using a paddle)abandon: 放弃(give up)carve: 雕刻, 切(make an object by cutting it from stone or wood)upright: 直立的(straight and tall)pulley: 滑轮cannibalism: 食人俗( practice of eating human flesh)demon: 魔鬼(an evil supernatural being; a devil)brag: 吹牛(boast)braggart: 吹牛的人(a person who boasts)mistletoe: 槲寄生(an evergreen shrub)poll: 民意测验(investigate in a survey)talisman: 护身符(an object often marked with special magic signs or words and believed to give unusual power or protection)Solomon: 所罗门（古代以色列国王，以智慧著称）(ancient king of Israel known for his wisdom)flying saucer: 飞碟(an unidentified flying object believed to come from outer space)spacecraft: 太空船(a vehicle intended to be launched into space)frisbee: 飞盘(a plastic disk-shaped toy that players throw and catch)ET: 外星人(extraterrestrial; alien)tempting: 诱惑人的(attractive; appealing)abduct: 诱拐；绑架(carry off by force; kidnap)Briton: 大不列颠人；英国人ambiguity: 含糊；暧昧(uncertainty)respondent: 答卷人(a person who answers questions in a questionnaire)flush: 冲洗(clean or wash with a rush of water)crescent: 月牙；新月形(a narrow curved shape like a new moon)disguise: 伪装(something that you wear to change the way you look so that people will not recognize you) shoe: 为马钉蹄铁(put a horseshoe on a horse's foot)arc: 弧形(a curved shape)sock: 短袜(a piece of clothing made of soft material that you wear on your foot inside your shoe)load: 装子弹、弹药(put bullets into a gun)cannibal: 食人者(a person who eats human flesh)stake: 桩(a wooden or metal post with a pointed end used for supporting or marking something) archaeologist: 考古学家(an expert who studies ancient civilization by analyzing physical remains found in the ground)Cairo: 开罗(the capital and largest city of Egypt)antiquity: 古代(ancient times)namesake: 同名的人；同名物(person or thing having the same name as another)Mediterranean: 地中海(the sea that is surrounded by the countries of southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East)plot: 地块(a piece of land)permit: 许可(permission, especially in written form)certify: 证明(formally declare)limestone: 石灰石sarcophagus: 石棺(a stone coffin)statuette: 小雕像(a small statue)raid: 侵入(enter another's territory for the purpose of seizing goods or valuables)sewage water: 污水artifact: 手工艺品(an object produced or shaped by human craft)tedious: 使人厌烦的(tiring and boring)Cultural Tipsbe all ears: listen attentivelydate back to: have existed since a particular time in the pastgo nuts: become crazyII. Listening SkillsQuestion 1W: What's that? Is it a toy? Did it get chewed by a dog?M: Hey, that's my mascot! My uncle gave it to me when I was five, and it's been with me ever since. It brought me luck in all my college exams. I can't bring myself to part with it.Q: What does the man say about his lucky charm?Key: CQuestion 2W: Wish me luck; I've got a job interview this afternoon. I'm really nervous.M: Stay calm, best of luck! I've got my fingers crossed for you.Q: Why does the man say he has crossed his fingers for the woman?Key: CQuestion 3W: Oh no! Did you see that black cat walk fight in front of me? That's unlucky!M: Really? I guess it depends on where you come from. In my hometown it's the opposite: It's lucky to see a black cat cross your path. So no freed to worry!Q: What do the man and the woman think about a black cat crossing their path?Key: AQuestion 4M: Guess what I did this morning? I smashed my mirror. A great way to start the day !W: Oh no, seven years' bad luck, isn't it?Q: What happened in the morning?Key: DQuestion 5M: I can’t believe this rain; it’s been pouring for hours! Where can I dry my umbrella?W: Not in here please! It is unlucky to open an umbrella indoors. You can put it on the porch.Q: Where does the woman ask the man to open his umbrella?Key: BIII. Listening InTask 1: David Copperfield is Coming.W: My brother is going to pick up some tickets for the David Copperfield show. You interested in coming with us? M: I don't know. I've seen card tricks before, and rabbits from hats I even do tricks myself watch me change this coin into an ice cream cone.W: Very funny. David Copperfield is the world's greatest magician; he's certainly worth a look.M: Actually, I have seen him on television. He pulls off some pretty amazing stunts. I wish I knew how he performed his tricks. Then I could also make a person float in the air. I could pull a rabbit out of my hat. I could escape from a straitjacket and handcuffs--all underwater. And I could saw a woman in half.W: A magician never tells his secrets. David attempts the impossible and no one has any idea how he does it. I saw him on TV when he walked through the Great Wall of China.V: How could he do that?W: I have no idea, but I know what I saw: He entered a canvas shelter on one side of the wall, and he came out of a canvas shelter on the other side.V: Yes, but was he always in full view of the camera, or did they cut to a commercial or something else?W: Not only was the camera running all the time, but he was hooked up to a heart monitor, and you could track his progress as he moved through the wall.M: It's difficult to know what to believe. I know it's not possible for him to do that, but...W: It sounds to me like it's a show worth watching.M: Count me in. Instead of an ice cream cone, I'll turn my money into a ticket.Keys:1. What is the dialog mainly about? ~C) The magic of David Copperfield.2. Which of the following DOESN'T the man mention?B) Putting on a straitjacket.3. What did David Copperfield do at the Great Wall of China, according to the woman?A) He walked through it.4. Under what conditions did David Copperfield go through the Great Wall?D) All of the above.5. What does the man finally decide to do?C) Buy a ticket for the magic show.For Reference1. He could make a person float in the air, pull a rabbit out of his hat, escape from a straitjacket and handcuffs--all underwater, and saw a woman in half.2. She thinks David Copperfield is the world's greatest magician and he's certainly worth a look.Speaking exercises: (1) Ask students to work in pairs to act out the play. (2) Discussion question: What magic tricks especially interest you?Task 2: Is it really bad luck?Are you worried because you have just broken a mirror? Some people believe that breaking a mirror is a (S1) terrible thing to do. They say it will bring you seven years of (S2) misfortune. The reason behind this belief stems from the old idea that a person's soul is in their (S3) reflection, so that if you smash ' your mirror, your soul will be (S4) damaged too, dooming you to an early death, and not giving you entry to (S5) heaven. Is there any way to reverse this bad luck? Yes--if you very carefully (S6) pick up all the broken pieces of the mirror and throw them into a river or stream, then the bad luck will be "(S7) washed away".Of all numbers, 13 is the most associated with bad luck. (S8) Some people claim that the number is bad luck because thirteen people sat down for the Last Supper before Jesus was crucified, and with this in mind few hosts will serve dinner with thirteen at the table. And according to an ancient Norwegian tale, twelve gods had gathered for a feast when a thirteenth, Loke, entered. After the meal, Loke killed Balder, who was the most beloved of all the gods.(S9) Friday the thirteenth of any month is considered especially bad or unlucky, and Friday the thirteenth of March is the worst of them all.The number seven also has some superstition connected to it. It is said that God created the world in seven days, and any association with the number is lucky. The seventh son of the seventh son is said to be the luckiest of men, and (S10) when people talk about the "seven-year itch" they mean that every seven years a person undergoes a complete change in personality.Task 3: The Statues on the Easter IslandOne of the greatest mysteries on Earth is the statues on Easter Island. The island is one of the most remote places on Earth, located in the southern Pacific Ocean. It was almost uninhabited when it was discovered on Easter Day in 1722 by a Dutch captain, but it is covered with hundreds of giant statues, each weighing several tons and some standing more than 30 feet tall.Who carved these statutes, and how and why were they put there?Nobody knows the answer for sure, but many are trying to find out. There are many theories to explain this mystery. It has even been suggested that space aliens may have played a role regarding these giant statues. Another theory relates to the fact that Easter Island was inhabited by Polynesian seafarers, who traveled thousands of miles in their canoes, guided by the stars, the color of sky and the sun, the shapes of clouds, and the presence of birds making flights out to sea seeking food. The Polynesians first arrived on the island in 400 A.D. However, the ocean currents which carried them there would not take them back. They were trapped and, having arrived there, could not leave. The Polynesians probably carved the statues themselves, perhaps as religious symbols.To date, 887 statues have been discovered on the island. However, only a few statues were carried to their intended destination. The rest were abandoned along the way. The statues appear to have been carved out of the top edge of the walls of a volcano on the island. After a statue was carved, it may have been rolled or dragged down to the base of the volcano. Then it was put upright, and ropes were tied around it. Using a pulley system, the statue was moved to its intended destination.At its peak, the population of Easter Island is believed to have reached 11,000. Eventually, the resources of the island were exhausted, and the people resorted to cannibalism, eating one another. Work on the statues stopped and the statues were knocked over. When the first Europeans finally arrived on the island, most of the people had died out.1. When and by whom was the island discovered?A) In 1722 by a Dutch captain.2. Who are mentioned in the passage as possible builders of the statues?B) Polynesian seafarers.3. What is true of the Polynesians on the island according to the passage?D) They sailed to the island and were trapped there.4. How many statues were carried to their intended destination?D) Only a few of them.5. Which of the following would be the most suitable title for the passage?B) The Mysteries of Easter Island.For ReferenceThe resources of the island became exhausted, and the people resorted to cannibalism, eating each other. When the first Europeans finally arrived on the island, most of the people had died out.Discussion questionIn your opinion, who are more likely to have built the statues on Easter Island, aliens or Polynesians? Why?IV. Speaking OutMODEL 1 This is a custom that dates back to the ancient Celts.Chris: Sue, do you know why people say, "knock on wood" when they want to avoid bad luck?Susan: It sounds a bit funny. As far as I know, it has a lot to do with ancient Celtic people. They worshipped Fees. Chris: Sounds interesting.Susan: They thought trees could suck demons back into the ground.Chris: Well, when you think about the deep roots, their belief seems to make some sense.Susan: What's more, knocking on wood was a way to brag without being punished. People once thought that evil spirits would become jealous if good fortune was pointed out to them.Chris: Uh, yes, go on.Susan: Well, by knocking on wood three times, the noise could frighten away the evil spirits, and they couldn't have to rob the braggart of that good fortune.Chris: I'm afraid those who don't know this superstition might be frightened away as well.Susan: Now here's a test. Do you know how the custom of kissing under the mistletoe originated?Chris: I haven't the slightest idea, but I'm all ears.Susan: Again this is a custom that dates back to the ancient Celts. Since they worshipped trees, they conducted many of their ceremonies in the woods in the shade of trees.Chris: Now I see. Probably it's under these mistletoe trees that weddings took place.Susan: Exactly. Today it's a tradition that a woman standing under a mistletoe can't refuse a man's kiss.Chris: I wish you were standing under some mistletoe right now.Susan: Luckily I'm not. Touch wood.MODEL 2 Is there any relationship between superstitions and real life?Chris: It's strange that so many people are superstitious. There must be some relationship between superstitions and real life.Susan: You know, Richard Wiseman, a British psychologist researched the relationship between superstition and luck.Chris: What did he find? Most people would be interested. At least I would.Susan: He polled 4,000 people and found that people who believe themselves to be lucky tend to go for positive superstitions. They may wear a ring as a talisman or often say, "touch wood" for good luck.”Chris: Then, what about the unlucky people? Do you mean if they think they are unlucky, they tend to believe in superstitions about bad luck?Susan: Yeah. They worry a lot about a broken mirror, a black cat running across their path, and so on.Chris: So what is his point?Susan: His point is that people make their own luck by their attitude to life. So, 49 percent of lucky people regularly cross their fingers, compared to 30 percent of unlucky people. And only 18 percent of lucky people are anxious if they break a mirror.Chris: So, our fate is linked to our attitude rather than to our superstitions.Susan: I think that's what he is suggesting.Chris: This research seems too complicated. If I were a psychologist, I would conduct a survey to find whether13 really is an unlucky number. If there were more traffic accidents or murders on the 13th than on otherdays, then we have to believe in superstitions.Susan: What if there weren't?Chris: Then I wouldn't be superstitious.Susan: What a brilliant idea! I never expected you to be as wise as Solomon.Chris: Well as long as you don't think I'm a fool.MODEL 3 I believe ETs have visited the earth beforeNora: Hey, what s this picture of yours. It looks like a flying saucer.Chris: It is. I was visited by aliens last week and this is a picture of their spacecraft.Nora: When I look closer, it resembles a silver Frisbee.Chris: But it could have been aliens. I believe ETs have visited the earth before. What do you think? ,Nora: It would be hard to believe otherwise. Projects like the pyramids are difficult to explain away, given the level of technology that was available at the time.Chris: That's for sure. They are mysterious.Nora: When you consider all those "impossibilities", it's tempting to infer that some highly advanced civilization assisted humans in their construction.Chris: Think about this: if you were abducted by aliens and taken up to their spaceship or something...well...Nora: What do you mean?Chris: I mean, who would believe you? You'd go nuts telling everyone: "It's true! I was abducted by aliens!"Nora: And everyone would think you were crazy, or just making up a story to get attention.Chris: From what I understand, sometimes these people do go crazy, trying to convince people about their experiences.Nora: I believe that in some cases they offer pretty good evidence.Chris: So, take a closer look at this picture. Do you still think it's a Frisbee?V. Let’s TalkDo superstitions work?Thanks, perhaps, to falling stock markets and unrest in the Middle East, Britons have become even more superstitious than usual, according to a report published today. "There has been a significant increase in superstition over the last month, possibly as a result of current economic an0' political uncertainties," stated Dr. Dick ArrJstrong. He launched an Internet survey of national superstition, and found it to be surprisingly high, even among those with a scientific background. Only one in ten of those surveyed claimed not to be superstitious at all. Three out of four people in Britain feel the need to touch wood, and 65% cross their fingers.It is interesting to note that lucky people were much less superstitious and tended to take constructive action to improve their lives. Conversely, superstitious people tended to regard themselves as among the less lucky, worried about life, had a strong need for control, and could not tolerate ambiguity.The survey also revealed some unexpected beliefs. For example, one respondent could not stay in the bathroom once a toilet had been flushed.There was no evidence that superstitions ever worked, even when people were instructed to carry lucky charms for a week. They didn't feel any luckier or more satisfied with their lives at the end of that week than when they started.Armstrong attempted to explain this phenomenon: "When students are preparing for exams with a lucky charm, they may trust the charm, rather than doing some extra revision."Debate:Topic: Do you think luck and opportunity are more important than hard work?Procedure:1. Students are divided into groups of four.2. Within each group the students select their roles to form an affirmative and a negative team.3. The two speakers of each team brainstorm to formulate their points of view.4. The two teams have a debate.5. One group is invited to debate in front of the class.6. Other students can ask questions to challenge their points of view, arguments or evidence, and the debaters will answer their questions.7. The whole class vote to decide on the winning team.8. One of the audience is invited to justify the voting result by giving reasons based on the debaters' ideas and language.Some ideas are suggested here though you are not limited to them:Affirmative:* Many people have worked hard, but few of them are top achievers. So, hard work is not everything.* Some people have become rich through speculation and good luck instead of diligence.* People, whose livelihoods depend more on luck such as fishermen and stock market investors, depend heavily on luck.* If you are lucky, you will feel more confident, and then you are more likely to succeed.Negative:* Almost all scientists, engineers and athletes have worked hard. Some of them may be luckier than others, but diligence is the precondition, without which hardly anything can be achieved.* Even stock market brokers have to acquire a lot of knowledge before they can speculate.* When your industrious work has produced results, you will be filled with confidence, which in turn will bring you more achievements.VI . Further Listening and SpeakingListeningTask 1: Horseshoes as a Sign of Good LuckHorseshoes are a traditional sign of good luck. Most people believe this comes from the fact that the horseshoe is shaped like the crescent moon, a period of prosperity and good fortune. One legend has it that the Devil was in disguise and wandering at large, looking for trouble. He happened to call on St. Dunstan, who was skilled in shoeing horses. St. Dunstan recognized the Devil and tied him to a wall with only his feet free to move. He then set to work shoeing him as though he were a horse, but with such roughness the Devil cried out for mercy. St. Dunstan stopped his work and released the Devil after making him promise never to enter a home on which a horseshoe was fixed. Witches fear horses, so they are also turned away by a door with a horseshoe mounted on it. The big issue regarding horseshoes is whether they should be hung points up or points down. The original superstition was that the horseshoe is points up to keep the luck from pouring out. Despite this view most buildings with horseshoes in their sign hang them the opposite way. The Horseshoe Casino in Las Vegas hangs its horseshoe with the arc on top. They may be hoping their customers' luck runs out, but this is usually not something you advertise in your sign. Finger rings made of horseshoe nails are said to keep away bad luck. Also, rubbing two horseshoes together is said to bring good luck. Keys:1. According to the passage, what does the crescent moon represent?A) Prosperity.2. What did St. Dunstan do to the Devil?C) He began shoeing him.3. What did the Devil promise?D) Not to enter a house marked with a horseshoe.4. What is the big issue concerning the horseshoe?C) Whether to hang it points up or points down.5. Why is the arc of the horseshoe up at the casino inLas Vegas?B) The casino wants to make money.Task 2: Superstitions or real bad lucks?Joan: Pass me that mirror, would you? I'll see if my makeup is OK.Dick: OOOPS !! Sorry I dropped it... but is it you or me that gets the seven years of bad luck?Joan: You, I hope, but probably neither of us. I wonder Where that "old wives' tale" originated anyway.Dick: There used to be a lot of superstitions: black cats, ladders, numbers. My parents and grandparents are full of them.Joan: I agree. People today are much more educated than before. These superstitions are just amusing pieces of history rather than beliefs, don't you think so?Dick: Perhaps, but some people today still go for them. People whose livelihoods depend more on luck--like professional athletes, or fishermen--often they have superstitious routines.Joan: It's true. I have heard of athletes who wear lucky socks or a treasured medal to bring them good fortune. Dick: And let's not forget lucky numbers. We all know about the numbers 4, 6, and 8 in China.Joan: I know 4 is death and 8 is wealth, but what is the significance of 6?Dick: 6 means good luck. Some people include 6 in their e-mail address just for luck.Joan: Maybe we are not as smart as we think we are.Dick: Well, there are many things in the universe that we cannot know and cannot control, and that's why people are superstitious.T 1. The woman thinks that probably neither she nor the man will have bad luck.T 2. The man's grandparents have many superstitions.F 3. The woman thinks people today are more educated and also more superstitious.F 4. Athletes tend to be superstitious because they are less intelligent.T 5. Some Chinese include the number 6 in their e-mall address for good luck.Task 3: This is good!There was a king in Africa who had a close friend that he grew up with. The friend had a habit of looking at every situation in his life and saying, "This is good!"One day the king and his friend were out hunting. The friend would load and prepare the guns for the king. The friend had apparently done something wrong in preparing one of the guns, for after taking the gun from his friend, the king fired it and his thumb was blown off. Examining the situation, the friend remarked as usual, "This is good!" to which the king replied, "No, this is NOT good!" and proceeded to send his friend to jail.About a year later, the king was hunting in an area that he should have known to stay clear of. Cannibals captured him and took him to their village. They tied him to a stake surrounded by wood. As they came near to set fire to the wood, they noticed that the king had but one thumb. Being superstitious, they never ate anyone that was less than whole. So they set the king free.As he returned home, he was reminded of the event that had taken his thumb off and felt badly sorry about his treatment of his friend. He went immediately to the jail to speak with his friend. "You were right," he said, "it was good that my thumb was blown off." Then he apologized, 'Tm very sorry for sending you to jail for so long. It was bad for me to do this.""No," his friend replied, "this is good!""What do you mean, 'this is good!'? How could it be good that I sent you, my good friend, to jail for all this time?" "If I had not been in .jail, I would have been with you--and eaten!"For Reference1. He had a habit of looking at every situation in his life and saying, "This is good!"2. After taking the gun, the king fired it and his thumb was blown off.3. They set the king free, because being superstitious, they never ate anyone that was less than whole.4. He felt sorry for his friend and went to the jail to apologize to him.5. If he had not been in jail, he would have been with the king---and eaten.。
chpt6-cognition语言学
使用更多的功能词： 岁之前的话语象电报， 使用更多的功能词：3岁之前的话语象电报，忽略功能词 和曲折形式；语言的各方面都可在四岁前掌握（除了罕用、 和曲折形式；语言的各方面都可在四岁前掌握（除了罕用、 主要用于书面语中的句式结构或者成人也要费力掌握的句 式结构） 式结构）
2.2 Language comprehension- （1） comprehensionWord recognition 单词辨识 Mental lexicon（心理词汇库）: information 心理词汇库） about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language
Mature speaker
Purpose
I don’t want to go to sleep I am not tired Where is the doll? The truck is on the table Daddy is running I (Joe) pushed (the cat) I pushed the car Give me the candy
英语本科-英语词汇(考试重点)
英语本科英语词汇学Chapter1—Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义)：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.(1)a minimal free form of a language(2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning(4)a form that can function alone in sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义)：almost arbitrary“no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”.Sound and form(读音和形式)：不统一的四个原因（1）t he English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other;（2）T he pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years;（3）S ome of the difference were creates by the early scribes;（4）T he borrowing is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary; Vocabulary(词汇)：all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words:By use frequency: basic word stocking & nonbasic vocabularyBy notion: content words& functional wordsBy origin: native words& borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇)：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征)：1）All- National character(全民通用性most important)2)Stability(相对稳定性) 3)Productivity(多产性)4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang(语)(4)Argot(暗语)(5) Dialectal words(方言)(6)Archaisms(古语)(7)Neologisms(新词语)：Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meaning.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed Words（外来词语）：Native words（本族词语）：known as Anglo-Saxon words(50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basicword-stocks). Two other features:(1)neutral in style;（2）frequent in use;Borrowed words/Loan words(外来词语)：Words taken over from foreign languages (80% of modern EV) .4 Types of loan words:1)denizens(同化词)：（shirt form skyrta(ON)）2)aliens(非同化词、外来词)：are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling(kowtow(CH)磕头)3)translation loans(译借词)：按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see(From China)4)Semantic loans(借义词)：they are not borrow with reference to the form, but theirmeaning are borrowed.Chapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Threes Stage of Development of the English Vocabulary:1.Old English (450-1100)(vocabulary50,000 to 60,000): was I high inflected language.2.Middle English (1150-1500): remains much fewer inflections.3.Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words comealmost directly from classical language. In Modern E, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English ) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式)1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namelytoots, affixes and other elements(最重要的方式)。
Chapter 6 Cognitive development
＃個體發展（Ontogenetic development） ＃極小發展（Microgenetic development： changes that occur over relatively brief periods of time） ＃物種發展（Phylogenetic development） ＃社會歷史發展（Sociohistoricaldevelopment）
1.感覺動作期(sensorimotor stage, 0-2yr)
(1) 兩個重要發展： 物體永久性(object permanence)、 模仿(imitation) (2)6 個次時期 （substages）p.222,223,224 循環反應(circular reaction) A-not-B search error (3) 評論： 物體永久性 the violation-of-expectation method Bailargeon (2004) p.226
Sensorimotor scheme Symbolic scheme Operational scheme
2.發展的機轉
(1)適應(adaptation) 經由直接與環境的互動而建立基模 同化(assimilation) 使用現有的基模去解釋新的刺激 調節(accommodation) 創造新基模或改變舊基模去解釋新的刺激 (2)組織(organization) 將一些基模加以重組而成為互有關聯、更複雜的基 模或認知系統
三、皮亞傑：認知發展理論 皮亞傑： 皮亞傑
（一）時期論(stage theory) 時期論 1.認知結構的改變 認知結構的改變(structural whole) 認知結構的改變 2.順序是固定的 順序是固定的 3.世界一同 世界一同
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
• 1). Serial models…… • 2). Parallel models…… • Structural factors in comprehension of sentences • 1). minimal attachment which defines “structural simpler” • 2).“Garden path” • Lexical factors in comprehension • Information about specific words is stored in the lexicon.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.3 language production
• Language production involves…… • 1. generation of single words • 2. generation of simple utterances • Different mappings in language comprehension and in language production • Discussions: • A. production of words orally, • B. production of longer utterances, • C. the different representations and processes involved in spoken production
(完整word版)语言学第六章之后
Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1. 语言与认知6.1.What is Cognition认知?a.Mental processes, information processingb.Mental process or faculty of knowing,including awareness,perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.The formal approach:形式法structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.The conceptual approach:认知法：how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.6.2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得①Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段Stage of three-word utterances三词句阶段④Fluent grammatical conversation stage6.2.2 Language comprehension理解Mental lexicon（心智词库）：information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances Connectionism（连结主义）: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known onesWord recognition单词识别: recognition of spoken words and printed ones.Cohort theory:集群模型Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978)The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. Eg. To an instruction” pick up the candle”, listeners sometimes glances first at a picture of a candy.Interactive model:交互模型Higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. eg.In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, list eners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.Race model:竞争模型Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed eg.listeners use phonotactic information such asthe fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boundaries.Factors involved in word recognition: ?Frequency effect: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L.Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.Cotext: We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.Lexical ambiguity词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank. Comprehension of sentences句子的理解Serial models串行模型: the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a langu age’s grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information.Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence.Structural factors in comprehension理解中的结构因素Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment最小配属: the “structurally simpler”--structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her.Garden path sentences花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates.Lexical factors in comprehension词汇因素The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. eg.The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeans.Syntactic ambiguity句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases.Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence. Eg. John painted the car in the garage.Comprehension of text语篇理解Resonance model:共振模型information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferencesSchema:图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things. eg.The customer enters a restaurant, looks for atable, decides where to sit, walks to the table…nguage production语言的生成（1）Access to words语言提取：步骤1.Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. 3.: Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.（2）Generation of sentences句子的生成1.Conceptual preparation概念准备: deciding what to say – a global plan is needed2.Word retrieval and application of syntactic knowledge3.Processes of sentence generation4.Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit(3) Written language production:similar to those in the production of spoken language. A major different is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather than the phonological form that must be retrieved and produced.6.3 Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.6.3.1 Construal and construal operations识解及操作Construal识解: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显: the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that is salient to us. eg. We drove along the road.(2)Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比: the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground](3). Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置: we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we’re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. Eg. My bike is in front of the car.6.3.2 Categorization范畴化The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.Three levels: basic level superordinate level subordinate level.6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.1.A center-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple2.A containment schema 容器图示human bodies as containers3.A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks4.A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity5. A link schema 连接图式6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式7. A path schema 路径图式8. A scale schema 标量图式9. A verticality schema 垂直图式6.3.4 Metaphor隐喻George Lakoff and Mark JohnsonMetaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.Target domain 目标域- what is actually being talked about.Source domain 源域- the domain used as a basis for understanding targetEg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source domain of money.1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argument.3. Orientational Metaphor方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UPadding more of a substance, and perceiving the level of the substance rise.6.3.5 Metonymy转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by LakoffOn the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:the w orld of “concept” the world of “form” the world of “things” and “events”(1)Whole ICM and its part(s) 整体与部分间的转喻：(i) Thing-and-Part ICM事物及部分转喻eg. America for “United States” (ii) Scale ICM标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your age? (iii) Constitution ICM. 构成转喻eg.: wood for “forest” (iv) Event ICM. 事件转喻Eg.Bill smoked marijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM. 范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for “birth control pill”(vi)Cateory-and-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for “black people”(vii) Reduction ICM 压缩转喻eg.crude for “crude oil”(2) Parts of an ICM 部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM. 行为转喻eg.o author a new book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM. 因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I’ve got a Ford for “car” (v) Control ICM控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) Possession ICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “person with money”(vii) containment ICM容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Reference ICMs符号和指代转喻6.3.6 Blending Theory整合理论 1.Cross-Space Mapping跨空间映射 2.Generic Space 类属空间3.Blend整合 4.Emergent Structure层创结构Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Language and culture语言和文化7.1.1 How does language relate to cultureIn 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology (the study of humanity ), encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human geneticsLondon School伦敦学派:Malinowski马林诺夫斯基: The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given contextEthnography of communication交际民族学：1.speech community言语社团2.situation, event and act 场景，事件，行为3.SPEAKING(situation,participants,ends,act,sequence,key,instrumentalities,norms,ge nres)Speech community言语社团: a group of people who form a community, and share the same language or a particular variety of languageTheory of the context of situation(情景语境理论)J. R. Firth (1890-1960):A.The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.1.The verbal言语action of the participants2.The non-verbal action of the participantsB.The relevant objects.C.The effects of the verbal action.“who speaks what to whom and when and to what end”Halliday: Study language from a social semiotic or interactional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)The strong version(强式说): The weak version (弱式说):7.1.3.Case studies个案研究Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “idiomatically-governed” and “culturally-specific”.7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic studyA study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivation and directionality in language change.7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom文化在语言学习中的重要作用：A. To get the students familiar with cultural difference.B. To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.C. To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.7.2. Language and Society7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent science 一元性或自治性Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性A situationally and socially variationist perspectiveA maxim in sociolinguistics: “You are what you say.” (尔即尔所言)WOMEN REGISTER 女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.7.2.4 What implications can we get from sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要启示：sociolinguistics’ contributions: 1. It has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching. 2. …innovations in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of language development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学In language classrooms In law courts In clinic settings7.3 Cross-cultural Communication 跨文化交际What should we know all about cross-cultural communication? 1.Try to look at things from other persons’ point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue 3.Try to understand their way of knowing the world7.3.2 Case studies 个案研究When in Rome do as the Romans do Put yourself in other’s shoesOne culture’s meat is another culture’s poison Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding.Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用What is pragmatics语用学? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics 语义学?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of ：(1) H ow the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论8.1.1 Performatives and constatives施为句和叙事句1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives施为句的条件:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act会话含义理论1. What is a speech act言语行为?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义: This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force)言外之意: This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.2. Locutionary act言内行为: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.3. Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.4. Perlocutionary act言后行为: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论8.2.1 The cooperative principle合作原则1.Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims会话准则:(1) The maxim of quantity数量:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality质量: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation关系: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner方式: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature言外之意: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims准则的违反1. Conversational implicature言外之意In real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literalmeaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.r the speakers’ intention through the words.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability可推导性2.Cancellability / defeasibility可取消性3. Non-detachability不可分离性4.Non-conventionality非常规性8.3 Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展8.3.1 Relevance theory关联理论Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R原则The Q-principle is intended to invoke t he first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R在符合R原则的前提下).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim准则: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim o f minimization最小化原则Say as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by fin ding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix冗长的, obscure模糊的or marked显著的expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Theoretical background概述1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person’s speech or writing or a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.2. Stylistics文体学: According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.9.2 Some general features of the literary language文学语言的一些普遍特征9.2.1Foregrounding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式1. Foregrounding前景化: Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put something or someone in the most essential part of the description or narration, other than in a background position.2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experimented with, or made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning.9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language字面语言和比喻语言1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal meaning.2. Figurative language: A. k. a. trope, which refers to language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.Simile明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like.Metaphor暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.Metonymy转喻：means a change of nameSynecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.9.2.3 The analysis of literary language文学语言的分析9.3 The language in poetry诗歌语言9.3.1 Sound patterning语音模式9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning不同形式的语音模式1. Rhyme押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).2. Alliteration头韵: The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).3. Assonance准押韵: Assonance describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc).4. Consonance辅押韵: Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as having consonance (cvC).5. Reverse rhyme反韵: Reverse rhyme describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant (CVc).6. Pararhyme压副韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).7. Repetition反复: A complete match of the syllable (CVC).9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterning重音和韵律模式1. Iamb抑扬格: An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.2. Trochee扬抑格: A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an unstressed syllable.3. Anapest抑抑扬格: An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.4. Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed –a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed ones.5. Spondee扬扬格: A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely consist only of spondees.6. Pyrrhic抑抑格: A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.7. Metrical patterning韵律模式(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter(7)Heptameter (8)Octameter9.3.4 Conventional forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式1.Couplets对句: Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.2.Quatrains四行诗: Stanzas of four lines, known as quatrains, are very common in English poetry.3.Blank verse无韵诗: Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.9.3.5The poetic functions of sound and meter语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：1. For aesthetic pleasure2. To conform to a convention / style / form3. To express or innovate with a form4. To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure5. For emphasis or contrast6. Onomatopoeia拟声现象9.3.6 How to analyze poetry?如何分析诗1. Read a poem more than once.2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is written to be heard: its meanings are conveyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip reading is a good habit.4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggestions.5. As aids to the understanding of a poem, we may ask some questions about.(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?(3) What is the occasion?(4) What is the setting in time (time of day, season, century)?(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?9.4 The language in fiction小说中的语言9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view小说与视角1.First-person narrator (I-narrator)叙述者: The person who tells the story may also bea character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this case, the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or an I-narrator because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I” is used.2.Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者: If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-person pronouns, he, she, it or they.3.schema-oriented language图式语言4.Deixis指示功能: A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance toa time, place, or a person.9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation言语和思维的表达1. Speech presentation言语的表达：(1) Direct speech (DS)直接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.(2) Indirect speech (IS)间接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the speaker’s words are not reported as they were actually said.(3) Free indirect speech (FIS)自由间接引语: A further category which is an amalgam of direct and indirect speech features.(4) Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达: A minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summary of a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more back-grounded than indirect representation would be.(5) Narrator’s representation of spee ch (NRS)叙述者对言语的表达: A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech acts involved.2.Thought presentation思维的表达(1) Direct thought (DT)直接思维: Direct thought tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought. E.g. “He will be late,” she thought.(2) Indirect thought (IT)间接思维: A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. E.g. She thought that he would be late.(3) Free indirect thought (FIT)自由间接思维: A kind of mixture of direct and indirect features. E.g. He was bound to be late!(4) Narrator’s rep resentation of thought acts (NRTA): A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters is exactly as that used to present speech acts. E.g. She considered his unpunctuality.(5) Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify。
会计准则英文
Basic Standard chapter 1 General Provisions Article 1In accordance with The Accounting Law of the People’s Republic of China and other relevant laws and regulations, this Standard is formulated to prescribe the recognition, measurement and reporting activities of enterprises for accounting purposes and to ensure the quality of accounting information.Article 2 This Standard shall apply to enterprises (including companies) established within the People’s Repu blic of China. Article 3 Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises include the Basic Standard and Specific Standards. Specific Standards shall be formulated in accordance with this Standard.Article 4 An enterprise shall prepare financial reports. The objective of financial reports is to provide accounting information about the financial position, operating results and cash flows, etc. of the enterprise to the users of the financial reports, in order to show results of the management’s stewardship, an d assist users of financial reports to make economic decisions.Users of financial reports include investors, creditors, government and its relevant departments as well as the public.Article 5 An enterprise shall recognize measure and report transactions or events that the enterprise itself has occurred.Article 6 In performing recognition, measurement and reporting for accounting purposes, an enterprise shall be assumed to be a going concern.Article 7 An enterprise shall close the accounts and prepare financial reports for each separate accounting period. Accounting periods are divided into annual periods (yearly) and interim periods. An interim period is a reporting period shorter than a full accounting year.Article 8 Accounting measurement shall be based on unit of currency.Article 9 Recognition, measurement and reporting for accounting purposes shall be on an accrual basis.Article 10 An enterprise shall determine the accounting elements based on the economic characteristics of the transactions or e vents. Accounting elements include assets, liabilities, owners’ equity, revenue, expenses and profit.Article 11 An enterprise shall apply the double entry method (i.e. debit and credit) for bookkeeping purposes.Chapter 2 Qualitative Requirements of Accounting InformationArticle 12 An enterprise shall recognize, measure and report for accounting purposes transactions or events that have actually occurred, to faithfully represent the accounting elements which satisfy recognition and measurement requirements and other relevant information, and ensure the accounting information is true, reliable and complete.Article 13 Accounting information provided by an enterprise shall be relevant to the needs of the users of financial reports in making economic decisions, by helping them evaluate or forecast the past, present or future events of the enterprise.Article 14 Accounting information provided by an enterprise shall be clear and explicable, so that it is readily understandable and useable to the users of financial reports.Article 15 Accounting information provided by enterprises shall be comparable. An enterprise shall adopt consistent accounting policies for same or similar transactions or events that occurred in different periods and shall not change the policies arbitrarily. If a change is required or needed, details of the change shall be explained in the notes.Different enterprises shall adopt prescribed accounting policies to account for same or similar transactions or events to ensure accounting information is comparable and prepared on a consistent basis.Article 16 An enterprise shall recognize, measure and report transactions or events based on their substance, and not merely based on their legal form.Article 17 Accounting information provided by an enterprise shall reflect all important transactions or events that relate to its financial position, operating result sand cash flows.Article 18 An enterprise shall exercise prudence in recognition, measurement and reporting of transactions or events. It shall not overstate assets or income nor understate liabilities or expenses.Article 19An enterprise shall recognize, measure and report transactions or events occurred in a timely manner and shall neither bring forward nor defer the accounting.Chapter 3 AssetsArticle 20 An asset is a resource that is owned or controlled by an enterprise as a result of past transactions or events and is expected to generate economic benefits to the enterprise.“Past transactions or events” mentioned in preceding paragr aph include acquisition, production, construction or other transactions or events. Transactions or events expected to occur in the future do not give rise to assets.“Owned or controlled by an enterprise” is the right to enjoy the ownership of a particula r resource or, although the enterprise may not have the ownership of a particular resource, it can control the resource.“Expected to generate economic benefits to the enterprise” is the potential to bring inflows of cash and cash equivalents, directly or indirectly, to the enterprise.Article 21 A resource that satisfies the definition of an asset set out in Article 20 in this standard shall be recognized as an asset when both of the following conditions are met:(a) It is probable that the economic benefits associated with that resource will flow to the enterprise; and(b) The cost or value of that resource can be measured reliably.Article 22 An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of an asset shall be included in the balance sheet. An item that satisfies the definition of an asset but fails to meet the recognition criteria shall not be included in the balance sheet. Chapter 4 LiabilitiesArticle 23 A liability is a present obligation arising from past transactions or events which are expected to give rise to an outflow of economic benefits from the enterprise. A present obligation is a duty committed by the enterprise under current circumstances. Obligations that will result from the occurrence of future transactions or events are not present obligations and shall not be recognized as liabilities.Article 24 An obligation that satisfies the definition of a liability set out in Article23 in this standard shall be recognized as a liability when both of the following conditions are met:(a) It is probable there will be an outflow of economic benefits associated with that obligation from the enterprise; and(b) The amount of the outflow of economic benefits in the future can be measured reliably.Article 25 An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of a liability shall be included in the balance sheet. An item that satisfies the definition of a liability but fails to meet the recognition criteria shall not be included in the balance sheet.3 Chapter 5 Owners’ Equi tyArticle 26 Owners’ equity is the residual interest in the assets of an enterprise after deducting all its liabilities.Owners’ equity of a company is also known as share holders’ equity.Article 27 Owners’ equity comprises capital contributed by owners,gains and losses directly recognized in owners’ equity, retained earnings etc. Gains and losses directly recognized in owners’ equity are those gains or losses that shall not be recognized in profit or loss of the current period but will result in changes (increases or decreases) in owners’ equity, other than those relating to contributions from, or appropriations of profit to, equity participants.Gains are inflows of economic benefits that do not arise in the course of ordinary activities resulting in in creases in owners’ equity, other than those relating to contributions from owners.Losses are outflows of economic benefits that do not arise in the course of ordinary activities resulting in decreases in own ers’ equity, other than those relating to appropriations of profit to owners.Article 28The amount of owners’ equity is determined by the measurement of assets and liabilities.Article 29 An item of owners’ equity shall be included in the balance sheet.Chapter 6 RevenueArticle 30Revenue is the gross inflow of economic benefits derived from the course of ordinary activities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from owners.Article 31 Revenue is recognized only when it is probable that economic benefits will flow to the enterprise, which will result in an increase in assets or decrease in liabilities and the amount of the inflow of economic benefits can be measured reliably. Article 32 An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of revenue shall be included in the income statement. Chapter 7 ExpensesArticle 33 Expenses are the gross outflow of economic benefits resulted from the course of ordinary activities that result in decreases in owners’ equity, other than those relating to appropriation s of profits to owners.Article 34 Expenses are recognized only when it is probable there will be outflow of economic benefits from the enterprise which result in a reduction of its assets or an increase in liabilities and the amount of the outflow of economic benefits can be measured reliably.Article 35 Directly attributable costs, such as product costs, lab our costs, etc. incurred by an enterprise in the process of production of goods or rendering of services shall be recognized as cost of goods sold or services provided and are charged to profit or loss in the period in which the revenue generated from the related products or services are recognized. Where an expenditure incurred does not generate economic benefits, or where the economic benefits derived from an expenditure do not satisfy, or cease to satisfy, there cognition criteria of an asset, the expenditure shall be expensed when incurred and included in profit or loss of the current period.Transactions or events occurred which lead to the assumption of a liability without recognition of an asset shall be expensed when incurred and included in profit or loss of the current period.Article 36 An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of expenses shall be included in the income statement. Chapter 8 ProfitArticle 37 Profit is the operating result of an enterprise over a specific accounting period. Profit includes the net amount of revenue after deducting expenses, gains and losses directly recognized in profit of the current period, etc.Article 38 Gains and losses directly recognized in profit of the current period are those gains and losses that shall be recognized in profit or loss directly which result in changes (increases or decreases) to owners’ equity, other than those rela ting to contributions from, or appropriations of profit to, owners.Article 39 The amount of profit is determined by the measurement of the amounts of revenue and expenses, gains and losses directly recognized in profit or loss in the current period.Article 40 An item of profit shall be included in the income statement.Chapter 9 Accounting MeasurementArticle 41In recording accounting elements that meet the recognition criteria in the accounting books and records and presenting them in the accounting sta tements and the notes (hereinafter together known as “financial statements”), an enterprise shall measure the accounting elements in accordance with the prescribed accounting measurement bases.Article 42 Accounting measurement bases mainly comprise:(a)Historical cost: Assets are recorded at the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the consideration given to acquire them at the time of their acquisition. Liabilities are recorded at the amount of proceeds or assets received in exchange for the present obligation, or the amount payable under contract for assuming the present obligation, or at the amount of cash or cash equivalents expected to be paid to satisfy the liability in the normal course of business.(b)Replacement cost: Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that would have to be paid if a same or similar asset was acquired currently. Liabilities are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that would be currently required to settle the obligation.(c) Net realizable value: Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that could be obtained by selling the asset in the ordinary course of business, less the estimated costs of completion, the estimated selling costs and related tax payments.(d) Present value: Assets are carried at the present discounted value of the future net cash inflows that the item is expected to generate from its continuing use and ultimate disposal. Liabilities are carried at the present discounted value of the future net cash outflows that are expected to be required to settle the liabilities within the expected settlement period.(e)Fair value: Assets and liabilities are carried at the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, be tween knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.Article 43An enterprise shall generally adopt historical cost as the measurement basis for accounting elements. If the accounting elements are measured at replacement cost, net realizable value, present value or fair value, the enterprise shall ensure such amounts can be obtained and reliably measured.Chapter 10 Financial ReportsArticle 44 A financial report is a document published by an enterprise to provide accounting information to reflect its financial position on a specific date and its operating results and cash flows for a particular accounting period, etc. A financial report includes accounting statements and notes and other information or data that shall be disclosed in financial reports. Accounting statements shall at least comprise a balance sheet, an income statement and a cash flow statement.A small enterprise need not include a cash flow statement when it prepares financial statements.Article 45 A balance sheet is an accounting statement that reflects the financial position of an enterprise at a specific date. Article 46An income statement is an accounting statement that reflects the operating results of an enterprise for a certain accounting period.Article 47 A cash flow statement is an accounting statement that reflects the inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents of an enterprise for a certain accounting period.Article 48 Notes to the accounting statements are further explanations of items presented in the accounting statements, and explanations of items not presented in the accounting statements, etc.Chapter 11 Supplementary ProvisionsArticle 49 The Ministry of Finance is responsible for the interpretation of this Standard.Article 50 This Standard becomes effective as from 1 January 2007.7。
亲密关系_Relation_部分24
CHAPTER 3: Attraction 103 self-centered, and vain. On the other hand, she was really hot, so he asked her out anyway. Because she was impressed with his designer clothes and bold style, Rebecca was intrigued by Rasheed, but after a few minutes she thought him a little pushy and arrogant. Still, he had tickets to an expensive concert, so she accepted his invitation to go out on a date.I n your opinion, what does the date—and the future—hold for Rebecca and Rasheed? Why?C HAPTER SUMMARYT he Fundamental Basis of AttractionW e are attracted to people whose presence is rewarding to us.P roximity: Liking Those Near UsW e select our friends, and our enemies, from those around us.C onvenience: Proximity Is Rewarding, Distance Is Costly. Relationships with distant partners are ordinarily less satisfying than they would be if the partners were nearby.F amiliarity: Repeated Contact. In general, familiarity breeds attraction. Even brief, m ere exposure to others usually increases our liking for them.T he Power of Proximity. Close proximity accentuates our feelings about others for better or for worse.P hysical Attractiveness: Liking Those Who Are LovelyO ur Bias for Beauty: “What Is Beautiful Is Good.” We assume that attrac-tive people have other desirable personal characteristics.W ho’s Pretty?Symmetrical faces with average features are especially beautiful. W aist-to-hip ratios of 0.7 are very appealing in women whereas a WHR of 0.9 is attractive in a man if he has money.A n Evolutionary Perspective on Physical Attractiveness. Cross-cultural agreement about beauty, cyclical variations in women’s preferences, and the link between attractiveness and good health are all consistent with the assump-tions of evolutionary psychology.C ulture Counts, Too. Standards of beauty also fluctuate with changing economic and cultural conditions.L ooks Matter. When people first meet, nothing else affects attraction as much as their looks do.104 CHAPTER 3: AttractionT he Interactive Costs and Benefits of Beauty. Physical attractiveness has a larger influence on men’s social lives than on women’s. Attractive people doubt the praise they receive from others, but they’re still happier than unat-tractive people are.M atching in Physical Attractiveness. People tend to pair off with others of similar levels of beauty.R eciprocity: Liking Those Who Like UsP eople are reluctant to risk rejection. Most people calculate others’ overall desirability by multiplying their physical attractiveness by their probability of reciprocal liking. This is consistent with balance theory, which holds that people desire consistency among their thoughts, feelings, and relationships.S imilarity: Liking Those Who Are Like UsB irds of a feather fl ock together. People like those who are similar to them.W hat Kind of Similarity?Happy relationship partners resemble each other in demographic origin, attitudes and values, and personality traits.D o Opposites Attract?Opposites do not attract, but the belief that they do may persist for several reasons. First, matching is a broad process; fame, wealth, health, talent, and looks are all commodities people use to attract oth-ers. Second, it takes time for p erceived similarity to be replaced by a more accu-rate understanding of the attributes we share with others. Misperceptions may persist for some time. Third, people a re also attracted to those who are mildly different from themselves but similar to their ideal selves. People also tend to become more similar over time, and some types of similarity are more impor-tant than others. Finally, we may occasionally appreciate behavior from a part-ner that differs from our own but that complements our actions and helps us to reach our goals.W hy Is Similarity Attractive? Similarity in others is reassuring. We also judge similar others positively and assume they like us.B arriers: Liking the Ones We Cannot HaveT he theory of psychological r eactance suggests that people strive to restore lost freedom. The theory explains the R omeo and Juliet effect as well as the ten-dency for potential partners to seem more attractive at bars’ closing time.S o, What Do Men and Women Want?P eople evaluate potential partners with regard to (a) warmth and loyalty, (b) attractiveness and vitality, and (c) status and resources. For lasting romances, women want men who are warm and kind and who are not poor, and men want women who are warm and kind and who are not unattractive. Thus, everybody wants intimate partners who are amiable, agreeable, and loving.C H A P T E R4S ocial CognitionF i rst I m pressions ( a nd B e yond )◆The P o wer of P e rceptions ◆IdealizingOur Partners ◆Attributional Processes ◆Memories ◆Relationship Beliefs ◆Expectations ◆Self-Perceptions ◆I m pression M a nagement ◆Strategies of Impression Management ◆ImpressionManagement in Close Relationships ◆S o, J u st H o w W e ll D o W eK n ow O u r P a rtners? ◆Knowledge ◆Motivation ◆Partner Legibility ◆Perceiver Ability ◆Threatening Perceptions ◆Perceiver Influence ◆Summary ◆F o r Y o ur C o nsideration ◆C h apter S u mmary I m agine that you’re home in bed, sick with a killer flu, and your lover doesn’t call you during the day to see how you’re doing. You’re disappointed. Why didn’t your partner call? Does he or she not love you enough? Is this just another frustrating example of his or her self-centered lack of compassion? Or is it more likely that your loving, considerate partner didn’t want to risk waking you from a nap? There are several possible explanations, and you can choose a forgiving rationale, a blaming one, or something in between. And importantly, the choice may really be up to you; the facts of the case may allow several dif-ferent interpretations. But whatever you decide, your judgments are likely to be consequential. At the end of the day, your perceptions will have either sus-tained or undermined the happiness of your relationship.W e’ll focus on judgments like these in this chapter on s ocial cognition,a term that refers generally to the processes of perception and judgment with which we make sense of our social worlds (Moskowitz, 2005). Our primary con-cern will be with the way we t hink about our relationships. We’ll explore how our judgments of our partners and their behavior set the stage for the events that follow. We’ll consider our own efforts to influence and control what our partners think of us. And we’ll ponder just how well two people are likely to know each other, even in an intimate relationship. Throughout the chapter, I’ll emphasize the fact that our perceptions and interpretations of our partnerships are of enormous importance: What we think helps to determine what we f eel, and then how we a ct.This wouldn’t be a problem if our judgments were always correct. However, there are usually a variety of reasonable ways to interpret an event (as my opening example suggests), and we can make mistakes even when we’re confident that we have arrived at the truth. Indeed, some of those mistakes may begin the moment we meet someone, as studies of first impres-sions reveal.106 CHAPTER 4: Social CognitionF IRST IMPRESSIONS (AND BEYOND)F irst impressions matter. The judgments we form of others after a brief first meeting often have enormous staying power, with our initial perceptions con-tinuing to be influential months later. This fact may be obvious if we dislike someone so much after an initial interaction that we avoid any further contact with him or her (Denrell, 2005); in such cases, our first impressions are the only impressions we ever get. However, first impressions continue to be influential even when we do see more of a new acquaintance. When researchers formally arranged get-acquainted conversations between new classmates, the initial impressions the students formed continued to influence their feelings about each other 9 weeks later (Sunnafrank & Ramirez, 2004).C onceivably, some first impressions may last because they are discern-ing and correct. Sometimes it doesn’t take us long to accurately decide who’s nice and who’s not, and if we’re right, we may never need to revise our initial perceptions. On the other hand, first impressions can be remarkably persis-tent even when they’re erroneous (Harris & Garris, 2008). Right or wrong, first impressions linger, and that’s why they matter so much. Let’s consider how they operate.W e start judging people from the moment we meet them. And by “moment,” I mean the first twenty-fifth of a second. That’s all it takes—only 39 milliseconds 1—for us to determine whether a stranger’s face looks angry (Bar et al., 2006). After more patient deliberation lasting one-tenth of a second, 2 we have formed judgments of a stranger’s attractiveness, likeability, and trust-worthiness that are the same as those we hold after a minute’s careful inspec-tion of the person’s face (Willis & Todorov, 2006). Then, after watching the stranger chat with someone of the other sex for only 5 seconds, we’ve already decided how extraverted, conscientious, and intelligent he or she is (Carney et al., 2007). We jump to conclusions very, very quickly.O ur snap judgments are influenced by the fact that everyone we meet fits some category of people about whom we already hold stereotyped first impres-sions. This may sound like a daring assertion, but it really isn’t. Think about it: Everyone is either male or female, and (as we saw in chapter 1), gender-role stereotypes lead us to expect different behavior from men and women. Fur-thermore, at a glance, we can tell whether someone is beautiful or plain, and (as we saw in chapter 3), we assume that pretty people are likeable people. Dozens of other distinctions may come into play: young/old, black/white, pierced/unpierced, country/urban, and many more. The specifics of these ste-reotypes may vary from one perceiver to the next, but they operate similarly in anyone: Stereotypes supply us with preconceptions about what people are like ( F reeman et al., 2010). The judgments that result are often quite incorrect 1 A millisecond is a thousandth of a second. So, after 39 milliseconds have passed, there’s still 96.1 percent of a second yet to come before one full second has passed.2 I’m not kidding, but I am being playful.CHAPTER 4: Social Cognition 107 (Olivola & Todorov, 2010), but they’re hard to avoid: Stereotypes influence us automatically, even when we are unaware of using them (Devine & M o nteith, 1999). So, some initial feelings about others may spring up unbidden even when we want to be impartial and open minded.T hen, if we do interact with someone, we continue jumping to conclusions as our interaction unfolds. Please take a moment—seriously, take your time and read the next line slowly—and consider someone who ise nvious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, and intelligent.W ould you want this person as a co-worker? Probably not much. Now, please take another moment to size up someone else who isi ntelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious.M ore impressive, yes? This person isn’t perfect, but he or she seems competent and ambitious. The point, of course, is that the two descriptions offer the sameWhen we meet others for the first time, we rarely form impressions of them in an unbi-ased, even-handed manner. Instead, various stereotypes and primacy effects influence our interpretations of the behavior we observe.。
英语语言学名词解释之欧阳美创编
Chapter 12 : Language AndBrain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain languageis stored, and how damage to the brain affects theability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments thatinvestigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairmentof reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the positionof sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that letparticipants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.(06F)19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received. 21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech whichprovide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but whichis widely used as a medium of communication and whichis usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is notused as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the processof learning a language, and this type of languageusually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a viewto establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that wherethere are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer: the mistaken transfer offeatures of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in orderto identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly resultfrom cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly resultfrom faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association. 14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speechor writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionallyor unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar tothe way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond thelearner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learna foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learnerslearn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies: learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning. 33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believedto be born with, which allow them to acquire language.(03)3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formalinstruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language thatcharacterizes the life of human community.2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the waypeople view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word,apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap:The situation between twosocieties due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become partof culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adoptedspecial language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event. 18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse. 10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship andconversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play. 19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (04)1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from theinitials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03)5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and ar e not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and theobject in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ intheir colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. 14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between thetwo members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly. 19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as[+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominalelement(s) in a sentence.28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning ina word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04)30. presequence: The specific turn that has thefunction of prefiguring the coming action. (05)Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in aparticular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the categoryof which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization:The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause. 20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to aposition to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to aposition at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element thatcan be moved from one place to another.29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be addedto it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroyingits meaning.。
2. Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews 4
Social Development Papers Paper Number 36June 2001Social AnalysisSelected T ools and T echniques Richard A. KruegerMary Anne CaseyJonathan DonnerStuart KirschJonathan N. MaackFirst printing: June 2001This publication was developed and produced by the Social Development Family of the World Bank. The Environment, Rural Development, and Social Development Families are part of the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Network. The Social Development Family is made up of World Bank staff working on social issues.Papers in the Social Development series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are published informally and circulated to encourage discussion and comment within the development community.Copies of this paper are available from:Social Development DepartmentThe World Bank1818 H Street, N.W., MSN MC5-507Washington, D.C. 20433 USAFax: 202-522-3247E-mail: sdpublications@ContentsAcknowledgments ivContributors v1.Introduction to the Issues12.Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews4Richard A. Krueger and Mary Anne Caseying Q-Sorts in Participatory Processes: An Introductionto the Methodology24Jonathan C. Donner4.Ethnographic Methods: Concepts and Field T echniques50Stuart Kirsch5.Scenario Analysis: A Tool for Task Managers62Jonathan N. MaackiiiivThis publication is a collaboration between members of the Social Development Family in the World Bank and academicians outside the Bank. It was made possible in part by the Danish Trust Fund, which has supported the Social Development Family in the development of tools and techniques for social assessments.AcknowledgmentsWe gratefully acknowledge the valuable comments provided by David Marsden, Anis Dani, and Judith Edstrom. Alicia Hetzner edited the volume, and it was desktopped by Gaudencio Dizon.ContributorsMary Anne CaseyConsultant1494 Idaho Avenue, WestSt. Paul, MN 55108USATel.: (651) 647-4952Fax: (651) 647-4307Email: Casey016@Jonathan C. DonnerontheFRONTIER, a Monitor Group Company 2 Canal ParkCambridge, MA 02141USATel.: (617) 252-2540Fax: (617) 761-3603Email: jdonner@Stuart KirschVisiting Assistant ProfessorDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of Michigan500 S. State StreetAnn Arbor, MI 48109USATel.: (734) 764-2292, -7274Fax: (734) 763-6077Email: skirsch@ Richard A. KruegerProfessor and Evaluation LeaderUniversity of MinnesotaSt. Paul, MN 55108USATel.: (612) 624-6754Fax: (612) 625-2798Email: Rkrueger@Jonathan N. MaackConsultantSocial Development DepartmentWorld Bank1818 H Street, N.W., Rm. MC5-244 Washington, D.C. 20433USATel: (202) 458-7463Fax: (202) 522-3247Email: Jmaack@Maackj@vviIncreasing importance is being attached to facilitating dialogues among stakeholders in development projects and programs, to devel-opment interventions, and to increasing the voice of the poor in policymaking at all levels. This volume selects four tools and techniques that provide rigorous methods for eliciting information from stakeholders to ensure that the information can feed into World Bank projects and programs.Social analysts working in development face three challenges. The first is to draw out information from stakeholders, who can provide understanding both of disenfranchised groups and how power works in any social context.1 The second challenge is to identify and verify patterns in the data and to under-stand the underlying logic that results in a pattern’s being reproduced. Understanding the logic underlying patterns will enable the analyst to identify the sets of incentives neces-sary to change patterns of behavior—the key task of development. The third challenge faced by analysts is to translate for development agencies what the actors’ expressed interests mean in terms of development objectives.The first of the four techniques presented in this volume—the focus group—provides a popular and flexible way to meet the first challenge, and guidance on ways to system-atize the data received. The Q-sort methodol-ogy will not provide as much guidance on how to ask questions. However, it provides a rigorous methodology by which to analyze patterns in the survey data and reveal the mental models of the survey participants. Ethnographic methods provide guidance on all three challenges. The fourth technique—scenario analysis—will enable diverse groups of stakeholders to identify the key drivers of change behind a development process and is particularly useful in translating stakeholders’expressed needs into development strategy.These techniques are four among many in use by the World Bank and other development partners. The methods already in use for development include Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Rural Appraisal, Gender Analy-sis, Appreciative Inquiry,2 Systematic Client Consultation, Beneficiary Assessment, and SARAR.3 These methods all have their own literature and practice, which are not replicated here. Most of these methods are well docu-mented in The World Bank Participation Sourcebook.4 The techniques presented in the current volume also can be used to flesh out the approaches developed by the Bank’s Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Net-work (PREM) Public Sector, and Poverty Divisions. These PREM approaches include assessing political commitment, poverty-mapping, and participatory poverty assess-ments. The four techniques presented in the this volume provide means to implement the PREM approaches.In choosing to use one technique rather than the other, a task manager must make a trade-off. The choice of technique will vary according to the stage of application in the project cycle, the budget and the time avail-able, and the breadth and depth of analysis required. Using more than one method can increase the reliability of the results. There is a danger in single technique fundamentalism; none of these techniques is a panacea for all situations. The tools described here are not1.Introduction to the Issues12Social Analysis: Selected Tools and Techniquesblueprints for action. Each practitioner must refine them and adapt them to the context, so that they enhance the quality of the particular project or program.Table 1 sets out some of the characteristics of the techniques presented in this volume.Notes1. Stakeholders are active social actors with three key characteristics: (1) practical consciousnessderived from life experience; (2) their own theories about social relationships and power; and (3)systems of reflective monitoring on how things work. See A. Giddens, The Constitution of SocietyTable 1.Strengths and Weaknesses of Techniques(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984).2. Appreciative Inquiry is a technique that has been used with great success to find local solutions,locate excellence in organizational culture, and build coalitions on the basis of past success. The technique is fully explained in C. Elliott, Locating the Energy for Change: An Introduction to Appreciative Inquiry (Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development, 1999). It is also concisely explained in S. A. Hammond, The Thin Book of Appreciative Inquiry (Plano, Tex.: Thin Book Publishing Company, 1996),so is not included as a separate chapter in thisvolume. See also M. Grindle, “Divergent Cultures:When Public Organizations Perform Well in Develop-ing Countries,” World Development 25 (4) (April 1997).Introduction to the Issues3. SARAR is a participatory approach to training. The acronym stands for five attributes or abilities that are critical to achieve full and com-mitted participation in development: self-esteem, associative strength, resourcefulness, action planning, and responsibility for follow-through. SARAR is a highly experiential methodology whose central strategy is group process. Its purpose is to (a) provide a multisectoral, multi-level approach to team building through training, (b) encourage participants to learn from local experience rather than from external experts, and (c) empower people at the community and agency levels to initiate action.4. The World Bank Participation Sourcebook (Wash-ington, D. C.: 1996).32.Designing and Conducting FocusGroup InterviewsRichard A. Krueger and Mary Anne CaseyMarket researchers have used focus groups to search for ways to improve and market their products to consumers since the 1950s. In the last 20 years, government agencies, nongovern-mental organizations (NGOs), academics, and nonprofit organizations have started using findings from focus group interviews to help make decisions about their products and services. International public health organiza-tions were quick to make use of focus groups, particularly in social marketing efforts. Educa-tional and environmental organizations also have used the technique to listen to their employees as well as to their current and potential users.The techniques we share are based on what we have learned while running focus groups with nonprofit organizations.Characteristics of Focus Group InterviewsA good focus group has the following characteris-tics: carefully recruited participants, interacting in a comfortable environment, led by a skillful moderator, followed by systematic analysisand reporting. When conducting focus groups:Carefully Recruit Participants•Invite individuals who have the characteris-tics, experience, or knowledge needed toprovide rich information on the topic.•Limit the size of the group to six to eight people. It is desirable to have enough peopleto generate diverse ideas but not so manyparticipants that they do not have a chance to share.•Hold three or four separate focus groups for each type of participant one desires to use asa unit of analysis. For example, to comparehow men and women view a particularissue, one should conduct three or fourgroups with men and three or four groupswith women.•Avoid power differentials among partici-pants. All participants in a group should feel comfortable talking with one another.Create a Comfortable Environment•Hold focus groups in familiar or neutral settings such as office buildings, libraries,schools, homes, cafes, or community gather-ing spots.•Seat people so that they can easily see one another.•Interview people in their language. Do not use an interpreter in the group. Using aninterpreter stilts the discussion and turns the process into serial interviews ratherthan a lively discussion among partici-pants. It is better to train someone whoknows the language to moderate thegroups than to have someone who knows how to moderate work through an inter-preter. After the group is over, if necessary, translate the discussion back into theanalyst’s language.4•Record the discussion for analysis. Take field notes and, if possible, make an audio taperecording. Sometimes a laptop computer can be used to make a transcription during thefocus group. Explain why the focus group is being recorded and who will have access to the data.Choose a Skillful Moderator•Pick moderators who make people feel comfortable and who are good at listening.For groups of people who are used to being in powerful positions, pick a moderator who can keep the group on track and controldominant participants.•Use predetermined questions. The modera-tor should be prepared to ask a set of ques-tions designed to get the information needed by decisionmakers.•Establish an open environment. It is the moderator’s job to create the feelingthat it will be safe to talk in the focusgroup.Record and Analyze Data Systematically •Develop a systematic approach to recording and analyzing data. The analyst should besure that he or she can describe the process to others.•Use a verifiable process. This means the analysis process should be documented and there should be evidence to support thefindings. Another researcher should be able to review all the data and see how theanalyst arrived at the findings and conclu-sions based on those data.A focus group is working well when partici-pants begin to talk to one another and build on one other’s comments rather than continually responding directly to the moderator. Ideally, participants become engaged, and the focus group becomes a forum for their own discus-sion. The moderator should begin to play a less central role as participants share experiences, debate ideas, and offer opinions. Some groups arrive at this point quickly; others never reach it.Roles in Conducting Focus GroupsThere are different roles in a focus group study: organizer (leads planning and developing questions), recruiter (invites participants), moderator (leads the groups), assistant mod-erator (handles logistics and captures data), and analyst/reporter (summarizes the data and prepare reports).One person can fill all the roles. However, we prefer working with a team of four or five people. Team members work together to complete the study, but individuals may take primary responsibility for certain tasks. For example, one may have multiple moderators who speak different languages to better reach the groups being addressed. Each of these moderators would be responsible for the outcome of his or her focus group.Finally, although one person may be respon-sible for organizing the study, the plan and questions are usually stronger when several people are involved in their development.PlanningThe main challenge during the planning stage is to design a study that will answer the key questions within the time and budget con-straints. The task manager and the team must be clear about the purpose of the study. The task manager must decide whether focus groups are the appropriate method. If focus groups are the best method, then the task manager must decide how many to do and to whom he or she wants to listen.First Steps with Focus Group StudiesIn developing and planning a focus study group, five key steps should be followed:1. Decide whether focus groups are appropriate. Focus groups work particularly well for the following tasks:•Understanding how people see needs and assets in their lives and communities.•Understanding how people think or feel about an issue, idea, behavior, product, orservice.•Pilot testing ideas, reforms, or projects.Focus groups can be used to get reactions to plans before large amounts of money arespent in implementation.•Evaluating how well programs or projects are working and how they might be im-proved.•Developing other research instruments, such as surveys or case studies.Focus group interviews are not meant to be used as:•A process for getting people to come to consensus•A way to teach knowledge or skills•A test of knowledge or skills.If the task manager answers yes to any of the following questions, he or she likely will need to consider other methods to use in conjunction with, or instead of, focus group interviews:•Do you need statistical data? Focus groups cannot provide statistical data to project to apopulation. The number of people listened to is too small to be statistically representative.•Will harm come to people who share their ideas in a group? Although the task manager can guarantee that he or she will keepinformation shared in the group confidential, the moderator cannot promise that otherparticipants will do the same. If harm maycome to people who openly share in thegroup, choose another method, such asindividual interviews.•Are people polarized by this topic? It is difficult to conduct focus groups if peopleholding opposing views on controversialissues are in the same group.•Is there a better, more efficient way to get the information?2. Clarify the purpose of the study. Team mem-bers may disagree about the information that the study should produce and what should be done with the results. They should come to agreement on a clear purpose for the study. This will make the entire process simpler.3. Decide what types of people to listen to the (target audience(s)). What types of people have the experiences or characteristics that will allow them to provide input on the study topic? The target audience may not consist of the most highly educated or the most influential people in an area, but its members have direct experi-ence with something about which the task manager wants to learn more. For example, young people who drop out of school know a great deal about what it would take to keep other young people in school. Teachers, counse-lors, and parents may give the task manager different perspectives on the same issue.The task manager should consider the usefulness of listening to a wide variety of people. These include elected officials, influen-tial local figures, the people most affected by the change, the people who must buy into the change before it can happen, and employees (both frontline staff and management) of the organizations that will implement programs or services to support the change.4.Get advice from the target audience(s).The task manager should find a few people similar to those whom he or she wants to invite to the focus groups and tell them about the study. The task manager can ask for their advice on several issues: Who can ask these kinds of questions, that is, who should moderate the focus groups? Where might the groups be held? What days or times would work well for people? How does one find people with these characteristics? What would it take to get people to come?5.Put thoughts in writing. The task manager should develop a plan that includes the study’s purpose, the number of groups, the potential questions, a timeline, and a budget. This plan will clarify one’s thinking and provide a basis for further discussions. Then this plan should be shared with colleagues and their feedback invited.Sampling and Number of GroupsThe basic sampling strategy is to conduct three or four focus groups for each audience categorythat is of interest. If after the third or fourth group the team is still hearing new informa-tion, the team might continue conducting focus groups until no new information is elicited.Do not use a statistical formula to determine sample size. Instead, use the concepts of redundancy or theoretical saturation, in which the researcher continues interviewing until no new insights are presented. In effect, the researcher will have exhausted the range of views on the topic, and continuing the interviews would only yield more of what the researcher already knows. Theoretical saturation tends to occur regularly in focus group research after three or four groups with one audience.For example, suppose a researcher were doing a study in a country with several larger urban areas and a sizable rural population and wanted views that reflected the entire country. He or she might decide to conduct three or four focus groups in the cities and three or four in the rural areas. If the country had a multilin-gual and multiethnic population, the researcher likely would want to conduct three or four groups for each language and each ethnicity in both the urban and rural areas. Clearly, the number of focus groups needed can multiply quickly, and the budget and timeline willforce the researcher to restrict the size of the study.QuestionsDeveloping questions carries several chal-lenges. The aim is to ask questions that address the purpose of the study. Nevertheless, many study teams get swept away inventing ques-tions that would be interesting to ask but whose answers would not address the study’s purpose. A good set of questions focuses on getting information that directly relates to the study’s objectives. The questions must be conversational and easy for the participants to understand. The researcher must have the right number of questions—neither too many nor too few. He or she must start with questions that allow the participants to get ready to prepare the participants to answer the most important questions.Developing a Set of QuestionsA set of questions developed for the focus groups is sometimes called a “questioning route.” In a two-hour focus group, the re-searcher can expect to ask about a dozen questions. The questions should be written in the form that they will be asked in the groups. There are three steps to develop a questioning route: (1) hold a brainstorming session, (2) use the brainstorming questions to draft a ques-tioning route, and (3) send the draft question-ing route to the team for feedback (box 1).1. Hold a brainstorming session. The researcher should begin by inviting four to six people who are familiar with the study to a one- or two-hour meeting. Ask these people to suggest questions that should be answered in the study. Questions may be lightly discussed but do not get stuck debating the merits of a single ques-tion. Have one person record all these ques-tions, and adjourn when ideas dry up.2. Use the brainstorming questions to draft a questioning route. Groups are good at brain-storming, but they are not efficient at develop-ing questioning routes. Have one person use the questions generated in the meeting as the basis to draft a questioning route. Select the questions that seem most likely to provide useful information. Rephrase these questions according to their order in the questioning route. Sequence the questions in a logical flow from general to specific.Say the questions out loud. Are they easy to ask? Do they seem like questions the target audience will be able to answer?There is no magic in having approximately 12 questions. However, beginning focus group researchers often develop questioning routes with 20 to 30 questions—which is far too many. The result of too many questions will be shal-low data. Participants will not have enough time to go into depth on any of the questions. Once we have a draft questioning route, we estimate how much time we think the group should spend on each question. Not all ques-tions deserve the same amount of time. Some questions are simple, or not as important, andcan be easily covered in five minutes. Key ques-tions may be complex or include activities. A key question can take 15 to 20 minutes to answer. Once we have estimated times for each of the questions, we add up the total to determine whether we should add or delete questions.3. Send the draft questioning route to the team for feedback. Ask the brainstorming team the following questions: Will these questions get us the information we need? What have we missed? What can be deleted? Are these the words participants would use? Does the flow make sense? Then the researcher can revise the questioning route based on feedback.It is important to remember that the same questions are asked in all the interviews with the same audience. However, if separate groups are going to be conducted for different audiences, a slightly different questioning route might be used for each. For example, the researcher might ask students a question that he or she does not want to ask parents or teachers. Nevertheless, the researcher needs to keep a core set of questions the same in each questioning route so that responses can be compared across audiences.Phrasing and Sequencing QuestionsCare is needed in the phrasing and sequencing of the questions. Focus group questions are distinctive. When developing questions, the researcher should keep in mind several guide-lines:Use open-ended questions. Most of the ques-tions in the focus group are open-ended or non-directive. These questions deliberately give the participants as much latitude as possible for their responses. Be cautious of phrases such as “how satisfied” or “to what extent” because these words limit the range of responses.Pilot testing new materials1.Take a few moments and look over the materi-als (the materials presented to the groupshould include a brief description of a program and examples of handouts that participantswould receive).2.What one thing do you like the best?3.What one thing do you like the least?4.If you could change one thing about thematerials, what would it be?5.What would get you to participate in thisprogram? (Under what conditions would youparticipate?)6.Suppose that you were trying to encourage afriend to participate in this program. Whatwould you say?7.Do you have any other advice for us as weintroduce this new program?Basic questions for formative program evaluation1.Tell us how you participated in the program.2.What did you like best about the program?(What has been most helpful to you?)3.What did you like the least about the program?(What was least helpful to you?)4.What should be changed?5.What should be continued… as is (keep it thesame) or with revision (continue it but finetune).6.What other advice do you have about theprogram?Evaluating a service for children1.Introduce yourself and tell us how you learnedabout this service.2.Think back to when you first became involvedwith these services. What were your firstimpressions of the service?3.What has been particularly helpful about theservices your family has received?4.What has been frustrating about the services?5.What has your child liked about the experi-ence?6.What has your child not liked about the experi-ence?7.Some of you may have had experiences withother services for your child. How does thisapproach compare with other services you’veexperienced? Is it any different? How so?8.What would make the services work better?9.Is your child any different because they havereceived these services? If so, how?10.Is your family life any different because youreceived these services? How?11.If you had a chance to give advice to director ofthis program, what would you say?12.Based on your experiences, would you recom-mend these services to other parents?Box 1.Examples of Questioning RoutesFocus the questions, sequencing them from general to specific. As a rule, the questions tend to begin with general and broader topics and move to more specific categories. For example,if a researcher were doing a focus group on a specific brand of cola, he or she might begin by asking about beverages, then sodas, then colas,and finally about the specific brand.RecruitingThe researcher has the plan and knows the questions that he or she is going to ask. The next challenge is to find the right people and get them to attend the focus groups.The first step in recruiting participants is to identify as precisely as possible the characteris-tics of the target audience. A basic principle of focus groups interviewing is that the researcher controls attendance. The researcher invites people because they meet the “screens” or qualifications of the study devised in theplanning stages. Participants are selected and invited because they have certain experiencesExamples of open-ended questions include:What did you think of the program? How did you feel about the conference? Where do you get new information? What do you like best about the proposed program?Avoid questions that can be answered with a “yes” or “no.” If the question can be answered with one word, the researcher should revise the question. One-word answers usually lack the desired detail.Avoid “why?” questions. “Why?” seems demanding and makes people defensive.Instead, the researcher can ask about attributes and influences. Attributes are characteristics or features of the topic. Influences are things that prompt or cause action. Try questions such as:“What prompted you to try…?”Use “think back” questions. Take people back to a specific time to get information based on experience. “Think back to the last time you visited the clinic….” “Think back to when you had your first baby….” “Think back to when you first planted….”Use different types of questions. Five types of questions are asked in focus groups: (1) opening questions (answered by everyone), (2) introduc-tory questions, (3) transition questions (move participants to key questions), (4) key questions (address one of the fundamental issues of the study), and (5) ending questions (get a final viewpoint from participants on key topics). Not all questions are the same. Some are designed to get people talking. They are easy for every-one to answer. Others move participants to the key questions that are the most important. At least half of the focus group’s time should be spent on key questions. Ending questions help wrap up the discussion (box 2).Use questions that get participants involved.Participants can do more than talk. Ask them to try a product or a task and talk about it. Or ask them to draw a person who uses the program or service that is the subject of the focus group.Have them rate different ideas. Remember to take into consideration reading and writing abilities before using certain types of questions.Box 2.Examples of Ending QuestionsSeveral questions are particularly effective at the end of the focus group. These questions help the researcher get a final viewpoint from participants on key topics. Consider using one or more of these ending questions:All-things-considered question. This question asks participants to reflect on the entire discussion and then offer their positions or opinions on topics of central importance to the researchers. Forexample: “Suppose that you had one minute to talk to the head of X about this topic. What would you say?” Or “Of all the things we discussed, what to you is the most important?”Summary question . The assistant moderator often gives a short summary of the focus group near the end. After the brief oral summary, the moderator asks: “Is this a good summary of what was said here today?”Final question . The moderator reviews the purpose of the study and then asks the partici-pants: “Have we missed anything? Is there anything we should have discussed that we didn ’t?”。
语言学Chapter 6
The main symptoms of Braca’s aphasia:
Non-fluent Phonologically: have difficulty in producing the needed phonemes, lack of normal intonation Syntactically: Ungrammatical, lack of function words, inflections, disordered syntactic structure…… ……
What is Cognition
Cognition is used in several different loosely related ways. It is a group of mental processes that includes attention, memory, producing and comprehending language, learning, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making.
Approaches to the study of language and cognition
The formal approach The psychological approach The conceptual approach
Psycholinguistics
Language acquisition
How does a child acquire the language skills (first language acquisition) and how are they extended to other languages (second language acquisition) ?
Chapter 6 Language and Cognition(1)
从相当一般的认知系统诸如感知，记忆，注意和 推理的角度来研究语言
6
The conceptual approach:
Concerned
with the patterns in which and
the processes by which conceptual content
1. Holophrastic stage 独词句阶段 one-word stage
Shortly before their first birthday, they began to understand words and produce them usually in isolation
Study of the psychological aspects of language
Concerned with psychological states and mental
activity with the use of language.
Many problems are more concrete, such as language acquisition; the relationship between language and thought…
& cognition
The formal 形式法
The psychological 心理学方法
The conceptual 认知法
3
1. What is Cognition认知?
Mental processes of individuals Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
chapter 6 Language and Cognition
2. What is its research scopes?
• the way human beings perceive
and conceptualize the world:
6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations (识解与操作) 6.3.2 Categorization (范畴化) 6.3.3 Image Schemas (意象图式) 6.3.4 Metaphor (隐喻) 6.3.5 Metonymy (转喻) 6.3.6 Blending Theory (整合理论)
6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations (识解与识解操作)
(2) Judgment / Comparison (判断/对比)
那只顺流而下的船沉了；玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她的膝盖上滑下来；国王 女儿的儿子崇拜他自己；收到鲜花的种花人非常高兴；纺织用棉产于密西西 比；他们把故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。
•
6.2.3 Language Production
• (1) Access of words (词汇的提取) • (2) Generation of sentences (句子的生成) • (3) Written language production &
Spoken language production
monitoring/preparation & revision processes sentence generation & lexical access processes
QUESTIONS: (IN PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
语言学提纲笔记
Chapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsLanguage The Definition(语言的定义)The Design Features Arbitrariness（本质特征）DualityCreativityDisplacement语言先天反射理论The Origin Of Language The bow-bow theory(语言的起源) The pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-yo”theoryJacobos（与The Prague School一致）Referential Functions Of Language Ideational PoeticEmotiveHalliday Interpersonal ConativePhaticTextual MetalingualThe Basic Functions InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive functionPhatic communion(B.Malinowski 提出)Recreation functionMetalingual function Linguistics The DefinitionThe Main Branches of Linguistics Phonetics(微观语言学) PhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguistics Psycholinguistics(宏观语言学）SociolinguisticsAnthropological LinguisticsComputaioanl LinguisticsDescriptive &PrescriptiveSynchronic&DiachronicImportant Distinctions Langue&ParoleCompetence&PerformanceChapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)语音学Auditory Phonetics(听觉语言学)Articulatory Phonetics(发声语音学)Speech Organs/Vocal organs(lungs ,trachea,throat,nose.mouth)IPA/Diacritics(变音符)Consonants The definitionThe manner of articulationArticulatory Phonetics The place of articulation(发声语音学)Vowels The definitionThe sound of English:RP/GACardinal vowelsThe requirements of descriptionCoarticulation Anticipatory CoarticulationPerseverative CoarticulationPhonetics transcription Narrow transcriptionBroad transcriptionPhonology 音位理论Minimal Pairs（c ut&p ut）Phone&Phonemes&Allophone(音素&音位&音位变体)音系学C omplementary DistributionFree variants(自由变体)/variation(自由变体现象)Phonological contrasts or opposition(音位对立)Distinctive Features(First developed by Jacobson as a meansof working out a set of phonological contrasts or opposition toCapture particular aspect of language sounds)progressive assimilationPhonological Process音系过程Assimilation Progressive assimilation音素是语音学研究的单位。
语言学——精选推荐
语⾔学English Linguistics英语语⾔学Chapter SixLanguage and Cognition语⾔与认知What is language ?What is cognition ?I . Cognition(I). Definition:Mental processes of an individual, information processingMental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.(Ⅱ).Three approaches to the study of language and cognition:1.The formal approach: addresses the structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.2.The psychological approach: looks at language from the perspective of general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, attention to reasoning. PSYCHOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS ⼼理语⾔学3.The conceptual approach: addresses how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 认知语⾔学Ⅱ. Psycholinguistics(I). Definition:Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language, it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.(Ⅱ).Three subjects of researchLanguage acquisitionLanguage comprehensionLanguage production1. Language Acquisition(1). Definition:Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.(2). Studies on Language acquisition:One of the central topics in psycholinguisticsAll normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does.Children’s acquisition of language has received much attention.Scholars kept diaries of children’s speech for their research data.(3). Stages of Language acquisition:a. Holophrastic stage (from two months to a year)–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.b.Two-word stage (around 18 months)c. Three-word stage–Give doggie paper.–Put truck window.–Tractor go floor.d. Fluent grammatical conversation stageEmbed one constituent inside another:–Give doggie paper.–Give big doggie paper.Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.All parts of a language are acquired before the child turns four.2. Language comprehension(1). Definition:The mental process in which humans can understand sentences that carry novel messages in a way exquisitely sensitive to the structure of the language.(2). Stages of language comprehension:a. word recognitionb. comprehension of sentencesc. comprehension of texts3. Language production(1). Definition:In psycholinguistics, language production is the production of spoken or written language. It describes all of the stages between having a concept, and translating that concept into linguistic form.(2). Stages of language production:a. access to wordsb. generation of sentencesc. written language productionⅢ. Cognitive LinguisticsDefinition:It is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. ?It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the (I) Construal and Construal Operations (识解与识解活动)Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different waysConstrual Operations include the following aspects:Attention / salience(注意⁄突显)We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.a We drove along the road.(a line:one-dimenaional)b. She ran across the road.(a surface:two-dimenaional)c. The workers dug through the road.(a volume:three-dimenaional)a. He cleaned the window. (glass)b. He opened the window. (frame)a. I’ve broken the window. (I)b. A stone has broken the window. (stone)2. Judgment / Comparison (判断⁄⽐较)Figure / Ground (图形⁄背景)We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time.We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience. ?Figure-ground organization –The ground seems to be placed behind the figure extending in the background.–The figure is thus more prominent, or even more interesting, than the ground.Figure-groundFigure-ground also seems to apply to our perception of moving objects.In order to distinguish between stationary and dynamic figure-ground relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term trajector （射体）for a moving figure and landmark （界标）for the ground of a moving figure. There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground]There are still some peanuts[figure] in the bag[ground]Batman[figure] was standing on the roof[ground]The computer[figure] under the table[ground] is mineThe spacecraft[figure] was hovering over Metropolis[ground]Tarzan[trajector] jumped into the river[landmark]Spiderman[trajector] climbed up the wall[landmark]The bird[trajector] winged its way out the window[landmark]We[trajector] went across the field[landmark]I[trajector]’m going to London[landmark]3. Perspective⁄Situatedness(视⾓⁄情景)Perspective ：the way in which we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It generally depends on two things: where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewinghow the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.–The tree is behind the man.–The tree is in front of the man.(Ⅱ) Categorization（范畴化）1. Definition:The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.2. Three levels in categories:–basic level–superordinate level–subordinate levelBasic level Superordinate levelAnimalHorse Dog CatChihuahua German dachshundshepherdSubordinate levelVertical organization(Ⅲ) Image Schema（意象图式）Definition:A recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience (Mark Johnson).2. Patterns of image schemas:Center-periphery schema（中央—边缘图式）Involves–a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and–degrees of distance from the core.Examples (English):–The structure of an apple–An individual’s perceptual sphere–An individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality （周边性）Containment schema（容器图式）Involves a physical or metaphorical–boundary–enclosed area or volume, or–excluded area or volume.Bodily experience: human bodies as containers.Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior–The ship is coming into view.–She’s deep in thought.–We stood in silence.Cycle schema （循环图式）Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:–A starting point–A progression through successive events without backtracking–A return to the initial stateThe schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.Examples (English)–Days–Weeks–Years–Sleeping and waking–Breathing–Circulation–Emotional buildup and releaseForce schema （⼒量图式）Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements:–A source and target of the force–A direction and intensity of the force–A path of motion of the source and/or target–A sequence of causationExamples (English):–Physical: Wind, Gravity–Structural elements: force, path, entity, etc.–Interaction, directionality, causality–Compulsion–Blockage–Counterforce–Diversion–Removal of restraintLink schema（连接图式）Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them.Entity A Entity BExamples (English):–A child holding her mother’s hand–Someone plugging a lamp into the wall–A causal “connection”–Kinship “ties”Part-whole schema（部分—整体图式）Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.Examples (English):–Physical: The body and its parts–Metaphorical: The familyPath schema（路径图式）Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, andconsists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points.Examples (English):Physical: Paths; TrajectoriesMetaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences: –Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality.–You have reached the midpoint of your flight training.–She's just starting out to make her fortune.–Jane was sidetracked in her search for self-understanding.Scale schema（刻度图式）Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, andconsists of any of the following:–A closed- or open-endedprogression of amount–A position in the progressionof amount–One or more norms of amountExamples:–Physical amounts–Properties in the number system–Economic entities such as supply and demandVerticality schema（垂直图式）Involves “up” and “down” relations.Examples:–Standing upright–Climbing stairs–Viewing a flagpole–Watching water rise in a tub(Ⅳ) MetaphorGeorge Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. <中⼩学英语教学与研究>2011第6期英语中的概念隐喻表达法崔传明⽯磊（⼭东科技⼤学，⼭东泰安271000）隐喻（metaphor）就是把⼀个领域的概念投射到另⼀领域，或者说从⼀个认知域—来源（source domain）投射到另⼀个认知域—⽬标域（target domain）。
语言学——精选推荐
Chapter 6Cognition（概念，选择题）I n psychology, it is used to refer to the mental processes and can be understand as information processing.Another definition of”Cognition”is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.There are three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach, and the conceptual approach.Psycholinguistics（概念，选择题）Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspect of language; it is usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the rules they play in our thinking.It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within Psycholinguistics: Acquisition, Comprehension, Production, Disorder, Language and Thought, Neurocognition.Cognitive Linguistics （名词解释）Cognitive Linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It’s an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and Construal Operations （名词解释，三种分类）Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation.Construal Operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.1)Attention/ SalienceThe operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that salience to us.We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.2)Judgment/ComparisonThe Construal Operations of Judgment/Comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. This is quit a fundamental cognitive capacity and the cognitive operations of judgment are also very fundamental to the human experience.3)Perspective/SituatednessWe view a scene in terms of our situatedness. Perspective generally depends on two things. Firstly, it depends on where we are situated in relation to the scene we are viewing. Secondly, itdepends on how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.Categorization （名词解释、三种分类）Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experiences to past one.1)Basic levelThe categories at the Basic Level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the most.2)Superordinate levelSuperordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.3)Subordinate levelThey have clearly identification gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level, we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.Image Schemas （名词解释、各个分类的特点-选择题）Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.1) A center-periphery schema2) A containment schema3) A cycle schema4) A force schema5) A link schema6) A part-whole schema7) A path schema8) A scale schema9) A verticality schemaMetaphor （名词解释）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.1）ontological metaphorsHuman experiences with physical objects provide the basic for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, ect, as entities and substances.2）structural metaphorsIt allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.3）orientional metaphorsIt gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.Metonymy （名词解释）Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.Chapter 7Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （重点-大题）Our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique wayside of understanding the world.Linguistic Determinism, language may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic Relativity, language is relative in similarity. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Firth-theory of context of situation（重点-大题）1)The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.The verbal action of the participants.The non-verbal action of the participants.2)The relevant objects.3)The effects of the verbal action.That is, who speaks what to whomever and when for what.Culture in language teaching classroom（重点-大题）To get the students familiar with culture differences;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture though various classroom practices.Chapter 8Pragmatic （名词解释）Pragmatic is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of meaning in speaker’s meaning.Speech act theory （名词解释）It was proposed by John Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question” What do we do when using language?”1.Performatives and Constatives （大题举例子）Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and not verifiable.Performative verbs: mane, bet, ect.Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.2.Felicity ConditionsThere must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants andcircumstances must be appropriate;The procedure must be executed, correctly and completely;Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thought, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.A theory of the Illocutionary act （大题）The theory of the illocutionary act was set up by Austin. There are three acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.Illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is to say something is to do something. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.Conversational implicature: （大题or名词解释）It is the use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.in order to avoid the logical use of implication (in the section on logical semantics), Grice coined the term implicature.The characteristics of Conversational implicature:CalculabilityThe fact that speakers try to convey conversation implicature and hearers are able to understand them indicates that implicature are calculable.CancellabilityIf the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change.Non- detachabilityIt means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.Non- conventionalityConversational implicature is by definition different from the conversational meaning of words. It is indeterminate and it varies with context.The Cooperative Principle （大题）A speaker can mean more than what is said and the hearer can understand the speaker’s meaning. Grice argues that there is a set of assumption guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls The Cooperative Principle. CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Relation: be relevant.Manner: be perspicuous. (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)Relevance Theory （名词解释）This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance, Communication and Cognition in 1986. They believe that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to single principle of relevance, which can be define d as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 9（名词解释）Literary StylisticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and literature is Literary Stylistic, which focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.StylisticsStylistics is the study of varieties of language which properties position that language in context.ForegroundingOriginally coming from usual arts and in contrast with back grounding, the concept of foregrounding, a popular term in stylistics, was applied in literary studies by the Prague School, modern stylisticians. It is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”. This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language, sound, syntax, meaning, etc.RegisterIn linguistic, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.。
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Structural Metaphor
– Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain.
– 指以一种概念的结构来构造另一种概念,使两种概 念相叠加,使谈论一种概念的各方面的词语用于谈 论rrespondence
Example: LIFE IS A JOURNEY
Ontological correspondence:
source: JOURNEY target: LIFE BIRTH PERSON
STARTING POINT
TRAVELER PATH DESTINATION OBSTACLES CROSSROADS
• Gives a concept a spatial orientation
– Grounded in an experiential basis, which link together the two parts of the metaphor – The link verb “is”, part of the metaphor, should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring experiences. 指参照空间方位而组建的一系列隐喻概念.
head
• She nodded her head in agreement.
• The thought never entered my head.
• I've been called in to see the Head. • the head of the river • The President sat at the head of the table.
3.4 Metaphor
• What is a metaphor?
(1) Novel metaphor Novel metaphors are new metaphors which are “imaginative and creative”.
• It is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison in which one thing is described in terms of another. • All the world's a stage. ------Shakespeare
Acquiring Ideas is Eating
• • • • • • 精神食粮 陈腐观念 馊主意 如饥似渴 囫囵吐枣 搜肠刮肚
Thinking as Seeing
• • • • • • • • 看 看法 我 看他是个可靠的人。 你对这件事怎么看？ 我们应该全面地看问题。 你们应该看清形式。 你们必须从实质上看。 他把人民的利益看得高于 一切。 • • • • 看穿 看透 看破 看开
• • • • • • • • • • • You’re wasting my time. I don’t have the time to give you. How do you spend your time these days? That flat tire cost me an hour. I’ve invested a lot of time in her. I don’t have enough time to spare for that. You’re running out of time. Is that worth your while? I lost a lot of time when I got sick. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) Time is money.
2) Conventional metaphor (=conventionalized metaphors/ dead metaphors)
• Conceptual metaphor— a mental processes understanding one conceptual domain or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain.
PERSON MUST TAKE A CHOICE
• TRAVELER FACES AN OBSTACLE
PERSON HAD PROBLEMS IN LIFE
• TRAVELER REACHES DESTINATION
PERSON DIES
• Lakoff and Johnson (1980) classify conceptual metaphors into 3 categories: ontological metaphors实体隐喻, • structural metaphors 结构隐喻and • orientational metaphors方位隐喻.
• Examples: • HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN
– That boosted my spirits.那激起 了我的情绪 – I‟m feeling down我感到情绪低 落 – I‟m depressed我感到沮丧
• CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
3.4 Metaphor
• --George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. • --METAPHOR involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It‟s often described in terms of a TARGET DOMAIN and a SOURCE DOMAIN. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.
Example: • ARGUMENT IS WAR:
– Your claims are indefensible. – He attacked every weak point in my argument. – His criticisms were right on target. – I demolished his argument. – I‟ve never won an argument with him. – You disagree? OK, shoot! – If you use that strategy, he‟ll wipe you out. – He shot down all of my arguments.
Chapter Six Language and Cognition III
• Part I. Review • Define the following terms. Categorization Image schema
• Part I. Review • Define the following terms. • Categorization It is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. The products are categories. Image-schema An image-schema is a mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.
• 看扁 • 看底 • 小看
What is the structural metaphor?
Thinking is Moving
• • • • • • 思路 想到 想通 想出 想开 What are the metaphorical usages?
Orientational Metaphor方位隐喻
• • • •
(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980): INFLATION IS AN ENTITY a. Inflation is lowering our standard of living. b. If there‟s much more inflation, we‟ll never survive. • c. We need to combat inflation. • a. Inflation is backing us into a corner. • b. Inflation is taking its toll at the checkout counter and the gas pump.
• parts of the body: eye, leg, had, foot, head, arm (primarily) • eye of the needle • hand on the clock • foot of the bed, • the leg of a table, • the foot of the mountain, • the arm of a chair •
Conceptual Metaphor Theory
• The rational argument is a war.