Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
英语作文本
英语作文本English Composition BookIntroduction:An English composition book is a valuable tool for students and learners of the English language. It provides a space for them to practice their writing skills, explore ideas, and express themselves creatively. This book is designed to help users improve their grammar, vocabulary, sentence structure, and overall writing proficiency.Chapter 1: Understanding the Basics1.1 The Importance of Grammar- Explanation of basic grammar rules- Examples of correct and incorrect sentences1.2 Building Vocabulary- Strategies for learning new words- List of common words and phrases1.3 Crafting Sentences- Types of sentences (simple, compound, complex)- Techniques for combining sentencesChapter 2: Writing Essays2.1 Planning Your Essay- Brainstorming ideas- Outlining the structure2.2 Writing the Introduction- How to grab the reader's attention- Thesis statement2.3 Developing the Body Paragraphs- Supporting ideas and evidence- Transition words and phrases2.4 Concluding the Essay- Restating the thesis- Summarizing main points- Final thoughtsChapter 3: Creative Writing3.1 Descriptive Writing- Techniques for vivid descriptions- Example of a descriptive passage3.2 Narrative Writing- Telling a story- Use of dialogue and character development3.3 Persuasive Writing- Crafting an argument- Using evidence and logical reasoningChapter 4: Writing for Different Purposes4.1 Academic Writing- Writing reports and research papers- Citation and referencing styles4.2 Business Writing- Writing emails, memos, and reports- Professional tone and language4.3 Personal Writing- Letters and informal writing- Expressing emotions and personal experiencesChapter 5: Editing and Proofreading5.1 Common Errors to Avoid- Spelling mistakes- Punctuation errors- Sentence fragments5.2 Revising Your Work- Techniques for improving clarity and coherence - Rewriting and reorganizing5.3 Proofreading Tips- How to spot and correct errors- The importance of a final reviewConclusion:The journey of improving one's writing skills is a continuous process. This English composition book aims to be a companion on that journey, providing guidance, examples, and practice opportunities. With regular use and dedication, learners will see significant progress in their writing abilities.Appendix:- List of additional resources for further learning- Glossary of writing terms- Answer key for exercises and activitiesThis composition book is designed to be a comprehensive guide for anyone looking to enhance their English writing skills, whether for academic, professional, or personal purposes.。
英语演讲Chapter 10 Using Language
3
Metaphor
Using Language Clearly-Rhythm
1
2 3
Parallelism
Repetition
Alliteration
$
4
Antithesis
Using Language Clearly-Rhythm
1 1
Parallelism
The first device is parallelism--the ADD similar arrangement of a pair or YOURphrases, series of related words, TITLEof or sentences. The effects parallelism are perhaps best illustrated by seeing what happens when it is absent.
1 1
Concrete words
Using Language Clearly-Image
2
Smile
Another way to create imagery is through the use of ADD simile. Smile is YOUR an explicit comparison between things that are essentially TITLE different yet have something in common. It always contains the word "like" or "as".
Use Familiar Words
two will do. Avoid flabby phrases. Let your ideas emerge sharply and firmly.
写作教程第二册chapter 10 punctuation
10.1 Punctuation
• • (2) Summary： Rules of setting off sentence beginners with comma When a word, phrase, or dependent clause precedes the main clause of a sentence, a comma is often used to separate it from the main clause. For example: • Sentence: I usually skip breakfast. • Introductory word: Well, I usually skip breakfast. • Introductory phrase. In fact, I usually skip breakfast. • Introductory clause: As I often sleep in, I usually skip breakfast.
10.1 Punctuation
Introduction: Punctuation Marks Full stop /period . Question mark ? Exclamation mark ! Comma , Colon : Semicolon ; Quotation marks “” „‟ Apostrophe ‟ Dashes — Hyphen Brackets/Parentheses () [] Elliptical periods … Slash /solidus / Italic Capitalization Abbreviation WTO
10.1 Punctuation
语言学选择题
Exercises for the test of linguisticsThere are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that best complete the statement.Chapter 1 Introduction1.The study of language as a whole is often called ________ linguistics.A.particularB.generalC.ordinaryD.generative2.Traditional grammar regards the ________ form of language as primary, not thespoken form.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal3. The description of a language at some point in time is a ________ study.A. synchronic 限于一时的B. diachronic 历时的C. historicalD. comparative4.According to F. de Saussure, ________ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A.paroleB.performancengue 语言nguage5. Language is arbitrary in that there is no logical connection between meanings and________.A. wordsB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas6. Which of the following isn‟t the design features of human language?A. arbitrarinessB. performanceC. dualityD. displacement7. The core of linguistics excludes ________.A. semantics n.语义学B. morphology 形态学C. phonetics 语音(学)D. psycholinguistics 语言心理学Chapter 2 Phonology语音体系1.________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.A.PhonologyB.PhoneticsC.MorphologyD.Phonemics2.Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the ________ properties of the stream ofsounds which a speaker issues.A.oralB.mentalC.physicalD.recorded3.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ________ sounds.A.V oicelessB.voiced ,浊音的C.vowelD.consonantal 辅音的,4.[p] is a voiceless bilabial双唇音的________.A.affricateB.fricativeC.stopD.liquid5.________ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns andhow these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A.LinguisticsB.PhoneticsC.Phonology音位学D.Articulatory phonetics6. A ________ is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A.phonemeB.phoneC.soundD.speech7.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ________ of that phoneme.A.phonesB.soundsC.phonemesD.allophones8.________ is a typical tone language.A.EnglishB.ChineseC.FrenchD.American EnglishChapter 3 Morphology形态学1.Morphology refers to the ________ of words.A.scienceB.formC.historyD.system2.The smallest meaningful unit of language is ________.A.morpheme词素B.phoneC.phonemeD.allomorpheme3.The word “boyish” contains two ________.A.phonemesB.morphsC.morphemesD.allomorphs4.________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A.FreeB.BoundC.RootD.Affix5.Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”and so forth arecalled ________ morphemes.A.inflectionalB.independentC.freeD.derivational6.________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original word.A.Prefixes前缀B.Suffixes后缀C.RootsD.Affixes 词缀7.In English “-ise” and “-tion” are called ________.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.infixes中缀D.free morphemes8.There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ________ toform a new word.A.rootB.affixC.stemD.word9.The words such as “lab” and “doc” are ________.A.formed by blendingB.acronyms首字母缩略词C.coined by back-formation .逆构词逆构法D.clipped words省略词,截短词(省略开首或末尾部分,如flu代表influenza)10.The compound word “running dog” should be pronounced ________, when itmeans “a person who follows others blindly”.A.running …dogB.…running ,dog重音在running上，次重音在dog上C.…running …dogD.,running …dogChapter 4 Syntax句法1.Syntax is the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentencestructure and of the rules governing the way words are ________ to form sentences in a language.A.analyzedB.examinedC.linkedD.arranged2.________ lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.A.Minor Minor lexical categories are closed categoriesB.MajorC.AllD.None of the above3.NP and ________ are essential components of a sentence.A.VPB.PPC.APD.CP4.The two clauses in a ________ sentence are structurally equal parts of thesentence.A.simplepleteplexD.coordinate 并列句5.The embedded clause内嵌句in a complex sentence is normally called ________clause.A.a subordinate从句B. a mainC. a matrixD.a major6.Transformational grammar is a type of grammar first proposed by ________ inthe mid-1950s.A.SaussureB.BloomfieldC.ChomskyD.Halliday7.The rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences are called________ rules.A.lexicalB.structuralC.coordinatebinational8.________ can generate an infinite number of sentences.A.Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则B.Movement rulesC.Syntactic rulesD.None of the aboveChapter 5 Semantics语义学1.Semantics can be defined as the study of ________.A.wordsB.meaningmunicationD.context2.Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between thelinguistic elements themselves (mostly words); it is concerned with _________ relations.A.extra-linguisticB.intra-linguisticC.non-linguisticD.multi-linguistic3.Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements (words,sentences, etc) and the ________ of experience.A.extra-linguisticB.intra-linguisticC.non-linguisticD.multi-linguistic4.Two words that are opposite in meaning are called ________.A.Synonyms 同义词B.Homonyms n.同形同音异义词C.Antonyms 反义词D.homophones同音异义词5.The pair of words “wide / narrow” are called ________.A.gradable oppositesplementary antonymsC.co-hyponymsD.relational opposites6.What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/ rose”?A.Polysemy 多义关系B.Synonymy 同义关系C.Hyponymy 上下义关系D.Antonymy 反义关系7.The words “railway” and “railroad” are ________.A.emotive synonymsB.dialectal synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.collocational synonyms8.The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ________.A.synonymyB.homonymyC.hyponymyD.polysemy9.The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ________.A.gradable antonymsB.relational oppositesplementary antonymsD.none of the above10.The way to analyze sentence meaning is called ________ analysis.ponentialB.predicationC.syntacticD.logicalChapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1.Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description ofmeaning if ________ of language use was left unconsidered.A.brevity简洁B.context语境C.accuracy 准确(性)D.none of the above2.If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course ofcommunication, it becomes ________.A.a sentenceB.an actC. a unitD.an utterance 话语3.________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A.SpeakingB.SpeechC.SoundD.Spoken4.One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of ________ acts.A.locutionaryB.illocutionaryC.perlocutionaryD.speech5.Of the three speech act, linguistics are most interested in the ________.A.locutionary actB.perlocutionary actC.illocutionary act 语言外表现行为D.none of the above6.Most of the violation of the maxims of the CP give rise to ________.A.utterance meaningB.speech act theoryC.conversational implicaturesD.all of the above7.The significance of Grice‟s CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey ________ is literally said.A.more thanB.less thanC.the same asD.none of the aboveChapter 7 Language Change1.We may use the term ________ instead of historical linguistics as a way ofreferring to the approach which studies language change over various period of time and at various historical stages.A.diachronic linguisticsB.synchronic linguisticsC.sociolinguisticsD.psycholinguistics2.An important set of extensive sound changes affecting vowels, known as the GreatV owel Shift, occurred at the end of the ________.A.Old English periodB.Middle English periodC.Modern English periodD.Middle ages3.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development ofEnglish are the loss and addition of ________.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.affixesD.case markings4.The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of ________.A.gender markingsB.case markingsC.tense markingsD.both A and B5.The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of alanguage is the change in its ________.A.soundB.vocabularyC.morphological systemD.syntax6.The most obvious way in which Modern English differs lexically from OldEnglish is in the number of borrowed words from other languages, particular from ________.tinB.FrenchC.GreekD.German7.Chinese, the most popular language of the world, belongs to the ________ family.A.Indo-EuropeanB.Sino-TibetanC.AustronesianD.AfroasiaticChapter 8 Language and Society1.The goal of ________ is to explore the nature of language variation and languageuse among a variety of speech communities and different social situations.A.psycholinguisticsB.sociolinguisticsC.historical linguisticsD.general linguistics2.The situation in which two or more languages are used side by side is referred toas ________.A.diglossia 双语双语制B.bilingualism 双语现象C.pidginizationD.blending3. A linguistic ________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.A.slangB.euphemism 委婉语C.jargon 行话; 黑话; 隐语,行业术语D.taboo禁忌4. A ________ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitutedwhen a speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.A.linguistic tabooB.euphemismC.address termD.pidgin5.In normal situations, ________ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms thantheir ________ counterparts with the same social background.A.female; maleB.male; femaleC.old; youngD.young; old6.In general, language characteristic of ________ register is more often used in thewritten form than in the spoken form.rmalB.formalC.neutralD.none of the above7.It is ________ for individuals to be a perfect user of two languages in a full rangeof situations.monB.rareC.impossibleD.none of the aboveChapter 9 Language and Brain1.________ deals with how language is acquired, understood, and produced.A.Sociolinguistics社会语言学B.Psycholinguistics语言心理学C.Neurolinguistics神经语言学D.Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学2.The left hemisphere of human brain is responsible for the functions of ________.nguage and speechB.calculationC.analytic reasoning and associative thoughtD.all of the above3.________ refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in aparticular hemisphere of the brain.nguage lateralizationB.Brain lateralization大脑的侧化C.Right ear advantageD.None of the above4.The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is about ________.nguage and thoughtnguage and translationC.grammatical structureD.second language acquisition5.Linguistic ________ is the brain‟s neurological specialization for language.A.determinism决定论B.relativism相对论petenceteralization(尤指脑部的)偏侧性,偏侧优势,偏利6.The ________ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with theperiod of brain lateralization.A.youngB.oldC.criticalD.flexibleChapter 10 Language Acquisition1.The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as________.A.appliedB.diachronicparativeD.synchronic2.In general, language acquisition refers to children‟s development of their________ language of the community in which a child has been brought up.A.firstB.secondC.thirdD.foreign3.________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of asecond language usually obtained in school setting.A.AcquisitionB.LearningC.StudyingD.Acquirement4.________ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A.IntentionalB.PositiveC.NegativeD.Interrogative5.________ was believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced anderrors made by L2 learners.A.TransferB.Positive transferC.Negative transferD.Overgeneralization6.________ approach shows that there are striking similarities in the ways in whichdifferent L2 learners acquire a new language.A.TransferB.InterferenceC.Contrastive AnalysisD.Error Analysis7.During the process of SLA, a learner constructs a series of internal representationsthat comprises the learner‟s interim knowledge of the target language, this is ________.A.interlanguageB.first languageC.second languageD.foreign language8.The optimum age for SLA is ________.A.childhoodB.early teensC.teensD.adulthood9.Which of the following isn‟t a factor that may influence SLA?A.ageB.motivationC.personalityD.sex10.Which stages does the child belong to according to the development of thegrammatical system when we heard his saying like “No heavy,”“No eat,”“He no bite you,” etc.?A.the development of phonologyB.the development of syntax n. 1.句法;句法规则〔分析〕C.the development of morphology n.形态学(尤指动植物形态学或词语形态学)，形态论the development of vocabulary and semantics语义学11。
Translation of Sentences
• 我怕得有理。I have every reason for my fear. • 此石自经锻炼之后，灵性已通，自去自来。
Now this block of stone, having undergone the melting and moldering of a goddess, passed magic powers. It could move about at will. • 你道此书从何而起？
Strategies:
use the original one re-choose the subject supply a new subject
4.1.1 When can we use the original subject in the English version?
Similarity in structure. Please pay due attention to collocation.
母亲从柜子里拿出个蓝布包，从包里掏出一枚 道光年间的铜钱来，她颤抖地把这枚古铜钱放 在一个面皮上，上面又盖了点馅，包成一个饺 子。
拿出→掏出→放在→盖→包成
TREE STRUCTURE
When her lover turned and looked at her, and his eyes met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her, he saw, by that power of quick perception which is given to those whose souls are one, that she knew behind which door crouched the tiger and behind which stood the lady.
新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar inseveral basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, notthe written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoypriority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speechrather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” byits users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function. The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. Fore xample: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrowtranscription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transc ription thediacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription thediacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is soin the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonantthat follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning inalmost every language, especially in a language like English. Whenspoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have differentmeanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“ ” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro file b. be draggle edc. announce mentd. pre digest ione. tele communicate ionf. fore fatherg. psycho physics h. mechan ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples ofeach.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motionpictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”qu ickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “prod ucing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force oreffect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements(i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase iscalled a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributionalfacts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures. Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically,it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information aboutentities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual head (read) V complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det head (argument) N complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg head (above) P complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.。
新英汉翻译教程-----Chapter-10-长句翻译PPT课件
10. 1. 2 逆译法 (Translation in Reverse Order)
•
逆着或基本逆着原文的词序或句序进行翻译，词序
与思维方式和表达习惯有关。在翻译较长的英语句子时，
将分句或一些从属成分倒置译是常见的翻译方法。
•
汉语时空观上大体遵循逆序法，即由大至小，由远
及近，由重而轻；而英语的时空观大体遵循顺序法在表达
• 2. As for the unfortunate people who can command everything they want, who can gratify every caprice and lay their hands on almost every object of desire—for them a new pleasure, a new excitement is only an additional satiation.
4
例1：The successful testing of atomic and hydrogen
bombs and guided missile and the launching and accurate recovery of man-made earth satellites are important indications of our new level in science and technology.
terms in the field of mathematics, in order that he may
be able to build up the foundation of the mathematical
subject and master it well for pursuing advanced study.
自考英语语言学Chapter_10_Language_Acquisition
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得一、本章纲要二、本章重点Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1)is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。
语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。
有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。
习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。
The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.1.First language acquisition第一语言习得Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。
英语语言学判断题
判断题:正确写A，错误写BChapter 1:1。
Linguistics is the systematic study of language。
True.2。
Linguistics deals with a particular language。
False。
3。
Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.4。
The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True。
5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False。
6。
General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.7。
General linguistics does not study theories of language.False。
8。
Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication。
False.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False。
10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False。
12. Semantics is the study of word meaning。
学术英语写作总结-学术英语写作总结
专业英语写作考点总结Part ІAcademic English Writing （专业英语写作）Chapter 1 Six Considerations in Academic Writing1、Academic writing is a product of many consideration : audience, purpose,organization, style, flow and presentation.（学术写作六要素：写作对象，目的，组织结构，文体特征，表达连贯和宣讲或宣读）。
2、Organization usually has the following four parts : 问题-解决方法包括四个部分(1)description of a situation （描述情况）(2)Identification of a problem （甄别问题）(3)Description of a solution （描述解决方法）(4)Evaluation of the solution （评估解决方法）3、Formal Grammar Style：（正规的语法风格）(1) Generally avoid contractions （一般来讲避免使用略缩词）例：won’t改为will not(2)Use the more appropriate formal negative forms （使用更为适宜的正规的否定形式）例：not...any改为no not...much改为little not...many改为few (3)Limit the use of “run-on” expressions, such as and so forth and etc. （限制使用多个词连用的表达法）例：句子内不能出现and so forth和etc.出现时应将省略的部分扩展出来。
(4)Avoid addressing the reader as you(except, of course, if you are writing atextbook or other instructional materials). （避免向读者说“你”）例：You can see the results in Table 1.改为：The results can be seen in Table 1.(5)Be careful about using direct questions. In some fields they are common, while inothers they are not. （使用直接引语时需谨慎）例：What can be done to lower costs?改为：It is necessary to consider how costs may be lowered.或者We now need to consider how costs may be lowered.(6)Place adverb within the verb. （将副词放于动词词组内）例：This model was developed by Krugman originally.改为：This model was originally developed by Krugman.(7)Consider whether you should split infinitives.（考虑是否该使用割裂不定式）例：We need to adequately meet the needs of those enrolled in the program. (8)Aim for an efficient use of words. （目的是为了有效地使用词汇）例：There are some inorganic materials that can be used by bioengineers in the process of tissue engineering that have been shown to be very promising.改为：Some inorganic materials used in tissue engineering have shown great promise.习题：（1）You can use this model to analyze the effects of several parameter changes.错误：使用了you。
(完整版)语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案.docx
Chapter 4From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set ofsyntactic rules.2.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers ofthat language are able to produce and comprehend.3.An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without lossof grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase,verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6.Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7.Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8.Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and thedirect object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF6-10 TTTTT)II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the sametime structurally alone is known as an f__________ clause 3.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clauseis normally called an e_______ clause.6.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7.G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence 8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1.sentence2. finite3.predicate4. complex5. embedded6.open7. grammatical8.simple9. sentence10. subjectIII.There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement :1The head of the phrase“ the city Rome” is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.PrepositionD. subordinator3Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.All of the above.5The phrase “ on the halfA endocentric B” belongs to ________construction exocentric C subordinate Dcoordinate6. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.noun phrases can be used to modify another nounphraseC.noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9.The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves ” is a____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compound DcomplexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D10 AIV . Explain the following terms, using examples.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3.Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groupswords into structural constituents and shows the syntacticcategory of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V.Answer the following questions:1.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate themwith examples.2.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3.Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4.What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of itsconstituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and","but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
英语修辞学大纲【精选】
《英语修辞学》课程教学大纲一、说明适用专业四年制本科英语专业语言文学方向先修课程高级英语总学时32总学分2（一）本课程的目的、要求（1）使学生较系统地了解英语修辞产生的原因及其对提高语言表现力的重要作用认识，增强对英语的理解能力，提高恰当运用英语语言的交际能力。
（2）使学生学会从修辞的观点出发，从英语语言现象入手，对其内涵进行分析，初步掌握对语言进行研究、分析和比较的方法。
（3）使学生掌握各种主要的修辞手段，提高实践中运用英语的能力和理解与欣赏英语文学作品的能力。
（二）内容选取和实施中注意的问题（1）本课程应坚持理论与实践相结合的原则，适当介绍修辞理论，重点讲述实用性内容，要求学生运用所学理论分析语言实例。
（2）突出重点、兼顾一般。
在选取内容上要注意以语音、词汇、句子三级修辞方法为重点，其中又应以喻类辞格为重点。
（3）学生对明喻比较熟悉，可以略而不讲或只作为隐喻的比较对象略谈。
（4）培养学生对语言的观察能力，让学生自己寻找例句并作出说明，以加深对所学内容的理解。
（5）大纲中不带“*”号的内容属于基本内容，带“*”号内容可讲可不讲。
（三）教学方法（1）教师为主导、学生为中心。
防止教师一言堂，要在教师指导下，发挥学生的学习主动性。
（2）理论与实践相结合，课堂讲授与学生分析讨论相结合。
（四）考核方式本课程为考查课程，采用口头与笔头相结合的方式:（1）口头方式主要以课堂提问和课堂讨论表现情况为考核依据。
（2）笔头方式主要以学生平时笔头作业完成情况和课程结束时笔头测验成绩为考核依据。
（3）口头考核成绩占40%，笔头考核成绩占60%。
（五）教学内容与学时分配教学章节教学内容学时安排备注1修辞学定义22西方修辞学简史44词语的选择35句子的选择27语音类修辞格48-9句法类修辞格610语义类修辞格611逻辑类修辞格4机动2测验二、大纲内容Chapter 1 What Is Rhetoric?1.1 Rhetoric and oratory1.2 Connotation of rhetoric1.3 Definitions of rhetoric1.4 Five assumptions说明和要求:（1）了解修辞与演说之间的关系（2）修辞学的定义Chapter 2 Brief History of Western Rhetoric2.1 Classical rhetoric (5th c. B.C.---5th c. A.D.)2.2 Rhetoric in the Middle Ages (5th---14th c.)*2.3 Rhetoric in the Renaissance (15th---16th c.)*2.4 New Classical Rhetoric (17th---19th c.)2.5 Contemporary Rhetoric说明和要求:（1）了解西方修辞学产生与发展的历史（2）了解亚里士多德等学者对西方修辞学的贡献（3）了解当今修辞学发展的现状和主要趋势Chapter 4 Choice of Words4.1 Use suitable words4.2 Denotation and connotation4.3 General words and specific words4.4 Abstract words and concrete words4.5 Short words and long words说明和要求:（1）了解词的本义与衍生义（2）了解概括词与特指词的语用功能（3）了解抽象词和具体词的语用功能（4）了解大词和小词的来源和对语体色彩的影响Chapter 5 Choice of Sentences5.1 Types of sentences5.2 Long and short sentences说明和要求:（1）了解不同句子结构的修辞作用（2）了解长句和短句的语用功能Chapter 7 Phonetic Figures of Speech7.1 Alliteration7.2 Assonance7.3 Consonance7.4 Onomatopoeia7.5 Aposiopesis7.6 Apostrophe7.7 Pun说明和要求:（1）本部分从语音在语言中的地位讲起，适当介绍语音学方面的知识，重点提示音韵法在诗歌中所起的重要作用及其对散文、广告等各语体的影响。
英语语言学--句法学
Chapter Six Syntax
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--- The internal structures of sentences --- different treatments of sentence structure by different linguistic schools ---IC analysis, deep structure, surface structure, tree diagram
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1. Definition
--- the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, that is, the study of the formation of sentences.
或词组之间没有连词)(如:"I came, I saw, I conquered.")
Embedding嵌入法 is a process of construction whereby one clause is a constituent of another or is subordinated to another. 8
一本黄皮的形象卡通的英语语法书
一本黄皮的形象卡通的英语语法书PrefaceHello there! Welcome to the exciting world of English grammar. In this book, you will embark on a journey that will not only improve your understanding of the English language but also give you the tools to express yourself more effectively.Chapter 1: Introduction to English GrammarIn this chapter, we will lay the groundwork for understanding English grammar. We will explore the basic components of grammar, including parts of speech, sentence structure, and punctuation. By the end of this chapter, you will have a solid foundation on which to build your grammar knowledge.Chapter 2: Parts of SpeechIn this chapter, we will delve into the different parts of speech, including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. We will explore the role of each part of speech in a sentence and how they work together to create meaning.Chapter 3: Sentence StructureIn this chapter, we will examine the structure of sentences, including the subject, verb, and object. We will also explore different types of sentences, such as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. By the end of this chapter, you will have a comprehensive understanding of how to construct clear and effective sentences.Chapter 4: PunctuationIn this chapter, we will discuss the importance of punctuation in conveying meaning and clarity in writing. We will cover the rules for using commas, periods, questionmarks, exclamation points, colons, semicolons, and quotation marks. You will learn how to use punctuation to enhance the flow and coherence of your writing.Chapter 5: Verb TensesIn this chapter, we will focus on the different verb tenses in English, including present, past, and future tenses. We will also explore the perfect and progressive forms ofeach tense. By the end of this chapter, you will have a thorough understanding of how to use verb tenses correctly in your writing and conversation.Chapter 6: Subject-Verb AgreementIn this chapter, we will discuss the important rule of subject-verb agreement. You will learn how to ensure that the subject and verb in a sentence agree in number and person.This chapter will help you avoid common mistakes in subject-verb agreement and improve the clarity of your writing.Chapter 7: ModifiersIn this chapter, we will explore the use of modifiers, including adjectives and adverbs, to add descriptive and colorful language to your writing. You will learn how to use modifiers effectively to enhance the meaning and impact of your sentences.Chapter 8: Clauses and PhrasesIn this chapter, we will discuss the different types of clauses and phrases, including independent and dependent clauses, and prepositional phrases. You will learn how to use clauses and phrases to add complexity and depth to your writing.Chapter 9: Sentence Types and StylesIn this chapter, we will examine different sentence types and styles, including simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. You will learn how to vary yoursentence structure to create more engaging and dynamic writing.Chapter 10: Common Errors and PitfallsIn this final chapter, we will cover some of the most common errors and pitfalls in English grammar. We will discuss how to avoid these errors and improve the overall quality of your writing.ConclusionCongratulations! You have completed this comprehensive guide to English grammar. Armed with your newfound knowledge, you are well-equipped to express yourself with clarity and precision in both spoken and written English. Remember, grammar is not just a set of rules to follow; it is a powerful tool that will enable you to communicate effectively and confidently. Good luck on your grammar journey!。
章节段落的英文单词
章节段落的英文单词The art of crafting a narrative lies in its structure, where each chapter and paragraph serves a unique purpose. Chapters are the building blocks of a story, each one propelling the plot forward with a new development or revelation.Paragraphs, on the other hand, are the sentences that weave the tapestry of a story. They are the breaths between chapters, providing detail, dialogue, and the emotional beats that resonate with readers.In English, the term 'chapter' denotes a distinct section of a book, while 'paragraph' refers to a group of sentences that together express a single idea or thought. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for effective storytelling.A well-structured chapter can set the tone for a book, introducing characters and setting the stage for the narrative. Paragraphs, with their coherence and flow, ensure that the reader remains engaged.Transitioning from one chapter to the next requires skill, as it must maintain the momentum of the story without leaving the reader disoriented. Paragraphs within these chapters must seamlessly connect, creating a smooth narrative arc.In academic writing, the term 'section' is often used todenote a part of a paper, similar to a chapter in a book. Each section builds upon the last, contributing to theoverall argument or analysis.The use of 'subparagraph' in writing refers to a division within a paragraph, offering a more granular level of detail. It is a tool for organizing complex ideas and ensuring clarity.The arrangement of chapters and paragraphs is not just a matter of form; it's an art that can enhance the reader's experience, making the journey through a book both enjoyable and enlightening.In conclusion, the words 'chapter' and 'paragraph' are fundamental to the architecture of written works, guiding the reader through a carefully designed landscape of ideas and events.。
Types of English Sentences(英语句子种类)
A compound sentence
2. 位置上的区别 连接两个独立的分句时，并列连词的位置只能放在它所 引导的分句句首，前面通常有逗号： ① I must work harder, for I still have a long way to go. ②They all went, but I didn’t go. 连接性副词的位置较灵活，既可放在句首，也可位于句 中或句末、但以置于句首居多： ① Father is ill; therefore, he doesn't go to work today. (句 首) ②Father is ill; he, therefore, doesn’t go to work today. (句中) ③Father is ill; he doesn't go to work today, therefore. (句末)
Finite Clause 2 VP
Coordinator
Finite Clause 3 S VP
I am a teacher, you are a student
and
she
is a clerk.
A compound sentence
Coordinating conjunctions（并列连词） See page 447 of the textbook. but, while, whereas, yet, only,… or, either… or…,neither…nor for, so,… and, both… and …，not only…but also
The
basic pattern of a simple sentence in English is one subject-predicate unit（一个主谓结构）.
修辞学
The meaning of a word has two aspect: denotation and connotation.Denotation is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of a word.Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word.We call a word “general” when it refers to a gro up or a class;We call it “specific” when it refers to a member of that class.A concrete word has an object as its referent, while an abstract word, a concept. Short word &Long word:吃不准定义在哪里。
Chapter 5types of sentences1、grammaticalclassifaction:A. simple sentences: a simple sentence consists of only one clauseB. compound sentence: the compound sentence consists of two or moreindependent clauses related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinate conjunction or by a semicolon without a conjuction.C. Complex sentence the complex sentence contains one main clause and atleast one dependent clause, with a connective word denoting the relation between them.D. Compound- complex sentenceA compound complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least onedependent clause- a combination of a compound sentence and a complex sentence.2、functional classificationA. declarative sentence. A declarative sentence simply states a fact or an argument,without requiring either an answer or action from the reader or listener.B. Interrogative sentence an interrogative sentence or a question is primarily usedto express lack of information on a specific point, and to request the listener to supply this information verbally.C. Imperative sentence or commands are primarily used to instruct somebody todo sth. An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone.D. Exclamatory sentenceAn exclamatory sentence , or exclamation, is primarily for expressing the speaker`s feelings.3、rhetorical classificationA. loose sentence: a basic statement with a string of details added to it.B. Periodic sentences: the opposite of a loose sentence. It is the sentence in whichthe subordinate idea comes first and the main idea comes last.C. Balanced sentence:contains 2 or more main points, which are paired off and arepresented in parallel structures so that the parts are equally prominent and mutually supportive.4、Long and short sentenceA. Short sentence are emphatic and clear and thus easy to be remembered.B. Long sentence are particular useful for presenting a set ofcomplex ,interlocking ideas.The word alliteration derives from Latin, meaning “repeating and playing upon the same letter”. It is the repetition of initial consonan t in a sequence of words. Assonance is the repetition or resemblance of vowel sounds in the stressed syllables of a sequence of words.Consonance refers to the repetition of the final and identical consonants whose preceding vowels are different.Onomatopoeia is a term used to describe the phenomenon of language sounding like the thing it refers to.Aposiopesis is the rhetorical device of suddenly stopping in mid-sentence, as if to say more would be superfluous, or as if words fail one, or as if the listener or reader would now be able to complete the sentence suitably.Apostrophe is a rhetorical figure in traditional poetic and dramatic language.Pun is, in natural, a word-play. A pun, in essence, is an ambiguity.A homonym is a word that is identical to another word in pronunciation and spelling but not in meaning.A homophone is a word that is identical to another word in pronunciation but not in spelling and meaning.A homograph is a word that is identical to another word in spelling but not in pronunciation and meaning.Chaper8、9Immediate repetitiondefinition：it refers to the way words, phrases or sentences are repeated without intervals.Eg: very, very big many, many peopleIt is common in prose, poetry, conversation.Intermittent repetitionDefinition: it refers to the way the repeated words, phrases or sentences are separated by some other words, phrases or sentences.Most widely usedFor emphasis, for expressing strong emotions or for some special purposes.Eg: we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty.AnaphoraDefinition: it originates from Greek, meaning” carrying back”. It is a popular figure of speech involving the repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences or verses, as in the proverb “light come, light go.”Eg: I want to know how long she’s been here, I want to know what she’s there at all for.Definition :it is the opposite of anaphora. It is the repetition of the same words or phrases at the end of successive lines, clauses or sentences.Eg: reading makth a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. SimploceDefinition: it comes from Greek, meaning “ interweaving”. It involves the repetition of two sets of words or phrases, of which one set is repeated at the beginning of each clause, sentence or verse line and the other set is repeated at the end of each of them. It can be considered as a combination of anaphora and epiphora. The pattern is a…b//a…b.Eg: broadly speaking, human beings may be divided into three classes:those who are toiled to death, those who are worried to death, and those who are bored to death. AnadiplosisDefinition: it is from a greek word” anadiplosis”,meaning” to double back” . it is the repetition of the last part of a unit or sentence at the beginning of the next unit or sentence, whose pattern is /…a, a…./Eg: the king was bad tempered because he was often ill. He was often ill because he ate and drank too much.ParallelismDefinition: it is the repetition of syntactically similar constructions of coordinate sentences or phrases. As a stylistic technique, through well-balanced construction, parallelism gives amphasis, clarity and coherence of ideas as well as rhythm of the language.It is often used in persuasive speech. It is either within a sentence or across sentences, within a paragraph or across paragraphs.Eg: … and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.AntithesisDefinition: it comes from the greek word” antithenai”, meaning” opposition”. Anithesis, favored by many speakers when persuading, places contrasting ideas side by side for emphasis and rhythm. Arranged this way, the contrasting ideas provide a sharp and forceful way of measuring difference. The elements are contrary in meaning but similar in form.Eg: the world will little note nor long remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did here.ClimaxDefinition: it is the arrangement of words, phrases, clauses or sentences in ascending order of importance.Eg: it is an outrage to bind a roman citizen; to scourage him is a crime; to put him todeath is almost parricide.AnticlimaxDefinition it is the opposite of climax. It is a figure of speech that involves stating one’s thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity, from sublime to the ridiculous, from strong to weak, from weighty to light or frivolous.Eg: we often joked about his passionate love for his daughter, his cat and his ashtray. SyllepsisDefinition: it is a construction in which the word that governs two or more other words means differently when it is collocated with these words separately.Eg: he took his hat and his leave.ZeugmaDefinition: it is figure of speech in which a word is used to modify or govern two or more words although its use is not grammatically or logically correct with all of them Eg: at noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humour, put on kimono airs, and the water to boil for coffee.ChiasmusDefinition:it is a construction involving the repetition of words or syntactic elements in reverse order.Eg: one should eat to live , not live to eat.AsyndetonDefinition: it is the reverse of syndeton---- which means “ linked co-ordi nation “ with the co-ordination conjunctions “ and “, “ but”, “ or”.PolysyndetonDefinition: it is the opposite of asyndeton. It is a stylistic device that uses several conjunctions in succession to link up a series of things, ideas or events.Rhetorical questionA rhetorical question is one that does not need an answer, for the answer is suggested by the speaker, or presumed by the speaker to be fairly obvious or probably know to the sudience.Chapter 1010.1 Simile 明喻Simile is a figure of speech by which two concepts or two dissimilar things are imaginatively and descriptively compared because they have at least one quality or characteristic in common or in resemblance.Functionally, similes can be classified into three kinds: descriptive, illuminative and illustrative.Descriptive similes are used for vivid and effective description.Illuminative similes give deeper insight into persons, things, ideas, even problems through suggestive association.Illustrative similes explain abstract or complicated ideas or processes in simple, concrete imagery.In terms of structure, similes can be divided into two types: closed similes and open similes.Closed similes refer to the similes with which the common quality or the ground of the comparison is clearly stated.Open similes refer to the simile with which the common quality of the two unlike elements is unstated.10.2 Metaphor 暗喻Metaphor uses words to indicate sth different from their literal meaning—one thing is described in terms of another so as to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. According to the structure, metaphors can be divided into two categories: visible metaphors and invisible metaphors.In the visible metaphor, both the primary term and the secondary term are present in the sentence. It takes the form of “X is Y”.The invisible metaphor refers to either of the following two types.1. The primary term is present, but the secondary term is not—but it is hinted at by other words.2. The secondary term is present in the sentence but the primary term is not.Like similes, metaphors can also be used for three purposes: description, illumination and illustration.Besides the one-aspect metaphors as we have discussed in the above, there are multi-aspect metaphors, like sustained metaphors and extended metaphors. Sustained metaphors: the primary term is successively compared to two or more secondary terms.Extended metaphors: is another form of comparison, in which an initial comparison is made and then developed.When we make metaphors, we should avoid mixed metaphors and dead metaphors. Mixed metaphors: two or more incongruous comparisons run together.Dead metaphors: some metaphors have been used for so long that they have lost their figurative strength and become lifeless.10.3 Metonymy 借代Metonymy: it is a figurative use of language, involving the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another; the ground of the substitution in metonymy is not similarity, but association, the two unlike things do not have common quality but are closely associated.10.4 Synecdoche 提喻法Synecdoche is a figure by which a more comprehensive term is used for a less comprehensive or vice versa; as whole for part or part for whole, genus for species or species for genus, etc.10.5 Antonomasia 换称法Antonomasia is the replacement of a proper noun by a common noun; or the replacement of a common noun by a proper noun to refer to a class or type; or one proper noun by another proper noun.10.6 Personification 拟人Personification is a figure of speech which attributes human characteristics to impersonal things, such as animals, inanimate objects, or abstractions.10.7 Parody 仿拟Parody is seen as kind of imitation which borrows the style and techniques of a text or writer’s idiolect and fits new subject ma tter to it.10.8 Synesthesia 通感Synesthesia means sth akin to “a union of the senses”.10.9 Transferred epithet 移感Transferred epithet is a figure of speech in which an adjective properly modifying one noun is shifted to another noun in the same sentence.Chapter 1111.1 Allegory 寓言Allegory is a story in verse or prose with a double meaning: a primary or surface meaning, and a secondary or under-the-surface meaning.11.2 Allusion 典故Allusion is usually a casual, brief and implicit reference to a famous historical or literary figure or a well-known historical event, which the writer assumes to be familiar to his readers.11.3 Hyperbole 夸张Hyperbole refers to a case where the speaker’s description is stronger than is warranted by the state of affairs described.11.4 UnderstatementUnderstatement is a figure of speech in which an idea is deliberately expressed too weakly.Understatement is usually employed in three ways: litotes, meiosis and overtones. Litotes is understatement by denying the contrary of the thing being affirmed. It is the use of negative form for positive ideas when the speaker wishes to weaken his tone ofcomment on sth.反叙法Meiosis is understatement by using down toners.低调法Overtones are used to intensify or increase the idea on the audience’s part.11.5 Irony 反语Irony: a method of humorous or subtly sarcastic expression in which the intended meaning of the words used is the direct opposite of their usual sense.Ironies can be divided into three categories: verbal irony, situational irony and quotation irony.Verbal irony is the simple form of irony. Verbal irony can be subdivided into light irony and heavy irony.Light irony is used to achieve humor.Heavy irony is used for satire, denunciation or criticism.Situational irony occurs when there is a discrepancy or incongruity between what appears, or is believed, to be the case and the real state of affairs.11.6 Innuendo 讽刺Innuendo is an allusive remark concerning a person or thing, especially of a depreciatory kind.11.7 Euphemism 委婉Euphemism is the substitution of an inoffensive or pleasant expression for a more unpleasant one, or for a term which evokes more directly a distasteful or taboo subject.11.8 Oxymoron 逆喻Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which apparently contradictory expressions are juxtaposed for witty or striking effect.11.9 Analogy 类比Analogy compares two things, which are alike in various respects, for the purpose of explaining or clarifying some unfamiliar or complex idea or object by showing how the idea or object is similar to a familiar one.11.10 Paradox 逆说A paradox is a statement, which is apparently self-contradictory.。
写作教程第二册chapter10punctuation资料_2022年学习资料
10.1 Punctuation-Apostrophe-Introduction:-Punctuation Marks-Dashes--Full stop /period-Hyphen-Question markrackets/Parentheses O-Exclamation mark-Elliptical per ods ..-Comma,-Slash /solidus-Colon-Italic-Semicolon-Q otation marks"-Capitalization-Abbreviation WTO
10.1 Punctuation-In written English,punctuation is vi al to-disambiguate消除..的歧义the meaning of-sentences.-e. .1 woman without her man is nothing-"woman,without he man,is nothing."-"woman:without her,man is nothing." ②-eats shoots and leaves-"eats shoots and leaves"'-"e ts,shoots and leaves."
10.1 Punctuation-As a writer,we should keep in mind t at our-primary goal of using punctuation is for clari y.-A smooth,uncluttered sentence containing just-the ecessary punctuation is what every writer-should stri e for.
英语语言学概论第十章笔记
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得a)The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。
人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。
儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。
b)Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech.语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。
自考00830现代语言学 自考核心考点笔记 自考重点资料
自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。
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A simple sentence (简单句) one independent clause A compound sentence (复合句) two independent clauses join by a coordinator/a conjunctive adverb/a semicolon
Items joined by coordinators (and, or, but) and correlative conjunctions (both… and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also…) must be parallel in structure.
A complex sentence (复杂句) one independent clause + one (or more) dependent clause Punctuation depends. Adverb/adjective/ Noun clause
Attention: Writing with complex sentences and participial phrases, structures that use subordination is considered more mature, interesting and effective in style.
1.
2.
3.
English is difficult, but I learned it quickly. English is difficult; however, I learned it quickly. English is difficult; I learned it quickly.
A compound-complex sentence (复合-复杂句) two independent clauses + one (or more) dependent clauses
Because grammar is easy, I learned it quickly, but it took me several years to master writing.
Because grammar is easy, I learned it quickly. One of my favorite films is Forest Gump, which is in English. She doesn`t agree that grammar is easy.
After my family left our homeland, we lived in a refugee camp for several months.
Stringy sentences: sentences with too many independent clauses.
Stringy: My family left our homeland, and we lived in a refugee camp for several months, but finally we got our documents, so we traveled to Canada, and we live there now. (Corrected in P177)
Xi Chen
Main building blocks of sentences. An independent clause: a complete thought a sentence A dependent clause begins with a subordinator cannot be a sentence one of the three type: adverb, adjective and noun
Noun=noun Phrase=phrase Clause=clause
Fragments: incomplete sentences Examples:
If you are addicted in friend attention in virtual network. The loneness will erode you. It is a very suitable to be opening words in party . Based on the tips the gap of long time will disappear quickly.
Choppy sentences: sentences that are too short.
Eg: My family left our homeland. Then we lived in a refugee camp. We lived there for several months.
Run-on and comma splices: incorrectly joined independent clauses.
Байду номын сангаас
Run-on: Getting married is easy staying married in another matter. Comma splices: Getting married is easy, staying married in another matter.